title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: "Crash Bandicoot" was released to generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the game's graphics, presentation, audio, difficulty level and title character, but criticized its linearity and lack of innovation as a platform game. The game went on to sell over 6 million units, making it one of the best-selling PlayStation games and the highest selling ranked on sales in the United States. For the game's Japanese release, the gameplay and aesthetics underwent extensive retooling to make the game more palatable for Japanese audiences, and as a result it achieved commercial success in Japan. "Crash Bandicoot" became the first installment in an eponymous series of games that would achieve critical and commercial success and establish Naughty Dog's reputation in the video game industry. A remastered version was released as a part of the "Crash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy" in 2017.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: "Crash Bandicoot" is a platform game in which the player controls the titular character Crash, who is tasked with traversing 32 levels to defeat Doctor Neo Cortex and rescue Tawna. The majority of the game takes place from a third-person perspective in which Crash moves into the screen. Certain levels that require him to flee from a rolling boulder reverse this perspective, while other levels are played from a traditional side-scrolling perspective. Crash is capable of moving in all directions; aside from moving left and right, he can move away from or toward the player, and the controls do not change with his position. His two primary forms of offense consist of jumping onto enemies and performing a spinning attack that kicks enemies off the screen. Kicked enemies can strike other enemies that are currently on-screen. Two levels involve Crash mounting and steering a wild boar that accelerates uncontrollably, requiring him to maneuver around obstacles and bypass enemies.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Scattered throughout each level are various types of crates that can be broken open by jumping on them, spinning into them, or knocking a kicked enemy into them. Most crates contain "Wumpa Fruit" that can grant Crash an extra life if 100 are collected. Some crates display an icon of what they contain. Crates displaying Aku Aku will grant Crash a floating Aku Aku mask that protects him from a single enemy or hazard. Collecting three masks consecutively grants Crash temporary invulnerability from all minor dangers. Crates marked with a "C" act as checkpoints where Crash can respawn after losing a life. Metallic crates marked with an exclamation point (!) cause an element of the surrounding environment to change if they are struck. Jumping on red TNT crates triggers a three-second timer that culminates in an explosion, while spinning into them causes an immediate detonation.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: In roughly half of the game's levels, certain crates contain tokens in the likeness of Tawna, Cortex, or his assistant Nitrus Brio. Collecting three tokens of a single character will transport Crash to a "bonus round" where he must break crates in a side-scrolling area. Falling off the screen during a bonus round will not cost the player a life, but will send Crash back to the point in the level he was transported from. A few levels contain bonus rounds for two different characters. Tawna's bonus rounds are designed to be the easiest and most plentiful, and clearing one enables the player to save their game. Brio's bonus rounds are more difficult, featuring more TNT crates and requiring more precise jumps. Cortex's bonus rounds are the most difficult and are only included in two levels. Clearing Cortex's bonus round grants Crash a key that unlocks a secret level.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Clearing a level without losing a life and after breaking all of its crates (excluding crates in bonus rounds) will grant Crash a gem, which will be displayed by the level's name on the map screen. If the player clears a level in one life without breaking all the crates, a screen displays the amount of crates that were missed, and if the player loses any lives over the course of the level, they will instead be sent directly to the map screen upon the level's completion. While most gems are clear and colorless, six colored gems enable Crash to access areas in previous levels that he was unable to reach before. Collecting all 26 gems unlocks a special epilogue sequence accessible from the game's penultimate level.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: In a secluded archipelago west of Tasmania, the mad scientist Doctor Neo Cortex uses his "Evolvo-Ray" to genetically alter the local wildlife into an anthropomorphic army of soldiers for the purpose of world domination. Among these soldiers is an eastern barred bandicoot named Crash, who Cortex selects to be the general of his army. The day before Crash is subjected to the "Cortex Vortex", a machine intended to brainwash him, he becomes attached to a female bandicoot named Tawna. Crash is rejected by the Cortex Vortex and is chased out of Cortex's castle, plummeting to the ocean below. As Cortex prepares Tawna to be used in Crash's place, Crash washes up on a smaller island and resolves to rescue Tawna and defeat Cortex. He is aided in his mission by Aku Aku, a witch doctor spirit who acts as the guardian of the islands.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Crash undertakes a trek across the archipelago that spans several months. He traverses through a native village and defeats the hostile tribal chief Papu Papu. Cortex receives news of Crash's approach and dispatches his soldiers to dispose of Crash. After Crash defeats Ripper Roo, Koala Kong and Pinstripe Potoroo, he reaches Cortex's stronghold and faces Cortex's assistant Doctor Nitrus Brio, who battles Crash by ingesting a potion to transform himself into a giant green monster. Crash escapes to Cortex's airship, while Cortex boards a hovercraft and attacks Crash with a plasma gun as his castle burns behind them. Crash deflects Cortex's energy bolts against him and sends Cortex falling out of the sky. Tawna embraces Crash as the two ride Cortex's airship into the sunset.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: The epilogue elaborates on the fates of the game's boss characters following Cortex's defeat and disappearance. Papu Papu sells the remains of Cortex's castle to a resort developer and uses the proceeds to open a plus-size clothing shop; Ripper Roo undergoes intense therapy and higher education, and authors a well-received book discussing rapid evolution and its consequences; Koala Kong moves to Hollywood and becomes a film actor; Pinstripe opens a sanitation company in Chicago and prepares for a gubernatorial campaign; and Brio rediscovers a love for bartending.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: On January 5, 1994, MCA Inc. executive vice president Skip Paul established Universal Interactive Studios – a division for developing and publishing video games and interactive software – in response to a film industry trend of studios opening similar divisions. With this development, Universal Interactive was eager to acquire independent developers with the intention of eventually using them to create games and interactive movies based on Universal's existing franchises. At that year's Winter Consumer Electronics Show, Naughty Dog founders Andy Gavin and Jason Rubin displayed their latest game "Way of the Warrior" in search of a publisher; by chance, their booth was situated in close proximity to that of Universal Interactive, where Mark Cerny and Rob Biniaz served as its representatives. A bidding war broke out between Universal Interactive, The 3DO Company, and Crystal Dynamics; Universal Interactive won the game's publishing rights by offering Naughty Dog a place on their lot and funding for three additional games, over which Naughty Dog would have creative freedom. This atypical agreement ensured that Naughty Dog could be locked in long enough to create a product that met Universal Interactive's expectations.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: In August 1994, Gavin and Rubin began their move from Boston, Massachusetts to Los Angeles, California. Before leaving, Gavin and Rubin hired Dave Baggett, their first employee and a friend of Gavin's from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Baggett would not start working full-time until January 1995. During the trip, Gavin and Rubin studied arcade games intensely and noticed that racing, fighting and shooting games had begun making a transition into full 3D rendering. They initially considered a 3D beat 'em up based on "Final Fight" before recognizing that their favorite video game genre, the character-based action-platform game, had no 3D games at this point. "Donkey Kong Country" was particularly influential in stirring the pair's curiosity as to how such a game could function in three dimensions. They figured that in a 3D perspective, the player would be constantly looking at the character's back rather than their profile, and thus jokingly called the hypothetical project "Sonic's Ass Game". The basic technology for the game and the "Crash Bandicoot" series as a whole was created somewhere near Gary, Indiana, and the rough game theory was designed near Colorado. Soon afterward, Gavin and Rubin discarded a design for "Al O. Saurus and Dinestein", a side-scrolling video game based on time travel and scientists genetically merged with dinosaurs.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Naughty Dog met with Cerny after moving into their new Universal City, California offices. The group unanimously liked the "Sonic's Ass Game" idea and discussed what video game system to develop it for. Deciding that the 3DO, Atari Jaguar, Sega 32X, and Sega Saturn were unsatisfactory options due to poor sales and development units they deemed to be "clunky", the team ultimately chose to develop the game for Sony's PlayStation, considering the company and console "sexy" and taking into account the company's lack of an existing competing mascot character. After signing a developer agreement with Sony, Naughty Dog paid $35,000 for a PlayStation development unit and received the unit in September 1994. A development budget of $1.7 million was set for the game, and production began in October 1994. Rubin and Gavin were the 44th and 45th individual developers to sign onto development for the PlayStation, and according to Rubin's approximation, "Crash Bandicoot" was the 30th game to begin development for the PlayStation. David Siller was assigned as the game's producer by Universal Interactive due to his expertise in game design, despite Gavin and Rubin's reluctance toward having a producer.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: For the game's lead character, Naughty Dog wanted to do what Sega and Warner Bros. did while designing their respective characters – Sonic the Hedgehog and the Tasmanian Devil – and incorporate an animal that was "cute, real, and no one really knew about". The team purchased a field guide on Tasmanian mammals and selected the wombat, potoroo, and bandicoot as options. Gavin and Rubin went with "Willy the Wombat" as a temporary name for the starring character of the game. They never intended the name to be final due both to the name sounding "too dorky" and to the existence of a non-video game property of the same name; the name was also used by Hudson Soft for its Japan-exclusive Sega Saturn role-playing game "Willy Wombat". While the character was effectively a bandicoot, he was still referred to as "Willy the Wombat" as a final name had not been formulated yet. The villain of the game was created while Gavin and Rubin were eating near Universal Interactive Studios. Gavin came up with the idea of an "evil genius villain with a big head" who was "all about his attitude and his minions". Rubin, having become fond of the animated television series "Pinky and the Brain", imagined a more malevolent version of the Brain with minions resembling the weasel characters in "Who Framed Roger Rabbit". After Gavin put on a voice depicting the attitude in mind for the character, he and Rubin instantly came up with the name "Doctor Neo Cortex".


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Following their previous experience with "Way of the Warrior", Gavin and Rubin recognized that a larger development team would be required to create their new game. As they settled into Universal Interactive's back lot, Gavin, Rubin and Baggett befriended Taylor Kurosaki, a visual effects artist who was working on the television series "seaQuest DSV" in the same building. Kurosaki, who had been using LightWave 3D in his work, was attracted by the opportunity to learn and use PowerAnimator, and became Naughty Dog's next employee on January 5, 1995. Bob Rafei was also hired around this time, and was assigned as the game's art director.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: In March 1995, Universal Interactive and Naughty Dog recruited Joe Pearson of Epoch Ink to aid in the visual aspect of production. Pearson in turn recommended that Charles Zembillas of American Exitus be brought on board as well. Pearson and Zembillas would meet with Naughty Dog weekly to create the characters and environments of the game. Because the main character was Tasmanian, it was decided that the game would take place on a mysterious island where every possible type of environment could be found, with the added reasoning that an evil genius like Cortex would require an island stronghold. Pearson created a concept bible that included detailed backstories for Crash and Cortex and established the game's setting as the remnants of the lost continent of Lemuria.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Zembillas' initial sketches of Crash depicted him as a "squat, hunkered-down" character. After Pearson drew a version of Crash that was leaner, had a larger nose and wore a Zorro-like mask, Zembillas began drawing Crash as "a little more manic and insane". Naughty Dog decided early on that there would be no connection between a real animal and Crash's final design, which would instead be determined "51% by technical and visual necessity and 49% by inspiration". Gavin determined Crash's fur color by creating a list of popular characters and their colors, and then making a list of earthly background possibilities (such as forests, deserts, beaches, etc.). Colors that would not look good on the screen were strictly outlawed, such as red, which would bleed on older televisions. Orange was selected by process of elimination. Crash's head was made large and neckless to counter the low resolution of the screen and allow his facial expressions to be discernible. Rubin noted the increased difficulty in turning Crash's head with this type of design. Small details such as gloves, spots on Crash's back and a light-colored chest were added to help the player determine what side of Crash was visible based on color. Crash was not given a tail or any flappy straps of clothing due to the PlayStation's inability to properly display such pixels without flickering. The length of Crash's pants was shortened to keep his ankles from flickering as they would with longer pants. Crash was originally written as a speaking character who, as a result of his subjection to the Cortex Vortex, communicated in a series of bizarre non sequiturs derived from classic literature and pop culture. The team ultimately decided that Crash would be mute because they considered past voices for video game characters to be "lame, negative, and distract[ing] from identification with them".


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Gavin and Rubin described Cortex to Zembillas as "[having] a huge head but a tiny body, he's a mad scientist, and he dresses a bit like a Nazi from "The Jetsons"". Gavin owns Zembillas' original ink sketches of Crash, while Rubin owns the original sketches of Cortex. Cortex was originally envisioned as a self-aware video game character who was bothered by the clichés he embodied and addressed the audience throughout the game. This aspect was removed after Naughty Dog decided that cutscenes would disrupt the game's pacing. Cortex's right-hand man Doctor Nitrus Brio, originally named "Needy Brio", was developed as a foil.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Aku Aku was originally conceived as an elderly human character who communicated through mumbles only intelligible to Crash, in a manner similar to the dynamic between C-3PO and R2-D2 of the "Star Wars" franchise. His name originates from a Polynesian restaurant located near the Alewife station, which featured giant tiki statues out front. The Aku Aku masks that protect Crash were a late addition intended to balance the gameplay's difficulty. Because Cerny's initial suggestion of a translucent shield would have been technically impractical, the floating masks were created as a low-polygon alternative.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: The character Ripper Roo was created to humorously demonstrate the dangers of the Cortex Vortex, as well as provide an opportunity for Naughty Dog's animators to practice overlapping action. Papu Papu was designed to allow the team to animate jiggling fat. Pinstripe Potoroo was inspired by the film "The Godfather". Tawna, originally named "Karmen", was based on actress Pamela Anderson, though her design was scaled back to be less provocative. The Komodo Brothers and Tiny Tiger, who would appear as boss characters in future games in the series, were originally created for the first game.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: On creating the levels for the game, Pearson first sketched each environment, designing and creating additional individual elements later. Pearson aimed for an organic, overgrown look to the game and worked to completely avoid straight lines and 90-degree corners. A Naughty Dog artist sketched every single background object in the game before it was modeled. Naughty Dog's artists were tasked with making the best use of textures and reducing the amount of geometry. Dark and light elements were juxtaposed to create visual interest and separate geometry. The artists would squint when sketching, texturing, and playing the levels to make sure they could be played by light value alone. They ensured to use color correctly by choosing mutually accentuating colors as the theme for the "Lost City" and "Sunset Vista" levels. The interior of Cortex's castle was designed to reflect his twisted mind. According to Rubin, the artists worked on the visuals for eight months before any game code was written.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Production on "Crash Bandicoot" used $100,000 Silicon Graphics-based workstations with an IRIX-based tool pipeline rather than the $3,000 personal computers that were the standard at the time. The PlayStation had a 512 × 240 video mode which used video memory normally reserved for textures, but was also efficient in rendering shaded polygons without texture. Rubin pointed out that since the polygons on the characters were just a few pixels in size, shaded characters would look better than textured ones. Thus, polygon counts were emphasized over textures, which allowed the programmers to bypass the PlayStation's lack of texture correction or polygon clipping. To make the game look like an animated cartoon, vertex animation was implemented rather than the standard skeletal animation with "one-joint" weighting, allowing the programmers to use the more sophisticated three-to-four-joint weighting available in PowerAnimator. Because the PlayStation was unable to calculate this in real time, the location of each vertex was stored in each frame at 30 frames per second. Gavin, Baggett, and Cerny attempted to invent a compressor in assembly language for this manner of animation; Cerny's version, although the most complicated, was the most successful of the three. The vertex animation method allowed Crash to display a much wider range of facial expressions than competing video game characters at the time. Rubin created Crash's model with 532 polygons and animated all the game's characters. Because Cortex's legs were too short for his game model to walk properly, he was kept stationary in many of his appearances.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: To obtain the game's vast and detailed graphics, Rubin, Gavin, and Baggett researched visibility calculation in video games that followed "Doom" and concluded that extending the visibility precomputations would allow the game to render a larger number of polygons. Following experimentation in free-roaming camera control, the team settled with a branching rail camera that would follow along next to, behind, or in front of Crash, generally looking at him, thus moving on a "track" through the world. Since only 900 polygons could be visible on screen at a time, parts of the game's landscapes are hidden by trees, cliffs, walls, and twists and turns in the environment. Gavin created procedural textures to overcome the lack of available texture memory. Each level in "Crash Bandicoot" contains six to eight megabytes of textures. Baggett created two-way compressors that would reduce the 128-megabyte levels down to 12 megabytes and allow them to be compatible with the PlayStation's two-megabyte random access memory. The levels proved to be so large that the first test level created could not be loaded into PowerAnimator and had to be cut up into sixteen pieces. Each piece took about ten minutes to load on a 256-megabyte machine. To remedy the situation, Baggett created the DLE ("Dave's Level Editor"), a level design tool with which RGB values from a top-down map of a level are used to assemble level environments, with a succession of ten to fifteen layers from Adobe Photoshop indicating how the level's portions have to be combined. Rafei created nearly all of the game's backgrounds.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: A pair of cutscenes featuring hand-drawn animation were produced by Universal Animation Studios to serve as the game's intro and outro, as well as act as source material for a potential animated series if the game was well-received and commercially successful. The hand-drawn cutscenes were dropped after Sony Computer Entertainment picked up "Crash Bandicoot" for publication, as Sony desired to push the PlayStation's 3D polygonal graphics. The cutscenes were uploaded to YouTube by Siller in 2015.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Naughty Dog made the early decision to design "Crash Bandicoot" as a classic action-based platform game as opposed to an open-world exploration-based game in order to fully render its environments in three dimensions. To code the characters and gameplay, Gavin and Baggett created the programming language "Game-Oriented Object LISP" (GOOL) using LISP syntax. The first two test levels created for the game were not integrated into the final version because they were too open and had too many polygons. During the summer of 1995, the team focused on creating levels that were both functional and fun, and used the Cortex factory levels to experiment on this goal; the mechanical setting allowed the team to forego the complex and organic forest designs and distill the two-axis gameplay. The first two functional levels, "Heavy Machinery" and "Generator Room", utilized 2.5D gameplay and featured basic techniques previously used in "Donkey Kong Country", such as steam vents, drop platforms, bouncy pads, heated pipes and enemy characters that would move back and forth, all arranged in increasingly difficult combinations as the level progresses. Crash's jumping and spinning attacks were refined in these two levels. The "Cortex Power" level incorporates the original "Sonic's ass" point of view (behind the character and over his shoulder) featured in the two test levels. After working on those three levels, the first operational jungle-themed level, "Jungle Rollers", was created from pieces of the failed first test level arranged into a corridor between trees. Afterward, two to three levels would be developed for each environmental theme created, with the first level featuring an introductory set of challenges and later levels adding new obstacles (such as dropping and moving platforms in the second jungle-themed level) to increase the difficulty. The level layouts and gameplay mechanics were generally not drawn out on paper beforehand and were largely the result of trial and error by the Naughty Dog team. Siller created sketches and summaries to document the result, but later used the documents to claim credit for the game's designs and mechanics.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: After developing the core gameplay, Naughty Dog realized that there were many empty areas in the game due to the PlayStation's inability to generate multiple enemies on-screen. In an attempt to remedy this, they created the "Wumpa Fruit" item in three dimensions by means of a series of textures, but this was not considered sufficiently exciting. On a Saturday in January 1996, Gavin and Rubin conceived the crate mechanic, reasoning that crates would be made up of a low amount of polygons and multiple types of which could be combined to interesting effect. Gavin coded the crates while Rubin modeled some basic crates as well as an exploding TNT crate and drew quick textures. The first crates were integrated into the game six hours later, and many more were placed during the following days. By February 1996 over 20 levels had been created which were in various stages of completion.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Kurosaki designed three quarters of the game's levels. One of the last levels he created was "Stormy Ascent", which was roughly four times longer than the other levels. Although Stormy Ascent was fully playable, Naughty Dog deemed the level too difficult and lacked time to make it easier, and decided to cut it from the game before submitting the gold master to Sony. Because removing the level completely was considered too risky, Stormy Ascent was left hidden within the disc and accessible to play via GameShark. Stormy Ascent was later recreated by Vicarious Visions and released as downloadable content for the "Crash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy" on July 20, 2017.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: The music for "Crash Bandicoot" was a last-minute aspect added to the game before its showing at E3. Siller proposed that rather than conventional music, Gavin could create an "urban chaotic symphony" where random sound effects, such as bird vocalizations, vehicle horns, grunts, and flatulence, would be combined. After Naughty Dog rejected this proposal, Siller introduced them to the music production company Mutato Muzika and its founder Mark Mothersbaugh. According to Siller, Mutato Muzika joined production after speaking with Siller without Naughty Dog being consulted, which resulted in an angry confrontation between Rubin and Siller. Cerny removed Siller from production following this incident. The music was composed by Josh Mancell and produced by Baggett. Mancell's initial tracks for the game were manic and hyperactive before Baggett directed him toward more ambient compositions. The sound effects were created by Mike Gollom, Ron Horwitz and Kevin Spears of Universal Sound Studios. The sound of Ripper Roo's maniacal chortling is a sample of a hyena (voiced by Dallas McKennon) from the 1955 film "Lady and the Tramp". The voice acting was provided by Brendan O'Brien, who came in contact with Rubin through Pearson and recorded his dialogue below the Universal Studios Lot's Hitchcock Theater.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: In September 1995, Andy Gavin and Taylor Kurosaki, using the latter's connections to the "seaQuest DSV" crew, spent two days in the series' editing bay creating a two-minute demo film and gave it to a friend who would show it to Sony Computer Entertainment. Sony appreciated the demonstration, but internal management issues meant that Sony would not sign an agreement with Universal Interactive to publish the game until March 1996. While preparing for the game's demonstration at the 1996 E3, the team decided to finally rename the title character "Crash Bandicoot", a name credited to Kurosaki and Dave Baggett. The character's name was based on his species and the visceral reaction to his destruction of boxes. The names "Dash", "Smash", and "Bash" were also considered. Universal Interactive's marketing director contested the name and objected to the character Tawna for her perceived sexist nature. While Naughty Dog was able to retain the "Crash Bandicoot" name after threatening to leave production, they chose to omit Tawna from subsequent entries in the series based both on this experience and to appease the desire of Sony's Japanese marketing team for a more girlish female supporting character.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Universal Interactive, in an attempt to take credit for "Crash Bandicoot", notified Naughty Dog that they were not allowed to attend E3. In addition, leaked copies of the temporary box cover and press materials for E3 omitted the Naughty Dog logo, in violation of the contract between Naughty Dog and Universal Interactive. In response to this provocation, Jason Rubin drafted and printed 1,000 copies of a document entitled "Naughty Dog, creator and developer of "Crash Bandicoot"" to hand out in front of the "Crash Bandicoot" display at E3. Beforehand, Rubin passed out the flyers "for review" to Universal Interactive, angering its president. "Crash Bandicoot" was first shown at E3 in May 1996 and was met with enthusiastic reactions. "Crash Bandicoot" was displayed at the front of Sony's booth at E3, replacing their original choice of "Twisted Metal".


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Ami Matsumura-Blaire of Sony served as the marketing manager for "Crash Bandicoot" and worked in collaboration with Erik Moe and Chris Graves of TBWA\Chiat\Day to create the game's advertising campaign. Moe and Graves, recognizing that Sony sought to establish itself as a challenger to Nintendo, conceived the idea of "Crash Bandicoot" inspiring a crazed fan to create a Crash outfit and harass Mario from Nintendo's parking lot. The team set a rule against directly insinuating that the video game character and the costumed person in the advertisement were the same individual, as the two entities had different personalities. As the marketing team went to Seattle to film the commercial, they created smaller teasers depicting the fan's journey to Nintendo. The commercial was shot near a Nintendo building, but not the main Nintendo headquarters, which Matsumura-Blaire felt aligned with the campaign's humor; she remarked that "it would totally make sense that this guy hadn't had done his homework and [had] mistakenly gone to the wrong building". An additional commercial featuring Sega was considered but never created due to increasing expenses.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: The development of "Crash Bandicoot" spanned a total of 18 months. It was released in North America on September 9, 1996, and in Europe on November 8, 1996. The game is dedicated to Tae Min Kim, an actor from "Way of the Warrior" who was killed in a cycling accident in 1995.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: In preparation for presenting "Crash Bandicoot" to Sony's Japanese division, Gavin spent a month studying anime and manga, reading English-language books on the subject, watching Japanese films and observing competitive characters in video games. Upon Naughty Dog's first meeting with the executives of Sony Computer Entertainment Japan, the executives handed Naughty Dog a document that compared "Crash" with "Mario" and "Nights into Dreams". Although "Crash" was rated favorably in the graphics department, the main character and the game's non-Japanese "heritage" were seen as weak points. The renderings of the character made specifically for the meeting also proved unimpressive. During a break following the initial meeting, Gavin approached Charlotte Francis, the artist responsible for the renderings, and gave her fifteen minutes to adjust Crash's facial features. Sony Japan bought "Crash" for Japanese distribution after being shown the modified printout.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: The Japanese version of "Crash Bandicoot" was made easier than the original release to appeal to the Japanese PlayStation market's preference for lower difficulty levels. The localization hid the game's American origins as much as possible, featuring no roman letters for instance. Pop-up text instructions given by Aku Aku were added for the Japanese version of the game. Some of the game's music was changed at the request of Sony's Japanese division to be less "edgy". A screen in which Crash is struck by falling crates the player had missed in a level was altered after the Japanese children testing the game reported being disturbed and upset by the image. A death animation in which Crash is reduced to a pair of eyeballs and shoes following an explosion was omitted due to its resemblance to the "modus operandi" of a serial killer loose in Japan at the time.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: The Japanese television advertising campaign for "Crash Bandicoot" included a dance performed by a costumed Crash Bandicoot mascot; the dance was created by Sony Japan's marketing manager Megumi Hosoya. The advertisement's background music became the opening theme for the Japanese versions of subsequent "Crash Bandicoot" games, and the success of the campaign influenced Naughty Dog to incorporate the dance into the games. "Crash Bandicoot" was released in Japan on December 9, 1996. It was later re-released as part of The Best for Family range on May 28, 1998, and the PSOne Books release followed on October 12, 2001.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: "Crash Bandicoot" received generally favorable reviews from critics, with "Electronic Gaming Monthly" and "GameFan" rewarding it the "Game of the Month" title.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Reviewers widely considered the gameplay to be standard for its genre, though some nevertheless regarded it to be enjoyable and polished; E. Storm of "GameFan", who gave both the game and its competitor "Super Mario 64" perfect scores, determined that ""Mario 64" is a perfect action/adventure and that "Crash" is a perfect action/platform". However, Zach Meston of "GameSpot" and a reviewer for "Next Generation" were less forgiving, with Meston deriding the gameplay as "flat as roadkill on a four-lane highway", and the "Next Generation" reviewer declaring the game to be "the single most derivative game to ever hit a console". While the linearity of the levels and lack of room for exploration was a source of disappointment, the shifting perspectives between levels was acknowledged as interesting, although the fixed camera caused reviewers to experience difficulty in judging jumps. The gameplay variety provided by these altered perspectives as well as the bonus rounds and gems was appreciated. The game's difficulty level was commended as challenging without becoming frustrating, though Tommy Glide of "GamePro" and Dan Tsu of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" respectively felt that the bosses and enemies were easy to dispatch. While Nebojsa Radakovic of "GameRevolution" applauded the game's controls, critics generally deemed them to be satisfactory if somewhat sluggish. A reviewer for "Official UK PlayStation Magazine" considered the save points to be "a little misplaced", pointing out a portion of the second island in which there is no save point for three levels.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: The visuals were singled out for praise, with critics declaring them to be the best yet seen on a fifth-generation console. Particular notice was given to the Gouraud shaded textures, colorful and detailed backgrounds, lighting and shadows, smooth animation, and special effects such as flames and water transparency. However, Radakovic felt that the shading was "almost too well done", claiming that it made the game more difficult by making the pits appear to be shadows and vice versa. The game's visual style was compared to a cartoon, with Glide noting that Crash's death animations "lend a Warner Brothers flair". Crash was welcomed as a character for his quirky design and mannerisms, although Glide considered the enemy designs to be tame.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Reactions to the audio were generally positive. E. Storm praised the quality and production of the PCM soundtrack, claiming that "When you hop on the hog you'll wanna squeal "yee-haw!" and when you're in the middle of Castle Machinery you'll feel like friggin' George Jetson". Glide commended the sound effects as "excellent", though he felt that the game's "subtle, unintrusive music may come off as silly to some". Dan Toose of "Hyper" complimented the sound design as adding to the game's cartoonish presentation.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: In 2009, Jim Sterling of "Destructoid" stated that the game has aged poorly since its initial release due to a lack of support for DualShock thumbsticks, a poor camera, and substandard jumping and spinning controls. In 2015, the staff of "Fact" ranked Mancell's score as the 69th greatest video game soundtrack, describing it as "the best Funky house riffs this side of Crazy Cousins". In 2018, the game was ranked #179 in "GamesTM"'s list of "200 Greatest Games of All Time".


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: "Crash Bandicoot" was a commercial success. In the United States, the game was the second-highest renting PlayStation title at Blockbuster Video in its opening month before topping the chart the following month and staying within the top ten for two subsequent months. The game sold over units worldwide in 1996, including 640,000 copies in the United States and Europe, becoming the fourth and fifth best-selling PlayStation game of 1996 in the United States and Europe, respectively. In Australia, the game sold more than 100,000 copies in its first month of release.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: "Crash Bandicoot"s success continued into 1997, in which it was the tenth best selling video game in the United States. In May 1997, "Crash Bandicoot" became the first non-Japanese game to receive a "Gold Prize" in Japan for sales of over 500,000 units, and in September 1997, it was inducted into the Greatest Hits budget range.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: By late February 1998, its sales in the United States reached 1.5 million units, while Japanese and European sales reached 610,000 and 725,000 units, respectively. Sales continued through 1998: PC Data tracked 771,809 domestic sales of "Crash Bandicoot" for the year, which drew $16 million in revenue and made it the United States' 10th-best-selling PlayStation release of the year. The game spent nearly two years on the NPD TRSTS top 20 PlayStation sales charts before finally dropping off in September 1998. In Australia, it was the fourth best-selling home console game of 1998.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: At the 1999 Milia festival in Cannes, "Crash Bandicoot" took home a "Gold" prize for revenues above €17 million in the European Union during 1998. By February 1999, 4.49 million copies of "Crash Bandicoot" had been shipped to retailers worldwide. As of November 2003, "Crash Bandicoot" has sold over 6.8 million units worldwide, making it one of the best selling PlayStation video games of all time and the highest selling ranked on sales in the United States.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Following the release of "Crash Bandicoot", Naughty Dog developed and released two sequels, "" (1997) and "" (1998), and the kart racing game "Crash Team Racing" (1999), all to critical acclaim and commercial success. The "Crash Bandicoot" series established Naughty Dog's reputation in the video game industry, and they found further success with the "Jak and Daxter", "Uncharted" and "The Last of Us" series; Naughty Dog later recreated a level of "Crash Bandicoot" within its 2016 title "". After the publishing deal between Universal Interactive and Sony ended in 2000, several more games were developed for the "Crash Bandicoot" series by different developers, which received mixed reviews.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: "Crash Bandicoot" was released on the PlayStation Network in the United States on December 4, 2006, and in Europe on June 22, 2007. During E3 2016, Sony announced that as part of the series' 20th anniversary, the first three games of the series would be remastered by Vicarious Visions in a compilation titled "Crash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy", which was released for the PlayStation 4 on June 30, 2017.


title: Crash Bandicoot (video game)

text: Dark Horse Books reprinted the original developer's bible for "Crash Bandicoot" as a hardcover publication titled "The Crash Bandicoot Files: How Willy the Wombat Sparked Marsupial Mania", which was released on March 27, 2018.


title: Courage

text: Courage (also called bravery or valor) is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. Valor is courage or bravery, especially in battle.


title: Courage

text: Physical courage is bravery in the face of physical pain, hardship, even death, or threat of death; while moral courage is the ability to act rightly in the face of popular opposition, shame, scandal, discouragement, or personal loss.


title: Courage

text: The classical virtue of fortitude ("andreia, fortitudo") is also translated "courage", but includes the aspects of perseverance and patience. In the Western tradition, notable thoughts on courage have come from philosophers Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, and Kierkegaard, as well as Christian beliefs and texts.


title: Courage

text: In the Hindu tradition, mythology has given many examples of bravery, valor and courage, with examples of both physical and moral courage exemplified. In the Eastern tradition, the Chinese text "Tao Te Ching" offers a great deal of thoughts on courage, both physical and moral.


title: Courage

text: According to Professor Daniel Putman, "courage involves deliberate choice in the face of painful or fearful circumstances for the sake of a worthy goal". With this realization, Putman concludes that "there is a close connection between fear and confidence".


title: Courage

text: Fear and confidence in relation to courage can determine the success of a courageous act or goal. They can be seen as independent variables in courage, and their relationship can affect how we respond to fear. In addition, the confidence that is being discussed here is self-confidence; confidence in knowing one's skills and abilities and being able to determine when to fight fear or when to flee it. Putman states that: "The ideal in courage is not just a rigid control of fear, nor is it a denial of the emotion. The ideal is to judge a situation, accept the emotion as part of human nature and, we hope, use well-developed habits to confront the fear and allow reason to guide our behavior toward a worthwhile goal."


title: Courage

text: According to Putman, Aristotle is referring to an appropriate level of fear and confidence in courage. "Fear, although it might vary from person to person, is not completely relative and is only appropriate if it 'matches the danger of the situation'". The same goes for confidence in that there are two aspects to self-confidence in a dangerous situation.


title: Courage

text: Without an appropriate balance between fear and confidence when facing a threat, one cannot have the courage to overcome it. Putman states "if the two emotions are distinct, then excesses or deficiencies in either fear or confidence can distort courage."


title: Courage

text: Thus, Putman identifies fear and courage as being deeply intertwined and that they rely on distinct perceptions: "the danger of the situation", "the worthiness of the cause", "and the perception of one's ability".


title: Courage

text: Plato's "Laches" discusses courage, but fails to come to a satisfactory conclusion on what courage is. Many definitions of courage are offered.


title: Courage

text: While many definitions are given in Plato's "Laches", all are refuted, giving the reader a sense of Plato's argument style. "Laches" is an early writing of Plato's, which may be a reason he does not come to a clear conclusion. In this early writing, Plato is still developing his ideas and shows influence from his teachers like Socrates.


title: Courage

text: In "The Republic", Plato describes courage as a sort of perseverance – "preservation of the belief that has been inculcated by the law through education about what things and sorts of things are to be feared". Plato explains this perseverance as being able to persevere through all emotions, like suffering, pleasure, and fear.


title: Courage

text: As a desirable quality, courage is discussed broadly in Aristotle in the context of a glorious death in battle for a noble cause. In "Nicomachean Ethics", where its absence is the vice of cowardice and its excess the vice of recklessness, courage represents the mean between the two extremes.


title: Courage

text: Thucydides, a 5th Greek historian, wrote, "The bravest are surely those who have the clearest vision of what is before them, glory and danger alike, and yet notwithstanding, go out to meet it."


title: Courage

text: In the Roman Empire, courage formed part of the universal virtue of "virtus". Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero (106–43 BCE) lists the cardinal virtues but does not name them as such: "Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind ("animi") in harmony with reason and the order of nature. It has four parts: wisdom ("prudentiam"), justice, courage, temperance." However, Cicero held that "a courageous spirit in a human who has not attained perfection and ideal wisdom is generally too impetuous".


title: Courage

text: In "De Officiis Ministrorum", Ambrose echoes Cicero is holding reservations regarding those who exhibit courage without yet having demonstrated a general moral balance. Ambrose held that fortitude without justice is an occasion of injustice; since the stronger a man is the more ready is he to oppress the weaker. Courage is a natural virtue which Saint Augustine did not consider a virtue for Christians.


title: Courage

text: Witness Lee explains the connection of honor through His grace; "A virtue mentioned in Philippians 4:8 is 'honorable'. Honor means dignity. With God in His divinity, it is a matter of His glory, but with us in our humanity, it is a matter of honor or dignity."


title: Courage

text: The "Tao Te Ching" contends that courage is derived from love ("慈故能勇) translated as: ""From love one gains courage.""


title: Courage

text: In Hindu tradition, Courage (shauriya) / Bravery (dhairya), and Patience (taamasa) appear as the first two of ten characteristics (lakshana) of dharma in the Hindu Manusmṛti, alongside forgiveness (kshama), tolerance (dama), honesty (asthaya), physical restraint (indriya nigraha), cleanliness (shouchya), perceptiveness (dhi), knowledge (vidhya), truthfulness (satya), and control of anger (akrodha).


title: Courage

text: Islamic beliefs also present courage and self-control as a key factors in facing the Devil (both internally and externally). Many have this belief because of the courage the Prophets of the past displayed (through peace and patience), despite there being people who despised them.


title: Courage

text: Thomas Hobbes lists virtues into the categories of moral virtues and virtues of men in his work "Man and Citizen". Hobbes outlines moral virtues as virtues in citizens, that is virtues that without exception are beneficial to society as a whole. These moral virtues are justice (i.e. not violating the law) and charity. Courage as well as prudence and temperance are listed as the virtues of men. By this Hobbes means that these virtues are invested solely in the private good as opposed to the public good of justice and charity. Hobbes describes courage and prudence as a strength of mind as opposed to a goodness of manners. These virtues are always meant to act in the interests of individual while the positive and/or negative effects of society are merely a byproduct. This stems forth from the idea put forth in "Leviathan" that the state of nature is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". According to Hobbes courage is a virtue of the individual in order to ensure a better chance of survival while the moral virtues address Hobbes's social contract which civilized men display (in varying degrees) in order to avoid the state of nature. Hobbes also uses the idea of fortitude as an idea of virtue. Fortitude is "to dare" according to Hobbes, but also to "resist stoutly in present dangers". This a more in depth elaboration of Hobbes's concept of courage that is addressed earlier in "Man and Citizen". This idea relates back to Hobbes's idea that self-preservation is the most fundamental aspect of behavior.


title: Courage

text: David Hume listed virtues into two categories in his work "A Treatise of Human Nature" as artificial virtues and natural virtues. Hume noted in the Treatise that courage is a natural virtue. In the Treatise's section "Of Pride and Humility, Their Objects and Causes", Hume clearly stated courage is a cause of pride: "Every valuable quality of the mind, whether of the imagination, judgment, memory or disposition; wit, good-sense, learning, courage, justice, integrity; all these are the cause of pride; and their opposites of humility".


title: Courage

text: Hume also related courage and joy to have positive effects on the soul: "(...) since the soul, when elevated with joy and courage, in a manner seeks opposition, and throws itself with alacrity into any scene of thought or action, where its courage meets with matter to nourish and employ it". Along with courage nourishing and employing, Hume also wrote that courage defends humans in the Treatise: "We easily gain from the liberality of others, but are always in danger of losing by their avarice: Courage defends us, but cowardice lays us open to every attack".


title: Courage

text: Hume wrote what excessive courage does to a hero's character in the Treatise's section "Of the Other Virtues and Vices": "Accordingly we may observe, that an excessive courage and magnanimity, especially when it displays itself under the frowns of fortune, contributes in a great measure, to the character of a hero, and will render a person the admiration of posterity; at the same time, that it ruins his affairs, and leads him into dangers and difficulties, with which otherwise he would never have been acquainted".


title: Courage

text: Other understandings of courage that Hume offered can be derived from Hume's views on morals, reason, sentiment, and virtue from his work "An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals."


title: Courage

text: Søren Kierkegaard opposed courage to angst, while Paul Tillich opposed an existential "courage to be" with non-being, fundamentally equating it with religion:


title: Courage

text: J.R.R. Tolkien identified in his 1936 lecture "" a "Northern 'theory of courage'" – the heroic or "virtuous pagan" insistence to do the right thing even in the face of certain defeat without promise of reward or salvation:


title: Courage

text: Virtuous pagan heroism or courage in this sense is "trusting in your own strength", as observed by Jacob Grimm in his "Teutonic Mythology":


title: Courage

text: Winston Churchill stated, "Courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities because it is the quality that guarantees all others."


title: Courage

text: According to Maya Angelou, "Courage is the most important of the virtues, because without courage you can't practice any other virtue consistently. You can practice any virtue erratically, but nothing consistently without courage."


title: Courage

text: In "Beyond Good and Evil", Friedrich Nietzsche describes master–slave morality, in which a noble man regards himself as a "determiner of values"; one who does not require approval, but passes judgment. Later, in the same text, he lists man's four virtues as courage, insight, sympathy, and solitude, and goes on to emphasize the importance of courage: "The great epochs of our life are the occasions when we gain the courage to re-baptize our evil qualities as our best qualities."


title: Courage

text: Researchers who want to study the concept and the emotion of courage have continued to come across a certain problem. While there are "numerous definitions of courage", they are unable to set "an operational definition of courage on which to base sound explicit theories". Rate et al. states that because of a lack of an operational definition, the advancement of research in courage is limited. So they conducted studies to try to find "a common structure of courage". Their goal from their research of implicit theories was to find "people's form and content on the idea of courage". Many researchers created studies on implicit theories by creating a questionnaire that would ask "What is courage?". In addition, in order to "develop a measurement scale of courage, ten experts in the field of psychology came together to define courage. They defined it as:


title: Courage

text: Also, because courage is a "multi-dimensional construct, it can be "better understood as an exceptional response to specific external conditions or circumstances than as an attribute, disposition, or character trait". Meaning that rather than being a show character or an attribute, courage is a response to fear.


title: Courage

text: From their research, they were able to find the "four necessary components of people's notion of courage". They are:


title: Courage

text: To further the discussion of the implicit theories of courage, the researchers stated that future research could consider looking into the concept of courage and fear and how individual's might feel fear, overcome it and act, and act despite it.


title: Courage

text: The term "clinical courage" came to light in relation to modern medicine in the 2000s, mostly in relation to the practice of medicine in remote or resource-limited settings. The concept has been described as the practice of medicine outside of a clinician's usual scope of practice, or relevant clinical guidelines, in order to provide essential medical care, where no alternative exists. It has been specifically discussed in relation to rural generalists, paramedics, general practice and rural medicine. The opposing theory is that of clinical recklessness, in which the actions of a clinician in stepping outside of their competence results in unprofessional behaviour, which exposes patients to risk or harm.


title: Courage

text: One symbol often associated with courage is that of the lion. It is sometimes seen in the Catholic Church as a depiction of Christ's triumph over sin. It also is a symbol in some cultures as a savior of the people who live in a community with sin and corruption.


title: Courage

text: Fortitude and courage are distinguishable in that fortitude is the mental or emotional strength that enables courage in the face of adversity. According to Presbyterian theologian William Swan Plumer, "There is also, in strict propriety of language, a difference between courage and fortitude. Courage faces and resists danger; fortitude endures pain... Courage is for action; fortitude for suffering. In this sense, fortitude differs little from constancy and patient endurance."


title: Courage

text: Aquinas says that fortitude ranks third after prudence and justice among the cardinal virtues. He distinguishes fortitude from fearlessness, which can too easily become recklessness through short-sighted audacity with disastrous results. In both Catholicism and Anglicanism, fortitude is also one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.


title: Cuisine

text: A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. Regional food preparation techniques, customs, and ingredients combine to enable dishes unique to a region.


title: Cuisine

text: A cuisine is partly determined by ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Regional ingredients are developed and commonly contribute to a regional or national cuisine, such as Japanese rice in Japanese cuisine or New Mexico chile in New Mexican cuisine. Likewise, national dishes have variations, such as gyros in Greek cuisine and hamburger in American cuisine.


title: Cuisine

text: Religious food laws can also exercise an influence on cuisine, such as Hinduism in Indian cuisine, Sikhism in Punjabi cuisine, Buddhism in East Asian cuisine, Christianity in European cuisine, Islam in Middle Eastern cuisine, and Judaism in Jewish and Israeli cuisine.


title: Cuisine

text: Some factors that have an influence on a region's cuisine include the area's climate, the trade among different countries, religious or sumptuary laws and culinary culture exchange. For example, a tropical diet may be based more on fruits and vegetables, while a polar diet might rely more on meat and fish.


title: Cuisine

text: The area's climate, in large measure, determines the native foods that are available. In addition, climate influences food preservation. For example, foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, and pickling have remained significant in world cuisines for their altered gustatory properties.


title: Cuisine

text: The trade among different countries also largely affects a region's cuisine. Dating back to the ancient spice trade, seasonings such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, and turmeric were important items of commerce in the earliest evolution of trade, and India was a global market for this. Cinnamon and cassia found their way to the Middle East at least 4,000 years ago.


title: Cuisine

text: Certain foods and food preparations are required or proscribed by the religiousness or sumptuary laws, such as Islamic dietary laws and Jewish dietary laws.


title: Cuisine

text: Culinary culture exchange is also an important factor for cuisine in many regions: Japan's first substantial and direct exposure to the West came with the arrival of European missionaries in the second half of the 16th century. At that time, the combination of Spanish and Portuguese game frying techniques with an East Asian method for cooking vegetables in oil led to the development of "tempura", the "popular Japanese dish in which seafood and many different types of vegetables are coated with batter and deep fried".


title: Cuisine

text: Cuisine dates back to the Antiquity. As food began to require more planning, there was an emergence of meals that situated around culture.


title: Cuisine

text: Cuisines evolve continually, and new cuisines are created by innovation and cultural interaction. One recent example is fusion cuisine, which combines elements of various culinary traditions while not being categorized per any one cuisine style, and generally refers to the innovations in many contemporary restaurant cuisines since the 1970s. "Nouvelle cuisine" (New cuisine) is an approach to cooking and food presentation in French cuisine that was popularized in the 1960s by the food critics Henri Gault, who invented the phrase, and his colleagues André Gayot and Christian Millau in a new restaurant guide, the Gault-Millau, or "Le Nouveau Guide". Molecular cuisine, is a modern style of cooking which takes advantage of many technical innovations from the scientific disciplines (molecular cooking). The term was coined in 1999 by the French INRA chemist Hervé This because he wanted to distinguish it from the name Molecular gastronomy (a scientific activity) that was introduced by him and the late Oxford physicist Nicholas Kurti in 1988. It is also named as multi sensory cooking, modernist cuisine, culinary physics, and experimental cuisine by some chefs. Besides, international trade brings new foodstuffs including ingredients to existing cuisines and leads to changes. The introduction of hot pepper to China from South America around the end of the 17th century, greatly influencing Sichuan cuisine, which combines the original taste (with use of Sichuan pepper) with the taste of newly introduced hot pepper and creates a unique mala () flavor that's mouth-numbingly spicy and pungent.


title: Cuisine

text: A global cuisine is a cuisine that is practiced around the world, and can be categorized according to the common use of major foodstuffs, including grains, produce and cooking fats.


title: Cuisine

text: Regional cuisines can vary based on availability and usage of specific ingredients, local cooking traditions and practices, as well as overall cultural differences. Such factors can be more-or-less uniform across wide swaths of territory, or vary intensely within individual regions. For example, in Central and North South America, corn (maize), both fresh and dried, is a staple food, and is used in many different ways. In northern Europe, wheat, rye, and fats of animal origin predominate, while in southern Europe olive oil is ubiquitous and rice is more prevalent. In Italy, the cuisine of the north, featuring butter and rice, stands in contrast to that of the south, with its wheat pasta and olive oil. In some parts of China, rice is the staple, while in others this role is filled by noodles and bread. Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean, common ingredients include lamb, olive oil, lemons, peppers, and rice. The vegetarianism practiced in much of India has made pulses (crops harvested solely for the dry seed) such as chickpeas and lentils as important as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia, the extensive use of spices is characteristic; coconuts and seafood are also used throughout the region both as foodstuffs and as seasonings.


title: Cuisine

text: African cuisines use a combination of locally available fruits, cereals and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features a preponderance of milk, curd and whey products. In much of tropical Africa, however, cow's milk is rare and cannot be produced locally (owing to various diseases that affect livestock). The continent's diverse demographic makeup is reflected in the many different eating and drinking habits, dishes, and preparation techniques of its manifold populations.


title: Cuisine

text: Due to Asia's vast size and extremely diverse geography and demographics, Asian cuisines are many and varied, and include East Asian cuisine, South Asian cuisine, Southeast Asian cuisine, Central Asian cuisine and West Asian cuisine. Ingredients common to East Asia and Southeast Asia (due to overseas Chinese influence) include rice, ginger, garlic, sesame seeds, chilies, dried onions, soy, and tofu, with stir frying, steaming, and deep frying being common cooking methods. While rice is common to most regional cuisines in Asia, different varieties are popular in the different regions: Basmati rice is popular in South Asia, Jasmine rice in Southeast Asia, and long-grain rice in China and short-grain rice in Japan and Korea. Curry is also a common ingredient found in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia (notably Japanese curry); however, they are not popular in West Asian and Central Asian cuisines. Those curry dishes with origins in South Asia usually have a yogurt base, with origins in Southeast Asia a coconut milk base, and in East Asia a stewed meat and vegetable base. South Asian cuisine and Southeast Asian cuisine are often characterized by their extensive use of spices and herbs native to the tropical regions of Asia.


title: Cuisine

text: European cuisine (alternatively, "Western cuisine") include the cuisines of Europe and other Western countries. European cuisine includes non-indigenous cuisines of North America, Australasia, Oceania, and Latin America as well. The term is used by East Asians to contrast with East Asian styles of cooking. When used in English, the term may refer more specifically to cuisine "in" (Continental) Europe; in this context, a synonym is Continental cuisine.


title: Cuisine

text: Oceanian cuisines include Australian cuisine, New Zealand cuisine, and the cuisines from many other islands or island groups throughout Oceania. Australian cuisine consists of immigrant Anglo-Celtic derived cuisine, and Bushfood prepared and eaten by native Aboriginal Australian peoples, and various newer Asian influences. New Zealand cuisine also consists of European inspired dishes, such as Pavlova, and native Maori cuisine. Across Oceania, staples include the Kumura (Sweet potato) and Taro, which was/is a staple from Papua New Guinea to the South Pacific. On most islands in the south pacific, fish are widely consumed because of the proximity to the ocean.


title: Cuisine

text: The cuisines of the Americas are found across North and South America, and are based on the cuisines of the countries from which the immigrant people came, primarily Europe. However, the traditional European cuisine has been adapted by the addition of many local and native ingredients, and many techniques have been added to traditional foods as well. Native American cuisine is prepared by indigenous populations across the continent, and its influences can be seen on multi-ethnic Latin American cuisine. Many staple foods eaten across the continent, such as corn (maize), beans, and potatoes have native origins. The regional cuisines are North American cuisine, Mexican cuisine, Central American cuisine, South American cuisine, and Caribbean cuisine.


title: Giri/Haji

text: Kenzo Mori (Takehiro Hira), a Tokyo detective, travels to London in search of his brother, Yuto (Yōsuke Kubozuka), who was previously assumed to be dead. Yuto has been accused of murdering the nephew of a Yakuza member, which threatens to start a gang war in Tokyo. As Kenzo attempts to navigate the unfamiliar territory of London to uncover whether his brother is alive and guilty, he becomes acquainted with DC Sarah Weitzmann (Kelly Macdonald) of the Metropolitan Police and Rodney Yamaguchi (Will Sharpe), a young half-Japanese, half-British sex worker. While searching for Yuto in London, Kenzo must also support his family back home in Tokyo. Kenzo's investigation brings him into contact with dangerous elements of London's criminal underworld.


title: Giri/Haji

text: "Giri/Haji" was announced in May 2017 as one of several new commissions by the BBC's Controller of Drama, Piers Wenger, alongside "Informer", "The War of the Worlds", "Black Narcissus", "A Suitable Boy", "Little Women", "A Very English Scandal", "Come Home" and "Mrs Wilson" for BBC One. In August 2018, it was confirmed that "Giri/Haji" would air on BBC Two. Wenger described the series as "unlike anything we've ever seen before on British TV".


title: Giri/Haji

text: Filming began in London around August 2018, and continued in Hastings in March 2019. Filming also took place in Tokyo.


title: Giri/Haji

text: Series lead Takehiro Hira commented on the challenging nature of shooting the bilingual script: "We did have some hard times with the translation... Little nuances on the text didn’t match, or didn’t translate well. So we went back and forth with Joe and the director. It was a challenge, but one we enjoyed."


title: Giri/Haji

text: "Giri/Haji" received critical acclaim. 100% of 22 critic reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes are positive for the series, earning an average rating of 9.06/10. The consensus on the website reads, "Smart, suspenseful, and superbly shot, "Giri/Haji" is a near-perfect crime thriller with a surprisingly sharp sense of humor."


title: Giri/Haji

text: Writing for the "Radio Times", Patrick Cremona described "Giri/Haji" as a "breath of fresh air" and a "masterful and sprawling thriller", awarding the series five stars out of five. "The Times" critic Carol Migley awarded the opening episode four stars out of five, while "The Daily Telegraph" reviewer Michael Hogan gave it five stars out of five, describing it as "impressionistic, playful and unashamedly arty", as well as "bold, bewitching and slightly bonkers". "The New Yorker" included the series in an article about the best programmes available on streaming services, with reviewer Doreen St. Félix writing: "violently stylish, and also plain violent, "Giri/Haji" is a filial drama crossed with a sprawling, sexy police thriller". "The Guardian"'s Lucy Mangan was more critical, awarding the series three out of five stars based on a partial viewing. Mangan complimented the "unfetishised" portrayal of Japan, but described the series as "a bore" and criticised the more familiar genre tropes. David Cirone of "J-Generation" criticized the series as going "heavy on theme, light on story", and NPR's "Fresh Air" critic John Powers noted that the show's "excesses can get a bit silly".


title: Iris (mythology)

text: In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Iris (; ; ) is a daughter of the gods Thaumas and Electra, the personification of the rainbow and messenger of the gods, a servant to the Olympians and especially Queen Hera. Iris appears in several stories carrying messages from and to the gods or running errands but has no unique mythology of her own. Similarly, very little to none of a historical cult and worship of Iris is attested in surviving records, with only a few traces surviving from the island of Delos. In ancient art, Iris is depicted as a winged young woman carrying a caduceus, the symbol of the messengers, and a pitcher of water for the gods. Iris was traditionally seen as the consort of Zephyrus, the god of the west wind and one of the four Anemoi, by whom she is the mother of Pothos in some versions.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: The ancient Greek noun "" means both the rainbow and the halo of the Moon. An inscription from Corinth provides evidence for an original form ("wîris") with a digamma that was eventually dropped. The noun seems to be of pre-Greek origin. A Proto-Indo-European pre-form "*uhi-r-i-" has been suggested, although Beekes finds it 'hard to motivate.'


title: Iris (mythology)

text: According to Hesiod's "Theogony", Iris is the daughter of Thaumas and the Oceanid Electra and the sister of the Harpies: Arke and Ocypete. During the Titanomachy, Iris was the messenger of the Olympian gods while her sister Arke betrayed the Olympians and became the messenger of the gods' enemy, the Titans.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: Zephyrus, who is the god of the west wind, is her consort. Together they had a son named Pothos, or alternatively they were the parents of Eros, the god of love, according to sixth century BC Greek lyric poet Alcaeus, though Eros is usually said to be the son of Ares and Aphrodite. According to the "Dionysiaca" of Nonnus, Iris' brother is Hydaspes.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: She is also known as one of the goddesses of the sea and the sky. Iris links the gods to humanity. She travels with the speed of wind from one end of the world to the other and into the depths of the sea and the underworld.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: Iris is said to travel on the rainbow while carrying messages from the gods to mortals. In some records, Iris is a sister to fellow messenger goddess Arke ("swift", "quick"), who flew out of the company of Olympian gods to join the Titans as their messenger goddess during the Titanomachy, making the two sisters enemy messenger goddesses. After the war was won by Zeus and his allies, Zeus tore Arke's wings from her and in time gave them as a gift to the Nereid Thetis at her wedding to Peleus, who in turn gave them to her son, Achilles, who wore them on his feet. Achilles was sometimes known as "podarkes" (feet like [the wings of] Arke). Podarces was also the original name of Priam, the king of Troy.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: Following her daughter Persephone's abduction by Hades, the goddess of agriculture Demeter withdrew to her temple in Eleusis and made the earth barren, causing a great famine that killed off mortals, and as a result sacrifices to the gods ceased. Zeus then sent Iris to Demeter, calling her to join the other gods and lift her curse; but as her daughter was not returned, Demeter was not persuaded.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: In one narrative, after Leto and her children pleaded with Zeus to release Prometheus from his torment, Zeus relented, and sent Iris to order Heracles to free the unfortunate Prometheus.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: After Ceyx drowned in a shipwreck, Hera made Iris convey her orders to Hypnos, the god of sleep. Iris flew and found him in his cave, and informed him that Hera wished for Ceyx's wife, Alcyone, to be informed of her loved one's death in her dreams. After delivering Hera's command, Iris left immediately, not standing to be near Hypnos for too long, for his powers took hold of her, and made her dizzy and sleepy.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: In Aristophanes's comedy "The Birds", the titular birds build a city in the sky and plan to supplant the Olympian gods. Iris, as the messenger, goes to meet them, but she is ridiculed, insulted, and threatened with rape by their leader Pisetaerus, an elderly Athenian man. Iris appears confused that Pisetearus does not know who the gods are and that she is one of them. Pisetaerus then tells her that the birds are the gods now, the deities whom the humans must sacrifice to. After Pisetaerus threatens to rape her, Iris scolds him for his foul language and leaves, warning him that Zeus, whom she refers to as her father, will deal with him and make him pay.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: Iris also appears several times in Virgil's "Aeneid", usually as an agent of Juno. In Book 4, Juno dispatches her to pluck a lock of hair from the head of Queen Dido, so that she may die and enter Hades. In book 5, Iris, having taken on the form of a Trojan woman, stirs up the other Trojan mothers to set fire to four of Aeneas' ships in order to prevent them from leaving Sicily.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: According to the Roman poet Ovid, after Romulus was deified as the god Quirinus, his wife Hersilia pleaded with the gods to let her become immortal as well so that she could be with her husband once again. Juno heard her plea and sent Iris down to her. With a single finger, Iris touched Hersilia and transformed her into an immortal goddess. Hersilia flew to Olympus, where she became one of the Horae and was permitted to live with her husband forevermore.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: According to the lost epic "Cypria" by Stasinus, it was Iris who informed Menelaus, who had sailed off to Crete, of what had happened back in Sparta while he was gone, namely his wife Helen's elopement with the Trojan Prince Paris as well as the death of Helen's brother Castor.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: Iris is frequently mentioned as a divine messenger in "The Iliad", which is attributed to Homer. She does not, however, appear in "The Odyssey," where her role is instead filled by Hermes. Like Hermes, Iris carries a caduceus or winged staff. By command of Zeus, the king of the gods, she carries a ewer of water from the River Styx, with which she puts to sleep all who perjure themselves. In Book XXIII, she delivers Achilles's prayer to Boreas and Zephyrus to light the funeral pyre of Patroclus. In the last book, Zeus sends Iris to King Priam, to tell him that he should go to the Achaean camp alone and ransom the body of his slain son Hector from Achilles. Iris swiftly delivers the message to Priam and returns to Olympus.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: According to the "Homeric Hymn to Apollo", when Leto was in labor prior to giving birth to her twin children Apollo and Artemis, all the goddesses were in attendance except for two, Hera and Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth. On the ninth day of her labor, Leto told Iris to bribe Eileithyia and ask for her help in giving birth to her children, without allowing Hera to find out. According to Callimachus, Iris along with Ares ordered, on Hera's orders, all cities and other places to shun the pregnant Leto and deny her shelter where she could bring forth her twins. After Asteria, now transformed into the island of Delos, offered shelter to Leto, Iris flew back to Hera to inform her that Leto had been allowed to give birth due to Asteria defying Hera's orders, and took her seat beside Hera.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: According to Apollonius Rhodius, Iris turned back the Argonauts Zetes and Calais, who had pursued the Harpies to the Strophades ("Islands of Turning"). The brothers had driven off the monsters from their torment of the prophet Phineus, but did not kill them upon the request of Iris, who promised that Phineus would not be bothered by the Harpies again.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: After King Creon of Thebes forbade the burial of the dead Argive soldiers who had raised their arms against Thebes, Hera ordered Iris to moisturize their dead bodies with dew and ambrosia.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: In a lesser-known narrative, Iris once came close to being raped by the satyrs after she attempted to disrupt their worship of Dionysus, perhaps at the behest of Hera. About fifteen black-and-red-figure vase paintings dating from the fifth century BC depict said satyrs either menacingly advancing toward or getting hold of her when she tries to interfere with the sacrifice. In another cup, Iris is depicted being assaulted by the satyrs, who apparently are trying to prevent Iris from stealing sacrificial meat from the altar of Dionysus, who is also present in the scene. On the other side, the satyrs are attacking Hera, who stands between Hermes and Heracles. The ancient playwright Achaeus wrote "Iris", a now lost satyr play, which might have been the source of those vases' subject.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: In Euripides' play "Heracles Gone Mad", Iris appears alongside Lyssa, the goddess of madness and insanity, cursing Heracles with the fit of madness in which he kills his three sons and his wife Megara. Iris also prepared the bed of Zeus and Hera.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: Unlike the other prominent messenger god of the Greeks, Hermes, Iris did not play a large part in the ancient Greek religion and was rarely worshipped. There are no known temples, shrines, or sanctuaries to Iris, or festivals held in her honour. While she is frequently depicted on vases and in bas-reliefs, few statues are known to have been made of Iris during antiquity. She was however depicted in sculpture on the west pediment of Parthenon in Athens.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: Iris does appear to have been the object of at least some minor worship, but the only trace preserved of her cult is the note by Athenaeus in "Scholars at Dinner" that the people of Delos sacrificed to Iris, offering her cheesecakes called "basyniae", a type of cake of wheat-flour, suet, and honey, boiled up together.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: Iris had numerous poetic titles and epithets, including "chrysopteros" ( "golden winged"), "podas ōkea" ( "swift footed") or "podēnemos ōkea" ( "wind-swift footed"), "roscida" ("dewy", Latin), and "Thaumantias" or "Thaumantis" (, , "Daughter of Thaumas, Wondrous One"), "aellopus" ( "storm-footed, storm-swift). She also watered the clouds with her pitcher, obtaining the water from the sea.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: Iris is represented either as a rainbow or as a beautiful young maiden with wings on her shoulders. As a goddess, Iris is associated with communication, messages, the rainbow, and new endeavors. This personification of a rainbow was once described as being a link to the heavens and earth.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: In some texts she is depicted wearing a coat of many colors. With this coat she actually creates the rainbows she rides to get from place to place. Iris' wings were said to be so beautiful that she could even light up a dark cavern, a trait observable from the story of her visit to Somnus in order to relay a message to Alcyone.


title: Iris (mythology)

text: While Iris was principally associated with communication and messages, she was also believed to aid in the fulfillment of humans' prayers, either by fulfilling them herself or by bringing them to the attention of other deities.


title: Jackie Siegel

text: Jacqueline "Jackie" Siegel (; born January 19, 1966) is an American socialite, model, actress and beauty pageant director. She is one of the main subjects of the 2012 documentary film "The Queen of Versailles", directed by Lauren Greenfield.


title: Jackie Siegel

text: Siegel, born Jacqueline Mallery to John and Deborah Mallery, was raised in Endwell, New York and graduated from the Rochester Institute of Technology in 1989 with a bachelor's degree in computer engineering.


title: Jackie Siegel

text: In 1993, she won the Mrs. Florida America beauty pageant. She now owns the Mrs. Florida America beauty pageant contest and serves as its director.


title: Jackie Siegel

text: Siegel is on the board of directors of Westgate Resorts and Ocoee Thrift Mart, a store selling used goods that she owns and founded and which donates some of its profits to charity. She also founded the charity Locals Helping Locals.


title: Jackie Siegel

text: The television series "The Queen of Versailles Reigns Again", which continues the story on the house and on Siegel family, started airing on the Discovery+ streaming service in Spring 2022.


title: Jackie Siegel

text: Siegel is the wife of Westgate Resorts owner David Siegel. They married in a Jewish ceremony in 2000. They have eight children together, including her adopted niece, Jonquil, who came to live with them after her mother died, and one daughter from a previous relationship, Victoria. Their other children are: David, Daniel, Debbie, Drew, and twins, Jacqueline and Jordan. Her daughter, Victoria, died of a drug overdose at age 18 in June 2015.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere is a trace gas that plays an integral part in the greenhouse effect, carbon cycle, photosynthesis and oceanic carbon cycle. It is one of several greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere that are contributing to climate change due to increasing emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities. The current global average concentration of CO in the atmosphere is 421 ppm as of May 2022. This is an increase of 50% since the start of the Industrial Revolution, up from 280 ppm during the 10,000 years to the mid-18th century. The increase is due to human activity. Burning fossil fuels is the main cause of these increased CO concentrations and also the main cause of climate change. Other large anthropogenic sources include cement production, deforestation, and biomass burning.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: While transparent to visible light, carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, absorbing and emitting infrared radiation at its two infrared-active vibrational frequencies. absorbs and emits infrared radiation at wavelengths of 4.26 μm (2,347 cm) (asymmetric stretching vibrational mode) and 14.99 μm (667 cm) (bending vibrational mode). It plays a significant role in influencing Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect. Light emission from the Earth's surface is most intense in the infrared region between 200 and 2500 cm, as opposed to light emission from the much hotter Sun which is most intense in the visible region. Absorption of infrared light at the vibrational frequencies of atmospheric traps energy near the surface, warming the surface and the lower atmosphere. Less energy reaches the upper atmosphere, which is therefore cooler because of this absorption.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone increase the absorption and emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere, causing the observed rise in average global temperature and ocean acidification. Another direct effect is the CO fertilization effect. These changes cause a range of indirect effects of climate change on the physical environment, ecosystems and human societies. Carbon dioxide exerts a larger overall warming influence than all of the other greenhouse gases combined. It has an atmospheric lifetime that increases with the cumulative amount of fossil carbon extracted and burned, due to the imbalance that this activity has imposed on Earth's fast carbon cycle. This means that some fraction (a projected 20-35%) of the fossil carbon transferred thus far will persist in the atmosphere as elevated levels for many thousands of years after these carbon transfer activities begin to subside. The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth's oceans, soil, rocks and the biosphere. Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis. Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: The present atmospheric concentration of is the highest for 14 million years. Concentrations of in the atmosphere were as high as 4,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago, when the concentration was 20 times greater than today, and as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years. Reconstructed temperature records for the last 420 million years indicate that atmospheric concentrations peaked at ~2,000 ppm during the Devonian (~400 Ma) period, and again in the Triassic (220–200 Ma) period and was four times current levels during the Jurassic period (201-145 Ma).


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric concentration have been increasing, causing global warming and ocean acidification. As of May 2022, the average monthly level of in Earth's atmosphere reached 421 parts per million by volume (ppm). “Parts per million” refers to the number of carbon dioxide molecules per million molecules of dry air. Previously, the value was 280 ppm during the 10,000 years up to the mid-18th century.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Each part per million of in the atmosphere represents approximately 2.13 gigatonnes of carbon, or 7.82 gigatonnes of .


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: It was pointed out in 2021 that "the current rates of increase of the concentration of the major greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) are unprecedented over at least the last 800,000 years".


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Atmospheric concentrations fluctuate slightly with the seasons, falling during the Northern Hemisphere spring and summer as plants consume the gas and rising during northern autumn and winter as plants go dormant or die and decay. The level drops by about 6 or 7 ppm (about 50 Gt) from May to September during the Northern Hemisphere's growing season, and then goes up by about 8 or 9 ppm. The Northern Hemisphere dominates the annual cycle of concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations reach a peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins, and decline to a minimum in October, near the end of the growing season.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Concentrations also vary on a regional basis, most strongly near the ground with much smaller variations aloft. In urban areas concentrations are generally higher and indoors they can reach 10 times background levels.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: The concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are expressed as parts per million by volume (abbreviated as ppmv or just ppm). To convert from the usual ppmv units to ppm mass, multiply by the ratio of the molar weight of CO to that of air, i.e. times 1.52 (44.01 divided by 28.96).


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: The first reproducibly accurate measurements of atmospheric CO were from flask sample measurements made by Dave Keeling at Caltech in the 1950s. Measurements at Mauna Loa have been ongoing since 1958. Additionally, measurements are also made at many other sites around the world. Many measurement sites are part of larger global networks. Global network data are often made publicly available.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: There are several surface measurement (including flasks and continuous in situ) networks including NOAA/ERSL, WDCGG, and RAMCES. The NOAA/ESRL Baseline Observatory Network, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Network data are hosted at the CDIAC at ORNL. The World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases (WDCGG), part of GAW, data are hosted by the JMA. The Reseau Atmospherique de Mesure des Composes an Effet de Serre database (RAMCES) is part of IPSL.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: From these measurements, further products are made which integrate data from the various sources. These products also address issues such as data discontinuity and sparseness. GLOBALVIEW- is one of these products.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Ongoing ground-based total column measurements began more recently. Column measurements typically refer to an averaged column amount denoted X, rather than a surface only measurement. These measurements are made by the TCCON. These data are also hosted on the CDIAC, and made publicly available according to the data use policy.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are also a recent addition to atmospheric X measurements. SCIAMACHY aboard ESA's ENVISAT made global column X measurements from 2002 to 2012. AIRS aboard NASA's Aqua satellite makes global X measurements and was launched shortly after ENVISAT in 2012. More recent satellites have significantly improved the data density and precision of global measurements. Newer missions have higher spectral and spatial resolutions. JAXA's GOSAT was the first dedicated GHG monitoring satellite to successfully achieve orbit in 2009. NASA's OCO-2 launched in 2014 was the second. Various other satellites missions to measure atmospheric X are planned.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: While absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity. Anthropogenic carbon emissions exceed the amount that can be taken up or balanced out by natural sinks. Thus carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere and, as of May 2022, its concentration is 50% above pre-industrial levels.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: The extraction and burning of fossil fuels, releasing carbon that has been underground for many millions of years, has increased the atmospheric concentration of . As of year 2019 the extraction and burning of geologic fossil carbon by humans releases over 30 gigatonnes of (9 billion tonnes carbon) each year. This larger disruption to the natural balance is responsible for recent growth in the atmospheric concentration. Currently about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans and remains in the atmosphere.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas is the leading cause of increased anthropogenic ; deforestation is the second major cause. In 2010, 9.14 gigatonnes of carbon (GtC, equivalent to 33.5 gigatonnes of or about 4.3 ppm in Earth's atmosphere) were released from fossil fuels and cement production worldwide, compared to 6.15 GtC in 1990. In addition, land use change contributed 0.87 GtC in 2010, compared to 1.45 GtC in 1990. In the period 1751 to 1900, about 12 GtC were released as to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels, whereas from 1901 to 2013 the figure was about 380 GtC.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Earth's natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible and carbon dioxide plays a significant role in providing for the relatively high temperature on Earth. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average surface temperature would be about compared to Earth's actual average surface temperature of approximately 14 °C (57.2 °F).


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Water is responsible for most (about 36-70%) of the total greenhouse effect, and the role of water vapor as a greenhouse gas depends on temperature. On Earth, carbon dioxide is the most relevant, direct anthropologically influenced greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is often mentioned in the context of its increased influence as a greenhouse gas since the pre-industrial (1750) era. In 2013, the increase in CO was estimated to be responsible for 1.82 W m of the 2.63 W m change in radiative forcing on Earth (about 70%).


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: The concept of atmospheric CO increasing ground temperature was first published by Svante Arrhenius in 1896. The increased radiative forcing due to increased CO in the Earth's atmosphere is based on the physical properties of CO and the non-saturated absorption windows where CO absorbs outgoing long-wave energy. The increased forcing drives further changes in Earth's energy balance and, over the longer term, in Earth's climate.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Atmospheric carbon dioxide plays an integral role in the Earth's carbon cycle whereby is removed from the atmosphere by some natural processes such as photosynthesis and deposition of carbonates, to form limestones for example, and added back to the atmosphere by other natural processes such as respiration and the acid dissolution of carbonate deposits. There are two broad carbon cycles on Earth: the fast carbon cycle and the slow carbon cycle. The fast carbon cycle refers to movements of carbon between the environment and living things in the biosphere whereas the slow carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, soil, rocks, and volcanism. Both cycles are intrinsically interconnected and atmospheric facilitates the linkage.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Natural sources of atmospheric include volcanic outgassing, the combustion of organic matter, wildfires and the respiration processes of living aerobic organisms. Man-made sources of include the burning of fossil fuels for heating, power generation and transport, as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various microorganisms from fermentation and cellular respiration. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria convert carbon dioxide to carbohydrates by a process called photosynthesis. They gain the energy needed for this reaction from absorption of sunlight by chlorophyll and other pigments. Oxygen, produced as a by-product of photosynthesis, is released into the atmosphere and subsequently used for respiration by heterotrophic organisms and other plants, forming a cycle with carbon.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Most sources of emissions are natural, and are balanced to various degrees by similar sinks. For example, the decay of organic material in forests, grasslands, and other land vegetation - including forest fires - results in the release of about 436 gigatonnes of (containing 119 gigatonnes carbon) every year, while uptake by new growth on land counteracts these releases, absorbing 451 Gt (123 Gt C). Although much in the early atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by volcanic activity, modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 megatonnes of each year. Natural sources are more or less balanced by natural sinks, in the form of chemical and biological processes which remove from the atmosphere.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Overall, there is a large natural flux of atmospheric into and out of the biosphere, both on land and in the oceans. In the pre-industrial era, each of these fluxes were in balance to such a degree that little net flowed between the land and ocean reservoirs of carbon, and little change resulted in the atmospheric concentration. From the human pre-industrial era to 1940, the terrestrial biosphere represented a net source of atmospheric (driven largely by land-use changes), but subsequently switched to a net sink with growing fossil carbon emissions. In 2012, about 57% of human-emitted , mostly from the burning of fossil carbon, was taken up by land and ocean sinks.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: The ratio of the increase in atmospheric to emitted is known as the "airborne fraction". This ratio varies in the short-term and is typically about 45% over longer (5-year) periods. Estimated carbon in global terrestrial vegetation increased from approximately 740 gigatonnes in 1910 to 780 gigatonnes in 1990.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is essential to life and to most of the planetary biosphere. The average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which is about six times larger than the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 billion metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, since "photoheterotrophs" use organic compounds, rather than , as a source of carbon. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called "oxygenic photosynthesis". Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. However, there are some types of bacteria that carry out anoxygenic photosynthesis, which consumes but does not release oxygen.