title: DDR3 SDRAM

text: Release 4 of the DDR3 Serial Presence Detect (SPD) document (SPD4_01_02_11) adds support for Load Reduction DIMMs and also for 16b-SO-DIMMs and 32b-SO-DIMMs.


title: DDR3 SDRAM

text: JEDEC Solid State Technology Association announced the publication of Release 4 of the DDR3 Serial Presence Detect (SPD) document on September 1, 2011.


title: DDR3 SDRAM

text: Intel Corporation officially introduced the eXtreme Memory Profile (XMP) Specification on March 23, 2007, to enable enthusiast performance extensions to the traditional JEDEC SPD specifications for DDR3 SDRAM.


title: DDR3 SDRAM

text: In addition to bandwidth designations (e.g. DDR3-800D), and capacity variants, modules can be one of the following:


title: DDR3 SDRAM

text: Both FBDIMM (fully buffered) and LRDIMM (load reduced) memory types are designed primarily to control the amount of electric current flowing to and from the memory chips at any given time. They are not compatible with registered/buffered memory, and motherboards that require them usually will not accept any other kind of memory.


title: DDR3 SDRAM

text: The DDR3L (DDR3 Low Voltage) standard is an addendum to the JESD79-3 DDR3 Memory Device Standard specifying low voltage devices. The DDR3L standard is 1.35 V and has the label "PC3L" for its modules. Examples include DDR3L‐800 (PC3L-6400), DDR3L‐1066 (PC3L-8500), DDR3L‐1333 (PC3L-10600), and DDR3L‐1600 (PC3L-12800). Memory specified to DDR3L and DDR3U specifications is compatible with the original DDR3 standard, and can run at either the lower voltage or at 1.50 V. However, devices that require DDR3L explicitly, which operate at 1.35 V, such as systems using mobile versions of fourth-generation Intel Core processors, are not compatible with 1.50 V DDR3 memory. DDR3L is different from and incompatible with the LPDDR3 mobile memory standard.


title: DDR3 SDRAM

text: JEDEC Solid State Technology Association announced the publication of JEDEC DDR3L on July 26, 2010 and the DDR3U in October 2011.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: Grasshopper Club Zürich, commonly referred to as simply GC, GCZ, or Grasshoppers, is a multisports club based in Zürich, Switzerland. The oldest and best known department of the club is its football team. With 27 titles, Grasshopper holds the records for winning the most national championships and the Swiss Cups, 19 trophies in the latter. The club is the oldest football team in Zürich and maintains a substantial rivalry with FC Zürich.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: The origin of Grasshopper's name is unknown, although the most common explanation refers to its early players' energetic post-goal celebrations and that their style of play was nimble and energetic.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: After a number of appearances in European Cups and the UEFA Champions League, Grasshopper has become one of Switzerland's most recognizable football clubs. Today, in addition to its main football squad, the club has competitive professional and youth teams in rowing, ice hockey, handball, lawn tennis, court tennis, field hockey, curling, basketball, rugby, squash, floorball and beach soccer.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: Grasshopper was founded on 1 September 1886 by Tom E. Griffith, an English student. Using a 20 Swiss franc donation, the club acquired an English football shirt in blue and white colours (as worn by Blackburn Rovers). The English students were from Manchester Grammar School in Manchester. Arthur J. Finck was one of the students who was part of the group that founded the club. Its first match came in October that year against ETH and ended in a goalless draw. In 1893, Grasshopper became the first Swiss team to play in (what was then) Germany, defeating Strasbourg 1–0.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: The first Swiss championships (then called "Serie A") were held in 1897–98 and were won by Grasshopper, as was the first championship played using a league system in 1899–1900. After two more titles in 1901 and 1905, Grasshopper had to withdraw from the Swiss championships in 1909 because they lacked a suitable playing ground. They rejoined in 1916.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: After rejoining the Swiss championship in 1916, GC won their fifth championship in 1921. In 1925 started the era of the Hungarian manager Izidor "Dori" Kürschner, a former member of the coaching staff of the Swiss national team that won the silver medal at the 1924 Olympics. Under Kürschner in the 1920s, Grasshopper won the championship twice (in 1927 and 1928) and also the first two editions of the Swiss Cup in 1925–26 and in 1926–27.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: Dori Kürschner stayed with Grasshopper until 1934, winning another championship in 1931 and two more Swiss Cups in 1932 and 1934. Then started the era of Austrian coach Karl Rappan who managed also the Swiss national team for several years during that time. The first title under Rappan came in 1937 and the second one in 1939. They also won the Swiss Cup in 1937 and 1938.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: Despite the turmoils of World War II the Swiss championships were held during the 1940s with the Grasshoppers winning in 1942, 1943 and 1945. Until Karl Rappan left the team in 1948, the team also won another five Cups (in 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943 and 1946).


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: In 1952, Grasshopper won their 14th Swiss championship title and their 12th Swiss Cup. They managed to win the double again in 1956, but it turned out to be their last silverware for a long time, as they had to wait for 15 years until their next championship and for 27 years until their next Cup win. In 1956–57 Grasshopper participated for the first time in the European Cup which was founded in the previous season. They reached the quarter-finals where they were eliminated by Fiorentina.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: During the 1960s, Grasshopper won no championships and no Cups. The best result was a second place in 1968, which qualified them to play in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, the predecessor of the UEFA Cup. However they had no success at European level either, and they were eliminated in the first round.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: In 1971, Grasshopper finally returned to the top of the Swiss league. After the end of the season, GC and FC Basel were tied at the top of the table and thus a play-off match was played in Bern. In front of 51,000 spectators, GC defeated Basel 4–3 after extra time to win their 16th championship. Throughout the decade Grasshopper was among the best Swiss teams. Their next championship win came in 1978.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: Thanks to their top finishes in the league, GC was able to play in European competitions almost every year. In 1978–79 they defeated Real Madrid in the second round of the European Cup, but lost the quarter-final against the eventual winner, Nottingham Forest. But their biggest European success to date came in the 1977–78 UEFA Cup where they reached the semi-final against French side Bastia. After a 3–2 win at home, they traveled to Corsica for the second leg but lost 0–1 and were eliminated due to the away goal rule.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: The 1980s were a successful decade for Grasshopper. In the years 1982, 1983 and 1984, GC won the championship three times in a row, achieving the "title hat-trick". In all three seasons, Servette from Geneva was their strongest rival, and in 1984 a championship-deciding game had to be staged in Bern because the two teams were equal on points after the regular season. GC won that match 1–0 by a converted penalty kick by Andy Egli in the 104th minute.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: Grasshopper were also successful in the Cup competition: after winning in 1983 they also achieved a hat-trick in the Cup, winning in 1988, 1989 and 1990. The last two of those wins were achieved with German manager Ottmar Hitzfeld. A notable success in European competitions came in 1980–81 UEFA Cup when GC reached the quarter-finals, but then were eliminated by French side Sochaux.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: In 1995–96 Grasshoppers became the first Swiss team to play in the UEFA Champions League. After defeating Maccabi Tel Aviv to qualify, they played in group D against Ajax, Real Madrid and Ferencváros. They won no matches but achieved two draws, one against Ajax and one against Ferencváros.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: In the following year, Grasshoppers qualified a second time for the Champions League, this time after defeating Slavia Prague. In group A with opponents Auxerre, Glasgow Rangers and again AFC Ajax, a more positive result was achieved. After home wins over Rangers and Auxerre and an away win at Ajax, a draw in the last game at home against Ajax would have secured qualification for the quarter finals. However, the game was lost 0–1 and Ajax advanced instead.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: With title wins in 2000–01 and 2002–03, the first decade of the 21st century started well, but since then no further successes were achieved. In 1997, Grasshopper was incorporated and as of May 2005, it is formally organized as Neue Grasshopper Fussball AG. In doing so, Grasshopper became the first Swiss sports club to go public. However, the club entered a period of decline after their last championship in 2003, with two third place finishes in 2005 and 2010 being their best results. In 2012, they narrowly avoided being relegated thanks to Sion's 36-point deduction and Neuchatel Xamax's expulsion from the league in January 2012. Then coach Ciriaco Sforza resigned in April 2012.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: For the 2012/13 season, Ulrich Forte took over coaching. On 20 May 2013, Grasshopper ended a ten-year trophy drought with a penalty shoot-out victory over FC Basel in the Swiss Cup final at the Stade de Suisse in Bern. With a second-place finish in the 2012–13 Swiss Super League campaign, Grasshopper qualified for the Champions League for the first time in a decade, entering the competition at the third qualifying round. Following Forte's departure after the 2012/13 season, former German National Team coach Michael Skibbe took over coaching duty. Under Skibbe, the team managed a second place finish in 2013. They also were runners-up in 2014.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: The improving results did not last however and soon declined again. In the following 5 years, they managed to only once finish in the upper half of the table and finally, in 2019, Grasshopper were relegated to the second division for the first time in 68 years. They spend the entire 2018/19 season in the bottom three of the league, ending their season with two abandoned matches due to Grasshopper fan behaviour.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: The first season in the second league did not go as planned. For one, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the second half of the season was delayed until late spring 2020. Furthermore, GC failed to even achieve a second place finish, which would have qualified them for a playoff game for promotion, after losing the final game of the season 0-6 against FC Winterthur. During this time, in April 2020, it was revealed that the Hong Kong-based Champion Union HK Holding Limited had acquired 90% of GC shares. The new ownership appointed Sky Sun as the president of the club. In April 2021, Seyi Olofinjana was signed as sporting director.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: For the following season, João Carlos Pereira took over coaching duties at GC. Despite a strong season and spending a majority of the time at first place, the team began to struggle at the close of the season. After a seven point lead on challenger FC Thun had melted away in three games, club leadership took drastic measures by removing Pereira and reinstating Zoltán Kádár (who had been interim coach at the end of the previous season) as interim coach for the final two games of the season. The changes would pay off, as GC secured Challenge League championship and promotion in a 2-1 victory over SC Kriens in the final game.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: For the first season back in the top Swiss league, former FC Lausanne-Sport coach Giorgio Contini was signed as head coach. Despite a decent first half of the season, following the winter break, the team struggled to win points and came dangerously close to the bottom of the league. Improving results in spring 2022 allowed the team to narrowly avoid the relegation playoff, ending the season in eight place thanks to a better goal difference over FC Luzern.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: During preparation for the new season, sporting director Olofinjana and CEO Shqiprim Berisha were removed from the teams management. President Sun would take over CEO duties in the interim. On 1 July 2022, Grasshopper veteran Bernt Haas was appointed as new sporting director.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: Since September 2007, Grasshopper-Club Zürich has played all of its home matches in the Letzigrund stadium which is the regular home ground of FC Zürich. After the completion of the new Stadion Zürich (currently in planning stage), both teams are expected to play there.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: From 1929 to 2007, Grasshopper had their own home ground in the Hardturm stadium. Before 1929, home matches were played at various other venues.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: Training facilities are located in Niederhasli, where in 2005 the club opened a comprehensive facility including five practice pitches, apartments for youth players and offices.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: FC Zürich was founded ten years after GC in 1896. A year later, the first derby between the two Zurich clubs was held as part of the first Swiss championship, where GC defeated FC Zurich 7–2. As the two teams did not always play in the same league, it would take nearly 70 years until the 100th derby. To date, 251 official derbies have been held, with Grasshopper leading with 121 wins to FC Zurich's 90, leaving 39 draws.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: FC Basel has long been a rival to GC, owing largely to the rivalry between the two cities. As a result, games between FC Zurich and FC Basel are also often heated games, often leading to clashes between fans.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: From the late 60s to the early 80s, both GC and Basel had numerous Swiss championship victories. However, in 1988 FC Basel was relegated to the Nationalliga B. The rivalry flared up at the beginning of the 21st century, when FCB's improved performance has made them a mainstay at the top the Swiss league. However, with FCB's rise came GC's downfall and the rivalry has become largely one-sided. The most recent notable meeting between the two teams was the Swiss Cup Final in 2013, where Grasshoppers were able to beat FC Basel in penalties, with a score of 1–1 after extra time.


title: Grasshopper Club Zürich

text: The women's division was founded in 2009, when GC/Schwerzenbach (originally FFC Schwerzenbach) was absorbed into the club.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: The Nilotic peoples are people indigenous to the Nile Valley who speak Nilotic languages. They inhabit South Sudan, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda,Burundi and Tanzania. Among these are the Burun-speaking peoples, Karo peoples, Luo peoples, Ateker peoples, Kalenjin peoples, Datooga, Dinka, Nuer, Atwot, Lotuko, and the Maa-speaking peoples.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: The Nilotes constitute the majority of the population in South Sudan, an area that is believed to be their original point of dispersal. After the Bantu peoples, they constitute the second-most numerous group of peoples inhabiting the African Great Lakes region around the East African Rift. They make up a notable part of the population of southwestern Ethiopia as well.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: The Nilotic peoples primarily adhere to Christianity and traditional faiths, including the Dinka religion. Some Nilotic peoples also adhere to Islam.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: The terms "Nilotic" and "Nilote"' were previously used as racial subclassifications, based on anthropological observations of the supposed distinct body morphology of many Nilotic speakers. Twentieth-century social scientists have largely discarded such efforts to classify peoples according to physical characteristics, in favor of using linguistic studies to distinguish among peoples. They formed ethnicities and cultures based on a shared language. Since the late 20th century, however, social and physical scientists are making use of data from population genetics.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Nilotic and Nilote are now mainly used to refer to the various disparate people who speak languages in the same Nilotic language family. Etymologically, the terms Nilotic and Nilote (singular nilot) derive from the Nile Valley; specifically, the Upper Nile and its tributaries, where most Sudanese Nilo-Saharan-speaking people live.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Nilotic people constitute the bulk of the population of South Sudan. The largest of the Sudanese Nilotic peoples are the Dinka, who have as many as 25 ethnic subdivisions. The next-largest groups are the Nuer, followed by the Shilluk.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Whilst Nilo-Hamitic people in Uganda includes the Ateker peoples (Iteso, Kumam, Karamojong, Lango, who despite speaking a mixture of Luo words, have Atekere origins, Sebei, and Kakwa).


title: Nilotic peoples

text: A proto-Nilotic unity, separate from an earlier undifferentiated Eastern Sudanic unity, is assumed to have emerged by the third millennium BC. The development of the proto-Nilotes as a group may have been connected with their domestication of livestock. The Eastern Sudanic unity must have been considerably earlier still, perhaps around the fifth millennium BC (while the proposed Nilo-Saharan unity would date to the Upper Paleolithic about 15 thousand years ago). The original locus of the early Nilotic speakers was presumably east of the Nile in what is now South Sudan. The Proto-Nilotes of the third millennium BC were pastoralists, while their neighbors, the proto-Central Sudanic peoples, were mostly agriculturalists. Nilotic people practised a mixed economy of cattle pastoralism, fishing, and seed cultivation. Some of the earliest archaeological findings on record, that describe a similar culture to this from the same region, are found at Kadero, 48 m north of Khartoum in Sudan and date to 3000 BC. Kadero contains the remains of a cattle pastoralist culture and a cemetery with skeletal remains featuring sub-Saharan African phenotypes. It also contains evidence of other animal domestication, artistry, long-distance trade, seed cultivation, and fish consumption. Genetic and linguistic studies have demonstrated that Nubian people in Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt are an admixed group that started off as a population closely related to Nilotic people. This population later received significant gene flow from Middle Eastern and other East African populations. Nubians are considered to be descendants of the early inhabitants of the Nile valley who later formed the Kingdom of Kush, which included Kerma and Meroe and the medieval Christian kingdoms of Makuria, Nobatia, and Alodia. These studies suggest that populations closely related to Nilotic people long inhabited the Nile Valley as far as southern Egypt in antiquity.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Language evidence indicates an initial southward expansion out of the Nilotic nursery into far southern Sudan beginning in the second millennium BC,


title: Nilotic peoples

text: the Southern Nilotic communities that participated in this expansion eventually reached western Kenya between 1000 and 500 BC. Their arrival occurred shortly before the introduction of iron to East Africa.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Linguistic evidence shows that over time, Nilotic speakers, such as the Nuer, Dinka, Shilluk, and Luo, took over. These groups spread from the Sudd marshlands, where archaeological evidence shows that a culture based on transhumant cattle raising had been present since 3000 BCE, and the Nilotic culture in that area may thus be continuous to that date.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: The Nilotic expansion from the Sudd Marshes into the rest of South Sudan seems to have begun in the 14th century. This coincides with the collapse of the Christian Nubian kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia and the penetration of Arab traders into central Sudan. From the Arabs, the South Sudanese may have obtained new breeds of humpless cattle. Archaeologist Roland Oliver notes that the period also shows an Iron Age beginning among the Nilotic. These factors may explain how the Nilotic speakers expanded to dominate the region.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: By the 16th century, the most powerful group among the Nilotic speakers were the Cøllø (called Shilluk by Arabs and Europeans), who spread east to the banks of the white Nile under the legendary leadership of Nyikang, who is said to have ruled Läg Cøllø c from around 1490 to 1517. The Cøllø gained control of the west bank of the river as far north as Kosti in Sudan. There they established an economy based on cattle raising, cereal farming, and fishing, with small villages located along the length of the river. The Cøllø developed an intensive system of agriculture, and the Cøllø lands in the 17th century had a population density similar to that of the Egyptian Nile lands.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: One theory is that pressure from the Cøllø drove the Funj people north, who would establish the Sultanate of Sennar.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: While the Dinka were protected and isolated from their neighbours, the Cøllø were more involved in international affairs. The Cøllø controlled the west bank of the White Nile, but the other side was controlled by the Funj sultanate, with regular conflict between the two. The Cøllø had the ability to quickly raid outside areas by war canoe, and had control of the waters of the Nile. The Funj had a standing army of armoured cavalry, and this force allowed them to dominate the plains of the sahel.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Cøllø traditions tell of Rädh Odak Ocollo who ruled around 1630 and led them in a three-decade war with Sennar over control of the White Nile trade routes. The Cøllø allied with the Sultanate of Darfur and the Kingdom of Takali against the Funj, but the capitulation of Takali ended the war in the Funj's favour. In the later 17th century, the Cøllø and Funj allied against the Dinka, who rose to power in the border area between the Funj and Cøllø. The Cøllø political structure gradually centralized under the a king or "reth". The most important is Rädh Tugø (son of Rädh Dhøköödhø) who ruled from "circa" 1690 to 1710 and established the Cøllø capital of Fashoda. The same period had the gradual collapse of the Funj sultanate, leaving the Cøllø in complete control of the White Nile and its trade routes. The Cøllø military power was based on control of the river.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Starting in the mid-19th century, European anthropologists and later Kenyan historians have been interested in the origins of human migration from various parts of Africa into East Africa. One of the more notable broad-based theories emanating from these studies includes the Bantu expansion. The main tools of study have been linguistics, archaeology and oral traditions.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: The significance of tracing individual clan histories in order to get an idea of Kalenjin groups formation has been shown by scholars such as B.E. Kipkorir (1978). He argued that the Tugen first settled in small clan groups, fleeing from war, famine, and disease, and that they arrived from western, eastern, and northern sections. Even a section among the Tugen claims to have come from Mount Kenya.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: The Nandi account on the settlement of Nandi displays a similar manner of occupation of the Nandi territory. The Kalenjin clans who moved into and occupied the Nandi area, thus becoming the Nandi tribe, came from a wide array of Kalenjin-speaking areas.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Apparently, spatial core areas existed to which people moved and concentrated over the centuries, and in the process evolved into the individual Kalenjin communities known today by adopting migrants and assimilating original inhabitants.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: For various reasons, slow and multigenerational migrations of Nilotic Luo peoples occurred from South Sudan into Uganda and western Kenya from at least 1000 AD, and continuing until the early 20th century. Oral history and genealogical evidence have been used to estimate timelines of Luo expansion into and within Kenya and Tanzania. Four major waves of migrations into the former Nyanza province in Kenya are discernible starting with the people of Jok ("Joka Jok"), which is estimated to have begun around 1490–1517. "Joka Jok" were the first and largest wave of migrants into northern Nyanza. These migrants settled at a place called Ramogi Hill, then expanded around northern Nyanza. The people of Owiny' ("Jok'Owiny") and the people of Omolo ("Jok'Omolo") followed soon after (1598-1625). A miscellaneous group composed of the Suba, Sakwa, Asembo, Uyoma, and Kano then followed. The Suba originally were Bantu-speaking people who assimilated into Luo culture. They fled from the Buganda Kingdom in Uganda after the civil strife that followed the murder of the 24th Kabaka of Buganda in the mid-18th century and settled in South Nyanza, especially at Rusinga and Mfangano islands. Luo speakers crossed Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria from northern Nyanza into South Nyanza starting in the early 17th century.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Several historical narratives from the various Kalenjin subtribes point to Tulwetab/Tulwop Kony (Mount Elgon) as their original point of settlement in Kenya. This point of origin appears as a central theme in most narratives recorded after the colonial period. One of the more famous accounts states:


title: Nilotic peoples

text: ... The Kalenjin originated from a country in the north known as Emet ab Burgei, which means, the warm country. The people are said to have traveled southwards passing through Mount Elgon or Tulwet ab Kony in Kalenjin. The Sabaot settled around the slopes of the mountain while the others travelled on in search of better land. The Keiyo and Marakwet settled in Kerio Valley and Cherangani Hills. The Pokot settled on the northern side of Mount Elgon and later spread to areas north of Lake Baringo. At Lake Baringo, the Tugen separated from the Nandi and the Kipsigis. This was during a famine known as Kemeutab Reresik, which means, famine of the bats. It is said that during this famine a bat brought blades of green grass which was taken as a sign of good omen signifying that famine could be averted through movement to greener pastures. The Tugen moved and settled around Tugen Hills while the Kipsigis and the Lembus Nandi moved to Rongai area. The Kipsigis and Nandi are said to have lived as a united group for a long time but eventually were forced to separate due to antagonistic environmental factors. Some of these were droughts and invasion of the Maasai from Uasin Gishu.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Geographical barriers protected the southerners from Islam's advance, enabling them to retain their social and cultural heritage and their political and religious institutions. The Dinka people were especially secure in the Sudd marshlands, which protected them from outside interference, and allowed them to remain secure without a large armed forces. The Shilluk, Azande, and Bari people had more regular conflicts with neighbouring states


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Most Nilotes continue to practice pastoralism, migrating on a seasonal basis with their herds of livestock. Some tribes are also known for a tradition of cattle raiding.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Through lengthy interaction with neighbouring peoples, the Nilotes in East Africa have adopted many customs and practices from Southern Cushitic groups. The latter include the age set system of social organization, circumcision, and vocabulary terms.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: In terms of religious beliefs, Nilotes primarily adhere to traditional faiths, Christianity and Islam. The Dinka religion has a pantheon of deities. The Supreme, Creator God is Nhialic, who is the God of the sky and rain, and the ruler of all the spirits.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: He is believed to be present in all of creation, and to control the destiny of every human, plant, and animal on Earth. Nhialic is also known as Jaak, Juong, or Dyokin by other Nilotic groups, such as the Nuer and Shilluk. Dengdit or Deng, is the sky God of rain and fertility, empowered by Nhialic.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Garang, another deity, is believed or assumed by some Dinka to be a god suppressed by Deng; his spirits can cause most Dinka women, and some men, to scream. The term "Jok" refers to a group of ancestral spirits.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: In the Lotuko mythology, the chief God is called Ajok. He is generally seen as kind and benevolent, but can be angered. He once reportedly answered a woman's prayer for the resurrection of her son. Her husband, however, was angry and killed the child. According to the Lotuko religion, Ajok was annoyed by the man's actions and swore never to resurrect any Lotuko again. As a result, death was said to have become permanent.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: A Y-chromosome study by Wood et al. (2005) tested various populations in Africa for paternal lineages, including 26 Maasai and 9 Luo from Kenya, and 9 Alur from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The signature Nilotic paternal marker Haplogroup A3b2 was observed in 27% of the Maasai, 22% of the Alur, and 11% of the Luo.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Haplogroup B is another characteristically Nilotic paternal marker. It was found in 22% of Luo samples, 8% of Maasai, and 50% of Nuer peoples. The E1b1b haplogroup has been observed at overall frequencies around 11% among Nilo-Saharan-speaking groups in the Great Lakes area, with this influence concentrated among the Maasai (50%). This is indicative of substantial historic gene flow from Cushitic-speaking males into these Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations. In addition, 67% of the Alur samples possessed the E2 haplogroup.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: The Y-DNA of populations in the Sudan region were studied, with various local Nilotic groups included for comparison. The signature Nilotic A and B clades were the most common paternal lineages amongst the Nilo-Saharan speakers, except those inhabiting western Sudan. There, a prominent North African influence was noted. Haplogroup A was observed amongst 62% of Dinka, 53.3% of Shilluk, 46.4% of Nuba, 33.3% of Nuer, 31.3% of Fur, and 18.8% of Masalit. Haplogroup B was found in 50% of Nuer, 26.7% of Shilluk, 23% of Dinka, 14.3% of Nuba, 3.1% of Fur, and 3.1% of Masalit. The E1b1b clade was also observed in 71.9% of the Masalit, 59.4% of the Fur, 39.3% of the Nuba, 20% of the Shilluk, 16.7% of the Nuer, and 15% of the Dinka. The atypically high frequencies of the haplogroup in the Masalit was attributed to either a recent population bottleneck, which likely altered the community's original haplogroup diversity, or to geographical proximity to E1b1b's place of origin in North Africa. The clade "might have been brought to Sudan [...] after the progressive desertification of the Sahara around 6,000–8,000 years ago". Similarly, Afro-Asiatic influence was seen in the Nilotic Datog of northern Tanzania, 43% of whom carried the M293 subclade of E1b1b.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Unlike the paternal DNA of Nilotes, the maternal lineages of Nilotes in general show low-to-negligible amounts of Afro-Asiatic and other extraneous influences. An mtDNA study examined the maternal ancestry of various Nilotic populations in Kenya, with Turkana, Samburu, Maasai, and Luo individuals sampled. The mtDNA of almost all of the tested Nilotes belonged to various sub-Saharan macro-haplogroup L subclades, including L0, L2, L3, L4, and L5. Low levels of maternal gene flow from North Africa and the Horn of Africa were observed in a few groups, mainly by the presence of mtDNA haplogroup M and haplogroup I lineages in about 12.5% of the Maasai and 7% of the Samburu samples, respectively.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: The autosomal DNA of Nilotic peoples has been examined in a study on the genetic clusters of various populations in Africa. According to the researchers, Nilotes generally form their own African genetic cluster. The authors also found that certain Nilotic populations in the eastern Great Lakes region, such as the Maasai, showed some additional Afro-Asiatic affinities due to repeated assimilation of Cushitic-speaking peoples over the past 5000 or so years.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: In 121 African populations, four African American populations, and 60 non-African populations, results indicated a high degree of mixed ancestry reflecting migration events. In East Africa, all population groups examined had elements of Nilotic, Cushitic and Bantu ancestry amongst others to varying degrees. By and large, genetic clusters were consistent with linguistic classification with notable exceptions including the Luo of Kenya. Despite being Nilo-Saharan speakers, the Luo cluster with the Niger-Kordofanian-speaking populations that surround them. This indicates a high degree of admixture occurred during the southward migration of southern Luo. Kalenjin groups and Maasai groups were found to have less Bantu ancestry, but significant Cushitic ancestry.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Mutation frequencies in Luo people were much more similar to those of the surrounding Bantu speakers. Luo speakers in East Africa may not have always been socially disadvantaged as they migrated into territories already inhabited by Bantu speakers. This is in keeping with oral history, which affirms that large groups of Bantu speakers adopted Luo language, culture, and customs that were dominant at the time.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Physically, Nilotes are noted for their typically very dark skin color and slender, tall bodies. They often possess exceptionally long limbs, particularly their distal segments (fore arms, lower legs). This characteristic is thought to be a climatic adaptation to allow their bodies to shed heat more efficiently.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Sudanese Nilotes are regarded as one of the tallest peoples in the world. Average values of for height and for weight were seen in a sample of Sudanese Shilluk. Another sample of Sudanese Dinka had a stature/weight ratio of and , with an extremely ectomorphic somatotype of 1.6–3.5–6.2.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: In terms of facial features, the nasal profile most common amongst Nilotic populations is broad, with characteristically high index values ranging from 86.9 to 92.0. Lower nasal indices are often found amongst Nilotes who inhabit the more southerly Great Lakes region, such as the Maasai, which is attributed to genetic differences.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Additionally, the Nilotic groups presently inhabiting the African Great Lakes region are sometimes smaller in stature than those residing in the Sudan region. Measurements of and were found in a sample of agricultural Turkana in northern Kenya, and of and in pastoral Turkana. A height of was seen for Maasai in southern Kenya, with an extreme trunk/leg length ratio of 47.7.


title: Nilotic peoples

text: Many Nilotic groups excel in long- and middle-distance running. This sporting prowess may be related to their exceptional running economy, a function of slim body morphology and very long, slender legs (particularly lower legs, i.e., calf muscles and ankles.). For 404 elite Kenyan distance runners, 76% of the international-class respondents identified as part of the Kalenjin ethnic group and 79% spoke a Nilotic language.


title: Georgia national football team

text: The Georgia national football team () represents the country of Georgia in men's international football matches, and it is controlled by the Georgian Football Federation. The Georgian team's first match took place in 1990, while Georgia was still part of the Soviet Union. The team have attempted to qualify for each major tournament from Euro 1996 onwards, but have not achieved qualification yet, although they came very close to Euro 2020. Home games are played at the Boris Paichadze Dinamo Arena in Tbilisi.


title: Georgia national football team

text: The history of the Georgia national football team began in 1990, when the team played their first international match against Lithuania, the first country to accept an invitation. The match was held on 27 May 1990 at national stadium. Georgia were coached by Givi Nodia. The friendly match ended in a 2–2 draw. This was the only match prior to the declaration of independence on 9 April 1991. Soon afterwards the team played another friendly match against Moldova.


title: Georgia national football team

text: The Georgian Football Federation became a member of both UEFA and FIFA in 1992, enabling Georgia to play competitive matches. The first of these came in September 1994, a 1–0 defeat to Moldova as part of the qualifiers for Euro 1996. Georgia finished third in their group, ahead of Moldova, Wales and Albania, but seven points behind second-placed qualifier Bulgaria.


title: Georgia national football team

text: Georgia failed to qualify for 1998 FIFA World Cup in France, obtaining 10 points and finishing in fourth place, level on points with Poland. At this time Georgia reached forty-second place in the FIFA World Ranking.


title: Georgia national football team

text: During UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying the Georgia national team won one match, drew two and finished at the bottom of the group with five points. This marked the beginning of a period of decline for Georgian football.


title: Georgia national football team

text: The team finished fifth (and last) with seven points in their qualifying group for Euro 2004, although they defeated Russia with a goal scored by Malkhaz Asatiani.


title: Georgia national football team

text: In the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifiers Georgia beat Albania 2–0 at home and Kazakhstan away 2–1. They finished sixth (second bottom) with ten points in Group 2.


title: Georgia national football team

text: Georgia were sixth out of seven teams in the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying group with ten points. They defeated Scotland 2–0 at home and the Faroe Islands 6–0 away and 3–1 at home.


title: Georgia national football team

text: Héctor Cúper became the manager of Georgia in August 2008. During the qualification round for the 2010 FIFA World Cup Georgia failed to win any matches and finished sixth (and last) with three points. Cuper didn't extend his contract, and on 6 November 2009 Temur Ketsbaia was appointed as the new manager of the Georgian national football team. Ketsbaia resigned as manager after a 4–0 defeat at home to Poland in the UEFA Euro 2016 qualifiers on 14 November 2014, having previously stated he would do so before the match regardless of the result.


title: Georgia national football team

text: In June 2016, Georgia beat the two-times reigning European champions Spain 1–0 in their final pre-Euro 2016 friendly.


title: Georgia national football team

text: In 2018, they were the first team to earn promotion in the new UEFA Nations League. They scored the event's first goal in a UEFA Nations League D game in Kazakhstan before beating Latvia twice and Andorra, with 2 games still to spare. In the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying, Georgia had a disappointing run, with their only wins came over Gibraltar. Still, having finished first place in League D, Georgia was able to qualify for the country's first ever major playoff. Georgia managed to beat Belarus 1–0 and thus the hope to qualify for UEFA Euro 2020 increased, but it went in vain after the Georgians suffered a heartbreaking home defeat to North Macedonia in the decisive match and thus missed the opportunity to make a historic debut in a major competition.


title: Georgia national football team

text: Georgia showed improvements with a strong 2-0 win over Sweden at the 2022 World Cup qualification on 11 November 2021.


title: Georgia national football team

text: The following players have not been called up for the upcoming matches but have been called up for the team in the last 12 months.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Alexios I Komnenos (, 1057 – 15 August 1118; Latinized Alexius I Comnenus) was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. Although he was not the first emperor of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during his reign that the Komnenos family came to full power and initiated a hereditary succession to the throne. Inheriting a collapsing empire and faced with constant warfare during his reign against both the Seljuq Turks in Asia Minor and the Normans in the western Balkans, Alexios was able to curb the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as the Komnenian restoration. His appeals to Western Europe for help against the Turks were also the catalyst that contributed to the convoking of the Crusades.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Alexios was the son of John Komnenos and Anna Dalassene, and the nephew of Isaac I Komnenos (emperor 1057–1059). Alexios' father declined the throne on the abdication of Isaac, who was thus succeeded by Constantine X Doukas (r. 1059–1067), and died as a monk in 1067. Alexios and his elder brother, Manuel Komnenos served under Romanos IV Diogenes (r. 1068–1071) with distinction against the Seljuk Turks. Under Michael VII Doukas "Parapinakes" (1071–1078) and Nikephoros III Botaneiates (1078–1081), he was militarily employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, against rebels in Asia Minor, Thrace, and in Epirus.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: In 1074, western mercenaries led by Roussel de Bailleul rebelled in Asia Minor, but Alexios successfully subdued them by 1076. In 1078, he was appointed commander of the field army in the West by Nikephoros III. In this capacity, Alexios defeated the rebellions of Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder (whose son or grandson later married Alexios' daughter Anna) and Nikephoros Basilakes, the first at the Battle of Kalavrye and the latter in a surprise night attack on his camp. Alexios was ordered to march against his brother-in-law Nikephoros Melissenos in Asia Minor but refused to fight his kinsman. This did not, however, lead to a demotion, as Alexios was needed to counter the expected invasion of the Normans of Southern Italy, led by Robert Guiscard.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: While Byzantine troops were assembling for the expedition, the Doukas faction at court approached Alexios and convinced him to join a conspiracy against Nikephoros III. The mother of Alexios, Anna Dalassene, was to play a prominent role in this coup d'état of 1081, along with the current empress, Maria of Alania. First married to Michael VII Doukas and secondly to Nikephoros III Botaneiates, she was preoccupied with the future of her son by Michael VII, Constantine Doukas. Nikephoros III intended to leave the throne to one of his close relatives, and this resulted in Maria's ambivalence and alliance with the Komnenoi, though the real driving force behind this political alliance was Anna Dalassene.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: The empress was already closely connected to the Komnenoi through Maria's cousin Irene's marriage to Isaac Komnenos, so the Komnenoi brothers were able to see her under the pretense of a friendly family visit. Furthermore, to aid the conspiracy Maria had adopted Alexios as her son, though she was only five years older than he. Maria was persuaded to do so on the advice of her own "Alans" and her eunuchs, who had been instigated by Isaac Komnenos. Given Anna's tight hold on her family, Alexios must have been adopted with her implicit approval. As a result, Alexios and Constantine, Maria's son, were now adoptive brothers, and both Isaac and Alexios took an oath that they would safeguard his rights as emperor. By secretly giving inside information to the Komnenoi, Maria was an invaluable ally.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: As stated in the Alexiad, Isaac and Alexios left Constantinople in mid-February 1081 to raise an army against Botaneiates. However, when the time came, Anna quickly and surreptitiously mobilized the remainder of the family and took refuge in the Hagia Sophia. From there she negotiated with the emperor for the safety of family members left in the capital, while protesting her sons' innocence of hostile actions. Under the falsehood of making a vesperal visit to worship at the church, she deliberately excluded the grandson of Botaneiates and his loyal tutor, met with Alexios and Isaac, and fled for the forum of Constantine. The tutor discovered they were missing and eventually found them on the palace grounds, but Anna was able to convince him that they would return to the palace shortly. Then to gain entrance to both the outer and inner sanctuary of the church, the women pretended to the gatekeepers that they were pilgrims from Cappadocia who had spent all their funds and wanted to worship before starting their return trip. However, before they were to gain entry into the sanctuary, Straboromanos and royal guards caught up with them to summon them back to the palace. Anna then protested that the family was in fear for their lives, her sons were loyal subjects (Alexios and Isaac were discovered absent without leave), and had learned of a plot by enemies of the Komnenoi to have them both blinded and had, therefore, fled the capital so they may continue to be of loyal service to the emperor. She refused to go with them and demanded that they allow her to pray to the Mother of God for protection. This request was granted and Anna then manifested her true theatrical and manipulative capabilities:


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Nikephoros III Botaneiates was forced into a public vow that he would grant protection to the family. Straboromanos tried to give Anna his cross, but for her it was not large enough for all bystanders to witness the oath. She also demanded that the cross be personally sent by Botaneiates as a vow of his good faith. He obliged, sending a complete assurance for the family with his own cross. At the emperor's further insistence, and for their own protection, they took refuge at the convent of Petrion, where they were eventually joined by Maria of Bulgaria, mother of Irene Doukaina. Botaneiates allowed them to be treated as refugees rather than as guests. They were allowed to have family members bring in their own food and were on good terms with the guards from whom they learned the latest news. Anna was highly successful in three important aspects of the revolt: she bought time for her sons to steal imperial horses from the stables and escape the city; she distracted the emperor, giving her sons time to gather and arm their troops; and she gave a false sense of security to Botaneiates that there was no real treasonous plot against him. After bribing the Western troops guarding the city, Isaac and Alexios Komnenos entered the capital victoriously on 1 April 1081.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: During this time, Alexios was rumored to be the lover of Empress Maria, the daughter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia, who had been successively married to Michael VII Doukas and his successor Nikephoros III Botaneiates, and who was renowned for her beauty. Alexios arranged for Maria to stay on the palace grounds, and it was thought that he was considering marrying her. However, his mother consolidated the Doukas family connection by arranging the Emperor's marriage to Irene Doukaina, granddaughter of the Caesar John Doukas, the uncle of Michael VII, who would not have supported Alexios otherwise. As a measure intended to keep the support of the Doukai, Alexios restored Constantine Doukas, the young son of Michael VII and Maria, as co-emperor and a little later betrothed him to his own first-born daughter Anna, who moved into the Mangana Palace with her fiancé and his mother.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: This situation changed drastically, however, when Alexios' first son John II Komnenos was born in 1087: Anna's engagement to Constantine was dissolved, and she was moved to the main Palace to live with her mother and grandmother. Alexios became estranged from Maria, who was stripped of her imperial title and retired to a monastery, and Constantine Doukas was deprived of his status as co-emperor. Nevertheless, he remained on good terms with the imperial family and succumbed to his weak constitution soon afterwards.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: The thirty-seven year reign of Alexios was full of struggle. At the outset he faced the formidable attack of the Normans, led by Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund, who took Dyrrhachium and Corfu and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly (see Battle of Dyrrhachium). Alexios suffered several defeats before he was able to strike back with success. He enhanced his resistance by bribing the German king Henry IV with 360,000 gold pieces to attack the Normans in Italy, which forced the Normans to concentrate on their defenses at home in 1083–84. He also secured the alliance of Henry, Count of Monte Sant'Angelo, who controlled the Gargano Peninsula and dated his charters by Alexios' reign. Henry's allegiance would be the last example of Byzantine political control on peninsular Italy. The Norman danger subsided with the death of Guiscard in 1085, and the Byzantines recovered most of their losses.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Alexios next had to deal with disturbances in Thrace, where the heretical sects of the Bogomils and the Paulicians revolted and made common cause with the Pechenegs from beyond the Danube. Paulician soldiers in imperial service likewise deserted during Alexios' battles with the Normans. As soon as the Norman threat had passed, Alexios set out to punish the rebels and deserters, confiscating their lands. This led to a further revolt near Philippopolis, and the commander of the field army in the west, Gregory Pakourianos, was defeated and killed in the ensuing battle. In 1087 the Pechenegs raided into Thrace, and Alexios crossed into Moesia to retaliate but failed to take Dorostolon (Silistra). During his retreat, the emperor was surrounded and worn down by the Pechenegs, who forced him to sign a truce and to pay protection money. In 1090 the Pechenegs invaded Thrace again, while Tzachas, the brother-in-law of the Sultan of Rum, launched a fleet and attempted to arrange a joint siege of Constantinople with the Pechenegs. Alexios overcame this crisis by entering into an alliance with a horde of 40,000 Cumans, with whose help he crushed the Pechenegs at Levounion in Thrace on 29 April 1091.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: This put an end to the Pecheneg threat, but in 1094 the Cumans began to raid the imperial territories in the Balkans. Led by a pretender claiming to be Constantine Diogenes, a long-dead son of the Emperor Romanos IV, the Cumans crossed the mountains and raided into eastern Thrace until their leader was eliminated at Adrianople. With the Balkans more or less pacified, Alexios could now turn his attention to Asia Minor, which had been almost completely overrun by the Seljuq Turks.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: By the time Alexios ascended the throne, the Seljuqs had taken most of Asia Minor. Alexios was able to secure much of the coastal regions by sending peasant soldiers to raid the Seljuq camps, but these victories were unable to stop the Turks altogether. As early as 1090, Alexios had taken reconciliatory measures towards the Papacy, with the intention of seeking western support against the Seljuqs. In 1095 his ambassadors appeared before Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza. The help he sought from the West was simply some mercenary forces, not the immense hosts that arrived, to his consternation and embarrassment, after the pope preached the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont later that same year. This was the People's Crusade: a mob of mostly unarmed pilgrims led by the preacher Peter the Hermit. Not quite ready to supply this number of people as they traversed his territories, the emperor saw his Balkan possessions subjected to further pillage at the hands of his own allies. Eventually Alexios dealt with the People's Crusade by hustling them on to Asia Minor. There, they were massacred by the Turks of Kilij Arslan I at the Battle of Civetot in October 1096.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: The "Prince's Crusade", the second and much more formidable host of crusaders, gradually made its way to Constantinople, led in sections by Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond of Taranto, Raymond IV of Toulouse, and other important members of the western nobility. Alexios used the opportunity to meet the crusader leaders separately as they arrived, extracting from them oaths of homage and the promise to turn over conquered lands to the Byzantine Empire. Transferring each contingent into Asia, Alexios promised to supply them with provisions in return for their oaths of homage. The crusade was a notable success for Byzantium, as Alexios recovered a number of important cities and islands. The siege of Nicaea by the crusaders forced the city to surrender to the emperor in 1097, and the subsequent crusader victory at Dorylaion allowed the Byzantine forces to recover much of western Asia Minor. John Doukas re-established Byzantine rule in Chios, Rhodes, Smyrna, Ephesus, Sardis, and Philadelphia in 1097–1099. This success is ascribed by Alexios' daughter Anna to his policy and diplomacy, but by the Latin historians of the crusade to his treachery and deception. In 1099, a Byzantine fleet of ten ships was sent to assist the crusaders in capturing Laodicea and other coastal towns as far as Tripoli. The crusaders believed their oaths were made invalid when the Byzantine contingent under Tatikios failed to help them during the siege of Antioch; Bohemund, who had set himself up as Prince of Antioch, briefly went to war with Alexios in the Balkans, but he was blockaded by the Byzantine forces and agreed to become a vassal of Alexios by the Treaty of Deabolis in 1108.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Around this time, in 1106, the twentieth year of his reign, Hesychius of Miletus records that the sky suddenly darkened and a "violent southern wind" blew the great statue of Constantine at the Strategion from its column, killing a number of men and women nearby.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: In 1116, though already terminally ill, Alexios conducted a series of defensive operations in Bithynia and Mysia to defend his Anatolian territories against the inroads of Malik Shah, the Seljuq Sultan of Iconium. In 1117 he moved onto the offensive and pushed his army deep into the Turkish-dominated Anatolian Plateau, where he defeated the Seljuq sultan at the Battle of Philomelion.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: During the last twenty years of his life Alexios lost much of his popularity. The years were marked by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies—one of his last acts was to publicly burn at the stake Basil, a Bogomil leader, with whom he had engaged in a theological dispute. In spite of the success of the First Crusade, Alexios also had to repel numerous attempts on his territory by the Seljuqs in 1110–1117.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Alexios was for many years under the strong influence of an "eminence grise", his mother Anna Dalassene, a wise and immensely able politician whom, in a uniquely irregular fashion, he had crowned as "Augusta" instead of the rightful claimant to the title, his wife Irene Doukaina. Alexios was never happier than when taking part in military exercises and he assumed personal command of his troops whenever possible. As such, Dalassene was the effective administrator of the Empire during Alexios' long absences in military campaigns: she was constantly at odds with her daughter-in-law and had assumed total responsibility for the upbringing and education of her granddaughter Anna Komnene.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Alexios' last years were also troubled by anxieties over the succession. Although he had crowned his son John II Komnenos co-emperor at the age of five in 1092, his wife Irene Doukaina wished to alter the succession in favor of their daughter Anna and Anna's husband, Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger. Bryennios had been made "kaisar" (Caesar) and received the newly created title of "panhypersebastos" ("honoured above all"), and remained loyal to both Alexios and John.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Apart from all of his external enemies, a host of rebels also sought to overthrow Alexios from the imperial throne, thereby posing another major threat to his reign. Due to the troubled times the empire was enduring, he had by far the greatest number of rebellions against him of all the Byzantine emperors. These included:


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Under Alexios the debased "solidus" ("tetarteron" and "histamenon") was discontinued and a gold coinage of higher fineness (generally .900–.950) was established in 1092, commonly called the "hyperpyron" at 4.45 grs. The "hyperpyron" was slightly smaller than the "solidus".


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: It was introduced along with the electrum "aspron trachy" worth a third of a "hyperpyron" and about 25% gold and 75% silver, the billon "aspron trachy" or "stamenon", valued at 48 to the "hyperpyron" and with 7% silver wash and the copper "tetarteron" and "noummion" worth 18 and 36 to the billon "aspron trachy".


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Alexios' reform of the Byzantine monetary system was an important basis for the financial recovery and therefore supported the so-called Komnenian restoration, as the new coinage restored financial confidence.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Alexios I had overcome a dangerous crisis and stabilized the Byzantine Empire, inaugurating a century of imperial prosperity and success. He had also profoundly altered the nature of the Byzantine government. By seeking close alliances with powerful noble families, Alexios put an end to the tradition of imperial exclusivity and co-opted most of the nobility into his extended family and, through it, his government. Those who did not become part of this extended family were deprived of power and prestige. This measure, which was intended to diminish opposition, was paralleled by the introduction of new courtly dignities, like that of "panhypersebastos" given to Nikephoros Bryennios, or that of "sebastokrator" given to the emperor's brother Isaac Komnenos. Although this policy met with initial success, it gradually undermined the relative effectiveness of imperial bureaucracy by placing family connections over merit. Alexios' policy of integration of the nobility bore the fruit of continuity: every Byzantine emperor who reigned after Alexios I Komnenos was related to him by either descent or marriage.


title: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Later Russian sources also claim the existence of another daughter, Barbara, who supposedly married Grand Prince of Kiev Sviatopolk II Iziaslavich, but her existence is considered as a later invention by modern historians.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: Una Chin-Riley, commonly and originally only known as Number One, is a fictional character in the science-fiction franchise "Star Trek". She is Christopher Pike's second-in-command during his captaincy of the starship "Enterprise".


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: She first appeared, portrayed by Majel Barrett, in "", the initial 1965 pilot episode of . The pilot was rejected and most of its characters, including Number One, were omitted from the second pilot and the subsequent series (the relationship between Spock and Kirk would emulate that of Number One and Pike). Footage from "The Cage" featuring the character was reused in the two-part story "" in 1966, establishing Pike and Number One as members of a previous crew of the "Enterprise" and part of the "Star Trek" canon; Barrett herself, who would become the wife of "Star Trek" creator Gene Roddenberry, would portray a number of unrelated characters in the franchise from 1966 to 2009, such as Nurse Christine Chapel in the original series, Lwaxana Troi in , and the voice of the Enterprise computer for both series.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: In 2019, the of "", set during Pike's tenure as captain of the "Enterprise", featured Number One's first on-screen appearance in 53 years, now played by Rebecca Romijn. Romijn reprised her role in two episodes of "" the same year, and, beginning in 2022, as a series regular in "", which is centered on the adventures of Pike's crew.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: The character debuted in "The Menagerie" in 1966, and also in "The Cage", which was not broadcast until 1988. The character was not seen in live-action "Star Trek" again until 2019, when she was made a recurring character in second season of the CBS All Access web series "".


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: Although not shown on-screen, it is implied that Number One briefly takes command of the "Enterprise" when Captain Pike and his landing party first beam down to . She later beams down to the planet several times herself. During "The Cage", Number One proves to her alien captors that humans would rather die than be slaves.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: Number One appears in three episodes of the second season of "Star Trek: Discovery", starting with the episode "An Obol for Charon", where she visits Pike on the USS "Discovery". She briefs Pike on the repairs being made to the "Enterprise" and also provides him with information regarding the whereabouts of Lieutenant Spock. Number One is said to be a very resourceful individual (Pike wryly points out that "people have a tendency to end up owing her favors") and has a predilection for spicy food – in the mess hall scene with Pike, she orders a cheeseburger with habanero sauce.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: Her name "Una" appears in the "Star Trek: Discovery" episode "Such Sweet Sorrow, Part 2" (at about 40:30), when Pike says, "I'm giving you the conn, Una." Michelle Paradise, executive producer of "Discovery", confirmed that Pike was addressing Number One. "Una" is a female name of Gaelic origin meaning "the personification of truth, beauty, and unity". It’s also Latin derived, meaning “One.”


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: The season two finale of "Discovery", "", reveals that the character's first name is Una, while the third episode of "Strange New Worlds", "", gives the character's full name as "Una Chin-Riley", and reveals that she is Illyrian rather than Human.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: During the development of the first pilot for "" (""), Roddenberry wrote the part of Number One specifically for Barrett. There was reluctance from the NBC executives to agree to an actress who was almost unknown. Roddenberry did see other actresses for the part, but no one else was considered.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: According to Gene Roddenberry and Stephen Whitfield, the prominence of a woman among the crew of a starship was one of the reasons the original "Star Trek" pilot was rejected by NBC, who, in addition to calling the pilot "too cerebral," felt the alien Spock and a female senior officer would be rejected by audiences. Roddenberry related the tale of how women of the era had difficulty accepting her as well. Executive producer Herb Solow attempted to sell NBC executives on the idea that a fresh face would bring believability to the part, but they were aware that she was Roddenberry's girlfriend. Despite this, they agreed to her casting, not wanting to upset Roddenberry at this point in the production. After the pilot was rejected, a second pilot was produced. While it was generally explained that the network disliked a female character as the second-in-command of the "Enterprise", Solow had a different opinion of events; he explained, "no one liked her acting... she was a nice woman, but the reality was, she couldn't act." In his book "Inside Star Trek: The Real Story", Solow suggests the network had no problem with the character, but was infuriated when a relatively unknown actress was cast simply because she was having an affair with Roddenberry. Because of NBC's rare order of a second pilot, Roddenberry compromised by eliminating Number One, but aspects of her character—specifically, her cool demeanor and logical nature—were merged into Spock (who does appear in "The Cage") during the regular run of the series.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: On the series "", Commander William Riker is usually (and informally) called "Number One" by Captain Picard, because of his position as first officer on the USS "Enterprise". On the series "", set in 2256 (two years after the events of "The Cage"), female Commander Michael Burnham is referred to as "Number One" by , because of her position as first officer on the USS "Shenzhou". Series creator Bryan Fuller had originally intended only to refer to the character as Number One, in honor of Majel Barrett's character, but the name Burnham was instead revealed during the first episode. In "", retired Admiral Picard owns a pit bull called "Number One".


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: Number One was first referred to as "Una" in the non-canonical 2016 novel trilogy "Star Trek: Legacies", which was published by Pocket Books to mark the original series's 50th anniversary. Authors Greg Cox, David Mack, Dayton Ward, and Kevin Dilmore gave her a first name because she had a central role in the novels. It has been suggested through several sources that this was done in honor of fellow "Star Trek" author Una McCormack. The name 'Una' became canon with its use in "Star Trek: Discovery's "second season finale.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: Barrett's role as Number One in the first pilot led to her being cast as Nurse Chapel in the original "Star Trek" television series. Much of "The Cage" pilot footage, including scenes with Barrett as Number One, was incorporated in the 1966 episode "The Menagerie". In 2017, Space.com ranked "The Menagerie" the 3rd best episode of all "Star Trek" television. "The Cage" was supplied to NBC in 1965, but it was not released on VHS until 1986, and not broadcast until 1988. Accordingly, "The Menagerie" was the first public broadcast of this character on television.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: In 2016, Number One was ranked as the 57th most important character in Starfleet within the "Star Trek" science fiction universe by "Wired" magazine, out of 100 characters.


title: Number One (Star Trek)

text: In 2018, actress Rebecca Romijn was cast as the character Number One for , and said that she was "honored to play such an iconic character." Romijn's performance was met with positive reception. The producers announced plans to bring back Romijn as Number One for two episodes "" and subsequently as a main character on "".


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton Holdings Berhad (PHB; informally Proton) is a Malaysian automotive company and automobile corporation active in automobile design, manufacturing, distribution and sales. Proton was established in 1985 as Malaysia's sole national badged car company until the advent of Perodua in 1993. The company is headquartered in Shah Alam, Selangor, and operates additional facilities at Proton City, Perak.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton was originally a manufacturer of rebadged versions of Mitsubishi Motors (MMC) products in the 1980s and 1990s. Proton produced its first indigenously designed (though Mitsubishi-engined), non-badge engineered car in the year 2000, and elevated Malaysia as the 11th country in the world with the capability to design cars from the ground up. Since the 2000s, Proton has produced a mix of locally engineered and badge engineered vehicles. Proton cars are currently sold in at least 15 countries, the majority of which are in Asia; its largest export market was the United Kingdom, where its cars were sold until 2016.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton was originally owned in majority by HICOM, with minority stakes being held by Mitsubishi Group members. By 2005, Mitsubishi had divested their stake in Proton to Khazanah Nasional, and in 2012, Proton was fully acquired by DRB-HICOM. Proton was the owner of Lotus Cars from 1996 to 2017. In May 2017, DRB-HICOM announced plans to sell a 49.9% stake in Proton and a 51% stake in Lotus to Geely Automobile Holdings. The deal was signed in June 2017, and since then, Lotus ceased to be a unit of Proton.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The concept of a National Car was conceived in 1979 by then Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia, Dato' Seri Dr Mahathir bin Muhammad, now Tun Dr Mahathir Muhammad, with the goal of enhancing Malaysian industry. The National Car Project was approved by the Cabinet in 1982, leading to the founding of Proton on 7 May 1983. It was wholly owned by the government of Malaysia through Khazanah Nasional at its creation. It was headed by its founder, Dr. Mahathir. Proton approached Mitsubishi Motors between 1983 and 1984 and brokered a joint venture between both companies for the production of the first Malaysian car. The result of the collaboration was the Proton Saga, which launched on 9 July 1985.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The Proton Saga was based on the second generation 1983 Mitsubishi Lancer Fiore 4-door saloon and powered by a 1.3 litre Mitsubishi Orion 4G13 engine. The first Proton Saga to roll off the production line in Shah Alam is preserved in the Muzium Negara as a symbol of the beginning of the Malaysian automotive industry. Sales of the new Saga outstripped supply and Proton struggled to meet the growing demand, but by mid-1986 it had captured a 64% majority domestic market share in the "Below 1600cc segment". Later in October 1987, a hatchback variant called the Proton Saga Aeroback was launched and featured a more powerful 1.5L Mitsubishi 4G15 engine and a redesigned rear-end. Exports to Ireland began in 1988. In March 1989 Proton entered the United Kingdom car market with the Saga saloon and hatchback duo, where the Malaysian company set the record for the "Fastest Selling Make of New Car Ever to Enter the United Kingdom".


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton's sales declined during the late 1980s as a result of the worldwide economic recession, and the lack of technical expertise in Proton's management. Kenji Iwabuchi, a former Mitsubishi Motors executive, was appointed as the managing director of Proton in 1988. In the decade that followed, there were significant developments both domestically and globally and city.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 15 August 1992, the Proton Saga Iswara was launched. It shares the older Mitsubishi platform used in the original Proton Saga, but its exterior and interior styling are unique to Proton. The Saga Iswara was widely used as taxicabs in Malaysia during the 1990s and 2000s, and many continue in service.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 21 May 1993 the Proton Wira was introduced, a car which was better equipped and larger than the Saga and Saga Iswara. The Wira is based on the fourth-generation 1991 Mitsubishi Lancer and was sold in a four-door saloon guise at launch. The Proton Wira Aeroback, a five-door hatchback variant featuring a Proton-designed rear-end joined the range in 1993. The Wira saloon and hatchback shared six different engines by 1996, all of which were sourced from Mitsubishi Motors. The engines included the 4G13 1.3L and 4G15 1.5L carried over from the Proton Saga, the newer 4G92 1.6L, 4G93 SOHC and DOHC 1.8L and the 4D68 2.0L diesel. The Wira was the first Proton car to be produced in right-hand drive (RHD) and left-hand drive (LHD) configurations, and remains the only Proton car made available with a diesel engine.


title: Proton Holdings

text: In 1994, Proton launched the three-door Proton Satria hatchback and the two-door Proton Putra coupé in 1996, both of which are based on the Wira platform and powered by the same range of Mitsubishi engines offered in the Wira, with the exception of the 2.0L diesel. The Proton Wira saloon and hatchback, and the Proton Satria and Putra were aggressively exported and marketed across the European Union and Middle East during the 1990s. The Proton Perdana, a premium D-segment saloon, was launched in 1995. It is based on the seventh generation 1992 Mitsubishi Eterna and was fitted with Mitsubishi's 4G63 2.0-litre l4 engine. It was offered with the superior 177bhp 6A12 DOHC 2.0L V6 engine after 1999. The Perdana remains the only D-segment, V6-powered car to be commercially produced by Proton. A Citroën AX-based 1.1-litre five-door supermini called the Proton Tiara debuted in 1996. It was the result of a joint venture between Proton and PSA Peugeot Citroën, a collaboration which was later abandoned after the death of Proton's then CEO, Tan Sri Yahaya Ahmad in 1997.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 30 October 1996, Proton acquired an 80% stake in the British company, Lotus Group International Limited, valued at £51 million. The controlling interest was purchased from A.C.B.N. Holdings S.A. of Luxembourg, a company controlled by Italian businessman Romano Artioli, then also the owner of Bugatti. Proton's stake in Lotus was increased to 100% in 2003. Lotus has been involved in the development of suspension and handling elements of all Proton cars launched since 1996. The Proton Satria GTi, widely regarded as the best Malaysian car ever produced, owes much of its success to Lotus' contributions.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The Proton Waja, the company's first indigenously designed model, was launched in August 2000. It however still had a Mitsubishi 4G18 engine at launch as Proton's first in-house Campro engine was not yet available. The Waja marked the end of Proton's extensive reliance on other car manufacturers for vehicle platforms and components. However, the model was only a moderate seller, being significantly outsold by Proton's own much older and slightly smaller Proton Wira. The Waja also marked the start of a decline in the local market-leading Proton marque which led to Perodua, the second Malaysian vehicle manufacturer, eventually capturing Proton's sales crown in 2006. In 2002, Proton introduced the Arena, a ute based on the Proton Wira platform and thus far the only Proton model to enjoy significantly more popularity in its export markets (specifically Australia) than domestically. The Proton Gen-2, a hatchback model, was launched in late 2004. It was the first Proton vehicle equipped with the all-new Malaysian-made Campro engine.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The advanced RM1.8 billion (US$580 million) Proton Tanjung Malim manufacturing plant in the Malaysian state of Perak commenced operation in November 2003. The new plant had been projected to open in August 1998, but it was deferred due to the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. However, it was revived in 2001 and completed in late 2003 instead. The new 1,280 acre plant was also developed as part of the Proton City project, which would span 4,000 acres of land in Tanjung Malim and consist of residential, commercial, institutional, industrial and recreational areas. The plant has an annual production capacity of 150,000 vehicles, but could be expanded to 1 million units in the future. The Proton Tanjung Malim plant complements the original Proton plant in operation since 1985, located in Shah Alam, Selangor. Despite a combined production capacity of around 350,000 units, both plants are underutilised with just 52,235 and 114,645 units produced at the Tanjung Malim and Shah Alam plants in 2011 respectively.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 7 July 2004, Proton purchased a 57.57% stake in MV Agusta S.p.A. of Italy, valued at €70 million. Proton failed to reverse the misfortunes of MV Agusta and sold the marque to Gevi S.p.A. in December 2005 for €1, with Gevi assuming the €139.44 million debt carried over from MV Agusta.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The latter half of the 2000s marked Proton's comeback in the domestic market, with its vehicle sales growing a total of about 37 percent from 2006 to 2011, significantly above total passenger car sales growth of about 10 percent. The comeback was spearheaded by the Persona saloon launched in August 2007, the long-overdue replacement for the best-selling but ageing Proton Wira saloon. The Persona was based on an extended version of the 2004 Proton Gen-2 hatchback platform and shared most of its components and external appearance, yet it was priced around RM10,000 less while offering significant improvements in quality and offering more luggage space. The Persona was a sales success as 19,840 units were sold in the first three months following its launch.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The second generation Proton Saga was launched on 18 January 2008. Previously, the first generation Proton Saga had been Proton's first and most successful model, having had a long 23-year lifespan, the longest of all Proton models to date. The new Saga proved to be a successful model Proton with over 23,000 bookings two weeks into its launch. It has consistently ranked as Proton's best-selling vehicle domestically, while placing 3rd overall in 2008, and 2nd between 2009 and 2012, beaten only by its archrival the Perodua Myvi in overall vehicle sales. Proton further widened its model base when it introduced the Exora, Malaysia's first indigenous 7-seater MPV in April 2009. The Exora was based on Proton's next generation P2 platform and helped satisfy the growing demand for a budget 7-seater in the domestic market, which had been monopolised by the Nissan Grand Livina and the smaller Toyota Avanza. For several years, it consistently positioned in the Top 10 best-selling vehicles in Malaysia.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On August 6, 2008, the Proton Saga and Proton Persona were seen doing road tests at the Greater Noida Expressway, hinting at the potential to export Proton automobiles to India. However, negotiations for Proton to establish an Indian branch did not materialize.


title: Proton Holdings

text: In December 2008, Proton resumed product collaboration with Mitsubishi Motors. Under the agreement, Proton gained the rights to rebadge the 2007 Mitsubishi Lancer to be sold exclusively in the Malaysian market. The result of the collaboration was the Proton Inspira, which launched on 10 November 2010. It also marked a return to closer ties between Proton and Mitsubishi, the Japanese company which was instrumental in Proton's foundation in the 1980s. Proton showcased the EMAS concept hybrid city cars at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show. They were designed by Italdesign Giugiaro and related to the Lotus Ethos, a similar concept car from Proton's British subsidiary.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The turbocharged inline-four petrol engine from Proton was revealed at the 2010 Kuala Lumpur International Motor Show. Officially known as the 1.6L CamPro CFE, it is capable of producing power and torque figures of 138 bhp (103 kW) at 5,000 rpm and 205 N·m at 2,000–4,000 rpm respectively, comparable to a 2.0L naturally aspirated engine, while achieving better fuel efficiency and reduced greenhouse emissions.


title: Proton Holdings

text: In January 2012, Proton was acquired by DRB-HICOM, a Malaysian conglomerate in a transaction between Khazanah Nasional and DRB-HICOM which totalled RM1.2 billion. The Proton Prevé, the company's latest saloon car was unveiled on 16 April 2012. It became the first Proton car, and to an extent, the first Malaysian car to be awarded the full 5-star safety rating in the Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP) of Australia and New Zealand. In December 2012, Proton acquired all of Petronas' E01 engine technologies in addition to associated technology patents at a cost of RM 63 million. The deal encompassed a family of naturally aspirated and turbocharged 1.8, 2.0 and 2.2-litre engines to complement Proton's own CamPro 1.3L N/A, 1.6L N/A and 1.6L turbo engines.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 17 August 2013, Proton launched the Suprima S, the hatchback complement to the Prevé saloon. It became the second 5-star ANCAP rated Proton and the first to offer extensive standard safety features in its domestic market. On 11 December 2013, the second generation Proton Perdana was finally unveiled after a three-year gap in the nameplate's production. The new Perdana is a badge engineered eighth generation Honda Accord and is for exclusive sale to Malaysian civil servants and government officials.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The Proton Iriz was unveiled on 25 September 2014 as the company's first B-segment 5-door hatchback. The new Iriz competes directly against the Perodua Myvi in its domestic market.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 18 January 2016, Proton unveiled their all-new four-cylinder GDI/TGDI and three-cylinder VVT engines. The new engines, of which there are six in total, are being developed in collaboration with Ricardo and Lotus Engineering, and are slated to enter production by late 2017.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton unveiled their new logo in February 2016, and appointed a new CEO and Deputy CEO in April. The government had also granted Proton a RM 1.5 billion soft loan in mid 2016. The loan came with a number of conditions, including a mandatory tie-up with a foreign automobile company in the near future. Several companies have expressed interest, including Suzuki, Škoda, Groupe PSA, Renault and Geely. This culminated with the entry of China's Zhejiang Geely Holding Group in June 2017, after the Chinese carmaker acquired 49.9% equity in Proton from DRB-HICOM.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton introduced four new models in 2016. The new Perdana launched on 14 June, followed by the new Persona on 23 August, the new Saga on 28 September, and the new Ertiga on 24 November. The launch of four new Proton models within the span of six months was unprecedented in the company's history. Masazumi Ogawa was recruited as the director of quality control in Proton.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 24 May 2017, parent company DRB-HICOM announced plans to sell a 49.9% stake in Proton to Zhejiang Geely Automobile Holdings. Eventually, DRB-HICOM also sold 51% controlling-stake in Lotus to Geely, and the remaining 49% stake to Etika Automotive. The definitive agreement was in July 2017. Proton had owned Lotus since 1996, and largely struggled to turn the fortunes of the sports car maker around. Nonetheless, in late 2016, Lotus announced their first operating profit in over 40 years. Their presence in Proton is said to not affect Japanese auto manufacturers due to being in the market for a very long time. Still, many of Proton's cars benefitted from the Lotus relationship, with the Satria GTi specifically mentioned by car reviewers as possessing good handling traits. Subsequent Proton models all received "Lotus Tuned" input.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton recruited Yoshiya Inamori as the vice president of manufacturing, who had previously been involved with Proton back in the 80s when it was founded during his time in Mitsubishi from April 1982 until July 2017.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 29 September 2017, DRB-HICOM announced changes to the board of Proton Holdings Berhad. Following the signing of a Definitive Agreement with China's Zhejiang Geely Holding Group Limited on 23 June 2017, the Chinese carmaker acquired 49.9% equity in Proton. The announcement on 29 September saw a new board of directors put in place in Proton Holdings, Proton Edar (the local distribution arm) and Perusahaan Otomobil Nasional Sdn Bhd (PONSB).


title: Proton Holdings

text: Three nominees from Geely Holding joined the boards; Daniel Donghui Li, the Executive VP and CFO of Geely Holding; Dr Nathan Yuning, the Executive VP of International Business of Geely Holding, and Feng Qing Feng, the Group VP and CTO at HK-listed Geely Auto. DRB-HICOM are represented by Dato' Sri Syed Faisal Albar, who chairs the boards, and Amalanathan Thomas and Shaharul Farez Hassan. Both are part of the senior management team at DRB-HICOM. On the same day, Dr Li Chunrong joins PONSB as CEO. Dr Li is the third foreigner to head Proton. Between 1993 and 1997, the early years of Proton, two different Japanese nominees of their partners, Mitsubishi Motors Corporation, led the carmaker.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The Proton logo in 1983 was a dark blue shield which encompassed a yellow crescent positioned below a yellow fourteen-pointed star, in reference to the Malaysian flag and coat of arms. However, this emblem was only used for Proton cars which were sold domestically. Proton cars exported to other markets received different badge designs.


title: Proton Holdings

text: In 2000, the new Proton logo was used on the Proton Waja which launched in that year. It featured a stylised yellow tiger head on a green roundel embossed upon a dark blue shield, with the Proton name in yellow capital letters in Frutiger font. The standard text representation of the Proton name was also changed from the lowercase italic text ""proton"" to the uppercase "PROTON".


title: Proton Holdings

text: All Proton cars manufactured after 2000 carried the new badge, both in the domestic and export markets. Then its colour was changed into two-tone, silver and black, which was in use since 2008 with the introduction of the second generation Proton Saga.


title: Proton Holdings

text: In June 2016, a new Proton logo was introduced during the launch of 2016 Proton Perdana, which is only a Malayan tiger head with circle surrounding in three-dimensional style. The new logo is now used on all Proton latest models, including the 2017 Proton Iriz facelift and 2017 Proton Exora Enhanced.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Two years after (i.e. September 2019) Proton's global strategic partnership with Zhejiang Geely Holding Group in 2017, Proton Holdings unveiled a brand new logo and ‘Inspiring Connections’ tagline to outline its ambition to be a global, modern automotive brand. Starting with the Proton X70, and excluding the 2019 Exora, the rear badge was replaced by lettering spelling out 'Proton'.


title: Proton Holdings

text: The first Proton, the Saga saloon launched in July 1985 amid positive reception, but poor sales due to Proton's inability to meet the high demand. However, Proton later captured a 47% Malaysian market share in the following year, with 24,148 cars sold. The company's market share later grew to 65% in 1987; 85% in the "Under 1,600cc segment". Proton maintained a majority market share in the following years, which peaked in 1993 at 74% with over 94,100 units sold. Car sales in Malaysia plunged from 404,000 units in 1997 to 163,851 in 1998 due to the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Proton's revenue and profits were severely affected, but a majority market share was still maintained into the early 2000s.


title: Proton Holdings

text: In the mid-2000s, Proton's revenues and sales declined sharply. In 2006, Proton's market share was 32%, down from 40% in 2005. Proton lost its majority domestic market share for the first time in 20 years to Perodua, the second Malaysian car manufacturer. Factors which contributed to the fall of Proton included the revision of the National Automotive Policy (NAP), Proton's newer indigenously designed models (i.e., the Proton Waja, Gen-2 and Savvy) which were poorly designed and manufactured compared to the former Mitsubishi-based models and stronger competitors, specifically Perodua with their best-selling Myvi which launched in 2005. Proton's total sales volume and its market share failed to recover to its pre-2002 figures and Perodua remained the domestic market leader from 2006 onwards.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Sales of Proton cars grew at a stable rate in the latter half of the 2000s and in the early 2010s. The company briefly regained the top-spot from Perodua in June 2009, after the introduction of the Proton Exora MPV. Proton also matched Perodua's market share in the first quarter of 2011. Factors which contributed to the rise of Proton were well-designed cars which catered to the needs of the domestic market (i.e., the Proton Persona, second generation Saga and Exora) in addition to better management of the company under the then managing director, Syed Zainal Abidin. However, despite the improvements made between 2007 and 2012 in addition to improved overall sales, Proton's Malaysian market share continued to decrease. In 2011, the company had a 26.4% (158,657 units) share which plummeted further to 22.5% (141,121 units) in 2012. In comparison, Perodua retained a majority market share of 30.1% (189,137 units) in 2012, with Toyota maintaining its third place at a 16.8% share with 105,151 units sold.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton's decline in market share stabilised in 2013. In the first half of that year, Proton sold 64,782 cars, representing 20.7% of the market share, a decline of 1.8% over its full-year 2012 share. However, by the end of 2013, Proton had managed to raise its market share to 21.2% with a total of 138,753 units sold. Nonetheless, Proton's market share has still declined by an overall 1.3% between 2012 and 2013. In July 2013, Proton sold around 16,600 cars, which accounted for 25% in market share during that specific month, the company's highest ever in 2013. Perodua on the other hand sold around 19,200 or 2,600 more cars than Proton in July 2013. The rise in Proton's sales were attributed to the launch of the Proton Saga SV, a cheaper variant of the second best-selling car in Malaysia.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Another factor which continues to play a significant role in the sales of Proton cars is the National Automotive Policy (NAP), enforced by the Malaysian government in the interests of Proton, Perodua, Naza and foreign brands with manufacturing plants in Malaysia. Under the NAP, imported vehicles are subjected to varying degrees of import and excise duties depending on the vehicle's origin of manufacture and engine displacement, with excise duty imposed at 60 to 105 percent being the highest component in the duty structure. Vehicles imported from members of the Association of South East Asian Nations, such as Thailand and Indonesia, are subject to the least import duties, whereas those from Europe suffer the worst. However, imported hybrid vehicles and cars purchased in duty-free Langkawi are exempted from the import and excise duties. The NAP ensures the survival of Proton and other Malaysian-made vehicles under a biased playing field in the Malaysian market. Nonetheless, the import duties of the NAP have been progressively revised and reduced in line with the eventual liberation of the market, but excise duties, the larger component of tariffs, continues to be high and opaquely applied, with non-tariff barriers effectively reducing the rate for Malaysian made vehicles.


title: Proton Holdings

text: In March 2013, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (Malaysia) announced that vehicles manufactured in Australia and Japan will face a gradual reduction of import duties in stages to zero by 2016. Proton however responded positively to the announcement, citing their recent positive developments such as the 5-star ANCAP safety recognition of the Proton Prevé as part of its commitment to progress.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton relies primarily on its domestic market for the majority of its sales and revenues. Nonetheless, small volumes of Proton cars are also exported to various other countries in Asia, in addition to the United Kingdom and Australia. The company held a far larger global sales network in the 1990s, spanning all six continents and over 70 countries, but intends to regain a global foothold with 500,000 annual sales by 2018.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 24 January 2020, Proton announced that their goal is to export 4,000 vehicles by the end of the year or export 6,000 vehicles if they were offered government incentives.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton first ventured into export markets in December 1986, a year and a half after the launch of the company's first car, the Saga. It was only sold in right-hand drive markets like New Zealand, the United Kingdom and Singapore because left-hand drive variants were not produced. Proton attempted to enter the American market in November 1988, but failed to meet strict US automotive regulations. However, the Proton Wira, which launched in 1993 became the company's first car to be produced in both left and right-hand drive configurations, paving the way for Proton's entry into Continental Europe in October 1994 and other markets in the Middle East and Latin America. The company's global sales network peaked between 1994 and the early 2000s, but has since dwindled to around 25 countries as of the 2010s. Proton has commissioned CKD plants in Iran, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, and China.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton began importing cars to the right-hand drive UK market from March 1989, and reached its 12-month sales target of 5,000 cars after just six months. The Proton brand was initially a huge success in the UK, but sales were declining sharply by 2010 and the brand was withdrawn in 2014.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton's presence in Singapore was handled by Cycle & Carriage from 1989 to September 2002 due to failures to make a turn around. It made a comeback in 2003 with Proton establishing a direct branch.


title: Proton Holdings

text: In the Philippines, Proton was formerly represented by Proton Pilipinas Corp from 1992 with an assembly plant in Alaminos, Pangasinan that manufactured the Proton Wira.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton exported 164,153 cars between December 1986 and December 1997. The United Kingdom is by far the company's most successful export market in terms of cumulative sales volume, and at one point Proton set the record for "Fastest Selling Make of New Car Ever to Enter the United Kingdom". In 1992, the Saga was ranked among the Top 20 best-selling cars in the UK, outselling its primary competitors from Hyundai and SEAT. 100,000 Protons were sold in the UK by 1997.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Additionally, a 1999 survey by the United Kingdom Consumers' Association ranked Proton as among the most reliable and recommended in Britain. The response from 27,000 members of the association revealed that Proton was ranked third in terms of fewer breakdowns, faults and other mechanical problems, placing Proton behind Honda and Mazda, and ahead of Toyota and Ford. Furthermore, 80% of the surveyed Consumers' Association members said they would recommend Proton cars to friends and family, compared to 90% for Subaru, 79% for Toyota, 78% for Honda and Mitsubishi, 63% for Hyundai and 47% for Rover respectively. The 1999 award is Proton's second consecutive, having received similar appraisal in 1998.


title: Proton Holdings

text: However, sales in the UK have since collapsed, with just 208 Protons sold in 2012. Proton cars were once popular in Singapore, at one time the company's second-largest export destination despite its relatively small market size. Sales were also modest in Germany and Belgium during the late 90s, prior to Proton's withdrawal from Continental Europe. Kuwait was once a top Middle Eastern export destination for Proton cars in the late 90s and early 2000s, with an average market share of 8% or 1,000 units sold each year, ten times greater than any other Gulf Cooperation Council state. The Kuwaiti dealer, Bahrah Trading Company had focused on the niche fleet market, selling Proton Wiras to fast food delivery services and taxi operators.


title: Proton Holdings

text: By the first half of the 2010s, the Chinese market had become the largest contributor to Proton's export revenues. Although Proton cars sold in China carried different names and badges under the local Youngman EuropeStar brand, Proton nonetheless received royalties for the use of their platforms and Campro engines. Proton's six-year contract with Youngman expired in 2012, but the Zhejiang-based company continued to unofficially produce Proton's cars and engines up until early 2015. In February 2015, Proton announced that they would revive their joint venture with Fujian-based Goldstar, and would not renew their contract with Youngman.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton cars were also exported to several countries in Latin America, most notably Chile. Exports to Chile commenced in 1994, and almost 3,000 Protons were sold prior to the company's departure in 1998. However, Proton later expressed intentions of returning to Chile following the ratification of the Malaysia-Chile Free Trade Agreement in 2012. In July 2015, Proton signed a distributor agreement with Andes Motor, and the first official shipment of 50 left-hand drive Prevé units commenced on 1 March 2016. The Chilean launch of the Proton Prevé took place in May 2016, and formally marked Proton's return to Chile after an 18-year absence.


title: Proton Holdings

text: Proton announced that they closed Proton Motor Pars, established in August 2011, since it was dormant and no longer in the company's interest to revive it in any way.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On July 12, 2018, Proton resumes exports to the Middle East beginning with 440 units of Proton Gen•2 and 15 units of first-generation Proton Persona in Jordan to be distributed to Iraq as well as neighboring countries.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 21 March 2019, Proton has announced that a plant will be built in Pakistan in collaboration with Alhaj Automotive. Proton has already booked cbu versions of Proton X70 in Pakistan. The orders for ckd versions of X70 are also being booked by Proton in Pakistan which are expected to be delivered in Q3 of 2021 after the completion of local assembly plant. Proton Saga is also expected to be launched in Pakistan in January 2021.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 21 August 2020, it was announced that the Proton Saga will be exported to Kenya, most built under CKDs shipped to Simba Corp.


title: Proton Holdings

text: It was announced on 13 November 2020 that Proton vehicles will be sold in Nepal by Jagadamba Mortors. The company will formally launch retail operations by January 2021.


title: Proton Holdings

text: On 28 April 2022, an agreement was signed for Proton to re-enter the South African auto market. On 31 May 2022, Proton announced shipments of Proton X50s, X70s and Sagas in an effort to resume a presence in South Africa with CMH Group as the official distributor. In 2015, Proton left South Africa due to bad market conditions.