title: Aquarium

text: In addition to bioload/chemical considerations, aquarists also consider the mutual compatibility of the fish. For instance, predatory fish are usually not kept with small, passive species, and territorial fish are often unsuitable tankmates for shoaling species. Furthermore, fish tend to fare better if given tanks conducive to their size. That is, large fish need large tanks and small fish can do well in smaller tanks. Lastly, the tank can become overcrowded without being overstocked. In other words, the aquarium can be suitable with regard to filtration capacity, oxygen load, and water, yet still be so crowded that the inhabitants are uncomfortable.


title: Aquarium

text: For planted freshwater aquariums, it is also important to maintain a balance between the duration and quality of light, the amount of plants, CO levels and nutrients. The amount of fish on the tank can also affect the nutrients levels. For a given amount of light, if there is insufficient number of plants or insufficient CO to support the growth of those plants, so as to consume all the nutrients in the tank, the result would be algae growth. While there are fishes and invertebrates that could be introduced in the tank to clean up this algae, the ideal solution would be to find the optimal balance between the above-mentioned factors. Supplemental CO can be provided, whose quantity has to be carefully regulated, as too much CO may harm the fishes.


title: Aquarium

text: From the outdoor ponds and glass jars of antiquity, modern aquaria have evolved into a wide range of specialized systems. Individual aquaria can vary in size from a small bowl large enough for only a single small fish, to the huge public aquaria that can simulate entire marine ecosystems.


title: Aquarium

text: One way to classify aquaria is by salinity. Freshwater aquaria are the most popular due to their lower cost. More expensive and complex equipment is required to set up and maintain marine aquaria. Marine aquaria frequently feature a diverse range of invertebrates in addition to species of fish. Brackish water aquaria combine elements of both marine and freshwater fishkeeping. Fish kept in brackish water aquaria generally come from habitats with varying salinity, such as mangrove swamps and estuaries. Subtypes exist within these types, such as the reef aquarium, a typically smaller marine aquarium that houses coral.


title: Aquarium

text: Another classification is by temperature range. Many aquarists choose a tropical aquarium because tropical fish tend to be more colorful. However, the coldwater aquarium is also popular, which includes fish from temperate areas worldwide.


title: Aquarium

text: Aquaria may be grouped by their species selection. In a community tank, several non-aggressive species live peacefully. In these aquaria, the fish, invertebrates, and plants probably do not originate from the same geographic region, but tolerate similar water conditions. Aggressive tanks, by contrast, house a limited number of species that can be aggressive toward other fish, or are able to withstand aggression well. Most aquarists maintaining marine tanks and tanks housing cichlids have to take species aggressiveness into account when stocking. Specimen tanks usually only house one fish species, along with plants—sometimes those found in the fish species' natural environment—and decorations simulating a natural ecosystem. This type is useful for fish that cannot coexist with other fish, such as the electric eel, as an extreme example. Some tanks of this sort are used simply to house adults for breeding.


title: Aquarium

text: Biotope aquaria is another type based on species selection. In it, an aquarist attempts to simulate a specific natural ecosystem, assembling fish, invertebrate species, plants, decorations and water conditions all found in that ecosystem. Public aquaria often use this approach. Biotope aquaria simulates the experience of observing in the wild. It typically serves as the healthiest possible artificial environment for the tank's occupants.


title: Aquarium

text: Most public aquarium facilities feature a number of smaller aquaria, as well those too large for home aquarists. The largest tanks hold millions of gallons of water and can house large species, including sharks or beluga whales, which typically couldn't be housed properly in the home aquarium. Dolphinaria are specifically for dolphins. Aquatic and semiaquatic animals, including otters and penguins, may also be kept by public aquaria. Public aquaria may also be included in larger establishments such as a marine mammal park or a marine park. These are very popular around the world, especially with a new emergence in the Middle East.


title: Aquarium

text: A virtual aquarium is a computer program which uses 3D graphics to reproduce an aquarium on a personal computer. The swimming fish are rendered in real time, while the background of the tank is usually static. Objects on the floor of the tank may be mapped in simple planes so that the fish may appear to swim both in front and behind them, but a relatively simple 3D map of the general shape of such objects may be used to allow the light and ripples on the surface of the water to cast realistic shadows. Bubbles and water noises are common for virtual aquariums, which are often used as screensavers.


title: Aquarium

text: The number of each type of fish can usually be selected, often including other animals like starfish, jellyfish, seahorses, and even sea turtles. Most companies that produce virtual aquarium software also offer other types of fish for sale via Internet download. Other objects found in an aquarium can also be added and rearranged on some software, like treasure chests and giant clams that open and close with air bubbles, or a bobbing diver. There are also usually features that allow the user to tap on the glass or put food in the top, both of which the fish will react to. Some also have the ability to allow the user to edit fish and other objects to create new varieties.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: Henry George Reginald Molyneux Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon, (19 January 1924 – 11 September 2001),


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: A member of Hampshire County Council for 24 years, he was its chairman from 1973 to 1977 and also served on other public bodies, including the Sports Council and the Agricultural Research Council.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: Carnarvon was born in Lancaster Gate, west London, the only son of Catherine Herbert, Countess of Carnarvon, from New York, and Henry Herbert, 6th Earl of Carnarvon, who had recently inherited the family peerages. He was educated at Eton College, and during the Second World War was commissioned into the Royal Horse Guards, serving in Egypt and Italy. He left the army as a lieutenant in 1947, after which he studied at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, with a view to farming and managing the stud on his father's Highclere estate.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: Carnarvon was a personal friend of Princess Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth II, from their teenage years. She often visited Highclere Castle and – like his other friends – called him 'Porchey', after his courtesy title. In 1969 Carnarvon was appointed the Queen's racing manager, a position he held until his death in 2001. His son the 8th Earl, who is the Queen's godson, observed that


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: [I]t was a very equal friendship ranging over many interests. They were from the same generation. They had been through the war. They shared a great love of the countryside and wildlife as well as horses. He and the Queen had a similar passion for every aspect and detail of horse breeding.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: As Lord Porchester, Carnarvon became an influential figure in British horseracing, establishing a reputation as a successful breeder at the Highclere Stud. He played a leading role in the administration and restructuring of the racing industry. In 1964 he was elected to the Jockey Club and was Chairman of the club's race planning committee (1967–1985) and, as well as being the Queen's racing manager, he was an active member of several other racing committees. He was appointed President of Newbury Racecourse in 1985.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: Carnarvon was an independent member of the Hampshire County Council for 24 years and served as its chairman from 1973 to 1977. He also served on a number of public bodies, including the Sports Council (1965–1970), Agricultural Research Council (1978–1982) and was Chairman of the South East Economic Planning Council (1971–1979). He served as President of Hampshire County Cricket Club (1966–1968) and became Honorary Colonel of the 115th (Hampshire Fortress) Engineer Regiment (Territorial Army) in 1963.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: He succeeded as Earl of Carnarvon in 1987, and sat in the House of Lords as a crossbencher, using his position to promote the interests of horseracing. He also inherited the family seat, Highclere Castle.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: He was invested as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the 1976 Birthday Honours and Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO) in the 1982 Birthday Honours.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: The Earl of Carnarvon died on 11 September 2001 aged 77, after a heart attack. Earlier in the day he had watched television coverage of the September 11 attacks on the United States. Carnarvon was succeeded as the Queen's racing manager by his son-in-law John Warren, a former stable boy who had worked at the Highclere Stud and married his daughter Carolyn.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: On 7 January 1956, Carnarvon (then known by his courtesy title Lord Porchester) married Jean Margaret Wallop (1935–2019) of Big Horn, Wyoming, in St. James' Episcopal Church in New York City. She was a granddaughter of Oliver Wallop, 8th Earl of Portsmouth. Carnarvon's father, the 6th Earl had also married an Anglo-American.


title: Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon

text: He is featured as a character in the first three series of the Netflix drama "The Crown", portrayed by Joseph Kloska in the first two series and John Hollingworth in the third series.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: William James Mitchell Jr. (born July 16, 1965) is an American video game player and restaurateur. He rose to national prominence in the 1980s when "Life" included him in a photo spread of game champions during the height of the golden age of arcade video games.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: In 1999, Mitchell was the first person to claim a perfect score of 3,333,360 points on the arcade game "Pac-Man". Twin Galaxies and "Guinness World Records" recognized Mitchell as the holder of several records on classic games including "Pac-Man" and "Donkey Kong", and he has appeared in several documentaries on competitive gaming and retrogaming. A 2007 documentary, "The King of Kong: A Fistful of Quarters", follows his attempts to maintain the highest score on "Donkey Kong" after being challenged by newcomer Steve Wiebe.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: In 2018, Mitchell's high scores were contested after members of the Twin Galaxies forums found discrepancies in the videos Mitchell had provided for "The King of Kong", suggesting he had used emulation software to falsify his score. Following a months-long investigation, Twin Galaxies concluded that some of Mitchell's high scores were not performed on original hardware as required by their rules, and invalidated all of his scores due to their zero-tolerance policy for dishonesty. Guinness likewise stripped Mitchell of his records. Following legal threats against Twin Galaxies and Guinness, Guinness reinstated Mitchell's records. Twin Galaxies, however, did not reverse its disqualifications, leading Mitchell to file defamation lawsuits against Twin Galaxies and others in 2020.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: Mitchell's family owns the Rickey's restaurants in Hollywood, Florida, and Pembroke Pines, Florida, and he sells Rickey's World Famous Hot Sauce.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: In grade school, Mitchell became an avid pinball player. He was initially uninterested in video games, but as they became more popular, according to Mitchell, "[e]veryone was standing around the Donkey Kong machine and I wanted that attention". He began playing video games around age 16. His interest was also spurred by a friendly rivalry with a classmate, the two trying to outscore each other on both "Pac-Man" and "Donkey Kong". Mitchell became curious whether "Donkey Kong" had a recorded world-record high score, and reached out to Walter Day at Twin Galaxies, at the time a single arcade in Ottumwa, Iowa, that had started tracking such records. Day told him of a record of 1.4 million claimed by Steve Sanders. In November 1982, "Life" brought several notable arcade players, including Mitchell and Sanders, to Ottumwa for a photoshoot. Mitchell challenged Sanders to "Donkey Kong" and demonstrated that the game had an impassable "kill screen" when he reached level 22, while subsequently beating Sanders and setting a high score of 874,300. Later, Sanders admitted that he had lied about his previous "Donkey Kong" scores, and Twin Galaxies gave the record to Billy Mitchell who held it for more than 18 years. Around this time, Mitchell established a friendship with Robert Childs, who had a business buying and installing arcade cabinets in places like laundromats.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: He attended Chaminade-Madonna College Preparatory School in 1983. In 1983, Day invited Mitchell along with several other players from the photoshoot to participate in the "Electronic Circus", a 40-city tour where the players would demonstrate their skill at the arcade games at each stop. But the idea fell through, and Mitchell and others spent the summer months camping out at Twin Galaxies and competing for high scores on video games, with Mitchell focusing on only a few selected titles. Later that summer, Day founded the US National Video Game Team, a slimmer version of the Electronic Circus that aimed to make a stop in a major city in each US state, but the inaugural event had many snags. Day continued to bring Mitchell on various trips to confirm high scores reported by players, with Mitchell frequently calling out bluffs. By 1984, Day named Mitchell the Twin Galaxies' player of the year, but due to the 1983 video game crash, Twin Galaxies had to close down its storefront in March 1984, though it still tracked scores. After submitting a record score for "BurgerTime" in 1985, Mitchell moved away from video games for the next ten years, spending more time at his family's restaurant, Rickey's Restaurant, and eventually taking ownership of it.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: "Pac-Man" was released in 1980. Players had discovered that it too had a type of kill screen: on reaching level 256, half the screen would be filled with nonsense glyphs that made it impossible to complete the level and continue. Following a 1982 claim made by an eight-year-old player of reaching more than 6 million points, which gained national coverage after President Ronald Reagan wrote to congratulate the player, Mitchell worked with his friend Chris Ayra in 1983 to determine that the highest possible score on "Pac-Man" was 3,333,360, which would require a perfect no-death run and collecting all possible points on the nonsense side of level 256's split-screen, requiring knowledge of where the edible dots were.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: In 1999, a group of Canadian players, including Rick Fothergill, were reportedly close to reaching the theoretical high score, leading Mitchell to return to video gaming to try to beat this group to the achievement. On May 8, 1999, Fothergill set the world record, just 90 points short of a perfect score. In response, on July 3, Mitchell achieved the perfect score at an arcade in Laconia, New Hampshire, and set the game's world record as recorded by Funspot and Twin Galaxies. For this, Twin Galaxies named him "Video Game Player of the Century", and Namco, the makers of "Pac-Man", brought Mitchell to Japan for the Tokyo Game Show that year. After returning in November 1999, Mitchell offered $100,000 to the first person who could pass the split-screen level. The prize was not claimed by the January 1, 2000 deadline.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: In 2004, Mitchell achieved a "Donkey Kong" score of 933,900 in front of multiple witnesses at the Midwest Gaming Classic, his new personal best. Writing about Mitchell for the "Oxford American" in 2006, David Ramsey described Mitchell as "probably the greatest arcade video game player of all time". In 2004 and 2005, contender Steve Wiebe attempted to set a new world record in "Donkey Kong", an event documented in the 2007 film "The King of Kong: A Fistful of Quarters". Wiebe attempted to have Mitchell present at these events to challenge him directly, typically at Funspot arcades, as public demonstrations of high scores were preferred over video tape. Mitchell had said, "To me, most important is to travel to a sanctioned location, like Funspot, that makes it official; if tomorrow Tiger Woods golfs a 59, big deal. If he does it at Augusta, that's where it counts." Mitchell failed to appear at Wiebe's events, saying he had not played games for half a year and needed to retrain and practice for the competition.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: During Wiebe's attempts, he achieved a score of more than one million points on an arcade unit at his home, which was recorded on videotape and initially accepted by Twin Galaxies but later retracted, since Wiebe's unit used an unofficial "Double Donkey Board" that had circuitry for both "Donkey Kong" and "Donkey Kong Jr". Later in his attempts, Wiebe again managed a high score in front of multiple witnesses at a New Hampshire Funspot, which Twin Galaxies accepted. Just hours later, Mitchell submitted his own tape to Twin Galaxies which purported to show him achieving a new high score of 1,047,200, which bested Wiebe's score and which Twin Galaxies accepted as the new official world record. Wiebe and others at the New Hampshire location complained to Twin Galaxies, and eventually Mitchell's score was nullified due to being on tape rather than witnessed, giving Wiebe the record again. After the film's release, Mitchell said he had not expected to be portrayed as a bad person, and that he had received hate mail and badgering phone calls because of the way the film was edited.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: In addition to the "King of Kong", Mitchell appears in several other documentaries during the 2000s and 2010s, including "" (2007), "The King of Arcades" (2014), and "Man vs Snake: The Long and Twisted Tale of Nibbler" (2015).


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: On July 26, 2007, 25 years after Mitchell's first record-setting performance, Mitchell again retook the "Donkey Kong" record with a score of 1,050,200. This score was known as the "Mortgage Brokers" score, as it was made while Mitchell was attending the annual convention for the Florida Association of Mortgage Brokers. It was surpassed on February 26, 2010, by Hank Chien, who temporarily held the record. On July 24, 2010, Mitchell reclaimed the record with a score of 1,062,800 at the Boomers arcade in Dania, Florida. It was the last time he held the record after it was broken by Wiebe later that year and others since then.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: Mitchell placed eighth out of eight in the Microsoft Xbox 360 "Pac-Man" World Championships on June 4, 2007. In 2008, he became the first video game player on a Topps Allen & Ginter trading card.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: In 2015, Mitchell filed a lawsuit against Cartoon Network, saying that in "Regular Show", a character who cheats at video games called Garrett Bobby Ferguson (GBF) infringed on his likeness. United States District Court for the District of New Jersey Judge Anne Elise Thompson threw out the lawsuit, saying that "the television character does not match the plaintiff in appearance".


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: In August 2017, Jeremy Young, a moderator of the Donkey Kong Forums, expressed concern related to a video posted online by Childs of Mitchell's Boomers score. Mitchell had played both "Donkey Kong" and "Donkey Kong, Jr." that day, breaking records for both, but was using the same cabinet for it, with Childs having swapped the circuit board between the runs. The videos did not show the complete record-breaking runs, and Young believed there might have been issues with the board swap. Mitchell and Childs affirmed that some parts of the board-switching were staged, but that part of the recording was made well after the records had been set on legitimate hardware.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: Young continued to investigate the Boomers video as well as the "King of Kong" and Mortgage Brokers scores, and in early 2018 posted evidence that both scores were made on MAME (arcade-emulated hardware) rather than actual hardware. Young subsequently removed the three scores from the Donkey Kong Forums website for misrepresenting MAME emulation as authentic gameplay. Young's statement was backed up by Wes Copeland, a former holder of the "Donkey Kong" high score. Based on analysis of the scoring rate and frequencies of the game, he concluded that Mitchell's run showed a statistically unlikely rate of scoring. Further, it was determined that the verifier for the Boomers and Mortgage Brokers scores was Twin Galaxies referee Todd Rogers, who had himself been banned from Twin Galaxies for submitting fraudulent scores, putting Mitchell's scores in doubt.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: Mitchell defended his scores on the "East Side Dave Show" shortly after this charge, saying, "I've never even played MAME. I don’t have MAME loaded in my home." Mitchell added, "The film footage that he has, that Jeremy has, shows MAME play... I'm not disputing what he says. What I'm disputing is the fact that I want him to have the original tape." Mitchell also suggested that the tape footage Young had may have been fabricated. Young responded, "The amount of foresight, patience, and technical knowledge required would be staggering" to make such tapes. To support his case, Mitchell said he sent Twin Galaxies recordings of the gameplay from these high-score efforts along with other secondary evidence to deny any cheating.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: On April 12, 2018, Twin Galaxies announced that an investigation conducted into Mitchell's submitted scores found conclusive evidence that Mitchell used an emulator for the footage of his two high scores. In particular, the footage of these two scores showed the game loading in a way that could not be reproduced on original hardware, but was visually identical to how the game loads when played on MAME. Twin Galaxies removed all of Mitchell's scores from their records and prohibited him from submitting scores in the future. Subsequently, Guinness World Records released a statement that it would remove Mitchell's scores: "The Guinness World Records titles relating to Mr. Mitchell's highest scores on "Donkey Kong" have all been disqualified due to Twin Galaxies being our source of verification for these achievements." The removal also includes Mitchell's "Pac-Man" high score and first recorded perfect game: "Twin Galaxies was the original source of verification for these record titles and in line with their decision to remove all of Mr. Mitchell's records from their system, we have disqualified Mr. Mitchell as the holder of these two records."


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: Mitchell challenged these removals and threatened to sue both Twin Galaxies and Guinness if they did not restore his records. At the encouragement of his son, Mitchell used Twitch to broadcast scores equal to his past records. The situation between Mitchell and Twin Galaxies also created tension between Mitchell and several of his friends and acquaintances in the video game community. In early 2019, Mitchell filed lawsuits against Twin Galaxies as well as Young and YouTuber Apollo Legend. After a judge ruled against Twin Galaxies' attempt to dismiss the case under California's anti-SLAPP laws, Twin Galaxies filed a counterclaim against Mitchell and Walter Day in late 2020, alleging that they defrauded Twin Galaxies's current owners by selling the site's assets with the knowledge that the database contained fake scores, thus reducing its reputation and therefore its monetary value. In October 2021, a U.S. appeals court allowed Mitchell's suit against Twin Galaxies to proceed.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: Guinness World Records announced in June 2020 that after review, it could not find conclusive proof that Mitchell had used improper methods to achieve his high scores, and restored both Mitchell's "Donkey Kong" and "Pac-Man" records. Mitchell told "Ars Technica" that Guinness had made the decision back in December 2019, but due to agreements related to prior legal actions he had against Guinness, they could not announce it until June 2020. Mitchell also said that his legal threats towards Guinness did not affect Guinness's decision to reinstate his records.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: In 2021 and 2022, Mitchell filed two lawsuits against YouTuber and speedrunner Karl Jobst, saying that two of his videos were defamatory, one of them using a clip that refers to Mitchell as a cheater, the other covering his cheating allegations.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: Mitchell set high-score records on several games in the 1980s and 1990s. Since his initial high score in "Donkey Kong" in 1982 and return to record-breaking attempts between 2004 and 2010, others have matched or surpassed Mitchell's scores. Due to Twin Galaxies disqualifying all of Mitchell's scores, none of these records are considered valid by Twin Galaxies.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: On January 14, 1984, Mitchell was selected as one of the 1983 "Video Game Players of the Year" by Twin Galaxies and the U.S. National Video Game Team.


title: Billy Mitchell (gamer)

text: On June 21, 2006, MTV selected Mitchell as one of "The 10 Most Influential Video Gamers of All Time".


title: Batu Khan

text: Batu Khan ( – 1255), was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Golden Horde, a constituent of the Mongol Empire. Batu was a son of Jochi, thus a grandson of Genghis Khan. His "ulus" ruled over the Kievan Rus', Volga Bulgaria, Cumania, and the Caucasus for around 250 years.


title: Batu Khan

text: According to Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Batu was "kind enough to his own people, but he is greatly feared by them. He is, however, most cruel in fight; he is very shrewd and extremely crafty in warfare, for he has been waging war for a long time." William of Rubruck described him as about the height of his lord John de Beaumont and his entire face was covered with reddish spots.


title: Batu Khan

text: After his son Jochi's death, Genghis Khan assigned Jochi's appanages to his sons. The Great Khan installed Batu as Khan of the Golden Horde (also known as the Ulus of Jochi or Kipchak Khanate). Jochi's eldest son, Orda Khan, also agreed that Batu should succeed their father. Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge attended the coronation ceremony as an official representative of Genghis. When Genghis Khan died in 1227, he left 4,000 Mongol men to Jochi's family. Jochi's lands were divided between Batu and his older brother Orda. Orda's White Horde ruled the lands roughly between the Volga river and Lake Balkhash, while Batu's Golden Horde ruled the lands west of the Volga.


title: Batu Khan

text: In 1229, Ögedei dispatched three tumens under Kukhdei and Sundei to conquer the tribes on the lower Ural River. According to Abulghazi, Batu joined Ögedei's military campaign against the Jin dynasty in North China while his younger brother was fighting the Bashkirs, the Cumans, the Bulghars and the Alans in the west. Despite heavy resistance from their enemies, the Mongols conquered major cities of the Jurchens and made the Bashkirs their ally. In the 1230s, Ögedei distributed lands in Shanxi to Batu and the family of Jochi, but they appointed their officials under the supervision of the Imperial governor, and likewise in Khorasan.


title: Batu Khan

text: At the "kurultai" in Mongolia after the end of the Mongol-Jin War, the Great Khan Ögedei ordered Batu to conquer western nations. In 1235 Batu, who earlier had directed the conquest of the Crimean Peninsula, was assigned an army of possibly 130,000 to oversee an invasion of Europe. His relatives and cousins Güyük, Büri, Möngke, Khulgen, Khadan, Baidar and notable Mongol generals Subutai (Subeedei), Borolday, and Mengguser joined him by the order of his uncle Ögedei. The army, actually commanded by Subutai, crossed the Volga and invaded Volga Bulgaria in 1236. It took them a year to extinguish the resistance of the Volga Bulgarians, Kypchaks, and Alani.


title: Batu Khan

text: In November 1237 Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal and demanded his allegiance. When Yuri refused to surrender the Mongols besieged Ryazan. After six days of bloody battle, the city was totally annihilated and never restored to its former glory. Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the horde, but they were soundly defeated. Having burnt Kolomna and Moscow, the horde laid siege to the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal on 4 February 1238. Three days later the city was taken and burnt to the ground. The royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince hastily retreated northward. Crossing the Volga, he mustered a new army, which was totally exterminated by the Mongols on the Sit' River on 4 March.


title: Batu Khan

text: Thereupon Batu Khan divided his army into smaller units, which ransacked fourteen Rus' cities: Rostov, Uglich, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Gorodets, Galich, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yuriev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Volokolamsk, Tver, and Torzhok. The most difficult to take was the small town of Kozelsk, whose boy-prince Titus and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks. As the story goes, at the news of Mongol approach, the city of Kitezh was submerged in a lake with all its inhabitants, where it may be seen to this day. Khadan and Buri stormed the city in three days after they joined Batu. The only major cities to escape destruction were Smolensk, which submitted to the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute, and Novgorod with Pskov, which could not be reached by the Mongols on account of considerable distance and the intervening marshlands.


title: Batu Khan

text: When Batu drank a cup of wine before the others at the victory banquet, Büri complained of the unfairness of Batu receiving such a vast and fertile steppe, and the Mongol army, along with Güyük and others, ridiculed Batu as an "old woman with beard". They then left the banquet. Batu sent an envoy to his uncle Ögedei to complain of his cousins' rude behavior. Ögedei got angry on hearing the news and recalled Buri and Güyük. According to some sources, Buri, who was sent to his grandfather Chagatai, never returned to join the Mongol conquest of Europe; Güyük returned to the Russian steppe after his father Ögedei harshly criticized him.


title: Batu Khan

text: In the summer of 1238, Batu Khan devastated the Crimea and pacified Mordovia and the Kipchak-controlled steppe. In the winter of 1239, he sacked Chernigov and Pereyaslav. After several days of siege, the Mongols stormed Kiev in December 1240. Despite fierce resistance by Danylo of Halych, Batu Khan managed to take the two principal capitals of his land, Halych and Volodymyr. Ruthenian principalities became vassals of the Mongol Empire.


title: Batu Khan

text: The Cuman refugees took shelter in the Kingdom of Hungary. Batu sent at least five messengers to Béla IV, the King of Hungary, but they were all killed. For the last time Batu demanded that Bela have the Cumans returned and warned: "It is much easier for the Cumans to escape than it is for you...you dwell in houses and have fixed towns and fortresses, so how will you escape me?" Batu Khan then decided to "reach the ultimate sea", where the Mongols could proceed no further. Some modern historians speculate that Batu intended primarily to assure his flanks were safe for the future from possible interference from the Europeans, and partially as a precursor to further conquest. Most believe he intended the conquest of all Europe, as soon as his flanks were safe and his forces ready.


title: Batu Khan

text: Having devastated the various Rus' principalities, Subutai and Batu sent spies into Poland, Hungary, and as far as Austria in preparation for an attack into the heartland of Europe. With a clear picture of the European kingdoms, they brilliantly prepared an attack. Batu Khan was the overall leader, but Subutai was the actual commander in the field and as such was present in both the northern and southern campaigns against Rus'. The Mongols invaded central Europe in three groups. One group invaded and devastated Poland, defeating a combined force under Henry II the Pious, Duke of Silesia and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order at Legnica. A second crossed the Carpathian Mountains, and a third followed the Danube. The armies swept the plains of Hungary over the summer, and in the spring of 1242 they regained impetus and extended their control into Austria and Dalmatia, as well as invading Morava.


title: Batu Khan

text: While the northern force under Ögedei's son Khadan and Baidar, the son of Chagatai, won the Battle of Legnica, and another army of Güyük or Büri triumphed in Transylvania, Subutai was waiting for another victory over the Magyars, the Croats, and the Templars on the Hungarian plain. In 1241, a Tatar (Mongol) army led by Bujek crossed the mountains of the "Kara Ulagh" ("Black Vlachs"); Bujek defeated the Vlachs and one of their leader named Mišlav. However, the Mongol Army was defeated by Ivan Asen II of the Second Bulgarian Empire shortly afterward. After the siege of Pest, Batu's army withdrew to the Sajo River and inflicted a tremendous defeat on King Béla IV and his allies at the Battle of Mohi on 11 April. Khadan, Baidar, and Orda went to Hungary, devastating Moravia en route. The Mongols appointed a "darughachi" in Hungary and minted coins in the name of the Khagan. The country of Béla was assigned to Orda by Batu as an appanage; Batu sent Khadan in pursuit of Béla, who retreated to Croatia.


title: Batu Khan

text: The Mongol battalions checked the forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Babenberg Austria. During his campaign in Central Europe, Batu demanded that Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, dethrone himself, and said: "I am coming to usurp your throne instead of you". The latter only replied that he would make a good falconer, for he understood birds very well. The Emperor and Pope Gregory IX called for a crusade against the Mongol Empire, but Europe was plagued by internal strife. Subutai achieved lasting fame with his victories in Europe, as he had in Eastern Persia.


title: Batu Khan

text: By late 1241, Batu and Subutai were finalizing plans to invade Austria, Italy, and Germany when the news came of the death of Ögedei Khan, who died in December 1241. Batu wanted to continue the war , but Subutai reminded him of the law of Yassa (Их Засаг). The Mongols withdrew in late spring of 1242, as the Princes of the blood, and Subutai, were recalled to Karakorum where the "kurultai" was held. Batu was a potential Great Khan, but when he failed to gain the title he turned to consolidate his conquests in Asia and the Urals.


title: Batu Khan

text: Withdrawing from Hungary, Batu made his camps along the banks of the Volga. When the Great Khatun Töregene invited him to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire, Batu announced his inability to attend any immediate "kurultai", thus delaying the succession for several years. Eventually, Güyük was elected Khagan in 1246, with Batu's brothers representing the Jochid lineage. As one of the oldest members of Chingisid Borjigin, Batu became a viceroy over all the western parts of the empire, controlling routine affairs among the Russian princes, nominating Jochid retainers as governors of Iran, and receiving in audience grandees from the Caucasus. At no point, however, did he openly challenge the authority of the Great Khan.


title: Batu Khan

text: During the absence of Batu, the Mongols who were left behind put to death Mstislav, the prince of Rylsk, in Kievan Rus'. On his return Batu summoned the Grand prince Yaroslav II of Vladimir to meet him. Yaroslav was well received by Batu, who confirmed him as suzerain over the other Russian princes, and gave him authority of Kiev. The princes of Suzdal followed Yaroslav's example. Batu sent Yaroslav to the imperial court of Karakorum to assist at the inauguration of Güyük Khan in 1246. Plano Carpini, who got approval from Batu to go further, noted that the Great Khan's aunt was executed. At the same time Yaroslav was poisoned in Mongolia.


title: Batu Khan

text: Batu had commissaries in the various towns where the dependent Russian princes and other princes held their courts. The princes from Russian states such as Vladimir Constantine, Boris, Gleb, Vasili, Constatantine, Vladimir Constantinovich, Vasil'ko and Sviatoslav Vsevolodovich of Vladimir, went to the court of Batu in person. When Michael of Chernigov, who had murdered the Mongol envoy in Kiev, arrived, the Mongol overseers were engaged in taking a census of the inhabitants for the poll tax. Michael was ordered to repair to Batu. When summoned before Batu, he was made to pass between two fires and ordered to prostrate himself before the tablets of Genghis Khan. Michael replied that he did not object to do obeisance to Batu himself but to adore images of a dead man was repugnant. As he persisted in his refusal, Batu ordered his death.


title: Batu Khan

text: Danylo of Halych summoned to Batu and diplomatically made obeisance to the Mongols. Batu, addressing him, said "You have for a long time refused to come, but have effaced your ill conduct by your obedience" and saluted him with a draught of airag. They exchanged hostages whereby 100 families of Keraites were re-settled in Carpathian-Galicia. After the defeat of the Sultanate of Rum, Baiju freed David VII Ulu from Turkish imprisonment and sent him to Batu and Güyük. Fearing Baiju's aggressive policy, Queen Rusudan of Georgia sent her son David VI Narin to Batu's court to get official recognition as heir apparent. Batu supported David VI and granted him the rights above the Georgian and Armenian nobles and the Mongol tammachis. But Güyük made David Ulu the senior king of Georgia and ordered Batu's protege David Narin to be subordinate to David Ulu.


title: Batu Khan

text: Suspicion between Batu and Güyük increased, and Güyük replaced the officials in Iran and the Caucasus with his own men, including Eljigidei. When Güyük began moving west, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Tolui, warned Batu that he was actually the Great Khan's target. When Güyük summoned Batu to appear before him, Batu moved slowly. Before meeting Batu, Güyük died suddenly. According to William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicle, one of Batu's brothers murdered or poisoned the Great Khan Güyük and Batu then killed the imperial envoy, though this account is not completely confirmed by other major sources.


title: Batu Khan

text: An opportunity had arrived for deposing the House of Ögedei from the overlordship of the Mongols, and Batu was determined to avail himself of it. But Batu seemed to allow Oghul Qaimish to serve as regent. He also suggested unruly princes listen to her words. When Batu was ill, Möngke Khan went to the Ulus of Jochi to greet him as his mother Sorghagtani advised. Batu was much delighted on seeing him.


title: Batu Khan

text: At last, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. Members of the Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend the kurultai beyond the Mongolian heartland. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu Khan who had no interest in promoting himself as the new Grand Khan. Rejecting it, he instead nominated Möngke, who led a Mongol army in Russia, the Northern Caucasus, and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction rose up and supported his choice. Given its limited attendance and location, this kurultai was of questionable validity. Batu sent Möngke under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Möngke invited Oghul Qaimish and other main Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time, demanding descendants of Ögedei must be khan. In response, Batu accused them of killing his aunt Altalaun and defying Ögedei's nominee, Shiremun. After the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke Great Khan of the Mongol Empire in 1251, he punished the Ögedeid and Chagataid families for the organized plot against him. Möngke sent Buri to Batu who had him executed by Buri's opponent general. Eljigidei was also ordered to be executed.


title: Batu Khan

text: The Grand prince Andrey II allied with the rebellious-minded princes of western Rus', giving umbrage to the Mongols. Batu sent a punitive expedition under Nevrui. On their approach, Andrey fled to Pskov and thence to Sweden. The Mongols spread over Vladimir and harshly punished the people there. The Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov on hearing the news about the Mongols. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq, Alexander was installed as the Grand Prince of Vladimir (i.e., the supreme Russian ruler) by Batu in 1252. In 1256 Andrey travelled to Sarai to ask pardon for his former infidelity and was shown mercy.


title: Batu Khan

text: During the reign of Möngke, Batu's prestige as kingmaker and viceroy of the great khans in the west reached its height. Even so, Batu allowed Möngke's census takers to operate freely in his realm. According to a Muslim chronicle and the History of Yuan, Batu had free access to the imperial treasury. Of all the grandsons of Genghis Khan, he and Möngke seemed most capable and the most dedicated to following the spirit of Mongolian law.


title: Batu Khan

text: Batu dispatched a large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu's expedition in the Middle East. However, Berke's persuasion might have forced him to delay to strengthen Hulagu's force, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there, for few years.


title: Batu Khan

text: Batu, Möngke, and other princely lines shared rule over the area from Afghanistan to Turkey. Batu left the affairs of state to his son, Sartaq, before dying in 1255.


title: Batu Khan

text: Batu Khan was approximately five feet and seven inches tall (1.70 m), and had at least four children:


title: Batu Khan

text: Batu's mother Ukhaa ujin belonged to the Mongol Onggirat clan while his chief khatun Boraqchin was an Alchi-Tatar.


title: Batu Khan

text: When Batu and his son Sartaq died, after a brief regency of Boraqchin for Ulagchi, Batu's brother Berke inherited the Golden Horde. Berke was not inclined to unity with his cousins in the Mongol family, making war on Hulagu Khan, though Berke officially recognized Möngke and the Empire of the Great Khan as his overlords. In fact, Berke was an independent ruler by then. Berke did not share Batu's interest in conquering it, however, he demanded Hungarian King Béla IV's submission and sent his general Borolday to Lithuania and Poland.


title: Batu Khan

text: The Kipchak Khanate was known in Rus and Europe as the Golden Horde ("Zolotaya Orda") some think because of the golden colour of the Khan's tent. "Horde" comes from the Mongol word "orda/ordu" or camp. "Golden" is thought to have had a similar meaning to "royal" (Royal Camp). Of all the Khanates, the Golden Horde ruled longest. Long after the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty from China to Mongolia, and the fall of Ilkhanate in Middle East, the descendants of Batu Khan continued to rule the steppes in what is now Ukraine, Russia, and Kazakhstan. Batu's line ruled the Jochid Ulus until 1360, a century after Berke's death in 1264. Descendants of his brothers, Orda and Tuqatimur, took the throne of the Golden Horde afterwards.


title: Tattoo You

text: Tattoo You is the 16th British and 18th American studio album by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released on 24 August 1981 by Rolling Stones Records. The album is mostly composed of studio outtakes recorded during the 1970s, and contains one of the band's most well-known songs, "Start Me Up", which hit number two on the US "Billboard" singles charts.


title: Tattoo You

text: A combination of touring obligations and personal feuding between band members made it difficult to arrange dedicated recording sessions for the band's follow-up to 1980's "Emotional Rescue". As a result, the band's production team combed through unused recordings from prior sessions, some dating back almost a decade. While a few of the songs were used essentially as-is in their original form, most of these earlier recordings were not complete, consisting of song fragments requiring much work. Studio time was booked throughout 1980 and 1981 and band members came in when available to finish off the tracks.


title: Tattoo You

text: The credited members of the Rolling Stones for the album were vocalist Mick Jagger, guitarists Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood, bassist Bill Wyman and drummer Charlie Watts, though two tracks feature former Stones guitarist Mick Taylor. Keyboardists Nicky Hopkins, Billy Preston and Ian Stewart also appear on the album.


title: Tattoo You

text: The album proved to be both a critical and commercial success upon release, reaching the top of the US "Billboard" 200. To date, it is the final Rolling Stones album to reach the top position of the US charts, thus concluding the band's string of eight consecutive number-one albums there, dating back to 1971's "Sticky Fingers". In 1989, it was ranked No. 34 on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 100 greatest albums of the 1980s. In 2003, the album was ranked number 211 on "Rolling Stone"'s list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, then re-ranked number 213 in the 2012 revised list. Peter Corriston, who was responsible for the album cover's concept origination, art direction and design, won a Grammy Award in the category of Best Album Package.


title: Tattoo You

text: A remastered 40th-anniversary edition of the album was released on 22 October 2021. It features nine previously unreleased tracks and a 1982 concert at Wembley Stadium.


title: Tattoo You

text: "Tattoo You" is an album primarily composed of outtakes from previous recording sessions, some dating back a decade, with new vocals and overdubs. Along with two new songs, the Rolling Stones put together this collection to have a new album to promote for their worldwide American Tour 1981/European Tour 1982 beginning that September. Keith Richards commented in 1993:


title: Tattoo You

text: "The thing with "Tattoo You" wasn't that we'd stopped writing new stuff, it was a question of time. We'd agreed we were going to go out on the road and we wanted to tour behind a record. There was no time to make a whole new album and make the start of the tour."


title: Tattoo You

text: The album's associate producer, Chris Kimsey, who had been associated with The Stones dating back to "Sticky Fingers" (1971) said, ""Tattoo You" really came about because Mick [Jagger] and Keith were going through a period of not getting on. There was a need to have an album out, and I told everyone I could make an album from what I knew was still there." He began sifting through the band's vaults: "I spent three months going through (the recording tapes from) like the last four, five albums finding stuff that had been either forgotten about or at the time rejected. And then I presented it to the band and I said, 'Hey, look guys, you've got all this great stuff sitting in the can and it's great material, do something with it."


title: Tattoo You

text: Many of the songs consisted at this point of instrumental backing tracks for which vocals had not been recorded. Jagger said in a 1995 interview, "It wasn't all outtakes; some of it was old songs... I had to write lyrics and melodies. A lot of them didn't have anything, which is why they weren't used at the time – because they weren't complete. They were just bits, or they were from early takes". Despite the eclectic nature of the album, the Rolling Stones were able to divide "Tattoo You" into two distinct halves: a rock and roll side backed with one focusing on ballads.


title: Tattoo You

text: The earliest songs used for "Tattoo You" are "Tops" and "Waiting on a Friend". The backing tracks for both songs were cut in late 1972 during the "Goats Head Soup" (1973) sessions with Mick Taylor and not Ronnie Wood. Taylor, who was not credited, later demanded and received a share of the album's royalties.


title: Tattoo You

text: Dating from the "Black and Blue" sessions are the backing tracks for "Slave" and "Worried About You". They feature Billy Preston on keyboards and Ollie E. Brown on percussion. Wayne Perkins plays the lead guitar on "Worried About You".


title: Tattoo You

text: The album opens with "Start Me Up", originally rehearsed under the working title "Never Stop" and as a reggae-influenced number in 1978 during the "Some Girls" sessions, and the balance of it was recorded during these particular sessions in Paris (at Pathé Marconi studios) sessions where the more rock-infused track was recorded. "Black Limousine" was also worked on during these sessions .


title: Tattoo You

text: The basic tracks for "No Use in Crying", "Neighbours", "Heaven" and "Little T&A" came from the "Emotional Rescue" sessions.


title: Tattoo You

text: The vocal parts for the songs on "Tattoo You" were overdubbed during sessions in October–November 1980 and April–June 1981. Jagger was the only member of the band present at some of these sessions. Other overdubs, such as Sonny Rollins' saxophone parts on "Slave" and "Waiting on a Friend", were also added at these sessions. The album was mixed at Atlantic Studios, Electric Lady Studios, Hit Factory and Power Station in New York City.


title: Tattoo You

text: "Start Me Up" was released in August 1981, just a week before "Tattoo You", to a very strong response, reaching the top 10 in both the United States and UK, and number 1 in Australia. Widely considered one of the Stones' most infectious songs, it was enough to carry "Tattoo You" to No. 1 for nine weeks in the United States, while reaching No. 2 in the UK with solid sales. It has been certified 4× platinum in the United States alone. The critical reaction was positive, many feeling that "Tattoo You" was an improvement over "Emotional Rescue" and a high-quality release. "Waiting on a Friend" and "Hang Fire" became Top 20 US hits as well.


title: Tattoo You

text: "Start Me Up" would prove to be The Rolling Stones' last single to reach as high as No. 2 in the US, while "Tattoo You" is their last American No. 1 album to date.


title: Tattoo You

text: The album title was originally planned to be simply "Tattoo". Jagger claims to this day that even he has no clue how the "You" became attached to the title. The title caused friction between Jagger and Richards, with Richards suspecting that Jagger had changed the title without seeking his input. The album cover for "Tattoo You" had concept origination, art direction and design by Peter Corriston and illustration by Christian Piper. The album cover won the Grammy Award in 1982 in the Best Album Package category. It was the first Grammy Award for the Rolling Stones.


title: Tattoo You

text: Reviews for "Tattoo You" were largely positive, proclaiming the album a return to form and ranking among the Rolling Stones' finest works. Debra Rae Cohen commented in "Rolling Stone": "Just when we might finally have lost patience, the new record dances (not prances), rocks (not jives) onto the scene, and the Rolling Stones are back again, with a matter-of-fact acceptance of their continued existence – and eventual mortality …"


title: Tattoo You

text: Robert Palmer of "The New York Times" wrote that "remarkably, "Tattoo You" is something special...None of [the tracks] are Chuck Berry retreads, none of them are disco, and none of them are reggae - they are all rock-and-roll, with more than a hint of the soul and blues influences that were so important in the band's early work...The new album's lyrics are also a surprise. The Stones seem to have dropped the studied decadence that was their most characteristic pose throughout the 70's. The songs on "Tattoo You" seem to be by and about real people rather than larger-than-life caricatures."


title: Tattoo You

text: Robert Christgau gave the album a good review but criticised "Start Me Up" in his Pazz and Jop essay in 1981, saying, "Its central conceit – Mick as sex machine, complete with pushbutton – explains why the album it starts up never transcends hand-tooled excellence except when Sonny Rollins, uncredited, invades the Stones' space. Though it's as good in its way as 'Street Fighting Man', how much you care about it depends entirely on how much you care about the Stones' technical difficulties."


title: Tattoo You

text: Patty Rose, in "Musician", said, "The feel of the album … is more one of rediscovered youth, of axes to play, not grind, of the latest cope, not dope. … The Stones have shed yet another layer of self-consciousness and their shiny vinyl new skin tingles with an open, early-decade kind of excitement."


title: Tattoo You

text: Writing in "Creem", Nick Tosches expressed contempt for what he felt was the Stones' gratuitous sexism and general negativity in their lyrics. After pointing out examples of what he considered misogyny in "Slave", "Little T+A", "Hang Fire" and even "Waiting on a Friend", he added: "Let it never be said that the Stones have a one-track mean streak. They are capable of singing for minutes on end without spewing venom at the target sex. 'Neighbours', for example, is quite catholic in its grimacing, directed as it is towards the whole family of man, with nary a mention of race, color or creed. 'No Use In Crying' contains the imperative phrase "Stay away from me," addressed to no one in particular, more times than I could count..."


title: Tattoo You

text: In a 2018 retrospective for "The Guardian", music critic Alexis Petridis ranked "Tattoo You" as the band's thirteenth best album out of 23, stating that it "has no right to be as good as it is."


title: Tattoo You

text: In 1989, it was ranked No. 34 on "Rolling Stone"'s list of the 100 greatest albums of the 1980s. In 2003, the album was ranked number 211 on "Rolling Stone"'s list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, then re-ranked number 213 in the 2012 revised list.


title: Tattoo You

text: Peter Corriston, who was responsible for the album cover's concept origination, art direction and design, won a Grammy Award for "Tattoo You" in the category of best album package.


title: Tattoo You

text: In the 1995 "Rolling Stone" interview during which editor Jann Wenner called "Tattoo You" the Stones' "most underrated album", Jagger said, "I think it's excellent. But all the things I usually like, it doesn’t have. It doesn’t have any unity of purpose or place or time."


title: Tattoo You

text: "Tattoo You" was remastered and reissued in 1994 by Virgin Records, and again in 2009 by Universal Music. It was released on SHM-SACD in 2011 by Universal Music Japan. The 1994 remaster was initially released in a Collector's Edition CD, which replicated in miniature elements of the original vinyl album packaging.


title: Tattoo You

text: The 40th anniversary reissue of "Tattoo You" was released on 22 October 2021, with 9 unreleased tracks and a live album recorded at Wembley Stadium, London in 1982. The track "Living in the Heart of Love" was released on 19 August 2021.


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotrauma is physical damage to body tissues caused by a difference in pressure between a gas space inside, or in contact with, the body, and the surrounding gas or fluid. The initial damage is usually due to over-stretching the tissues in tension or shear, either directly by expansion of the gas in the closed space or by pressure difference hydrostatically transmitted through the tissue. Tissue rupture may be complicated by the introduction of gas into the local tissue or circulation through the initial trauma site, which can cause blockage of circulation at distant sites or interfere with normal function of an organ by its presence.


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotrauma generally manifests as sinus or middle ear effects, lung overpressure injuries and injuries resulting from external squeezes. Decompression sickness is indirectly caused by ambient pressure reduction, and the tissue damage is caused directly and indirectly by gas bubbles, but these bubbles form out of supersaturated solution from dissolved gases, and are not generally considered barotrauma. Decompression illness is a term which includes decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism caused by lung overexpansion barotrauma. It is also classified under the broader term of Dysbarism, which covers all medical conditions resulting from changes of ambient pressure.


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotrauma typically occurs when the organism is exposed to a significant change in ambient pressure, such as when a scuba diver, a free-diver or an airplane passenger ascends or descends or during uncontrolled decompression of a pressure vessel such as a diving chamber or pressurised aircraft, but can also be caused by a shock wave. Ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) is a condition caused by over-expansion of the lungs by mechanical ventilation used when the body is unable to breathe for itself and is associated with relatively large tidal volumes and relatively high peak pressures. Barotrauma due to overexpansion of an internal gas-filled space may also be termed volutrauma. Bats can be killed by lung barotrauma when flying in low-pressure regions close to operating wind-turbine blades, and fish with sealed swim bladders experience barotrauma when pulled up from the depths. The diagnosis and contribution of barotrauma to bat deaths near wind turbine blades has been called into question by other research.


title: Barotrauma

text: Any cause of sufficiently large and rapid environmental pressure change can potentially cause barotrauma. Several commonly recognised examples are listed below.


title: Barotrauma

text: When diving, the pressure differences which cause the barotrauma are changes in hydrostatic pressure:


title: Barotrauma

text: There are two components to the surrounding pressure acting on the diver: the atmospheric pressure and the water pressure. A descent of 10 metres (33 feet) in water increases the ambient pressure by an amount approximately equal to the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. So, a descent from the surface to 10 metres (33 feet) underwater results in a doubling of the pressure on the diver. This pressure change will reduce the volume of a flexible gas-filled space by half. Boyle's law describes the relationship between the volume of the gas space and the pressure in the gas.


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotraumas of descent are caused by preventing the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver, resulting in a pressure difference between the tissues and the gas space, and the unbalanced force due to this pressure difference causes deformation of the tissues resulting in cell rupture.


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotraumas of ascent are also caused when the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver is prevented. In this case the pressure difference causes a resultant tension in the surrounding tissues which exceeds their tensile strength.


title: Barotrauma

text: Patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy must equalize their ears to avoid barotrauma. High risk of otic barotrauma is associated with unconscious patients.


title: Barotrauma

text: Explosive decompression of a hyperbaric environment can produce severe barotrauma, followed by severe decompression bubble formation and other related injury. The "Byford Dolphin" incident is an example. Rapid uncontrolled decomression from caissons, airlocks, pressurised aircraft, spacecraft, and pressure suits can have similar effects of decompression barotrauma.


title: Barotrauma

text: Collapse of a pressure resistant structure such as a submarine, submersible, or atmospheric diving suit can cause rapid compression barotrauma.


title: Barotrauma

text: Excessively strenuous efforts to equalise the ears using the Valsalva manoeuvre can overpressurise the middle ear, and can cause middle ear and/or inner ear barotrauma.


title: Barotrauma

text: An explosive blast and explosive decompression create a pressure wave that can induce barotrauma. The difference in pressure between internal organs and the outer surface of the body causes injuries to internal organs that contain gas, such as the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and ear.


title: Barotrauma

text: Lung injuries can also occur during rapid decompression, although the risk of injury is lower than with explosive decompression.


title: Barotrauma

text: The resultant alveolar rupture can lead to pneumothorax, pulmonary interstitial emphysema (PIE) and pneumomediastinum.


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotrauma is a recognised complication of mechanical ventilation that can occur in any patient receiving mechanical ventilation, but is most commonly associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. It used to be the most common complication of mechanical ventilation but can usually be avoided by limiting tidal volume and plateau pressure to less than 30 to 50 cm water column (30 to 50 mb). As an indicator of transalveolar pressure, which predicts alveolar distention, plateau pressure or peak airway pressure (PAP) may be the most effective predictor of risk, but there is no generally accepted safe pressure at which there is no risk. Risk also appears to be increased by aspiration of stomach contents and pre-existing disease such as necrotising pneumonia and chronic lung disease. Status asthmaticus is a particular problem as it requires relatively high pressures to overcome bronchial obstruction.


title: Barotrauma

text: When lung tissues are damaged by alveolar over-distension, the injury may be termed volutrauma, but volume and transpulmonary pressure are closely related. Ventilator induced lung injury is often associated with high tidal volumes (V).


title: Barotrauma

text: A free-diver can dive and safely ascend without exhaling, because the gas in the lungs had been inhaled at atmospheric pressure, is compressed during the descent, and expands back to the original volume during ascent. A scuba or surface-supplied diver breathing gas at depth from underwater breathing apparatus fills their lungs with gas at a ambient pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. At 10 metres the lungs contain twice the amount of gas that they would contain at atmospheric pressure, and if they ascend without exhaling the gas will expand to match the decreasing pressure until the lungs reach their elastic limit, and begin to tear, and is very likely to sustain life-threatening lung damage. Besides tissue rupture, the overpressure may cause ingress of gases into the tissues through the ruptures, and further afield through the circulatory system. Pulmonary barotrauma (PBt) of ascent is also known as pulmonary over-inflation syndrome (POIS), lung over-pressure injury (LOP) and burst lung. Consequent injuries may include arterial gas embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal, interstitial and subcutaneous emphysemas, depending on where the gas ends up, not usually all at the same time.


title: Barotrauma

text: Gas in the arterial system can be carried to the blood vessels of the brain and other vital organs. It typically causes transient embolism similar to thromboembolism but of shorter duration. Where damage occurs to the endothelium inflammation develops and symptoms resembling stroke may follow. The bubbles are generally distributed and of various sizes, and usually affect several areas, resulting in an unpredictable variety of neurological deficits. Unconsciousness or other major changes to the state of consciousness within about 10 minutes of surfacing are generally assumed to be gas embolism until proven otherwise. The belief that the gas bubbles themselves formed static emboli which remain in place until recompression has been superseded by the knowledge that the gas emboli are normally transient, and the damage is due to inflammation following endothelial damage and secondary injury from inflammatory mediator upregulation.


title: Barotrauma

text: Hyperbaric oxygen can cause downregulation of the inflammatory response and resolution of oedema by causing hyperoxic arterial vasoconstriction of the supply to capillary beds. High concentration normobaric oxygen is appropriate as first aid but is not considered definitive treatment even when the symptoms appear to resolve. Relapses are common after discontinuing oxygen without recompression.


title: Barotrauma

text: A pneumothorax is an abnormal collection of air in the pleural space between the lung and the chest wall. Symptoms typically include sudden onset of sharp, one-sided chest pain and shortness of breath. In a minority of cases, a one-way valve is formed by an area of damaged tissue, and the amount of air in the space between chest wall and lungs increases; this is called a tension pneumothorax. This can cause a steadily worsening oxygen shortage and low blood pressure. This leads to a type of shock called obstructive shock, which can be fatal unless reversed. Very rarely, both lungs may be affected by a pneumothorax. It is often called a "collapsed lung", although that term may also refer to atelectasis.


title: Barotrauma

text: Divers who breathe from an underwater apparatus are supplied with breathing gas at ambient pressure, which results in their lungs containing gas at higher than atmospheric pressure. Divers breathing compressed air (such as when scuba diving) may develop a pneumothorax as a result of barotrauma from ascending just while breath-holding with their lungs fully inflated. An additional problem in these cases is that those with other features of decompression sickness are typically treated in a diving chamber with hyperbaric therapy; this can lead to a small pneumothorax rapidly enlarging and causing features of tension.


title: Barotrauma

text: Diagnosis of a pneumothorax by physical examination alone can be difficult (particularly in smaller pneumothoraces). A chest X-ray, computed tomography (CT) scan, or ultrasound is usually used to confirm its presence. Other conditions that can result in similar symptoms include a hemothorax (buildup of blood in the pleural space), pulmonary embolism, and heart attack. A large bulla may look similar on a chest X-ray.


title: Barotrauma

text: Also known as mediastinal emphysema to divers, pneumomediastinum is a volume of gas inside the mediastinum, the central cavity in the chest between the lungs and surrounding the heart and central blood vessels, usually formed by gas escaping from the lungs as a result of lung rupture.


title: Barotrauma

text: Gas bubbles escaping from a ruptured lung can travel along the outside of bronchioles and blood vessels until they reach the mediastinal cavity round the heart, major blood vessels, oesophagus and trachea. Gas trapped in the mediastinum expands as the diver continues to rise. The pressure of the trapped gas may cause intense pain inside the rib cage and in the shoulders, and the gas may compress the respiratory passageways, making breathing difficult, and collapse blood vessels. Symptoms range from pain under the sternum, shock, shallow breathing, unconsciousness, respiratory failure, and associated cyanosis. The gas will usually be absorbed by the body over time, and when the symptoms are mild, no treatment may be necessary. Otherwise it may be vented through a hypodermic needle inserted into the mediastinum. Recompression is not usually indicated.


title: Barotrauma

text: Diagnosis of barotrauma generally involves a history of exposure to a source of pressure which could cause the injury suggested by the symptoms. This can vary from the immediately obvious if exposed to explosive blast, or mask squeeze, to rather complex discrimination between possibilities of inner ear decompression sickness and inner ear barotrauma, which may have nearly identical symptoms but different causative mechanism and mutually incompatible treatments. The detailed dive history may be necessary in these cases.


title: Barotrauma

text: In terms of "barotrauma" the diagnostic workup for the affected individual could include the following:


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotrauma can affect the external, middle, or inner ear. Middle ear barotrauma (MEBT) is the most common diving injury, being experienced by between 10% and 30% of divers and is due to insufficient equilibration of the middle ear. External ear barotrauma may occur if air is trapped in the external auditory canal. Diagnosis of middle and external ear barotraume is relatively simple, as the damage is usually visible if severe enough to require intervention.


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotrauma can occur in the external auditory canal if it is blocked by cerumen, exostoses, a tight-fitting diving suit hood or earplugs, which create an airtight, air-filled space between the eardrum and the blockage. On descent, a preeure differential develops between the ambient water and the interior of this space, and this can cause swelling and haemorrhagic blistering of the canal. Treatment is usually analgesics and topical steroid eardrops. Complications may include local infection. This form of barotrauma is usually easily avoided.


title: Barotrauma

text: Middle ear barotrauma (MEBT) is an injury caused by a difference in pressure between the external ear canal and the middle ear. It is common in underwater divers and usually occurs when the diver does not equalise sufficiently during descent or, less commonly, on ascent. Failure to equalise may be due to inexperience or eustachian tube dysfunction, which can have many possible causes. Unequalised ambient pressure increase during descent causes a pressure imbalance between the middle ear air space and the external auiditory canal over the eardrum, referred to by divers as ear squeeze, causing inward stretching, serous effusion and haemorrhage, and eventual rupture. During ascent internal over-pressure is normally passively released through the eustachian tube, but if this does not happen the volume expansion of middle ear gas will cause outward bulging, stretching and eventual rupture of the eardrum known to divers as . This damage causes local pain and hearing loss. Tympanic rupture during a dive can allow water into the middle ear, which can cause severe vertigo from caloric stimulation. This may cause nausea and vomiting underwater, which has a high risk of aspiration of vomit or water, with possible fatal consequences.


title: Barotrauma

text: Inner ear barotrauma (IEBt), though much less common than MEBT, shares a similar external cause. Mechanical trauma to the inner ear can lead to varying degrees of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss as well as vertigo. It is also common for conditions affecting the inner ear to result in auditory hypersensitivity. Two possible mechanisms are associated with forced Valsalva manoeuvre. In the one, the Eustachian tube opens in response to the pressure, and a sudden rush of high pressure air into the middle ear causes stapes footplate dislocation and inward rupture of the oval or round window. In the other, the tube remains closed and increased cerebrospinal fluit pressure is transmitted through the cochlea and causes outward rupture of the round window.


title: Barotrauma

text: Inner ear barotrauma can be difficult to distinguish from Inner ear decompression sickness. Both conditions manifest as cochleovestibular symptoms. The similarity of symptoms makes differential diagnosis difficult, which can delay appropriate treatment or lead to inappropriate treatment.


title: Barotrauma

text: Nitrogen narcosis, oxygen toxicity, hypercarbia, and hypoxia can cause disturbances in balance or vertigo, but these appear to be central nervous system effects, not directly related to effects on the vestibular organs. High-pressure nervous syndrome during heliox compression is also a central nervous system dysfunction. Inner ear injuries with lasting effects are usually due to round window ruptures, often associated with Valsalva maneuver or inadequate middle ear equalisation. Inner ear barotraume is often concurrent with middle ear barotrama as the external causes are generally the same. A variety of injuries may be present, which may include inner ear haemorrhage, intralabyrinthine membrane tear, perilymph fistula, and other pathologies.


title: Barotrauma

text: Divers who develop cochlear and/or vestibular symptoms during descent to any depth, or during shallow diving in which decompression sickness is unlikely, should be treated with bed rest with head elevation, and should avoid any activity which could cause raised cerebrospinal fluid and intralabyrinthine pressure. If there is no improvement in symptoms after 48 hours, exploratory tympanotomy may be considered to investigate possible repair of a labyrinthine window fistula. Recompression therapy is contraindicated in these cases, but is the definitive treatment for inner ear decompression sickness, making an early and accurate differential diagnosis important for deciding on appropriate treatment. IEBt in divers may be difficult to distinguish from inner ear decompression sickness (IEDCS), and as a dive profile alone cannot always eliminate either of the possibilities, the detailed dive history may be necessary to diagnose the more likely injury. It is also possible for both to occur at the same time, and IEDCS is more likely to affect the semicircular canals, causing severe vertigo, while IEBt is more likely to affect the cochlea, causing hearing loss, but these are just statistical probabilities, and in reality it can go either way or both. It is accepted practice to assume that if any symptom typical of DCS is present, that the diver has DCS and will be treated accordingly with recompression. Limited case data suggest that recompression does not usually cause harm if the differential diagnosis between IEBt vs IEDCS is doubtful.


title: Barotrauma

text: The sinuses, like other air-filled cavities, are susceptible to barotrauma if their openings become obstructed. This can result in pain as well as epistaxis (nosebleed). Diagnosis is usually simple provided the history of pressure exposure is mentioned. Barosinusitis, is also called aerosinusitis, sinus squeeze or sinus barotrauma. Sinus barotrauma can be caused by external or internal overpressure. External over-pressure is called sinus squeeze by divers, while internal over-pressure is usually referred to as reverse block or reverse squeeze.


title: Barotrauma

text: If a diver's mask is not equalized during descent the relative negative internal pressure can produce petechial hemorrhages in the area covered by the mask along with subconjunctival hemorrhages.


title: Barotrauma

text: A problem mostly of historical interest, but still relevant to surface supplied divers who dive with the helmet sealed to the dry suit. If the air supply hose is ruptured near or above the surface, the pressure difference between the water around the diver and the air in the hose can be several bar. The non-return valve at the connection to the helmet will prevent backflow if it is working correctly, but if absent, as in the early days of helmet diving, or if it fails, the pressure difference will tend to squeeze the diver into the rigid helmet, which can result in severe trauma. The same effect can result from a large and rapid increase in depth if the air supply is insufficient to keep up with the increase in ambient pressure. On a helmet with a neck dam, the neck dam will allow water to flood the helmet before serious barotrauma can occur. This can happen with helium reclaim helmets if the reclaim regulator system fails, so there is a manual bypass valve, which allows the helmet to be purged so breathing can continue on open circuit.


title: Barotrauma

text: Lung over-pressure injury in ambient pressure divers using underwater breathing apparatus is usually caused by breath-holding on ascent. The compressed gas in the lungs expands as the ambient pressure decreases causing the lungs to over-expand and rupture unless the diver allows the gas to escape by maintaining an open airway, as in normal breathing. The lungs do not sense pain when over-expanded giving the diver little warning to prevent the injury. This does not affect breath-hold divers as they bring a lungful of air with them from the surface, which merely re-expands safely to near its original volume on ascent. The problem only arises if a breath of ambient pressure gas is taken at depth, which may then expand on ascent to more than the lung volume. Pulmonary barotrauma may also be caused by explosive decompression of a pressurised aircraft, as occurred on 1 February 2003 to the crew in the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster.


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotrauma may be caused when diving, either from being crushed, or squeezed, on descent or by stretching and bursting on ascent; both can be avoided by "equalising" the pressures. A negative, unbalanced pressure is known as a squeeze, crushing eardrums, dry suit, lungs or mask inwards and can be equalised by putting air into the squeezed space. A positive unbalanced pressure expands internal spaces rupturing tissue and can be equalised by letting air out, for example by exhaling. Both may cause barotrauma. There are a variety of techniques depending on the affected area and whether the pressure inequality is a squeeze or an expansion:


title: Barotrauma

text: Professional divers are screened for risk factors during initial and periodical medical examination for fitness to dive. In most cases recreational divers are not medically screened, but are required to provide a medical statement before acceptance for training in which the most common and easy to identify risk factors must be declared. If these factors are declared, the diver may be required to be examined by a medical practitioner, and may be disqualified from diving if the conditions indicate.


title: Barotrauma

text: Asthma, Marfan syndrome, and COPD pose a very high risk of pneumothorax. In some countries these may be considered absolute contraindications, while in others the severity may be taken into consideration. Asthmatics with a mild and well controlled condition may be permitted to dive under restricted circumstances.


title: Barotrauma

text: A significant part of entry level diver training is focused on understanding the risks and procedural avoidance of barotrauma. Professional divers and recreational divers with rescue training are trained in the basic skills of recognizing and first aid management of diving barotrauma.


title: Barotrauma

text: Isolated mechanical forces may not adequately explain ventilator induced lung injury (VILI). The damage is affected by the interaction of these forces and the pre-existing state of the lung tissues, and dynamic changes in alveolar structure may be involved. Factors such as plateau pressure and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) alone do not adequately predict injury. Cyclic deformation of lung tissue may play a large part in the cause of VILI, and contributory factors probably include tidal volume, positive end-expiratory pressure and respiratory rate. There is no protocol guaranteed to avoid all risk in all applications.


title: Barotrauma

text: Treatment of diving barotrauma depends on the symptoms, which depend on the affected tissues. Lung over-pressure injury may require a chest drain to remove air from the pleura or mediastinum. Recompression with hyperbaric oxygen therapy is the definitive treatment for arterial gas embolism, as the raised pressure reduces bubble size, the reduced blood inert gas concentration may accelerate inert gas solution, and high oxygen partial pressure helps oxygenate tissues compromised by the emboli. Care must be taken when recompressing to avoid a tension pneumothorax. Barotraumas that do not involve gas in the tissues are generally treated according to severity and symptoms for similar trauma from other causes.


title: Barotrauma

text: Pre-hospital care for lung barotrauma includes basic life support of maintaining adequate oxygenation and perfusion, assessment of airway, breathing and circulation, neurological assessment, and managing any immediate life-threatening conditions. High-flow oxygen up to 100% is considered appropriate for diving accidents. Large-bore venous access with isotonic fluid infusion is recommended to maintain blood pressure and pulse.


title: Barotrauma

text: Sinus squeeze and middle ear squeeze are generally treated with decongestants to reduce the pressure differential, with anti-inflammatory medications to treat the pain. For severe pain, narcotic analgesics may be appropriate.


title: Barotrauma

text: The primary medications for lung barotrauma are hyperbaric and normobaric oxygen, hyperbaric heliox or nitrox, isotonic fluids, anti-inflammatory medications, decongestants, and analgesics.


title: Barotrauma

text: Following barotrauma of the ears or lungs from diving the diver should not dive again until cleared by a diving doctor. After ear injury examination will include a hearing test and a demonstration that the middle ear can be autoinflated. Recovery can take weeks to months.


title: Barotrauma

text: An estimate of in the order of 1000 dive injuries per year occur in the United States and Canada. Many of these involve barotrauma, with nearly 50% of reported injuries involving middle ear barotrauma. Diving injuries tend to correlate with trait anxiety and a tendency to panic, lack of experience, advancing age and reduction in fitness, alcohol usage, obesity, asthma, chronic sinusitis and otitis.


title: Barotrauma

text: Whales and dolphins develop severely disabling barotrauma when exposed to excessive pressure changes induced by navy sonar, oil industry airguns, explosives, undersea earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.


title: Barotrauma

text: Injury and mortality of fish, marine mammals, including sea otters, seals, dolphins and whales, and birds by underwater explosions has been recorded in several studies. Bats can suffer fatal barotrauma in the low pressure zones behind the blades of wind turbines due to their more fragile mammalian lung structure in comparison with the more robust avian lungs, which are less affected by pressure change.


title: Barotrauma

text: Fish with isolated swim bladders are susceptible to barotrauma of ascent when brought to the surface by fishing. The swim bladder is an organ of buoyancy control which is filled with gas extracted from solution in the blood, and which is normally removed by the reverse process. If the fish is brought upwards in the water column faster than the gas can be resorbed, the gas will expand until the bladder is stretched to its elastic limit, and may rupture.


title: Barotrauma

text: Barotrauma can be directly fatal or disable the fish rendering it vulnerable to predation, but rockfish are able to recover if they are returned to depths similar to those they were pulled up from, shortly after surfacing. Scientists at NOAA developed the Seaqualizer to quickly return rockfish to depth. The device could increase survival in caught-and-released rockfish.


The 2021 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game played to determine a national champion in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) for the 2020 season. It was played at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, on January 11, 2021, with kickoff at 8:15 p.m. EST and television coverage by ESPN. Aside from the all-star games scheduled to follow, it was the culminating game of the 2020–21 bowl season.


title: 2021 College Football Playoff National Championship

text: The championship featured the top-seeded Alabama Crimson Tide from the Southeastern Conference easily defeating the third-seed Ohio State Buckeyes from the Big Ten Conference, 52–24. The win gave Alabama head coach Nick Saban his seventh national championship, breaking Bear Bryant's record for the most by a Division I college football coach.


text: In August 2018, Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, was announced as the host site for the seventh College Football Playoff (CFP) National Championship. The Rose Bowl and Sugar Bowl were designated as semifinal games; both semifinals were scheduled for January 1, 2021.


text: On August 5, 2020, CFP organizers announced that they would move the release of final rankings and semifinal matchups (sometimes referred to as "Selection Weekend") from December 6 to 20, in order to accommodate conferences that had delayed their championship games to mid-December. On December 20, the semifinal pairings were announced, with No. 1 Alabama matched with No. 4 Notre Dame in the Rose Bowl, and No. 2 Clemson matched with No. 3 Ohio State in the Sugar Bowl.


text: The Rose Bowl game, normally played in Pasadena, California, was moved to Arlington, Texas, prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic in California. As the 2020 FBS season was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, CFP organizers had identified a contingency date of January 18 for the championship game, which did not need to be used. Attendance at Hard Rock Stadium was limited to approximately 20% of normal capacity, with the official attendance listed as 14,926.


text: The game featured No. 1 Alabama, winner of the Rose Bowl, and No. 3 Ohio State, winner of the Sugar Bowl. The teams had previously met four times, with Alabama holding a 3–1 edge. Their most recent meeting had been in the 2015 Sugar Bowl, a CFP semifinal, which was won by Ohio State, 42–35.


text: Alabama entered the National Championship game with a 12–0 record, having won all 10 of their Southeastern Conference (SEC) regular season games, followed by a win over Florida in the SEC Championship Game, and a win over Notre Dame in the Rose Bowl CFP semifinal. Alabama had a record of 2–2 in prior CFP National Championship games, having won in 2016 and 2018 and having lost in 2017 and 2019.


text: Ohio State entered the game with a record of 7–0, having won all five of their Big Ten Conference regular season games, followed by a win over Northwestern in the Big Ten Championship Game, and a win over Clemson in the Sugar Bowl CFP semifinal. Ohio State had appeared in one prior CFP National Championship game, having won the inaugural edition in 2015, after defeating Alabama in the semifinal. On January 11, the Buckeyes advised that 13 players would not be available for the game, including two starting defensive linemen (Tommy Togiai and Tyreke Smith) and two kickers (Blake Haubeil and Dominic DiMaccio); specific reasons were not provided, but at least one player's post on social media indicated that it was due to a positive COVID-19 test.


text: Alabama won the coin toss and deferred possession to the second half. Ohio State's opening position began on the 25 following a touchback, but quickly fizzled into a three-and-out. Alabama started their opening drive at their own 22-yard-line following the punt and picked up four first downs en route to a 4th-and-goal rushing touchdown by Najee Harris to open the scoring. During the drive, cameras showed Ohio State running back Trey Sermon walking to the locker room with an apparent shoulder injury sustained on the first play of the game. Alabama kicker Will Reichard resumed the game with another touchback, giving the Buckeyes the football on the 25-yard-line again. Ohio State's second drive looked very different from their first: Master Teague scored a touchdown on an eight yard rush to cap an eight-play drive and tie the game. Filling in for kicker Blake Haubeil, who did not travel with the Ohio State team due to COVID issues, punter Drue Chrisman handled the kickoff, which was taken back to the 25. Alabama drove all the way to the Ohio State five-yard-line, including another 4th down conversion, before the quarter expired with the score tied at seven.


text: On the second quarter's opening play, Tide quarterback Mac Jones connected with Heisman winner DeVonta Smith for a five-yard passing touchdown, giving Alabama a lead it would not relinquish for the rest of the game. Following the conclusion of the drive, it was announced that Trey Sermon was on the way to the hospital and would not return for the game. Ohio State's ensuing drive began on the 25 after a touchback. The Buckeyes drove the ball to the Alabama 44 before stalling; the ensuing punt was downed by the Tide at their own 12-yard-line. Alabama started their next drive well, with a 12-yard pass from Jones to Smith, before Ohio State linebacker Baron Browning sacked Jones and forced a fumble, which he recovered. Ohio State took one play to find the end zone – following a pass interference in the end zone, the Buckeyes got the ball on the 4-yard-line and tied the game with a Master Teague rushing touchdown, his second of the contest. The Tide responded quickly; it took them only five plays to score on a Najee Harris 26-yard reception, giving them back a touchdown lead. On the ensuing Ohio State drive, Alabama safety Jordan Battle was disqualified for targeting; the Buckeyes finished the drive with a field goal, cutting the Alabama lead to four. Alabama's next drive began on their own 25, and the Tide's offense had no problem moving the ball down the field again, with Jones finding Smith for the second time to take a two-possession lead. The Buckeyes' offense gained only four yards on their ensuing drive, and they punted for the second time. Smith returned the punt for 19 yards, setting Alabama up at their own 40-yard-line. Alabama scored even more quickly on this drive – Smith found the end zone on a 42-yard pass on just the third play of the drive to extend the lead to 18 points. Ohio State ended their final drive of the first half with another three-and-out, and their defense held with seconds left on the clock in the half and forced an Alabama punt, their first of the game. Ohio State knelt the ball and ended the first half, with Alabama leading 35–17 at halftime.


text: Alabama started their first drive of the second half with the ball on their own 23-yard-line, and ended the drive with a Will Reichard field goal sixteen plays later, making this drive the game's longest. Ohio State responded with their shortest touchdown drive of the contest, as a 33-yard rush by Justin Fields set up a 20-yard pass from Fields to wide receiver Garrett Wilson, cutting Alabama's lead back to two touchdowns. During Alabama's ensuing drive, DeVonta Smith suffered a hand injury that caused him to retreat to the locker room. The Crimson Tide scored again, as Slade Bolden caught a five-yard Mac Jones pass and increased the lead back to 21. Ohio State's first turnover of the game, a turnover on downs, ended their next drive at their own 43-yard-line, and the third quarter ended shortly thereafter.


text: Alabama increased their lead to four touchdowns on the fourth play of the game's final quarter, as Najee Harris scored for the second time. Ohio State's next drive saw them take the ball all the way to the Alabama 6-yard-line, but an incomplete pass on 4th & goal ended the Buckeyes' drive with a turnover on downs. Neither offense could capitalize on their next possession, as the teams then traded three-and-outs. Alabama was able to run the remaining clock out and the game and football season concluded with the Crimson Tide as national champions, 52–24. Despite being injured in the third quarter, DeVonta Smith was named the offensive most valuable player (MVP), and Christian Barmore of Alabama's defensive line was named defensive MVP.


text: The game was televised nationally in the United States by ESPN for the seventh straight year, along with its sister networks and ESPN+ in a "Megacast" made up of several other channels, including game data, radio calls from the Ohio State and Alabama radio networks, stadium audio-only, and other camera angles. The game announcers were Chris Fowler and Kirk Herbstreit, with Maria Taylor and Allison Williams serving as sideline reporters.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Qantas operates a fleet of Airbus A330, Airbus A380, Boeing 737 and Boeing 787 making a total of 124 aircraft. This list excludes subsidiaries Jetstar, Qantaslink and Qantas Freight.


title: Qantas fleet

text: , Qantas and its subsidiaries operated 297 aircraft, including 71 aircraft by Jetstar Airways; 90 by the various QantasLink-branded airlines and six by Express Freighters Australia (on behalf of Qantas Freight, which also wet leases 2 Atlas Air Boeing 747-8Fs, N850GT and N854GT).


title: Qantas fleet

text: On 22 August 2012, Qantas announced that, due to losses and to conserve capital, it had cancelled its 35-aircraft Boeing 787-9 order while keeping the 15-aircraft 787-8 order for Jetstar Airways and moving forward 50 purchase rights. On 20 August 2015 Qantas announced that it had ordered eight Boeing 787-9s for delivery from 2017.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In February 2019, Qantas cancelled its remaining orders for a further eight Airbus A380-800 aircraft.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In June 2019, during the Paris Air Show, Qantas Group converted 26 Airbus A321neo orders to the A321XLR variant and another ten A321neo orders to the A321LR variant; and ordered an additional ten A321XLRs. This brought Qantas Group's total Airbus A320neo family order to 109 aircraft, consisting of 45 A320neos, 28 A321LRs, and 36 A321XLRs. At the time of the announcement, Qantas CEO Alan Joyce stated that a decision had not yet been made on how the aircraft would be distributed between Qantas and Jetstar Airways, or whether they were to be used for network growth or the replacement of older aircraft.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In December 2019, Qantas announced it had selected the Airbus A350-1000 for its Project Sunrise program of non-stop flights from Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane to cities such as London, New York, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Cape Town, and Frankfurt. No orders had been placed but Qantas would work closely with Airbus to prepare contract terms for up to 12 aircraft ahead of a final decision by the Qantas Board. Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, plans for "Project Sunrise" were put on hold indefinitely.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In December 2021, Qantas announced it had selected the Airbus A321XLR to replace its Boeing 737-800s, and the Airbus A220 to replace its QantasLink Boeing 717s. The in-principle agreement was for up to 134 orders and purchase right options over 10 plus years with deliveries occurring sometime after 1 July 2023. The order was expected to be finalised before 30 June 2022.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In May 2022, Qantas announced it had placed an order for 12 Airbus A350-1000 for the Project Sunrise program. The first of these is expected to be delivered to Qantas in late 2025. To celebrate this order, an Airbus A350-1000 was flown to Sydney from Toulouse via Perth wearing Qantas decals. The 238 seats will be split into 6 first class suites (three-abreast), 52 business class suites (four-abreast), 40 premium economy seats at 40″ pitch (eight-abreast) and 140 economy class seats at 33″ pitch (nine-abreast). In the same announcement, they also finalised their order for the Airbus A321XLR and Airbus A220.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Qantas has had a varied fleet since the airline's inception. Following its foundation shortly after the end of the First World War, the first aircraft to serve in the fleet was the Avro 504K, a small biplane. Starting with a delivery of seven Boeing 707 aircraft, the airline's fleet entered the jet age in 1959.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Qantas' first aircraft was an Avro 504K (a replica of which can be seen at Sydney Airport's Qantas Domestic Terminal 3 on departures level) with a 100-horsepower (74 kW) water-cooled Sunbeam Dyak engine. By 1921 it also operated a Royal Aircraft Factory BE2E with a 90-horsepower (67 kW) air-cooled engine.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Qantas inaugurated its three-day-long "Short Empire Flying Boat" service between Rose Bay and Singapore-Kallang Airport in the late 1930s. The run had stopovers in Townsville, Darwin and Surabaya. The service was replaced in 1943 by a long-range service, the "Catalina flying boat".


title: Qantas fleet

text: During World War II, Qantas operated flying boats on the Australia-England route in cooperation with British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). After Italy entered the war in June 1940, this became the Horseshoe Route between Sydney and Durban in South Africa with the South Africa – UK stage being by sea. This service was a vital line of communication between Australia and the United Kingdom.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In June 1943 Qantas employed 5 Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boats—obtained under Lend-Lease through the British Air Ministry—to establish a route between Perth in Australia and Colombo in Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) over the Indian Ocean. Becoming known as The Double Sunrise, this route remains the longest non-stop commercial flight ever undertaken, requiring between 27 and 32 hours to complete (depending on winds). Over the next two years, 271 crossings took place.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Starting in June 1944, Qantas augmented the Catalinas with the first of two converted Consolidated Liberator bombers, which could complete the Australia–Ceylon journey in substantially less time with a much larger payload. The route was named "Kangaroo Route" and marked the first time that Qantas' now-famous kangaroo logo was used; passengers received a certificate proclaiming them as members of "The Order of the Longest Hop". A new version of the logo was launched in July 2007.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In June 1945, Avro Lancastrians were introduced on the Australia–England service, with the Liberators and Catalinas being shifted to other routes.