title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the following match on 4 October, the last before the international break, a Bruno Fernandes penalty gave United an early lead at home to Tottenham Hotspur, who were led by former United manager José Mourinho; however, Spurs overturned the deficit thanks to Tanguy Ndombele and Son Heung-min. After United forward Anthony Martial was sent off for slapping Erik Lamela in the face, Harry Kane scored a brace, Son added a second goal and Serge Aurier also scored to give Tottenham a 6–1 win. It was Manchester United's joint-biggest defeat in the Premier League, matching the scoreline from the Manchester derby in 2011, as well as the heaviest defeat under either Ole Gunnar Solskjær as manager or Ed Woodward as executive vice-chairman. The four goals United conceded in the first half was the most they had conceded at home in a single half since November 1957, also against Tottenham. United returned from the international break with a trip to Newcastle United on 17 October, and went behind early on to a Luke Shaw own goal. After Harry Maguire equalised with a header midway through the first half, Fernandes had a penalty saved by Newcastle goalkeeper Karl Darlow in the second, the first he had failed to score since joining the club in February. He eventually scored in the 86th minute, followed by goals from Aaron Wan-Bissaka in the 90th – the first of his senior career – and Rashford in the sixth minute of added time. On 24 October, United were held to a goalless draw by Chelsea. The result meant the club had failed to win any of their first three home league games for the first time since 1972–73; however, the result also extended United's unbeaten league record against Chelsea to six matches, with the most recent defeat coming in November 2017, while Chelsea had not won a league match at Old Trafford since the 2012–13 season.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: On 1 November, United played rival Arsenal at home. Paul Pogba's foul inside the box led to Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang's winning penalty as Arsenal won a league match at Old Trafford for the first time since 17 September 2006. Before the international break, United travelled to Everton. The visitors won 3–1; Fernandes scored his first brace of the season before Edinson Cavani sealed the victory deep into the added time with his first United goal. Two weeks later, United returned to action at home against West Bromwich Albion. A retaken penalty from Fernandes – given after Albion's goalkeeper, former United shot stopper Sam Johnstone stepped out of the line before saving the first – secured United's maiden home league win of the season. On 29 November, United visited Southampton. Trailed 2–0 at half-time by goals from Jan Bednarek and James Ward-Prowse, United came back to win 3–2 via Fernandes and a brace from Cavani. Goalkeeper Dean Henderson made his league debut for the club, coming on at the interval for the injured De Gea. The win made United the first side in Premier League history to win four consecutive away games despite trailing in everyone of them, and also made United won eight consecutive top-flight away matches for the first time in their history.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: On 5 December, United played West Ham United at the London Stadium. Henderson, on his first league start for the club, conceded to Tomáš Souček in the first half. In the second half, the visitors produced yet another comeback to win 3–1; Pogba and Mason Greenwood scored their first league goals of the season, before Rashford sealed the club's ninth straight away victory in the league. The next week, United were held 0–0 at home by derby rivals Manchester City; this was the first derby played at Old Trafford to end goalless since October 2015, and it was United's third consecutive clean sheet against City in all competitions, the longest since a run of four – all in the league – between 1994 and 1995. On 17 December, United managed yet another away comeback in a 3–2 win at Sheffield United, extending the club record to 10 consecutive league away wins. Rashford's two goals and Martial's first league goal of the season were enough to cancel out David McGoldrick's brace and keep Sheffield United winless after their first 13 league games of the season. On 20 December, United went rampant as they beat their "Roses" rival Leeds United 6–2 at home. Meeting for the first time in the league since 2004, McTominay opened the game with a brace inside three minutes, becoming the first player to do so in the league's history. Fernandes scored in the 20th minute before Victor Lindelöf scored his first goal of the season to put United 4–0 up after just 37 minutes. Liam Cooper pulled one back for the visitors before half time. Daniel James scored his first league goal of the season midway through the second half, before Fernandes scored a penalty in the 70th minute. Three minutes later, Stuart Dallas scored Leeds' second to close the match. This was the first league match in which United scored more than five goals since the 8–2 win over Arsenal in August 2011. United opened the Boxing Day matchday with a visit to Leicester City. Leading twice via Rashford and Fernandes with Harvey Barnes' goal sandwiched in between, United substitute defender Axel Tuanzebe scored an own goal after diverting Jamie Vardy's attempt to make the score 2–2. The club ended 2020 with a home game against Wolverhampton Wanderers. Rashford scored at 92:51 – United's latest winning goal since Michael Owen on 20 September 2009 (95:27) – to make United end the year in second place.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: On New Year's Day, United hosted Aston Villa in the second game of the matchweek. Martial scored first after 40 minutes before Bertrand Traoré equalises in the 58th minute. Fernandes sealed the win via a penalty three minutes later after referee Michael Oliver judged that Pogba had been fouled by Douglas Luiz inside the box. On 12 January, United visited Burnley for the game in hand from the first matchday. Pogba volleyed in the only goal of the game to send United top of the table with a three-point lead over defending champions and arch rivals Liverpool, whom they would meet in the following match. Both teams would only fire blanks as the said match ended goalless, keeping United top while Liverpool were down to fourth below Manchester City and Leicester City upon both sides' win in this matchday. Three days later, they played Fulham away. Ademola Lookman scored after five minutes to give Fulham the early lead. Cavani equalised 16 minutes later after a mistake by Fulham goalkeeper Alphonse Areola. United completed another comeback in the 65th minute by Pogba's long-range curling effort, sending United back to the top of the table after starting the match in third. On 27 January, United played the first return leg of the league season as they hosted bottom-placed Sheffield United. The visitors' Kean Bryan opened the scoring after 23 minutes to end the first half 1–0 up. Maguire equalised in 64th minute only to be cancelled by Oliver Burke as Manchester United were defeated in the league for the first time in 14 matches while Sheffield United earned only their second win of the league season. United ended January with a visit to rivals Arsenal. The match ended goalless as the visitors, still searching for a first league win in this fixture since April 2018, including all five league meetings under Solskjær, managed to deny Mikel Arteta from becoming the first Arsenal manager to win his first three matches against United.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United began February with a 9–0 victory over Southampton that equalled their own record for the biggest home win in the Premier League, set in 1995, while the visitors equalled their worst Premier League defeat, set in 2019. Eight different players scored, including an own goal by Jan Bednarek and the record-equalling goal scored by James. Martial, who came on at half-time, was the only player to score more than once. Four days later, United twice lost the lead in a 3–3 draw against Everton. Cavani and Fernandes scored past Everton's second-choice keeper Robin Olsen in the first half, only for Abdoulaye Doucouré and James Rodríguez to level the scores three minutes apart from each other. McTominay restored the lead only for Dominic Calvert-Lewin to equalise again in the final minute of stoppage time following Tuanzebe's foul on Everton substitute and fellow United Academy graduate Joshua King. On Valentine's Day, United visited West Bromwich Albion. Albion's loanee forward Mbaye Diagne rubbed Lindelöf's face off upon scoring inside 83 seconds. Fernandes equalised with a volley in the 44th minute following a cross from Shaw. In the second half, Maguire had a penalty cancelled by referee Craig Pawson after a stumble with Semi Ajayi was judged by VAR Jonathan Moss as not a foul. Facing Newcastle United the next Sunday, Rashford opened the scoring before Allan Saint-Maximin made the equaliser six minutes later. In the second half, Fernandes assisted James' goal and scored a penalty himself to secure a 3–1 win. Forward Shola Shoretire made his first team debut as he came on for Rashford. United ended the month with a 28 February visit to Chelsea. A presumed handball from Callum Hudson-Odoi resulted in a penalty cancelled by the VAR as the fixture ended goalless again, extending United's unbeaten league record against Chelsea to seven matches.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: March began with a visit to Selhurst Park, where United had not been beaten in the previous 11 fixtures and won the last four. The former record was extended but not so for the latter; United failed to get revenge on Crystal Palace for their home defeat in September, as the match ended in a 0–0 draw. On 7 March, United visited derby rivals' home and in-form league leaders Manchester City. Fernandes scored a penalty in the second minute after Gabriel Jesus' foul on Martial in the box. Shaw scored United's second goal five minutes into the second half – his first league goal since August 2018 – as United won for the third successive time at the City of Manchester Stadium and tighten the gap to 11 points; this was City's first defeat in 20 league matches, breaking their 21-match winning run across all competitions. The next week, United hosted West Ham. An own goal by Craig Dawson following a shot from McTominay was the only goal scored as the hosts returned to the second place.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Following the international break at the end of March, United returned to action with a home game against Brighton. Despite starting brightly, it was the visitors who took the lead through former United striker Danny Welbeck in the 13th minute. Rashford levelled the scores just after the hour mark, before Greenwood sealed the win with a header seven minutes from the end, the eighth time in 2020–21 that they have won after being in a losing position. It was only the second time in the Premier League that United had come from behind to do the double over an opponent in a single season; the other being was against Southampton in 2012–13. On 11 April, United travelled to London to play Tottenham. Cavani seemingly scored an opener for the visiting side, but the goal was ruled out after it was seen by VAR that McTominay had hit Son Heung-min in the face and the goal was ruled out. Just moments later, Son scored the actual opener and gave the home side the lead. Twelve minutes into the second half, Fred scored his first league goal for United since September 2018 to equalise the score. Cavani then scored for real in the 79th minute, giving United the lead. In the final minute of stoppage time, Greenwood scored to secure a win for United and extended their unbeaten away run in the league to 23 matches. In the next game against Burnley, Greenwood scored two goals which sandwiched James Tarkowski's equaliser before Cavani sealed the 3–1 win in the added time. The final league match of April saw Manchester United's first visit to "Roses" rival Leeds' Elland Road since October 2003, which ended goalless.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The 2 May match against rivals Liverpool was postponed due to anti-Glazer protests at Old Trafford. The match at Aston Villa on 9 May saw United trailed by Traoré's first half goal. In the second half, Fernandes scored a penalty kick following Douglas Luiz's foul on Pogba, before Greenwood and Cavani completed their 10th Premier League comeback of the season, the most for any club in a single season. Two days later, United hosted Leicester by fielding a much-changed starting line-up. Left-back Luke Thomas opened the scoring after 10 minutes, this was his first goal for Leicester's first team. Greenwood equalised five minutes later, but Leicester got their winning goal via a thumping header from center-back Çağlar Söyüncü, his first goal since November 2019 as local rivals Manchester City were confirmed Premier League champions for the fifth time, all within the past 10 years. This was United's first league defeat since another 1–2 against Sheffield United in January 2021. This was also United's first home defeat to Leicester since 31 January 1998, and the first successive defeat to Leicester in all competitions since 1973. Two days later, United finally hosted Liverpool. Fernandes opened the scoring after 10 minutes and lasted 24 minutes before Diogo Jota's equaliser. Roberto Firmino scored twice to bring the visitors 3–1 up. Rashford pulled one back but Mohamed Salah sealed the game to send Liverpool to fifth. This was United's first home league defeat to Liverpool since the 0–3 in March 2014, with Firmino the first Liverpool player to score a league brace at Old Trafford since Steven Gerrard, who did it in the aforementioned match. On the final home match of the season, United played the already-relegated Fulham. Cavani's shot from 40 yards opened the scoring chart, but Joe Bryan equalised later on. Leicester's defeat to Chelsea later that night secured United's second place finish. On the final matchday on 23 May, in the away match against Wolverhampton, Anthony Elanga headed home his first senior goal before equaliser by Nélson Semedo. Romain Saïss' foul on Van de Beek inside the box resulted in a penalty for United executed by Juan Mata, who slotted the ball in to secure a 2–1 win in Wolves' manager Nuno Espírito Santo's final match in charge of the club. United thus became only the fourth side to remain unbeaten away from home in an entire English top-flight campaign, stretching from the first season in 1888–89.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: As a Premier League side, Manchester United entered the 2020–21 FA Cup in the Third Round Proper along with the other Premier League and Championship clubs. For this round, they were drawn at home against Championship side Watford. United took the lead via stand-in captain Scott McTominay inside five minutes, it was the only goal of the game as the hosts won 1–0. The draw for the fourth and fifth round were made on 11 January, conducted by Peter Crouch. They were drawn against arch rivals Liverpool. Liverpool took the lead through Mohamed Salah after 18 minutes, before Mason Greenwood's equaliser eight minutes later. Marcus Rashford scored the second, only to be equalised by Salah. Substitute Bruno Fernandes then scored the match-deciding free kick 12 minutes from time as United won 3–2, earning their first victory against Liverpool in all competitions since March 2018. In the fifth round, they played host to West Ham United. McTominay scored seven minutes into extra time to send the home side into the quarter-finals for the seventh successive season, equalling the club's longest home winning run in the competition (nine), set between 1908 and 1912. The match was also the first in English football to have a concussion substitute, as West Ham's Issa Diop did not return for the second 45 minute-half following his collision with Anthony Martial. In the quarter-finals, United were defeated 3–1 by Leicester City, the club's first domestic away loss since January 2020. Kelechi Iheanacho struck first before being equalised by Greenwood. In the second half, goals from Youri Tielemans and Iheanacho sealed Leicester's first FA Cup semis in 39 years and the first win against United in any competition since the 5–3 win in the league in September 2014.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Manchester United received a bye to the third round of the 2020–21 EFL Cup, having finished third in the 2019–20 Premier League and thus qualified for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League. The draw took place on 6 September 2020 and paired United with the winners of the second round tie between Reading and Luton Town, both of the Championship. Luton won that match 1–0 and hosted the third round match on 22 September. United took the lead just before half-time through a Juan Mata penalty kick. In the second half, goalkeeper Dean Henderson, making his first-team debut, denied Luton an equaliser with a one-handed save from Tom Lockyer, before substitutes Marcus Rashford and Mason Greenwood both scored in the last couple of minutes to give United a 3–0 win.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the fourth round, the club was drawn against the winners of the match between Preston North End and Brighton & Hove Albion, which Brighton won 2–0. The match came just four days after the two sides had met in the league, and saw Scott McTominay and Paul Pogba score their first goals of the season, while Juan Mata was again on the scoresheet to give United a 3–0 win.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the quarter-finals, United were again given an away draw, this time against fellow Premier League club Everton. Playing before 2,000 spectators, United won 2–0 via late goals from Edinson Cavani and Anthony Martial.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the semi-finals, they met derby rivals Manchester City at home. The clubs had met thrice in this round – in 1969–70, 2009–10, and 2019–20; the team progressed from each of these ties would gone on to win the trophy. City, the EFL Cup holders for three consecutive seasons, progressed to the record-equalling fourth final in a row with a 2–0 victory over a defensively poor United, who suffered a fourth consecutive cup competition semi-final exit.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United qualified for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League after finishing third in the 2019–20 Premier League. This was their 23rd UEFA Champions League campaign, more than any English club. The draw for the group stage took place in Geneva, Switzerland on 1 October 2020. The club was drawn in Group H with Paris Saint-Germain, RB Leipzig and Champions League group stage debutants İstanbul Başakşehir. This was United's first meeting with Paris Saint-Germain since the 2018–19 round of 16 tie, which United won on away goals through a stoppage time penalty, while they had never met Leipzig and Başakşehir.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the first group match, United got a 2–1 away win at Paris Saint-Germain; goals from Bruno Fernandes and Marcus Rashford cancelled out Anthony Martial's own goal. United then beat RB Leipzig 5–0 in the second match a week later; Mason Greenwood opened the scoring in the first half, Rashford scored his first senior hat-trick after coming on as a second-half substitute, and Martial also scored a late penalty. Rashford's hat-trick was the first scored by a United substitute since current manager Solskjær did so against Nottingham Forest in 1999. It was United's eighth hat-trick in the Champions League, scored by six different players. It was the club's first in the competition since Wayne Rooney against Club Brugge in the 2015–16 play-off round, their first in the Champions League proper since Robin van Persie against Olympiacos in the 2013–14 knockout phase, and the first in the competition's group stage since Michael Owen against Wolfsburg in the 2009–10 season. Spanning 16 minutes, it was also the quickest of the five hat-tricks scored by substitutes in the competition's history.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the third match, United lost 2–1 away to İstanbul Başakşehir, who had former United defender Rafael in their team. Former Chelsea forward Demba Ba gave Başakşehir their first ever goal in the Champions League on the way to claiming their first point – and first win – in the competition. The result ended United's club record 10-match winning streak on the road in all competitions, stretching back to a 1–1 draw with Tottenham in June 2020; it was also their first away defeat in all competitions in 19 matches, stretching back to January 2020.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the return leg 20 days later, United got their revenge against Başakşehir by winning 4–1. Fernandes scored twice inside 20 minutes before Rashford slotted home a penalty to bring United led by three goals at half-time in a Champions League game for the first time since the 7–1 win over Roma in April 2007. A direct free-kick goal from Deniz Türüç – the first to be scored in the Champions League against United since Franck Ribéry in March 2010 – was cancelled out by Daniel James, who scored at home for the first time since August 2019.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: On 2 December, United were defeated 3–1 by Paris Saint-Germain, with a brace from Neymar and a goal from Marquinhos cancelled Rashford's, who scored for the third consecutive match against the Parisians. The next week, Leipzig also got their revenge by winning 3–2 with goals from Angeliño, Amadou Haidara, and Justin Kluivert; Angeliño's goal at 1:49 was the quickest Champions League goal scored against United since Alan's for Sporting Braga in October 2012 (1:27). United scored two late goals via Fernandes and Ibrahima Konaté's own goal but their Champions League time was up before they could get the equaliser needed to progress. This was the first time since both legs of the quarter-final in 2002–03 that they conceded three or more goals in consecutive Champions League games while Solskjær became the first manager of an English club to lose at least six times in his first 10 Champions League games, having lost in 2018–19 against Paris Saint-Germain at home in the round of 16 and both of the season's quarter-final matches versus Barcelona.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: As one of the third-place finishers in the Champions League group stage, United entered the UEFA Europa League knockout phase. This was their fifth Europa League campaign, having also entered in the knockout phase in 2011–12 and 2015–16 as well as starting at the group stage during their 2016–17 winning campaign and 2019–20.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the round of 32, United were drawn against Spanish club Real Sociedad, whom they last met in the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League group stage. The first leg was played at Juventus Stadium in Turin due to travel restrictions relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. Former United winger Adnan Januzaj, playing against the club for the first time since he was sold to Sociedad in July 2017, had the first chance of the tie, but United went on to win 4–0 with two goals from Bruno Fernandes and one each from Marcus Rashford and Daniel James. Winger Amad Diallo made his first-team debut for the club when he came on for Mason Greenwood. In the return leg at Old Trafford, Mikel Oyarzabal's missed penalty and a goal from Axel Tuanzebe that was disallowed for a foul by Lindelöf meant the match finished as a goalless draw. Forward Shola Shoretire made his European debut when he came on for Greenwood and became the youngest United player to appear in a European fixture, beating the record of Norman Whiteside by 108 days.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the round of 16, United were drawn against Italian club and fellow former UEFA Champions League winner Milan, whom they last met in the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League knockout phase. This would be their first meeting outside the European Cup/UEFA Champions League. In the first leg, Amad Diallo scored first – his maiden goal for United – only to be equalised by Simon Kjær in the stoppage time. In the second leg, substitute Paul Pogba, playing his first game since 6 February 2021, scored the only goal as United progressed to the quarter-finals with a 2–1 aggregate win. Former United striker Zlatan Ibrahimović played against the club for the first time since leaving for LA Galaxy in March 2018 and nearly equalised via a header saved by goalkeeper Dean Henderson.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the quarter-finals, United were drawn against another Spanish club in the form of Granada, whom they never played against before. This was the first season in their history that United faced more than one Spanish opposition. United won the first leg 2–0 with goals scored by Rashford and Fernandes, the club's first ever consecutive European away win against Spanish sides. Rashford became the first Englishman to score eight European competition proper goals in a single season since Bobby Charlton in 1964–65 season. In the return leg, a goal from Edinson Cavani and an own goal from Jesús Vallejo ensured United's passage to the semi-finals.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the semi-finals, United met Italian club Roma, whom they last met in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League knockout stage. After scoring first via Fernandes, United fell behind to goals from Lorenzo Pellegrini's penalty and former Manchester City forward Edin Džeko. In the second half, United scored five without reply; Fernandes scored his second via a penalty, Cavani scored a brace, with Pogba and Greenwood scoring one each to secure a first-leg win of 6–2. This made United the first side to score six goals in a major European competition's semi-final since Real Madrid won 6–0 against Zürich in 1964. The second leg was a tight one; United scored first through Cavani only to be reversed by Džeko and Bryan Cristante. Cavani scored again, but Nicola Zalewski's goal, which later would reassigned as Alex Telles' own goal, sent Roma to their first victory over United since 2007. However, United still went through with an 8–5 aggregate win as manager Solskjær progressed to his first final as United's manager, the club's first European final since the victorious 2017 UEFA Europa League Final.


title: 2020–21 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the final, they met first-time finalists Villarreal, United's third Spanish opposition this season. The clubs previously met four times, in the 2005–06 and 2008–09 Champions League group stages. All ended in goalless draws. The final was held on 26 May 2021, on the 22nd anniversary of the now-manager Ole Gunnar Solskjær's winning goal in the UEFA Champions League final and also would have been the 112th birthday of former manager Matt Busby, who won the club its first European title in 1968. This match ended in a 1–1 draw after 120 minutes; Gerard Moreno stroke first before Cavani equalised in 55th minute. David de Gea became the last kicker in the penalties and the only one failed to score, as his was saved by Gerónimo Rulli, handing Villarreal their first ever major trophy and their head coach Unai Emery, formerly of Arsenal, his record fourth UEFA Cup/Europa League title, surpassing three-time winner Giovanni Trapattoni. Some of the team were later criticised on social media for removing their silver medal on field, or even refused to wear one. Those who removed their medals were Harry Maguire, Luke Shaw, Rashford, Axel Tuanzebe, Pogba, Brandon Williams, Victor Lindelöf, Scott McTominay, Lee Grant, Aaron Wan-Bissaka, Diallo, Eric Bailly and Solskjær, while Fernandes and Greenwood simply received the medal with their hand.


title: Natural rights and legal rights

text: Natural law first appeared in ancient Greek philosophy, and was referred to by Roman philosopher Cicero. It was subsequently alluded to in the Bible, and then developed in the Middle Ages by Catholic philosophers such as Albert the Great and his pupil Thomas Aquinas. During the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of natural laws was used to challenge the divine right of kings, and became an alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law, and government – and thus legal rights – in the form of classical republicanism. Conversely, the concept of natural rights is used by others to challenge the legitimacy of all such establishments.


title: Natural rights and legal rights

text: The idea of human rights derives from theories of natural rights. Those rejecting a distinction between human rights and natural rights view human rights as the successor that is not dependent on natural law, natural theology, or Christian theological doctrine. Natural rights, in particular, are considered beyond the authority of any government or international body to dismiss. The 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights is an important legal instrument enshrining one conception of natural rights into international soft law. Natural rights were traditionally viewed as exclusively negative rights, whereas human rights also comprise positive rights. Even on a natural rights conception of human rights, the two terms may not be synonymous.


title: Natural rights and legal rights

text: The concept of natural rights is not universally accepted, partly due to its religious associations and perceived incoherence. Some philosophers argue that natural rights do not exist and that legal rights are the only rights; for instance, Jeremy Bentham called natural rights "simple nonsense".


title: Natural rights and legal rights

text: The idea that certain rights are natural or inalienable also has a history dating back at least to the Stoics of late Antiquity, through Catholic law of the early Middle Ages, and descending through the Protestant Reformation and the Age of Enlightenment to today.


title: Natural rights and legal rights

text: The existence of natural rights has been asserted by different individuals on different premises, such as "a priori" philosophical reasoning or religious principles. For example, Immanuel Kant claimed to derive natural rights through reason alone. The United States Declaration of Independence, meanwhile, is based upon the "self-evident" truth that "all men are ... endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights".


title: Natural rights and legal rights

text: Likewise, different philosophers and statesmen have designed different lists of what they believe to be natural rights; almost all include the right to life and liberty as the two highest priorities. H. L. A. Hart argued that if there are any rights at all, there must be the right to liberty, for all the others would depend upon this. T. H. Green argued that "if there are such things as rights at all, then, there must be a right to life and liberty, or, to put it more properly to free life."<ref>Green, T.H. (1883). "Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation", p. 114.


title: Bulldozer

text: A bulldozer or dozer (also called a crawler) is a large, motorized machine equipped with a metal blade to the front for pushing material: soil, sand, snow, rubble, or rock during construction work. It travels most commonly on continuous tracks, though specialized models riding on large are also produced.


title: Bulldozer

text: Its most popular accessory is a ripper, a large hook-like device mounted singly or in multiples in the rear to loosen dense materials.


title: Bulldozer

text: Bulldozers are used heavily in large and small scale construction, road building, minings and quarrying, on farms, in heavy industry factories, and in military applications in both peace and wartime.


title: Bulldozer

text: The word "bulldozer" refers only to a motorized unit fitted with a blade designed for pushing. The word is sometimes used inaccurately for other heavy equipment such as a front-end loader designed for carrying rather than pushing material.


title: Bulldozer

text: Typically, bulldozers are large and powerful tracked heavy equipment. The tracks give them excellent traction and mobility through very rough terrain. Wide tracks also help distribute the vehicle's weight over a large area (decreasing ground pressure), thus preventing it from sinking in sandy or muddy ground. Extra-wide tracks are known as swamp tracks or low ground pressure (lgp) tracks. Bulldozers have transmission systems designed to take advantage of the track system and provide excellent tractive force.


title: Bulldozer

text: These traits allow bulldozers to excel in road building, construction, mining, forestry, land clearing, infrastructure development, and any other projects requiring highly mobile, powerful, and stable earth-moving equipment.


title: Bulldozer

text: A variant is the all-wheel-drive wheeled bulldozer, which generally has four large rubber-tired wheels, hydraulically operated articulated steering, and a hydraulically actuated blade mounted forward of the articulation joint.


title: Bulldozer

text: Blades can be fitted straight across the frame, or at an angle. All can be lifted, some, with additional hydraulic cylinders, can be tilted to vary the angle up to one side.


title: Bulldozer

text: Sometimes, a bulldozer is used to push or pull another piece of earth-moving equipment known as a "scraper" to increase productivity. The towed Fresno Scraper, invented in 1883 by James Porteous, was the first design to enable this to be done economically, removing the soil from an area being cut and depositing where needed as fill. Dozer blades with a reinforced center section for pushing are known as "bull blades".


title: Bulldozer

text: Dozer blades are added to combat engineering vehicles and other military equipment, such as artillery tractors such as the Type 73 or M8 Tractor, to clear battlefield obstacles and prepare firing positions. Dozer blades may be mounted on main battle tanks to clear antitank obstacles or mines, and dig improvised shelters.


title: Bulldozer

text: A ripper is a long, claw-like shank that may be mounted singly or in multiples on the rear of a bulldozer to loosen hard and impacted materials. Usually a single shank is preferred for heavy ripping. The ripper is fitted with a replaceable tungsten steel alloy tip, referred to as a boot.


title: Bulldozer

text: Ripping can not only loosen soil (such as podzol hardpan) in agricultural and construction applications but break shaly rock or pavement into easily handled small rubble.


title: Bulldozer

text: A variant of the ripper is the stumpbuster, a single spike protruding horizontally used to split a tree stump.


title: Bulldozer

text: Bulldozers employed for combat-engineering roles are often fitted with armor to protect the driver from firearms and debris, enabling bulldozers to operate in combat zones. The most widely documented use is the Israeli Defence Forces' (IDF) militarized Caterpillar D9, for earth moving, clearing terrain obstacles, opening routes, and detonating explosive charges. The IDF used armoured bulldozers extensively during Operation Rainbow where they were used to uproot Gaza Strip smuggling tunnels and destroy residential neighbourhoods, water wells and pipes, and agricultural land to expand the military buffer zone along the Philadelphi Route. This use drew criticism against both the use and the suppliers of armoured bulldozers from human-rights organizations such as the EWASH-coalition and Human Rights Watch, the latter of whom urged Caterpillar to cease their sale of bulldozers to the IDF. The use of bulldozers was seen as necessary by Israeli authorities to uproot smuggling tunnels, destroy houses used by Palestinian gunmen, and expand the buffer zone.


title: Bulldozer

text: Some forces' engineer doctrines differentiate between a low-mobility armoured dozer (LMAD) and a high-mobility armoured dozer (HMAD). The LMAD is dependent on a flatbed to move it to its employment site, whereas the HMAD has a more robust engine and drive system designed to give it road mobility with a moderate range and speed. HMADs, however, normally lack the full cross-country mobility characteristics of a dozer blade-equipped tank or armoured personnel carrier.


title: Bulldozer

text: Some bulldozers have been fitted with armor by civilian operators to prevent bystanders or police from interfering with the work performed by the bulldozer, as in the case of strikes or demolition of condemned buildings. This has also been done by civilians with a dispute with the authorities, such as Marvin Heemeyer, who outfitted his Komatsu D355A bulldozer with homemade composite armor to then demolish government buildings.


title: Bulldozer

text: In recent years, innovations in the construction technology have made remote-controlled bulldozers a reality. Now, heavy machinery can be controlled from up to 1,000 feet away. This contributes to the safety of workers on the jobsite, keeping them at a secure distance from potentially dangerous jobs.


title: Bulldozer

text: The advancement and the ability to control the heavy machinery from afar provides workers with the sufficient control over the dozers to get the job done. Though these machines are still in their early stages, many construction companies are using them successfully.


title: Bulldozer

text: The first bulldozers were adapted from Holt farm tractors that were used to plow fields. The versatility of tractors in soft ground for logging and road building contributed to the development of the armored tank in World War I.


title: Bulldozer

text: In 1923, farmer James Cummings and draftsman J. Earl McLeod made the first designs for the bulldozer. A replica is on display at the city park in Morrowville, Kansas, where the two built the first bulldozer. On December 18, 1923, Cummings and McLeod filed U.S. patent #1,522,378 that was later issued on January 6, 1925, for an "Attachment for Tractors."


title: Bulldozer

text: By the 1920s, tracked vehicles became common, particularly the Caterpillar 60. Rubber-tired vehicles came into use in the 1940s. To dig canals, raise earthen dams, and do other earth-moving jobs, these tractors were equipped with a large, thick, metal plate in front. (The blade got its curved shape later). In some early models, the driver sat on top in the open without a cabin. The three main types of bulldozer blades are a U-blade for pushing and carrying soil relatively long distances, a straight blade for "knocking down" and spreading piles of soil, and a brush rake for removing brush and roots. These attachments (home-built or built by small equipment manufacturers of attachments for wheeled and crawler tractors and trucks) appeared by 1929.


title: Bulldozer

text: Widespread acceptance of the bull-grader does not seem to appear before the mid-1930s. The addition of power down-force provided by hydraulic cylinders instead of just the weight of the blade made them the preferred excavation machine for large and small contractors alike by the 1940s, by which time the term "bulldozer" referred to the entire machine and not just the attachment.


title: Bulldozer

text: Over the years, bulldozers got bigger and more powerful in response to the demand for equipment suited for ever larger earthworks. Firms such as Caterpillar, Komatsu, Clark Equipment Co, Case, Euclid, Allis Chalmers, Liebherr, LiuGong, Terex, Fiat-Allis, John Deere, Massey Ferguson, BEML, XGMA, and International Harvester manufactured large, tracked-type earthmoving machines. R.G. LeTourneau and Caterpillar manufactured large, rubber-tired bulldozers.


title: Bulldozer

text: Bulldozers grew more sophisticated as time passed. Improvements include drivetrains analogous to (in automobiles) an automatic transmission instead of a manual transmission, such as the early Euclid C-6 and TC-12 or Model C Tournadozer, blade movement controlled by hydraulic cylinders or electric motors instead of early models' cable winch/brake, and automatic grade control. Hydraulic cylinders enabled the application of down force, more precise manipulation of the blade, and automated controls.


title: Bulldozer

text: In the very snowy winter of 1946–47 in the United Kingdom, in at least one case a remote cut-off village running out of food was supplied by a bulldozer towing a big sled carrying necessary supplies.


title: Bulldozer

text: A more recent innovation is the outfitting of bulldozers with GPS technology, such as manufactured by Topcon Positioning Systems, Inc., Trimble Inc, or Leica Geosystems, for precise grade control and (potentially) "stakeless" construction. As a response to the many, and often varying claims about these systems, the Kellogg Report published in 2010 a detailed comparison of all the manufacturers' systems, evaluating more than 200 features for dozers alone.


title: Bulldozer

text: The best-known maker of bulldozers is Caterpillar. Komatsu, Liebherr, Case, Hitachi, Volvo, and John Deere are present-day competitors. Although these machines began as modified farm tractors, they became the mainstay for big civil construction projects, and found their way into use by military construction units worldwide. The best-known model, the Caterpillar D9, was also used to clear mines and demolish enemy structures.


title: Bulldozer

text: Industry statistics based on 2010 production published by "Off-Highway Research" showed Shantui was the largest producer of bulldozers, making over 10,000 units that year or two in five crawler-type dozers made in the world. The next-largest producer by number of units is Caterpillar Inc., which produced 6,400 units.


title: Bulldozer

text: Komatsu introduced the D575A in 1981, the D757A-2 in 1991, and the D575A-3 in 2002, which the company touts as the biggest bulldozer in the world.


title: Bulldozer

text: These appeared as early as 1929, but were known as "bull grader" blades, and the term "bulldozer blade" did not appear to come into widespread use until the mid-1930s. "Bulldozer" now refers to the whole machine, not just the attachment. In contemporary usage, "bulldozer" is sometimes shortened to "dozer", and the verb "bulldozing" to "dozing", thus making a homophone with the pre-existing verb "dozing".


title: John C. Maxwell

text: John Calvin Maxwell (born February 20, 1947) is an American author, speaker, and pastor who has written many books, primarily focusing on leadership. Titles include "The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership" and "The 21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader". His books have sold millions of copies, with some on the New York Times Best Seller List.


title: John C. Maxwell

text: Maxwell was born in Garden City, Michigan in 1947. An evangelical Christian, he followed his father into the ministry. He completed a bachelor's degree at Circleville Bible College in 1969, a Master of Divinity degree at Azusa Pacific University, and a Doctor of Ministry degree at Fuller Theological Seminary. He currently resides in South Florida with his wife, Margaret. He is an ordained minister in the Wesleyan Church.


title: John C. Maxwell

text: Since the 1970s, Maxwell has led churches in Indiana, Ohio, California, and Florida. After serving as a senior pastor for 14 years, he left Skyline Church in 1995. In 2004 Maxwell returned to congregational ministry at Christ Fellowship in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, where he is currently a teaching pastor. On November 16, 2008, he began serving as a guest pastor at Crystal Cathedral in Orange County, California. His mentor, Robert H. Schuller, had a variety of noted evangelical pastors preach at his megachurch after his son, Robert A. Schuller, resigned as senior pastor in 2008. Maxwell returned to preach at the Crystal Cathedral several times and his messages were shown on the "Hour of Power" television program.


title: John C. Maxwell

text: Maxwell is a leadership expert, speaker, and author. He founded INJOY, Maximum Impact, The John Maxwell Team, ISS and EQUIP. EQUIP is an international leadership development organization working to help leaders, involved with leaders from more than 80 nations. Its mission is "to see effective Christian leaders fulfill the Great Commission in every nation".


title: John C. Maxwell

text: Maxwell speaks annually to "Fortune 500" companies, international government leaders, and organizations as diverse as the United States Military Academy at West Point and the National Football League. A "New York Times", "Wall Street Journal", and "Business Week" best-selling author, he was one of 25 authors named to Amazon.com's 10th Anniversary Hall of Fame. Three of his books, "The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership", "Developing the Leader Within You", and "21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader", have each sold over a million copies.


title: John C. Maxwell

text: In 2007 Maxwell was inducted into Omicron Delta Kappa at Concordia University Irvine. Maxwell has a building named after him and his family at Indiana Wesleyan University, the Maxwell Center for Business and Leadership, as a result of his influence on the Wesleyan Church, the owner of the university. In 2015, he was inducted into the IWU Society of World Changers, where he was honored with an honorary doctorate degree.


title: John C. Maxwell

text: Maxwell was a keynote speaker at National Agents Alliance NAA Leadership Conference several times, most recently in 2010. Maxwell was the keynote speaker for the Symmetry Financial Group's National Conference in February 2018. In 2012 he was awarded the Golden Gavel by Toastmasters International.


title: John C. Maxwell

text: In May 2014, Maxwell was named the No. 1 leadership and management expert in the world by "Inc. Magazine".


title: John C. Maxwell

text: In July 2013, Maxwell's organization trained 24,000 leaders in Guatemala. Several "John Maxwell Team" members took part in the week-long leadership training sessions. In March 2022, Maxwell visited a Christian "Conference for Life and the Family" in Guatemala-City, supported by Guatemala's president, Alejandro Giammattei. During a meeting with employers, he praised Guatemalan Attorney General, Maria Consuelo Porras, calling her "a rockstar" and a "leader of leaders".


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: City Hunter () is a 2011 South Korean television drama based on the Japanese manga series of the same name written and illustrated by Tsukasa Hojo, starring Lee Min-ho, Park Min-young, Lee Joon-hyuk, Kim Sang-joong, Kim Sang-ho, Hwang Sun-hee, Goo Hara, Chun Ho-jin, and Lee Kwang-soo. It premiered on May 25, 2011 on SBS and finished broadcasting on July 28, 2011. This show was successful in Europe and paved way for Lee Min-ho's popularity in Europe.


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: In 1983, the South Korean President Chun Doo-hwan and his delegates are visiting Burma when a bomb planted by North Korean agents explodes, killing some high-ranking officials. This historical event is called the Rangoon bombing (also known as the Rangoon incident). To strike back, five South Korean officials plan a covert operation, codenamed "Operation Cleansweep", to enter North Korea and kill several top members of the North's high command. Lee Jin-Pyo (Kim Sang-joong) and Park Moo-yeol (Park Sang-min), two Presidential Security Service bodyguards and best friends who were present at the bombing, organize a 21-man team for the mission. However, as the team wreaks havoc in Pyongyang, the five officials, by a majority decision of 4 to 1, abort the plan to avoid an international crisis if the mission is discovered. Their major concern is that the United States will withdraw its nuclear protection if the mission is made public. In light of Seoul's official declaration, it will not retaliate.


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: The operation is successful, but as the troops swim out from Nampo to an ROK Navy submarine assigned for their extraction, snipers aboard the submarine open fire on them. An already injured Park sacrifices his life to save Lee. Lee swims back to shore and returns to South Korea, where he finds out that the assault team's service and personal records have been erased.


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: Promising to avenge his fallen comrades, Jin-Pyo kidnaps Mu-yeol's infant son and names him Lee Yoon-sung (Lee Min-ho). He flees to the Golden Triangle to raise the child as his own and trains the boy intensively in combat. Following an attack on a village they live in, Jin-Pyo confesses his long-term plan for revenge to a teenaged Yoon-sung.


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: Seven years later, after successfully finishing his education and attaining a doctorate in the United States at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Yoon-sung returns to South Korea to fulfil his adoptive father's plan for revenge. He enters the Blue House as an IT expert under the National Communication Network Team. Jin-Pyo warns him not to trust anyone and never fall in love, as doing so will put the people around him in danger.


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: While working at the Blue House, Lee meets bodyguard Kim Na-na (Park Min-young). Eventually, Na-na participates in his revenge plan, as they discover that they have the same goal in mind. Problems occur as Jin-Pyo's revenge plot unfolds, especially when Lee defies his surrogate father on several occasions as they try to identify and kill the officials, known as the "Council of Five".


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: Each member of the Council has achieved significant wealth and political influence since 1983 and is engaged in various corruption levels. Jin-Pyo and Yoon-sung's conflict stems primarily from Jin-Pyo's wish to murder each official and Yoon-sung's wish to teach them a lesson and expose their corruption without killing them. As Yoon-sung exposes the officials' corruption, the citizens of Korea sense an unseen force of justice that they dub "City Hunter


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: The series has received positive reviews and was also a commercial success selling out advertising space at a high price of ($420,000) per episode. By the end of its run in July 2011, the series had earned () from television advertising in South Korea.


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: Lee's role netted him Best Actor at the 4th Korea Drama Awards, as well as an endorser for the Hyundai Veloster in China. He would later be recognized by the Seoul Prosecutor's Office as an "Honorable Prosecutor" in a ceremony on January 4, 2012.


title: City Hunter (TV series)

text: In between December 2011 and January 2012, the Asian-American Donor Program partnered with the Transplant Informers blog to run a special raffle for a full DVD boxed set of the series, as part of an awareness campaign for bone-marrow transplants. The promotion was held to recognize the show's authentic depiction of a bone-marrow transplant (when Yoon-sung had to donate some for his mother).


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Queens. It is mainly composed of a large commercial and retail area, though part of the neighborhood is also residential. Jamaica is bordered by Hollis to the east; St. Albans, Springfield Gardens, Rochdale Village to the southeast; South Jamaica to the south; Richmond Hill and South Ozone Park to the west; Briarwood to the northwest; and Kew Gardens Hills, Jamaica Hills, and Jamaica Estates to the north.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica, originally a designation for an area greater than the current neighborhood, was settled under Dutch rule in 1656. It was originally called "" before it took its current name. Subsequently, under English rule Jamaica became the center of the "Town of Jamaica". It was the first county seat of Queens County, holding that title from 1683 to 1788, and was also the first incorporated village on Long Island. When Queens was incorporated into the City of Greater New York in 1898, both the Town of Jamaica and the Village of Jamaica were dissolved, but the neighborhood of Jamaica regained its role as county seat. Today, some locals group Jamaica's surrounding neighborhoods into an unofficial Greater Jamaica area encompassing most or all of the extent of the former town.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica is the location of several government buildings such as Queens Civil Court, the civil branch of the Queens County Supreme Court, the Queens County Family Court and the Joseph P. Addabbo Federal Building, home to the Social Security Administration's Northeastern Program Service Center. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration's Northeast Regional Laboratory as well as the New York District Office are also located in Jamaica. Jamaica Center, the area around Jamaica Avenue, is a major commercial center. The New York Racing Association, based at Aqueduct Racetrack in South Ozone Park, lists its official address as Jamaica (Central Jamaica once housed NYRA's Jamaica Racetrack, now the massive Rochdale Village housing development). John F. Kennedy International Airport and the hotels nearby are also located in Jamaica. The neighborhood is located in Queens Community District 12. It is patrolled by the New York City Police Department's 103rd and 113th Precincts.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The neighborhood was named "Yameco", a corruption of the word "yamecah", meaning "beaver", in the language spoken by the Lenape, the Native Americans who lived in the area at the time of first European contact. The liquid "y" sound of English is spelled with a "j" in Dutch, the language of the first people to write about the area; the English retained this Dutch spelling, but, after repeated reading and speaking of "Jamaica", slowly replaced the liquid sound with the hard "j" of the English pronunciation of the name today. (In the Caribbean, the aboriginal Arawaks named their island "Xaymaca", "land of wood and water", and the "x" spelling in Spanish was in time transformed to the hard "j" of the modern English name, "Jamaica".)


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica Avenue was an ancient trail for tribes from as far away as the Ohio River and the Great Lakes, coming to trade skins and furs for wampum. It was in 1655 that the first settlers paid the Native Americans with two guns, a coat, and some powder and lead, for the land lying between the old trail and "Beaver Pond" (now filled in; what is now Tuckerton Street north of Liberty Avenue runs through the site of the old pond, and Beaver Road was named for its western edge). Dutch Director-General Peter Stuyvesant dubbed the area "" ("rest-town") in granting the 1656 land patent.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The English took over in 1664 and made it part of the county of Yorkshire. In 1683, when the Crown divided the colony of New York into counties, Jamaica became the county seat of Queens County, one of the original counties of New York.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Colonial Jamaica had a band of 56 minutemen who played an active part in the Battle of Long Island, the outcome of which led to the occupation of the New York City area by British troops during most of the American Revolutionary War. Rufus King, a signer of the United States Constitution, relocated here in 1805. He added to a modest 18th-century farmhouse, creating the manor which stands on the site today. King Manor was restored at the turn of the 21st century to its former glory, and houses King Manor Museum.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: By 1776, Jamaica had become a trading post for farmers and their produce. For more than a century, their horse-drawn carts plodded along Jamaica Avenue, then called King's Highway. The Jamaica Post Office opened September 25, 1794, and was the only post office in the present-day Boroughs of Queens or Brooklyn before 1803. Union Hall Academy for boys, and Union Hall Seminary for girls, were chartered in 1787. The Academy eventually attracted students from all over the United States and the West Indies. The public school system was started in 1813 with funds of $125. Jamaica Village, the first village on Long Island, was incorporated in 1814 with its boundaries being from the present-day Van Wyck Expressway (on the west) and Jamaica Avenue (on the north, later Hillside Avenue) to Farmers Boulevard (on the east) and Linden Boulevard (on the south) in what is now St. Albans. By 1834, the Brooklyn and Jamaica Railroad company had completed a line to Jamaica.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: In 1850, the former Kings Highway (now Jamaica Avenue) became the Brooklyn and Jamaica Plank Road, complete with toll gate. In 1866, tracks were laid for a horsecar line, and 20 years later it was electrified, the first in the state. On January 1, 1898, Queens became part of the City of New York, and Jamaica became the county seat.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The present Jamaica station of the Long Island Rail Road was completed in 1913, and the BMT Jamaica Line arrived in 1918, followed by the IND Queens Boulevard Line in 1936 and the IND/BMT Archer Avenue Lines in 1988, the latter of which replaced the eastern portion of the Jamaica Line that was torn down in 1977–85. The 1920s and 1930s saw the building of the Valencia Theatre (now restored by the Tabernacle of Prayer), the "futuristic" Kurtz furniture store and the Roxanne Building. In the 1970s, it became the headquarters for the Islamic Society of North America. King Kullen opened in 1930, and was the first self-service supermarket in the country.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The many foreclosures and the high level of unemployment of the 2000s and early 2010s induced many black people to move from Jamaica to the South, as part of the New Great Migration.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: On October 23, 2014, the neighborhood was the site of a terrorist hatchet attack on two police officers of the New York City Police Department. The police later killed the attacker.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The First Reformed Church, Grace Episcopal Church Complex, Jamaica Chamber of Commerce Building, Jamaica Savings Bank, King Manor, J. Kurtz and Sons Store Building, La Casina, Office of the Register, Prospect Cemetery, St. Monica's Church, Sidewalk Clock at 161-11 Jamaica Avenue, New York, NY, Trans World Airlines Flight Center, and United States Post Office are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Jamaica was 53,751 an increase of 1,902 (3.5%) from the 51,849 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of .


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 3.6% (1,949) Non-Hispanic White, 22.2% (11,946) African American, 0.9% (466) Native American, 24.3% (13,073) Asian, 0.1% (66) Pacific Islander, 5.2% (2,814) from other races, and 4.9% (2,647) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 38.7% (20,790) of the population.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The entirety of Community Board 12, which mainly comprises Jamaica but also includes Hollis, had 232,911 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 80.5 years. This is slightly lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are youth and middle-aged adults: 22% are between the ages of between 0–17, 27% between 25 and 44, and 27% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 10% and 14% respectively.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: As of 2017, the median household income in Community Board 12 was $61,670. In 2018, an estimated 20% of Jamaica and Hollis residents lived in poverty, compared to 19% in all of Queens and 20% in all of New York City. One in eight residents (12%) were unemployed, compared to 8% in Queens and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 56% in Jamaica and Hollis, higher than the boroughwide and citywide rates of 53% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Jamaica and Hollis are considered to be high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The borough of Queens, where Jamaica is located, is one of the most ethnically diverse counties in the world. Jamaica is large and has a diverse population, predominantly African Americans, Caribbean/West Indians, Hispanics, and Asians/Asian Indians.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica was not always as diverse as it is today. Throughout the 19th to early 20th centuries, Jamaica was mainly populated with whites as new Irish immigrants settled around the places known today as Downtown and Baisley Pond Park. In the 1950s, however, a long period of white flight began that lasted through the 1970s and 1980s with mainly middle-income African Americans taking their place. Beginning in 1965 and through the 1970s, more West Indians immigrated to the United States than ever before, most of whom settled in New York City. In addition, many Salvadoran, Colombian, and Dominican immigrants moved in. These ethnic groups tended to stay more towards the Jamaica Avenue and South Jamaica areas. Decrease in crime attracted many families to Jamaica's safe havens; Hillside Avenue reflects this trend. Along 150th to 161st streets, much of the stores and restaurants typify South American and Caribbean cultures.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Farther east is the rapidly growing East Indian community. Mainly spurred on by the Jamaica Muslim Center, Bangladeshis have flocked to this area due to easy transit access and the numerous Bangladeshi stores and restaurants lining 167th and 168th Streets. Bangladeshis are the most rapidly growing ethnic group here; however, it is also an African-American commercial area. Many Sri Lankans also live in this area for similar reasons as the Bangladeshi community, reflected by the numerous food and grocery establishments along Hillside Avenue catering to the community. As well as the large South Asian community, significant Filipino and African communities thrive in Jamaica, along with the neighboring Filipino community in Queens Village and the historic, well established African-American community residing in Jamaica.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: From 151st Street and into 164th Street, many groceries and restaurants are representative of the West Indies. Mainly of Guyanese and Trinidadian origin, these merchants serve their respective populations in and around the Jamaica Center area. Many East Indian shops are located east from 167th Street to 171st Street. Mainly supported by the ever-growing Bangladeshi population, thousands of South Asians come here to shop for Bangladeshi goods.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Also there are restaurants such as "Sagar", "Ambala", "Ghoroa", and countless more in the Bangladeshi stronghold here.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Some people call this area another "Little South Asia" similar to that of Jackson Heights. Jamaica is another South Asian ethnic enclave in New York City, as South Asian immigration and the city's South Asian population has grown rapidly.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Economic development was long neglected. In the 1960s and 1970s, many big box retailers moved to suburban areas where business was more profitable. Departing retailers included brand name stores and movie theaters that once thrived in Jamaica's busiest areas. Macy's and the Valencia theater were the last companies to move out in 1969. The 1980s crack epidemic created even more hardship and crime. Prime real estate spaces were filled by hair salons and 99 cent stores. Furthermore, existing zoning patterns and inadequate infrastructure did not anticipate future development.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Since then, the decrease of the crime rate has encouraged entrepreneurs who plan to invest in the area. The Greater Jamaica Development Corporation (GJDC), the local business improvement district, acquired valuable real estate for sale to national chains in order to expand neighborhood commerce. As well they have completed underway proposals by allocating funds and providing loans to potential investors who have already established something in the area. One Jamaica Center is a mixed-use commercial complex that was built in 2002 by The Mattone Group housing Old Navy, Bally Total Fitness, Walgreens, Subway, Dunkin' Donuts, a 15-screen multiplex theater and for a while a Gap. Banking has also made a strong revival as Bank of America, Sterling National Bank, Chase Bank, and Carver Federal Savings Bank have each created at least one branch along various major streets: Jamaica Avenue, Parsons Boulevard, Merrick Boulevard, and Sutphin Boulevard. In 2006, a $75 million deal between the developers, the Mattone Group and Ceruzzi Enterprises, and Home Depot cleared the way for a new location at 168th Street and Archer Avenue.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The most prominent piece of development has been the renovation and expansion of the Jamaica station from 2001 to 2006. The station, which served the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR), was expanded with a new transfer to the AirTrain JFK to John F. Kennedy International Airport. A further capacity increase includes a new platform for the LIRR at Jamaica station, set to open in 2019.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Efforts have been made to follow the examples of major redevelopment occurring in Astoria, Long Island City, Flushing, and Downtown Brooklyn. In 2005, the New York City Department of City Planning drafted a plan that would rezone 368 blocks of Jamaica in order to stimulate new development, relieve traffic congestion, and shift upscale amenities away from low-density residential neighborhoods. The plan includes up-zoning the immediate areas around Jamaica Station to accommodate passengers traveling through the area. To improve infrastructure the New York City Department of Parks & Recreation has agreed to create more greenery and open spaces to allow pedestrians to enjoy the scenery. At the same time, the city has reserved the right to protect the suburban/residential charm of neighboring areas. Several blocks will be down-zoned to keep up with the existing neighborhood character. Jamaica is home to large African American, Caribbean, and Central American populations. On September 10, 2007, the City Council overwhelmingly approved the plan, providing for structures of up to 28 stories to be built around the main transit hub as well as residential buildings of up to 7 stories to be built on Hillside Avenue.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Several projects are in progress. The New York City Economic Development Corporation has issued an RFP for redevelopment of a abandoned garage located at 168th Street and 93rd Avenue. Plans are underway to convert this space into retail and parking spots. "TechnoMart Queens" was the first approved project. Located at Sutphin Blvd. and 94th Ave., Korean-based Prime Construction Corp., Greater Jamaica Development Corporation, and several other partners have signed a deal to create a 13-story mega-mall. 9 floors will be dedicated towards wholesale electronics, 3 floors to retail space for shopping, and it is estimated to contain parking for up to 800 cars. Groundbreaking on this site will initiate in late 2008 and is slated for completion by mid-2011. However, in Q3 2008, Technomart announced that it would not be moving forward with its plan to bring a retailer to the community.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: According to real-estate listing service StreetEasy, Jamaica's real-estate prices are rising the fastest out of all localities in New York City. The community's median home prices rose 39% in 2015. The median sales price for a small row house in 2015 was $330,000, and the median asking rent for a three-bedroom house in 2015 was $1,750. Sutphin Boulevard has been described as "the next tourist hot spot." Jamaica's proximity to the JFK AirTrain has stimulated the development of several hotels. The 165th Street Mall Improvement Association is a NYC BID Association that focuses on these specific developed stores in Jamaica, Queens.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The Federal Aviation Administration Eastern Region has its offices at Rockaway Boulevard in South Jamaica, near JFK Airport.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Several businesses are at the nearby John F. Kennedy International Airport. North American Airlines has its headquarters on the property of JFK. In addition, Nippon Cargo Airlines maintains its New York City offices there.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: When Tower Air existed, its headquarters were at the airport. When Metro International Airways existed, its headquarters were at the airport.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The Northeastern Program Service Center (NEPSC) is located in the Joseph P. Addabbo Federal Building at Parsons Boulevard and Jamaica Avenue. The NEPSC serves approximately 8.6 million retirement, survivor, and disability insurance (RSDI) beneficiaries, whose Social Security numbers begin with 001 through 134, 729, and 805 through 808. The NEPSC also processes disability claims for beneficiaries age 54 and over for the same SSN series. Constructed in 1989, the federal building is a 12-story masonry and steel office structure that was built for the agency and was given $8.5 million 2017 dollars to consolidate operations of SS to the lower 2 floors and bring other Federal leaseholders from other parts of Queens to occupy the upper floors. The funds approved were part of budget cuts proposed during the Obama administration.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica is patrolled by two precincts of the NYPD. The 103rd Precinct is located at 168-02 91st Avenue and serves downtown Jamaica and Hollis, while the 113th Precinct is located at 167-02 Baisley Boulevard and serves St. Albans and South Jamaica.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The 103rd Precinct ranked 51st safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010, while the 113th Precinct ranked 55th safest. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 68 per 100,000 people, Jamaica and Hollis's rate of violent crimes per capita is more than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 789 per 100,000 people is higher than that of the city as a whole.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The 103rd Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 80.6% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 5 murders, 31 rapes, 346 robberies, 408 felony assaults, 152 burglaries, 466 grand larcenies, and 79 grand larcenies auto in 2018.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The 113th Precinct also has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 86.1% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 5 murders, 28 rapes, 156 robberies, 383 felony assaults, 153 burglaries, 414 grand larcenies, and 138 grand larcenies auto in 2018.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: , preterm births and births to teenage mothers are more common in Jamaica and Hollis than in other places citywide. In Jamaica and Hollis, there were 100 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 21.4 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Jamaica and Hollis have a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 5%, lower than the citywide rate of 12%.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Jamaica and Hollis is , less than the city average. Eight percent of Jamaica and Hollis residents are smokers, which is lower than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Jamaica and Hollis, 30% of residents are obese, 16% are diabetic, and 37% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 22%, 8%, and 23% respectively. In addition, 23% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Eighty-six percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is slightly less than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 82% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," higher than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Jamaica and Hollis, there are 20 bodegas.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The nearest major hospitals are Jamaica Hospital and Queens Hospital Center, both located in Jamaica.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica is covered by multiple ZIP Codes. West of Sutphin Boulevard, Jamaica falls under ZIP Codes 11435 north of Linden Boulevard and 11436 south of Linden Boulevard. East of Sutphin Boulevard, Jamaica is part of three ZIP Codes: 11432 north of Jamaica Avenue, 11433 between Jamaica Avenue and Linden Boulevard, and 11434 south of Linden Boulevard. The United States Post Office operates four post offices nearby:


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica and Hollis gen a lower rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . While 29% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 19% have less than a high school education and 51% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 39% of Queens residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Jamaica and Hollis students excelling in math rose from 36% in 2000 to 55% in 2011, and reading achievement increased slightly from 44% to 45% during the same time period.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica and Hollis's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is more than the rest of New York City. In Jamaica and Hollis, 22% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, higher than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 74% of high school students in Jamaica and Hollis graduate on time, about the same as the citywide average of 75%.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: From its 1975 founding to around 1980, the Japanese School of New York was located in Jamaica Estates, near Jamaica.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Several colleges and universities make their home in Jamaica proper or in its close vicinity, most notably:


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica station is a central transfer point on the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR), which is headquartered in a building adjoining the station. All of the commuter railroad's passenger branches except for the Port Washington Branch run through the station.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: The New York City Subway's IND Queens Boulevard Line () terminate at 179th Street station, at the foot of Jamaica Estates, a neighborhood of mansions north of Jamaica's central business district. The Archer Avenue Lines () serve Sutphin Boulevard–Archer Avenue–JFK Airport and Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer stations. The Jamaica Yard, at the south end of Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, abuts Grand Central Parkway and the Van Wyck Expressway.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica's bus network provides extensive service across eastern Queens, as well as to points in Nassau County, the Bronx, the Rockaways, and Midtown Manhattan. Nearly all bus lines serving Jamaica terminate near either the 165th Street Bus Terminal or the Jamaica Center subway station, except for the Q46 bus, which operates along Union Turnpike, at the northern border of Jamaica.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Greater Jamaica is also home to John F. Kennedy International Airport, one of the busiest international airports in the United States and the world. Public transportation passengers are connected to airline terminals by AirTrain JFK, which operates as both an airport terminal circulator and rail connection to central Jamaica at the integrated LIRR and bi-level subway station located at Sutphin Blvd and Archer Avenue.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Major streets include Archer Avenue, Hillside Avenue, Jamaica Avenue, Liberty Avenue, Merrick Boulevard, Rockaway Boulevard, Parsons Boulevard, Guy R. Brewer Boulevard (formerly known as New York Boulevard but renamed for a local political leader in 1982), Sutphin Boulevard, and Union Turnpike, as well as the Van Wyck Expressway (I-678) and the Grand Central Parkway.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Jamaica Avenue is Jamaica's busiest thoroughfare. It begins at Broadway Junction in Brooklyn, near the boundary of the East New York neighborhood. The Avenue enters Jamaica east of the Van Wyck Expressway, and passes the Joseph Addabbo Social Security Administration Building, courthouses and the main building of the Queens Public Library, along with many discount stores. The 200-year-old King Manor Museum, once home to Rufus King, a founding father of the United States, is located at the corner of 153rd St. and Jamaica Ave. It includes a 2-story museum with over an acre of land and a public park. Directly across from the Museum is the former First Reformed Dutch Church of Jamaica, a National Register of Historic Places-listed landmark that has been adaptively reused into the Jamaica Performing arts center.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Hillside Avenue is one of the main thoroughfares of Jamaica. It is served by the , from Sutphin Boulevard to its 179th Street terminus. Hillside Avenue runs east from Myrtle Avenue in Richmond Hill, along the length of Jamaica, into Queens Village, and finally, Nassau County. It is a wide six-lane street with numerous commercial activities. Hillside Avenue separates Jamaica from Briarwood, Jamaica Hills and Jamaica Estates on the southern boundary.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Sutphin Boulevard is Jamaica's second busiest thoroughfare. It has two subway stations, as well as stations for the LIRR and the AirTrain JFK, and two Queens courthouses. It begins at Hillside Avenue and 147th Place in the north and works its way south and downhill connecting with Jamaica Avenue, Archer Avenue, Liberty Avenue, South Road, Linden Boulevard, and terminates at Rockaway Boulevard. At first it is a small four-lane street, but in the downtown area it provides six lanes. At 95th Avenue, it reemerges from the LIRR underpass and becomes a four-lane street to its southern endpoint.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Union Turnpike travels through, and serving as the northern border between the towns of Flushing and Jamaica. Though both towns were absorbed into New York City in 1898, the division is evident today in the addresses. Buildings on the north side generally begin with a 113- ZIP Code, indicating Flushing, and buildings to the south side begin with a 114- ZIP Code, indicating Jamaica. Union Turnpike separates the northern boundaries of Briarwood, Jamaica Hills and Jamaica Estates from the southern boundaries of Flushing and Fresh Meadows.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Rockaway Boulevard begins at 90th Avenue and Elderts Lane in Woodhaven, continuing southeast through Ozone Park, South Ozone Park, South Jamaica, Springfield Gardens, Brookville, and Meadowmere. The segment between Farmers Boulevard in Springfield Gardens and the New York City border in Meadowmere connects the two discontinuous sections of New York State Route 878, the Nassau Expressway. In addition, Rockaway Boulevard abuts the northern border of JFK Airport between Farmers and Brookville Boulevards.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Flushing Meadows–Corona Park abuts Jamaica on its far northwestern corner. At , it is the fourth-largest public park in New York City. The southernmost part of the park is adjacent to Willow Lake, which is named for the many species of Willow plants which inhabit the area. The Jamaica subway yard is located at the very south end of the park site, beyond Willow Lake.


title: Jamaica, Queens

text: Neighboring areas are Jamaica Estates, Jamaica Hills, Holliswood, Bellerose, Briarwood, Cambria Heights, St. Albans, Hollis, Queens Village, South Ozone Park, Kew Gardens, Richmond Hill, Laurelton, Rosedale, Brookville, Rochdale, South Jamaica, Springfield Gardens, Hillcrest, Kew Gardens Hills, Fresh Meadows, Meadowmere, Meadowmere Park, and Woodhaven.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre of Asshai is a fictional character in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series of fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin and its television adaptation "Game of Thrones". She is a priestess of the god R'hllor (also called the Red God or the Lord of Light) from the continent Essos and a close advisor to King Stannis Baratheon in his campaign to take the Iron Throne. She is often nicknamed the Red Woman due to the color of her hair and clothes and has mysterious powers over fire and shadow. She is a prominent example of Martin's use of magic within the story, and is the source of several important prophecies that guide the narrative.


title: Melisandre

text: Introduced in "A Clash of Kings" (1998), Melisandre has come to Westeros to propagate her faith in the Red God. She subsequently appeared in Martin's "A Storm of Swords" (2000) and "A Dance with Dragons" (2011). Melisandre is not a point-of-view character in the first four novels. Her actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other characters, such as Davos Seaworth and Jon Snow. In the fifth novel "A Dance with Dragons", she has a single point-of-view chapter. George R. R. Martin stated she will return as a viewpoint character in future novels.


title: Melisandre

text: In the HBO television adaptation, Melisandre is portrayed by Dutch actress Carice van Houten who received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her performance.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre was born an unknown number of years before the start of the series, possibly with the name "Melony". As a child slave, she was sold to the Red Temple and trained for the priesthood. Believing Stannis Baratheon to be the reincarnation of Azor Ahai, a mythic messiah prophesied by her faith, she travels to his island stronghold, Dragonstone, during the events of "A Game of Thrones". Tywin Lannister indirectly mentioned her as "a shadowbinder from Asshai" during a private conversation with Tyrion Lannister after the Battle in the Whispering Wood.


title: Melisandre

text: Also known as "The Red Woman", Melisandre is described as an exotically beautiful and voluptuous foreign woman with red eyes and red hair, always dressing in red robes and wearing a red gold choker set with a large shiny ruby. She rarely sleeps or eats, possesses magical abilities that can cast glamour and manipulate fire and shadow, has prophetic visions by looking into fire, and takes an aggressively militant stance against the other religions of Westeros.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre is introduced in the prologue of the second book, "A Clash of Kings" (1998), and reappears in the third book, "A Storm of Swords" (2000), as a background character and is mostly narrated through the viewpoints of Davos Seaworth and later Jon Snow. She becomes a point-of-view character in "A Dance with Dragons" (2011) with a single viewpoint chapter. Author George R. R. Martin at that time confirmed that Melisandre would return as a viewpoint character in the upcoming sixth book "The Winds of Winter".


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre converts Stannis's wife Selyse to her religion, along with several other members of Stannis' court. Stannis' maester Cressen, fearing Melisandre's power and her influence over him, tries to assassinate Melisandre with poison in a murder-suicide, but although Melisandre drinks most of the poison, her powers allow her to survive. When Stannis' brother Renly also declares himself king, Melisandre has a vision of Renly defeating Stannis' host at King's Landing. She convinces Stannis to impregnate her, giving birth to a shadow demon that kills Renly. She also births another demon that kills Storm's End's castellan, Ser Cortnay Penrose, when he refuses to yield Storm's End. Ser Bryce Caron convinces Stannis to leave Melisandre at Dragonstone during the Battle of the Blackwater, which ends in Stannis' defeat. During the battle, Ser Garlan Tyrell dons Renly's armor and leads the Tyrell-Lannister vanguard, thus fulfilling Melisandre's earlier prophecy.


title: Melisandre

text: Stannis' advisor Davos Seaworth blames Melisandre for Stannis' defeat and plans to assassinate her, but Melisandre sees the plot in her flames and has him arrested. She attempts to persuade Stannis to sacrifice his bastard nephew Edric Storm to awaken stone dragons beneath Dragonstone. Stannis only allows her to leech him and burns the leeches to curse Stannis's rivals: Balon Greyjoy, Robb Stark, and Joffrey Baratheon. All three die in various circumstances soon after. Davos smuggles Edric to Lys to prevent his sacrifice. Melisandre then accompanies Stannis and Davos to the Wall to defeat Mance Rayder's wildling host.


title: Melisandre

text: Jon Snow swaps Mance Rayder's baby son with Gilly's baby and sends the baby with Gilly, Samwell Tarly, and Maester Aemon to Oldtown to prevent Melisandre from burning the baby to perform fire magic. When Stannis orders Mance Rayder to be burned alive for deserting the Night's Watch, she uses her magic to secretly switch Mance's identity with Rattleshirt's, another wildling raider, resulting in Rattleshirt being burned instead. She later reveals this to Jon Snow and sends Mance to Winterfell with six spearwives to rescue "Arya Stark" (actually Sansa Stark's handmaiden Jeyne Poole) from Ramsay Bolton. Melisandre remains at the Wall while Stannis marches on Winterfell. Noting that her powers are stronger at the Wall, she asks R'hllor for a vision of Azor Ahai, but only sees "Snow". She also warns Jon of having seen "daggers in the dark". Jon ignores her warnings and is later stabbed by mutineers led by Bowen Marsh.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre is first introduced during a beachside ceremony on Dragonstone, where she burns the statues of the Faith of the Seven, drawing the ire of Stannis' maester Cressen. Cressen attempts to poison her in a murder-suicide attempt; despite drinking the poison, Melisandre is unharmed. She convinces Stannis to impregnate her, giving birth to a shadow demon that kills Stannis' brother Renly, a rival claimant to the throne. However, Stannis' advisor, Davos Seaworth, counsels Stannis to leave Melisandre on Dragonstone when he attacks King's Landing; when the attack fails, Melisandre claims that Stannis' defeat was a result of not bringing her to the battle. Stannis attempts to strangle Melisandre in a fit of rage before she makes him understand his role in Renly's death and assures him that his betrayals will be worth it in the end.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre begins burning members of Stannis' court alive at Dragonstone. Davos, blaming Melisandre for Stannis' defeat, tries to assassinate her but fails and is imprisoned. She travels to the Riverlands to meet up with the Brotherhood without Banners, who have taken on Robert Baratheon's bastard Gendry as a blacksmith. During her meeting, Melisandre is astonished when the Red Priest Thoros of Myr reveals he has resurrected the Brotherhood's leader Ser Beric Dondarrion six times. Melisandre purchases Gendry from the Brotherhood, much to the fury of Gendry's friend Arya Stark. Before parting ways, Melisandre leaves Arya with a cryptic prophesy: "I see a darkness in you, and in that darkness eyes staring back at me. Brown eyes, blue eyes, green eyes. Eyes you'll shut forever. We will meet again." Melisandre uses Gendry's blood in a ritual to kill Stannis' rivals. However, before Gendry can be sacrificed, Davos helps him escape. Davos staves off his own execution by showing Stannis a letter from the Night's Watch, claiming that the White Walkers have returned. After burning the letter in the flames, Melisandre corroborates Davos' story and declares that Stannis will have need of Davos in the future.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre accompanies Stannis, Davos, and their army to the Wall. Before the Baratheon forces sail north, she convinces Selyse Baratheon to bring Stannis' daughter Shireen to the Wall with them, claiming that the Lord of Light has use for her.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre presides over Mance Rayder's burning. She attempts to seduce Jon Snow, but he rejects her advances. She later joins Stannis and Davos on their mission to take Winterfell from the Boltons. When a large snowstorm delays their march, Melisandre suggests that Stannis sacrifice Shireen. Stannis initially refuses, but after a raiding party led by Ramsay Bolton burns their supplies, he gives in and allows her to burn Shireen at the stake. The blizzard lifts, but half of Stannis' army deserts and Selyse commits suicide out of guilt for Shireen's death. Melisandre flees to Castle Black, where her distraught demeanour leads Davos and Jon to realise that Stannis and Shireen are dead.


title: Melisandre

text: Still reeling from Stannis' defeat, Melisandre is further shocked when Jon is assassinated by his officers since she had had a vision of him fighting at Winterfell. In shock and suffering a crisis of faith, she returns to her sleeping chambers. She removes her ruby necklace while undressing, proving that the necklace is a magical glamour, as she is revealed to have a physical body countless years older than she normally appears.


title: Melisandre

text: Following the imprisonment of the mutineers by the wildlings, Davos persuades her to attempt a resurrection of Jon, which, to her shock, is ultimately successful. Melisandre comes to believe that the "prince that was promised" was not Stannis but Jon and dedicates herself to his service. Realizing that her constant meddling had done more harm than good, Melisandre works no magic without Jon's permission, nor does she try to convert anyone – including Snow – to worship the Lord of Light.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre joins Jon in his march on Winterfell to confront Ramsay Bolton. Although Jon forbids her from resurrecting him again if he falls, Melisandre says she will at least try, as the Lord of Light might still need him. In the aftermath of House Stark's recapture of Winterfell (which validates her vision), Melisandre is confronted by Davos, who has discovered that she burned Shireen at the stake. Jon Snow exiles her from the North, threatening to have her executed if she ever returns. Melisandre protests that she is now dedicated to the cause of defeating the White Walkers, but ultimately agrees to leave, and rides south.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre arrives on Dragonstone, which is now occupied by Daenerys Targaryen. Melisandre claims that both she and Jon (who has been crowned King in the North since her exile) are the "prince that was promised" and suggests that Daenerys summon Jon to Dragonstone to hear of his experiences fighting the White Walkers. When Jon and Davos arrive on Dragonstone to meet Daenerys, Melisandre avoids them and decides to return to Volantis. Although Daenerys' advisor Varys warns that Melisandre will not be safe if she ever returns to Westeros, she declares that she will eventually make one final journey to Westeros to die.


title: Melisandre

text: Melisandre returns to Winterfell as the forces of the living prepare to do battle with the White Walkers and their army of wights and sets Daenerys' Dothraki horde's arakhs on fire before they charge the dead. She is confronted by Davos as she enters Winterfell but assures him she will be dead before dawn. When Daenerys is unable to see Davos' signal to light a defensive trench, Grey Worm escorts Melisandre outside to use her abilities to ignite the trench.


title: Melisandre

text: The wights ultimately make their way into the castle, and Melisandre takes refuge in the Great Hall, later joined by Arya, Sandor Clegane, and a mortally wounded Beric Dondarrion. Melisandre tells Arya that Beric was resurrected for a purpose that has now been served, and reminds her of her prophecy that Arya would "shut many eyes forever", emphasizing the blue eyes of the wights and White Walkers. Arya realizes that her third victim is the Night King, commander of the White Walkers and leaves for Winterfell's Godswood, where she ultimately destroys the Night King, in doing so destroying the rest of the army of the dead. In the battle's aftermath, her purpose fulfilled, Melisandre walks out of Winterfell while removing her necklace, and collapses into dust.


title: Iraqi Air Force

text: The Iraqi Air Force (IQAF or IrAF) () is the aerial warfare service branch of the Iraqi Armed Forces. It is responsible for the defense of Iraqi airspace as well as the policing of its international borders. The IQAF also acts as a support force for the Iraqi Navy and the Iraqi Army, which allows Iraq to rapidly deploy its military. It is headquartered in Baghdad; the current commander is Gen. Shihab Jahid Ali.


title: Iraqi Air Force

text: The Iraqi Air Force was founded in 1931, during the period of British control in Iraq after their defeat of the Ottomans in the First World War, with only a few pilots. The Iraqi Air Force operated mostly British aircraft until the 14 July Revolution in 1958, when the new Iraqi government began increased diplomatic relationships with the Soviet Union. The air force used both Soviet and British aircraft throughout the 1950s and 1960s. When Saddam Hussein came to power in 1979, the air force grew quickly when Iraq ordered more Soviet and French aircraft. The air force's peak came after the long Iran–Iraq War, which ended in 1988, when it consisted of 1029 aircraft of all types (of which 550 were combat aircraft), becoming the largest air force in the region. Its downfall came during the Persian Gulf War (1990–91) and continued while coalition forces enforced no-fly zones. The remains of Iraq's air force were destroyed during the 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq.


title: Iraqi Air Force

text: After the invasion, the IQAF was rebuilt, receiving most of its training and aircraft from the United States. In 2007, Iraq asked Iran to return some of the scores of Iraqi fighter planes that flew there to escape destruction during the Persian Gulf War in 1991. As of 2014, Iran was receptive to the demands and was working on refurbishing an unspecified number of jets.


title: Iraqi Air Force

text: The Iraqi Air Force considers its founding day as 22 April 1931. This day, the first Royal Iraqi Air Force (RIrAF) pilots returned to the country from training in the United Kingdom together with the air force's first aircraft: five de Havilland Gipsy Moths. These formed No. 1 Squadron, based at RAF Hinaidi. Before the creation of the new air force, the RAF Iraq Command was in charge of all British Armed Forces elements in Iraq in the 1920s and early 1930s. The RIrAF consisted of five pilots, aeronautics students trained at the RAF College Cranwell, and 32 aircraft mechanics. The original five pilots were Natiq Mohammed Khalil al-Tay, Mohammed Ali Jawad, Hafdhi Aziz, Akrem Mushtaq, and Musa Ali. The RIrAF saw its first combats as early as October 1931, against Kurdish insurgents in the north of the country. It was during operations against the Kurds that the air force suffered its first combat loss, when a DH.60 collided with a mountain near Barzan in April 1932, killing both crew members. That year, the Gipsy Moths were reinforced by three more DH.60Ts and three de Havilland Puss Moths. The next year, eight de Havilland Dragons were delivered, and in 1934, the first out of a total of 34 Hawker Audaxes (named Nisr in Iraqi service) were acquired.


title: Iraqi Air Force

text: In the years following Iraqi independence, the Air Force was still dependent on the Royal Air Force. The Iraqi government allocated the majority of its military expenditure to the Iraqi Army and by 1936 the Royal Iraqi Air Force had only 37 pilots and 55 aircraft. The following year, the Air Force showed some growth, increasing its number of pilots to 127. This enabled it to purchase additional aircraft. In 1937, following high-level visits in Italy and Great Britain, Iraq placed orders for six Savoia-Marchetti SM.79s, 15 Breda Ba.65s, and 15 Gloster Gladiators. In 1939, 15 Northrop 8As were bought.


title: Iraqi Air Force

text: The RIrAF's first combat against another conventional military was in the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War, when the Iraqi government made a bid for full independence following a coup by Rashid Ali against pro-British Iraqi leaders. The war began in earnest on 2 May, when British aircraft started attacking the Iraqi troops that were encircling RAF Habbaniya. In response, the RIrAF started attacking the airfield, destroying two Hawker Audaxes and one Airspeed Oxford on the ground that day. On 4 May, eight Vickers Wellington and two Bristol Blenheim bombers attacked Rasheed Air Base, the RIrAF's main airfield. However, most Iraqi aircraft had been redeployed to Al-Washash and Baqubah. During the raid, a Wellington that had been hit by anti-aircraft fire was attacked by an Iraqi Gloster Gladiator, and was damaged to the point where it had to land in emergency outside Baghdad. This represented the first aerial victory for the RIrAF. However, on the same day an SM.79 was shot down by Iraqi ground fire over the airfield at Al Diwaniyah. The RAF kept attacking Iraqi airfields; on 8 May, it claimed to have destroyed six aircraft on the ground at Baqubah, and shot down one Gladiator. Around 15 May, Luftwaffe aircraft painted in Iraqi markings arrived in Iraq to help in the fight against the British. However, the latter were meanwhile sending ever more reinforcements to Iraq, and support from the Axis powers could not change the course of the war. Losses and a lack of spares and replacement aircraft resulted in the Germans' departure at the end of May. On 31 May, a ceasefire was signed, thus ending the war.