text: On May 18, 1992, the Archivist of the United States, Don W. Wilson, certified that the amendment's ratification had been completed. Michigan's May 7, 1992, ratification was believed to be the 38th state, but it later came to light that the Kentucky General Assembly had ratified the amendment during that state's initial month of statehood, making Alabama (which acted after Missouri on May 5, 1992) the state to finalize the amendment's addition to the Constitution.


title: Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

text: Four states have not ratified the Twenty-seventh Amendment: Massachusetts, Mississippi, New York, and Pennsylvania.


text: On May 19, 1992, the Twenty-seventh Amendment's certificate of ratification, signed by the Archivist of the United States, Don W. Wilson, on May 18, 1992, was printed and published in the "Federal Register".


text: In certifying that the amendment had been duly ratified, the Archivist of the United States had acted under statutory authority granted to his office by the Congress under , which states:


text: The response in Congress was sharp. Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia scolded Wilson for certifying the amendment without congressional approval. Although Byrd supported congressional acceptance of the amendment, he contended that Wilson had deviated from "historic tradition" by not waiting for Congress to consider the ratification's validity, given the extremely long time since the amendment had been proposed. Speaker of the House Tom Foley and others called for a legal challenge to the ratification.


text: On May 20, 1992, under the authority recognized in "Coleman", and in keeping with the precedent established by the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, each house of the 102nd Congress passed its own version of a concurrent resolution agreeing that the amendment was validly ratified, despite the more than 202 years the task took. The Senate's approval of the resolution was unanimous (99 to 0) and the House vote was 414 to 3.


text: Congressional cost-of-living adjustments (COLA) have been upheld against legal challenges based on this amendment. In "Boehner v. Anderson", the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the Twenty-seventh Amendment does not affect annual COLAs. In "Schaffer v. Clinton", the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit ruled that receiving such a COLA does not grant members of the Congress standing in federal court to challenge it; the Supreme Court did not hear either case, and so has never ruled on this amendment's effect on COLAs.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Jisshu Ujjwal Sengupta (born 15 March 1977) is an Indian actor, producer, television presenter. who predominantly works in Bengali, Hindi and Telugu films. Sengupta made his debut through a Bengali TV series, "Mahaprabhu" where he portrayed the role of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu; the role gained him much recognition. Subsequently, he made his film debut with "Priyojon" (1997), which became a debacle at the box office. In 2002, he played Tagore in Sukanta Roy's ambitious venture "Chelebela" alongside Debashree Roy playing Kadambari Devi. following which he appeared in a spate of critically and commercially unsuccessful projects. He made his Bollywood debut with Shyam Benegal's National Award winning film "" (2004). A turning point came in his career when he collaborated with Rituparno Ghosh for the latter's "Abohomaan", which earned him critical acclaim. His subsequent collaborations with Ghosh for films which include "Noukadubi" and "Shob Charitro Kalponik" brought him a higher degree of critical and commercial success. Sengupta's collaborations with other directors for films such as "Jaatishwar" enabled him to become one of the most sought out actors in Bengali cinema.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Sengupta continued to garner wider attention and further critical acclaim for the role of a contract killer in "Rajkahini" (2015) and a private detective in "Byomkesh O Chiriyakhana" (2016). His biggest commercial success came with the action drama film "Zulfiqar" (2016), as he continued to draw praise for his performances in "Sesh Bole Kichu Nei" (2014), "Jaatishwar" (2014), "Kelor Kirti" (2016),"Posto (film)"(2017), "Ek Je Chhilo Raja" (2018) and "Mahalaya" (2019).


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Apart from films, Sengupta is actively involved in anchoring reality shows and award shows, including Filmfare Awards East (2017). In 2011, he made a comeback on television in the fiction category through "Aparajito", which he produced for Star Jalsha.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Jisshu Sengupta was born on 15 March 1977 in Calcutta (now Kolkata), West Bengal. He is the son of Ujjwal Sengupta, also an actor in Bengali films. In 2004, he married Nilanjana Sharma, the elder daughter of film actress Anjana Bhowmick.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Sengupta started his career with a teleserial, titled "Mahaprabhu", which aired on Doordarshan. He earned critical acclaim for portraying the younger Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in the series. After his part ended in the series, he made his silver screen debut through "Priyojon", directed by Dinen Sengupta, which was a critical and commercial failure. In 2002, he played Thakur in Sukanta Roy's ambitious venture "Chelebela" alongside Debashree Roy playing Kadambari Devi. Thereafter, he appeared in a string of critically and commercially unsuccessful ventures, as main lead. He made his debut in Bangla cinema through "Moner Majhe Tumi", appearing as a parallel lead, which was the highest-grossing film of Bangladesh in 2003. He went on playing supporting roles in commercial films, namely "Abhimanyu", "Kurukshetra", "Mahaguru", "Sangram", "Sajani", "Guru", "Janmadata", "Chore Chore Mastuto Bhai" and "Premi", earning a low degree of success. In 2008, he starred in the romantic-comedy film "Love" and "Bor Asbe Ekhuni". He also made his debut in Bollywood through Shyam Benegal's biographical war film "".


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: After appearing in critically and commercially unsuccessful films, he met director Rituparno Ghosh, which made Sengupta put more thought into his choice of films. Under Ghosh's tutelage, he gave some of his critically acclaimed performances in films, including "The Last Lear", "Shob Choritro Kalponik" (2008), "", and a betrayed husband in "Abohoman". "Shob Choritro Kalponik" also won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Bengali in 2009. "The Times of India" stated that "Jisshu Sengupta, in the role of a junkie, has delivered one of the finest performances of his career." (in "").


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Sengupta portrayed the protagonist in "Noukadubi", alongside Raima Sen, Riya Sen and Prosenjit Chatterjee in an extended guest appearance.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Sengupta made a comeback to Bollywood through a cameo appearance in Anurag Basu's directorial "Barfi!". Sengupta collaborated with Srijit Mukherji for the latter's musical drama film "Jaatishwar" co-starring Prosenjit Chatterjee and Swastika Mukherjee. Released on 17 January 2014, the film opened to widespread positive reviews from the critics and was commercially successful. Sengupta played a supporting character in "Mardaani", starring Rani Mukherji. In 2015, he portrayed Byomkesh Bakshi in Anjan Dutt's directorial "Byomkesh Bakshi". He next collaborated with Srijit Mukherji for the latter's drama film "Rajkahini". Both of the films opened to widespread commercial success upon release. His other release in 2015, the musical drama film "Arshinagar" flopped, though his performance earned critical acclaim. In 2016, he starred in the sequel of Byomkesh Bakshi and "Zulfiqar", the former being a commercially and critically successful venture, whereas the latter was only a commercially successful venture, though his performance was critically acclaimed. He was honoured with the Best Actor award for the film "Abar Aranye" in the 12th Kalakar Awards in 2004 for . He also received a Filmfare Awards East (2017) nomination in Best Actor category for his performance in the former film and won the Star Jalsha Awards for Best Negative Role as well as a nomination for Filmfare Awards East (2017) in the Best Supporting Actor category for the latter. As of now, he acted in Shiboprosad Mukherjee and Nandita Roy's directorial "Posto".


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: He then went on to feature in the film "" (2019), where he played the role of Gangadhar Rao, the king of Jhansi, alongside Kangana Ranaut. The film was a commercial success.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: He next featured in "Shakuntala Devi", where he played the role of Paritosh Banerji, Shakuntala Devi's husband, with Vidya Balan playing the titular role. The film streamed on Amazon Prime Video in July 2020.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: He was then offered a role in Mahesh Bhatt's "Sadak 2", where he played the role of Alia Bhatt's father, released in August 2020 in Disney+ Hotstar. Sengupta played ACP Abhay Singh in the horror thriller "Durgamati", released in December 2020.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Sengupta is associated with television from the beginning of his career, since he forayed into showbiz with a mythological series based on Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. After almost a decade, he made a comeback to television in the fiction category through his own production, titled "Aparajito", which aired on Star Jalsha. Apart from fiction, he has been anchoring many award shows, namely Filmfare Awards East 2017 and non-fiction shows, namely the three sessions of "Sa Re Ga Ma Pa: Gaane Gaane Tomar Mone", the Bengali version of "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa" and "Egiye Bangla". In 2016, he was a judge of "Dance Bangla Dance Junior" on Zee Bangla.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: As of January 2020, Sengupta was hosting two mega-reality television shows for Star Jalsha, Super Singer and Super Singer Junior. In October 2020, Sengupta is hosting a new stand-up comedy series "Hasiwala and Company" in Star Jalsha.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Sengupta has been an avid sportsman also, taking part in many sports, most notably cricket, from his childhood days when he used to play the sport in sub-junior games. He was the captain for the Bengal Tigers team, representing Cinema of West Bengal in the Celebrity Cricket League. Though the team hasn't won any editions, his cricket skills have been appreciated by many. "Bengal Cricket League", which commenced on 26 December 2015 was also the brainchild of Sengupta. Apart from cricket, Sengupta also supported the Kolkata Marathon in the year 2014 along with other celebrities. Over 8,000 participants including elite runners, beginners, fitness enthusiasts, corporate teams and spirited youngsters took part in the prize money event held on 8 February 2014. Sengupta also took part in a charity football match for the knee replacement surgery of the Indian football player, Kushumita Das.


title: Jisshu Sengupta

text: Sengupta was ranked first in the Calcutta Times' "Most Desirable Men" in its 2015 edition. He gained the 49th position in in July 2015 for the buzz created around his 2015 comedy drama film "Piku". He also appeared in Dabboo Ratnani's "Bong Calendar 1422", a first of its kind initiative and was presented at the launch event of the calendar. Along with Paoli Dam, he launched the "Times Food Guide 2017" at ITC Sonar.


title: High-pass filter

text: A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes signals with a frequency higher than a certain cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency. The amount of attenuation for each frequency depends on the filter design. A high-pass filter is usually modeled as a linear time-invariant system. It is sometimes called a low-cut filter or bass-cut filter in the context of audio engineering. High-pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to non-zero average voltages or radio frequency devices. They can also be used in conjunction with a low-pass filter to produce a bandpass filter.


title: High-pass filter

text: In the optical domain filters are often characterised by wavelength rather than frequency. High-pass and low-pass have the opposite meanings, with a "high-pass" filter (more commonly "long-pass") passing only "longer" wavelengths (lower frequencies), and vice versa for "low-pass" (more commonly "short-pass").


title: High-pass filter

text: In electronics, a filter is a two-port electronic circuit which removes frequency components from a signal (time-varying voltage or current) applied to its input port. A high-pass filter attenuates frequency components below a certain frequency, called its cutoff frequency, allowing higher frequency components to pass through. This contrasts with a low-pass filter, which attenuates frequencies higher than a certain frequency, and a bandpass filter, which allows a certain band of frequencies through and attenuates frequencies both higher and lower than the band.


title: High-pass filter

text: In optics a high pass filter is a transparent or translucent window of colored material that allows light longer than a certain wavelength to pass through and attenuates light of shorter wavelengths. Since light is often measured not by frequency but by wavelength, which is inversely related to frequency, a high pass optical filter, which attenuates light frequencies below a cutoff frequency, is often called a short-pass filter; it attenuates longer wavelengths.


title: High-pass filter

text: The simple first-order electronic high-pass filter shown in Figure 1 is implemented by placing an input voltage across the series combination of a capacitor and a resistor and using the voltage across the resistor as an output. The transfer function of this linear time-invariant system is:


title: High-pass filter

text: The product of the resistance and capacitance ("R"×"C") is the time constant (τ); it is inversely proportional to the cutoff frequency "f", that is,


title: High-pass filter

text: where "f" is in hertz, "τ" is in seconds, "R" is in ohms, and "C" is in farads. The cutoff frequency is where the pole of the filter levels off the filter's frequency response.


title: High-pass filter

text: Figure 2 shows an active electronic implementation of a first-order high-pass filter using an operational amplifier. The transfer function of this linear time-invariant system is:


title: High-pass filter

text: Because this filter is active, it may have non-unity passband gain. That is, high-frequency signals are inverted and amplified by "R"/"R".


title: High-pass filter

text: Discrete-time high-pass filters can also be designed. Discrete-time filter design is beyond the scope of this article; however, a simple example comes from the conversion of the continuous-time high-pass filter above to a discrete-time realization. That is, the continuous-time behavior can be discretized.


title: High-pass filter

text: where formula_6 is the charge stored in the capacitor at time formula_7. Substituting Equation (Q) into Equation (I) and then Equation (I) into Equation (V) gives:


title: High-pass filter

text: This equation can be discretized. For simplicity, assume that samples of the input and output are taken at evenly spaced points in time separated by formula_9 time. Let the samples of formula_10 be represented by the sequence formula_11, and let formula_12 be represented by the sequence formula_13 which correspond to the same points in time. Making these substitutions:


title: High-pass filter

text: By definition, formula_17. The expression for parameter formula_18 yields the equivalent time constant formula_19 in terms of the sampling period formula_9 and formula_18:


title: High-pass filter

text: If formula_29, then the formula_19 time constant equal to the sampling period. If formula_31, then formula_19 is significantly smaller than the sampling interval, and formula_33.


title: High-pass filter

text: The filter recurrence relation provides a way to determine the output samples in terms of the input samples and the preceding output. The following pseudocode algorithm will simulate the effect of a high-pass filter on a series of digital samples, assuming equally spaced samples:


title: High-pass filter

text: However, the earlier form shows how the parameter α changes the impact of the prior output and current "change" in input . In particular,


title: High-pass filter

text: High-pass filters have many applications. They are used as part of an audio crossover to direct high frequencies to a tweeter while attenuating bass signals which could interfere with, or damage, the speaker. When such a filter is built into a loudspeaker cabinet it is normally a passive filter that also includes a low-pass filter for the woofer and so often employs both a capacitor and inductor (although very simple high-pass filters for tweeters can consist of a series capacitor and nothing else).


title: High-pass filter

text: As an example, the formula above, applied to a tweeter with a resistance of 10 Ω, will determine the capacitor value for a cut-off frequency of 5 kHz.


title: High-pass filter

text: An alternative, which provides good quality sound without inductors (which are prone to parasitic coupling, are expensive, and may have significant internal resistance) is to employ bi-amplification with active RC filters or active digital filters with separate power amplifiers for each loudspeaker. Such low-current and low-voltage line level crossovers are called active crossovers.


title: High-pass filter

text: Rumble filters are high-pass filters applied to the removal of unwanted sounds near to the lower end of the audible range or below. For example, noises (e.g., footsteps, or motor noises from record players and tape decks) may be removed because they are undesired or may overload the RIAA equalization circuit of the preamp.


title: High-pass filter

text: High-pass filters are also used for AC coupling at the inputs of many audio power amplifiers, for preventing the amplification of DC currents which may harm the amplifier, rob the amplifier of headroom, and generate waste heat at the loudspeakers voice coil. One amplifier, the professional audio model DC300 made by Crown International beginning in the 1960s, did not have high-pass filtering at all, and could be used to amplify the DC signal of a common 9-volt battery at the input to supply 18 volts DC in an emergency for mixing console power. However, that model's basic design has been superseded by newer designs such as the Crown Macro-Tech series developed in the late 1980s which included 10 Hz high-pass filtering on the inputs and switchable 35 Hz high-pass filtering on the outputs. Another example is the QSC Audio PLX amplifier series which includes an internal 5 Hz high-pass filter which is applied to the inputs whenever the optional 50 and 30 Hz high-pass filters are turned off.


title: High-pass filter

text: Mixing consoles often include high-pass filtering at each channel strip. Some models have fixed-slope, fixed-frequency high-pass filters at 80 or 100 Hz that can be engaged; other models have sweepable high-pass filters, filters of fixed slope that can be set within a specified frequency range, such as from 20 to 400 Hz on the Midas Heritage 3000, or 20 to 20,000 Hz on the Yamaha M7CL digital mixing console. Veteran systems engineer and live sound mixer Bruce Main recommends that high-pass filters be engaged for most mixer input sources, except for those such as kick drum, bass guitar and piano, sources which will have useful low-frequency sounds. Main writes that DI unit inputs (as opposed to microphone inputs) do not need high-pass filtering as they are not subject to modulation by low-frequency stage wash—low frequency sounds coming from the subwoofers or the public address system and wrapping around to the stage. Main indicates that high-pass filters are commonly used for directional microphones which have a proximity effect—a low-frequency boost for very close sources. This low-frequency boost commonly causes problems up to 200 or 300 Hz, but Main notes that he has seen microphones that benefit from a 500 Hz high-pass filter setting on the console.


title: High-pass filter

text: High-pass and low-pass filters are also used in digital image processing to perform image modifications, enhancements, noise reduction, etc., using designs done in either the spatial domain or the frequency domain. The unsharp masking, or sharpening, operation used in image editing software is a high-boost filter, a generalization of high-pass.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: The United Malays National Organisation (Malay: ; Jawi: ; abbreviated UMNO () or less commonly PEKEMBAR), is a nationalist right-wing political party in Malaysia. As the oldest continuous national political party within Malaysia (since its inception in 1946), UMNO has once been called Malaysia's "Grand Old Party".


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: UMNO is a founding and the principal dominant member of the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition, which taken along with its predecessor Alliance, had been the main governing party of Malaysia from the independence of Malaya in 1957 until its defeat in the 2018 general election. From 1957 to 2018, every Prime Minister of Malaysia was also the President of UMNO. It has since returned to power twice as a result of the 2020-2022 Malaysian political crisis, firstly as a partner in a Perikatan Nasional-led government and subsequently as the leading party in a BN-led government with UMNO vice-president Ismail Sabri serving as Prime Minister.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: A race-focused party, UMNO's goals are to uphold the aspirations of Malay nationalism and the racial concept of "Ketuanan Melayu" (lit. Malay Supremacy), as well as the dignity of the Malay race, the religion of Islam, as well as the country itself. The party also aspires to protect Malay culture as the national culture and to uphold, defend and expand Islam across Malaysia.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In the 2018 UMNO leadership election, which was considered by many as crucial to the party's progression, former Deputy Prime Minister Ahmad Zahid Hamidi was elected UMNO president in a three-cornered contest, defeating former UMNO Youth Chief Khairy Jamaluddin, and UMNO veteran Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: After the British returned to Malaya in the aftermath of World War II, the Malayan Union was formed. However, the Union was met with much opposition due to its constitutional framework, which allegedly threatened Malay sovereignty over Malaya. A series of Malay congresses were held, culminating in the formation of the nationalist party, UMNO on 10 May 1946 at the Third Malay Congress in Johor Bahru, with Datuk Onn Jaafar as its leader. UMNO strongly opposed the Malayan Union, but originally did not seek political power. UMNO had no choice but continue playing a supporting role to the British colonial administration. The British cooperated with UMNO leaders and helped to defeat the communist insurgency.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In 1949, after the Malayan Union had been replaced by the semi-autonomous Federation of Malaya, UMNO shifted its focus to politics and governance. According to at least one official school textbook published during UMNO's time in government, the party fought for other races once they were at the helm of the country.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In 1951, Onn Jaafar left UMNO after failing to open its membership to non-Malay Malayans to form the Independence of Malaya Party. Tunku Abdul Rahman replaced Dato' Onn as UMNO President. In the following year, the Kuala Lumpur branch of UMNO formed an "ad hoc" and temporary electoral pact with the Selangor branch of Malayan Chinese Association to avoid contesting the same seats in the Kuala Lumpur municipal council elections. UMNO and MCA eventually carried nine out of the twelve seats, dealing a crushing blow to the IMP. After several other successes in local council elections, the coalition was formalised as an "Alliance" in 1954.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In 1954, state elections were held. In these elections, the Alliance won 226 of the 268 seats nationwide. In the same year, a Federal Legislative Council was formed, comprising 100 seats. 52 would be elected, and the rest would be appointed by the British High Commissioner. The Alliance demanded that 60 of the seats be elected, but despite the Tunku flying out to London to negotiate, the British held firm. Elections for the council were held in 1955, and the Alliance, which had now expanded to include the Malayan Indian Congress, issued a manifesto stating its goals of achieving independence by 1959, requiring a minimum of primary school education for all children, protecting the rights of the Malay rulers as constitutional monarchs, ending the Communist emergency, and reforming the civil service through the hiring of more Malayans as opposed to foreigners.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: When the results were released, it emerged that the Alliance had won 51 of the 52 seats contested, with the other seat going to PAS (the Pan-Malayan Islamic Party, a group of Islamists that split from UMNO). The Tunku became the first Chief Minister of Malaya.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Throughout this period, the Malayan Emergency had been on-going. The Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), the armed wing of the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), committed sabotage campaigns against the British by disrupting transportation and communication networks, attacking police stations, burning down factories, with the goal of gaining independence for Malaya by making British rule in Malaya too expensive to maintain. The colonial government declared the MCP, along with several left-wing political groups, illegal in 1948. In 1955, the Alliance government together with the British High Commissioner declared an amnesty for the communist insurgents who surrendered. Representatives from the Alliance government also met with leaders of the MCP in an attempt to resolve the conflict peacefully, as their manifesto in the election stated. Chin Peng, the MCP Secretary-General, insisted that the MCP be allowed to contest elections and be declared a legal political party as a pre-condition to laying down arms. However, the Tunku rejected this, leading to an impasse.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In 1956, the Tunku led a group of negotiators, comprising Alliance politicians and representatives of the Malay rulers, to London. There, they brokered a deal with the British government for independence. The date of independence was set as 31 August 1957 on the condition that an independent commission is set up to draft a constitution for the country. The Alliance government was also required to avoid seizing British and other foreign assets in Malaya. A defence treaty would also be signed.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: The Reid Commission, led by Lord William Reid, was formed to draft the constitution. Although enshrining concepts such as federalism and a constitutional monarchy, the proposed constitution also contained provisions protecting special rights for the Malays, such as quotas in admission to higher education and the civil service, and making Islam the official religion of the federation. It also made Malay the official language of the nation, although the right to vernacular education in Chinese and Tamil would be protected. Although the Tunku and the Malay rulers had asked the Reid Commission to ensure that ""in an independent Malaya all nationals should be accorded equal rights, privileges and opportunities and there must not be discrimination on grounds of race and creed"," the Malay privileges, which many in UMNO backed, were cited as necessary by the Reid Commission as a form of affirmative action that would eventually be phased out. These measures were included as Articles 3, 152 and 153 of the Constitution.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Independence was declared by the Tunku in Merdeka Stadium on 31 August 1957, marking a transition into a new era of Malayan and Malaysian politics.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In Malaya's first general elections in 1959, the Alliance coalition led by UMNO won 51.8% of the votes and captured 74 out of 104 seats, enough for a two-thirds majority in parliament, which would not only allow them to form the government again but amend the constitution at will. However, for the Alliance, the election was marred by internal strife when MCA leader Lim Chong Eu demanded his party be allowed to contest 40 of the 104 seats available. When the Tunku rejected this, many of Lim's supporters resigned, and ran in the election as independents, which cost the Alliance some seats.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In 1961, the Tunku mooted the idea of forming a federation named "Malaysia", which would consist of the British colonies of Singapore, Sabah, Sarawak, and also the British Protectorate of Brunei. The reasoning behind this was that this would allow the federal government to control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that if Singapore achieved independence, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. To balance out the ethnic composition of the new nation, the other states, whose Malay and indigenous populations would balance out the Singaporean Chinese majority, were also included.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: After much negotiation, a constitution was hammered out with some minor changes. For instance, the Malay privileges were now made available to all "Bumiputra", a group comprising the Malays and other indigenous peoples of Malaysia. However, the new states were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the original nine states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. Brunei ultimately decided to opt out of the federation due in part to an armed revolt by the People's Party ("Parti Rakyat Brunei") which objected to the formation of Malaysia, and the Sultan of Brunei Omar Ali Saifuddien III's demand that he be recognised as the most senior Malay ruler—a demand that was rejected.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: The Philippines and Indonesia strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of neocolonialism and the Philippines claiming Sabah as its territory. The United Nations sent a commission to the region which approved the merger after having delayed the date of Malaysia's formation to investigate. Despite further protests from the Indonesian President, Sukarno, the formation of Malaysia was proclaimed on 16 September 1963. Indonesia then declared a "confrontation" with Malaysia, sending commandos to perform guerilla attacks in East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). The confrontation was ended when Suharto replaced Sukarno as president. The Philippines, which had withdrawn diplomatic recognition from Malaysia, also recognised Malaysia around the same time.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: To reflect the change of name to Malaysia, UMNO's coalition partners promptly altered their names to the Malaysian Chinese Association and the Malaysian Indian Congress. Several political parties in East Malaysia, especially Sarawak, also joined the Alliance to allow it to contest elections there.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In the 1963 Singapore state elections, the Alliance decided to challenge Lee Kuan Yew's governing People's Action Party through the Singapore Alliance Party. UMNO politicians actively campaigned in Singapore for the Singapore Alliance, contending that the Singapore Malays were being treated as second-class citizens under the Chinese-dominated PAP government. All of the UMNO-backed Malay candidates lost to PAP candidates. UMNO Secretary-General Syed Jaafar Albar travelled to Singapore to address the Malay populace. At one rally, he called the PAP Malay politicians un-Islamic and traitors to the Malay race, greatly straining PAP-UMNO relations. The PAP politicians, who saw this as a betrayal of an earlier agreement with the Alliance not to contest elections in Malaysia and Singapore respectively, decided on running on the mainland in the 1964 general election. Although the PAP contested nine Parliamentary seats and attracted large crowds at its rallies, it won only one seat. The strain in race relations caused by the communal lines along which the political factions had been drawn led to the 1964 Race Riots in Singapore.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Alliance leaders also were alarmed at Lee's behaviour, which they considered unseemly for the Chief Minister of a state. They thought he was acting as if he were the Prime Minister of a sovereign nation. Finance Minister Tan Siew Sin of the MCA labelled Lee as the "greatest, disruptive force in the entire history of Malaysia and Malaya." Lee now seemed determined to press forward politically and continue contesting elections nationwide, with the formation of the Malaysian Solidarity Council—a coalition of political parties which called for a "Malaysian Malaysia", duplicating the effort introduced earlier by Dato' Onn Ja'afar.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: On 7 August 1965, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, seeing no alternative to avoid further bloodshed, advised the Parliament of Malaysia that it should vote to expel Singapore from Malaysia. Despite last-ditch attempts by PAP leaders, including Lee Kuan Yew, to keep Singapore as a state in the union, the Parliament on 9 August 1965 voted 126–0 in favour of the expulsion of Singapore.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Tunku opened his speech in Parliament with the words, "In all the 10 years of my leadership of this House I have never had a duty so unpleasant as this to perform. The announcement which I am making concerns the separation of Singapore from the rest of the Federation." On that day, Lee Kuan Yew announced that Singapore was a sovereign independent nation and assumed the role of prime minister. After the separation and independence of Singapore in 1965, the Singapore branch of UMNO was renamed the Singapore Malay National Organisation ("Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Singapura").


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: After the separation of Singapore from the Federation, the Alliance leaders focused on continuing its policies. One involved the Malay language, which was the official language of Malaysia. UMNO sought to reduce the reliance on English in government affairs. In this, it was aided by PAS, the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party, which backed special rights for the Bumiputra, and the strengthening of Islam's position in public affairs. However, the PAP's Malaysian branch, which had now become Democratic Action Party (DAP), took a very strong stance against this, and continued the expelled PAP's call for a "Malaysian Malaysia". In 1968, the newly formed Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia or Gerakan, led by Lim Chong Eu, also adopted the DAP's stance.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Matters came to a head in the 1969 general election. When polling closed on the mainland peninsula (West Malaysia) on 10 May, it emerged the Alliance had won less than half of the popular vote, although it was assured of 66 out of 104 Parliamentary seats available. Much of the losses came from the MCA, thus straining relations between the two parties. However, the Alliance was dealt an even larger blow on the state level, losing control of Kelantan, Perak, and Penang.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) declared a national emergency after being advised by the national government to do so. Parliament was suspended, with a National Operations Council (NOC) led by Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak of UMNO, taking over the government. Further polling in East Malaysia as a continuation of the general election was also postponed indefinitely. Although the Cabinet still met under the Tunku as Prime Minister, his role was largely symbolic, with Tun Razak taking over the role of chief executive.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: UMNO backbencher Mahathir Mohamad, who had lost his Parliamentary seat in the election, wrote a letter to the Tunku criticising his leadership. Mahathir organised a campaign with University of Malaya lecturer Raja Muktaruddin Daim, circulating his letter among the student bodies of local universities. Mass demonstrations broke out calling for "Malay sovereignty" and the Tunku's ousting. After rioting broke out in June, Home Affairs Minister Ismail Abdul Rahman and Tun Razak agreed to expel Mahathir and former Executive Secretary of UMNO Musa Hitam from the party for breaching party discipline.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: The suspended elections in East Malaysia were held in 1970, and restored the Alliance government's two-thirds majority in parliament. On 31 August that year, the Tunku announced the national ideology of Rukunegara and his planned retirement as Prime Minister in favour of Tun Razak. He also stated Parliament would be restored the following year.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: After Tun Razak succeeded the Tunku in 1970, he began asserting UMNO's leadership in the Alliance more strongly. When the Tunku led the coalition, he had always consulted Alliance leaders regarding policy—if an Alliance leader objected, the policy was not passed. Under Tun Razak, UMNO was the base of the Alliance and thus the government. The NOC which he led until Parliament reconvened consisted of 7 Malays, one Chinese and one Indian.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In Tun Razak's cabinet, the two most powerful men other than him were Ismail Abdul Rahman and Ghazali Shafie, who had declared the Westminster-style Parliamentary system inappropriate for Malaysia. Tun Razak also readmitted to the party "ultras" who had been expelled, like Mahathir and Musa Hitam. Mahathir gained notoriety after his expulsion from UMNO by authoring "The Malay Dilemma", a book promptly banned from Malaysia, which posited that the Malays are the definitive people of Malaysia, and thus deserved special rights as the sovereign people of the nation. It also controversially argued that the Malays needed affirmative action to overcome deficiencies in their genetic stock.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Hussein Onn, son of UMNO founder Dato' Onn Ja'afar, soon became a rising star in UMNO. After Ismail died suddenly of a heart attack in 1973, Hussein Onn succeeded him as Deputy Prime Minister. In the cabinet reshuffle that promoted Hussein Onn, Mahathir was given the key post of Minister for Education.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: The Tun Razak government announced the New Economic Policy in 1971. Its stated goal was to "eventually eradicate poverty... irrespective of race" through a "rapidly expanding economy" which emphasised to increase the Malays' share in the national economy to a reasonable portion between all the races. The NEP targeted a 30 per cent Malay share of the economy by 1990. The government contended that this would lead to a "just society" (""Masyarakat Adil""), the latter slogan being used to promote acceptance of the policy. Quotas in education and the civil service that the Constitution had explicitly provided for were expanded by the NEP, which also mandated government interference in the private sector. For instance, 30% of all shares in initial public offerings would be disbursed by the government to selective Bumiputras. The old civil service hiring quota of 4 Malays for every non-Malay's was effectively disregarded in practice; between 1969 and 1973, 98% of all new government employees were Malay. Five new universities were opened under the NEP, two of which were targeted to focus on the poor Malays and Muslim citizens.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Tun Razak also began shoring up the government by bringing in several former opposition parties into the fold of the Alliance. Gerakan, PPP, PAS, and several former opposition parties in East Malaysia joined the coalition, which was renamed as Barisan Nasional. Barisan was formally registered as an organisation in 1974, the same year in which a general election was held.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: There had been much internal conflict in the National Front regarding the election; in 1973, Lim Keng Yaik and several supporters of his aggressive pro-Chinese stance left the MCA for Gerakan. This contributed to internal strife, as the MCA was no longer the sole representative of Chinese interests in the National Front.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Discontent among student organisations in Malaysian universities soon posed a new problem for the UMNO-led government. However, Mahathir in his capacity as Minister for Education issued a stern warning to university students and faculty not to become involved in politics. However, after stories that children of rubber tappers had died after consuming poisonous wild yam due to poverty, university students reacted by staging the 1974 Baling demonstrations. The demonstrations resulted in the arrest of over 1,000 students, including Anwar Ibrahim who wasdetained under the Internal Security Act. In 1975, parliament passed amendments to the Universities and University Colleges Act which banned students from expressing support of or holding positions in any political party or trade union without written consent from the university's Vice-Chancellor. The act also banned political demonstrations from being held on university campuses. In 1976, however, mass demonstrations were held at the MARA Institute of Technology, protesting the UUCA. Mahathir then threatened to revoke the scholarships of the students, most of whom relied on public support to pay their way through university.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: BN was also challenged in Sarawak after the 1974 election, which saw the Sarawak National Party led by James Wong become tied with the DAP as the largest opposition party in Parliament, both of them holding nine seats each. SNAP had campaigned against BN on a platform of opposing Chief Minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub's pro-Malay policies, charging them with alienating the rural indigenous natives of Sarawak, such as the Iban. SNAP had been expelled from the Alliance in 1965 for supporting increased autonomy for Sarawak. In the aftermath of the election, Abdul Rahman ordered the detention of James Wong under the Sedition Act. SNAP elected a new leader, Leo Moggie, who secured the release of Wong and the entry of SNAP into BN in 1976.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In Sabah, BN controlled the state government through the United Sabah National Organisation (USNO), which strongly backed UMNO's pro-Malay and pro-Islam policies. In 1973, Islam was made the official Sabah state religion (the official religion of Sabah was originally Christianity, as permitted by the agreement signed before the merger), and usage of indigenous languages such as those of the Kadazan people was discontinued in favour of the Malay language. The USNO Chief Minister, Mustapha Harun, was also known for favouring political patronage as a means of allocating valuable timber contracts, and living an extravagant lifestyle, being ferried to his A$1 million Queensland home by jets provided with Sabahan public funds.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: On 24 April 1987, UMNO held its Annual General Assembly and triennial Party election. The then Prime Minister and party President, Mahathir Mohamad, faced his first party election in 12 years, having been elected unopposed since the 1975 UMNO election.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: The politics of the Malays, particularly UMNO politics, had undergone a sea change in the first few years of the Mahathir stewardship, and the party presidency was challenged for the second time in 41 years. The first challenge was a dull affair in which Hussein Onn was opposed by a minor party official named Sulaiman Palestin. In fact, in the early 1950s, Tunku Abdul Rahman's presidency had also been challenged by C. M. Yusof, who later became the Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat, but Tunku was not properly considered an incumbent then, being only a care-taker president.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: The 1987 contest was a vastly different matter. Mahathir was opposed by his very popular former Finance Minister, Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah. The press took to referring to Mahathir and his supporters as Team A, and Razaleigh's camp as Team B. Team B included then Deputy Prime Minister Tun Musa Hitam, who was also the incumbent Deputy President of UMNO seeking re-election, as well as Datuk Suhaimi Kamaruddin, the former head of UMNO Youth and president of the Belia 4B youth organisation.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Team B was critical of Mahathir's policies, arguing that the Malaysian New Economic Policy had failed to benefit the poor Malays. It also criticised Mahathir's leadership style, alleging he acted unilaterally without consulting other leaders in UMNO and the Barisan Nasional. Team B was also perceived as less Islamist than Mahathir's faction.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Mahathir claimed that the charges against him were groundless, and suggested that his opponents were fracturing Malay unity and were only motivated by greed.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Eventually, Mahathir was returned to office. However, he was elected with such a small majority of 43 (761 against 718 votes) that questions were immediately raised about his mandate. Team B supporters, many of whom had been anticipating a victory of similar margins, suspected that the election had been fixed. The Team B candidate for Deputy President, Musa Hitam, had also been defeated by Ghafar Baba of Team A, while two of the three vice-presidents were Team A candidates. The Supreme Council comprised 16 Team A candidates and 9 Team B candidates.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Allegations were made that several delegates who had voted were drawn from UMNO branches not properly registered. There were also several unproved allegations being bandied about that the balloting process had not been above board.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Nevertheless, Razaleigh pledged to support Mahathir, provided that a "witch hunt" was not launched. However, Mahathir promptly purged the government cabinet of all Team B members, and launched similar reshuffles in state and local governments.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: On 25 June 1987, an appeal was filed by 12 of the UMNO delegates to have the assembly and the election of April 1987 declared null. After one of the delegates, Hussain bin Manap, withdrew unexpectedly in August from filing the appeal, the remaining litigants have since become famous as the "UMNO 11." Although Razaleigh and Musa Hitam were not among the plaintiffs, it was widely believed that Razaleigh was funding the appeal.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: After a series of interlocutory hearings over the discovery of documents that took more than seven months, the matter finally came before Justice Harun Hashim in the Kuala Lumpur High Court on 4 February 1988. The judge ruled that under the existing law he had no option but to find the party, UMNO, to be an unlawful society due to the existence of several unregistered branches—an illegal act under the Societies Act of 1966. The question of the Assembly itself being illegal therefore became academic.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: "'It is a very hard decision to declare UMNO unlawful,' said Justice Datuk Harun Hashim in his February 4 judgement. 'But the law was made by our Parliament and certainly UMNO was aware [of the Societies Act] because they were in the majority [in Parliament] at all times [when the law was made].' Under the 1966 Act, amended five times over the years, and most recently by Mahathir's government, each of the society's branches has to register separately with the Registrar..."


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: The Tunku and former UMNO President Hussein Onn set up a new party called UMNO Malaysia, which claimed to be the successor to the old UMNO. UMNO Malaysia was supported mainly by members of the Team B faction from UMNO, but Mahathir was also invited to join the party leadership. However, the party collapsed after the Registrar of Societies refused to register it as a society without providing an explanation.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Mahathir showed no interest in reviving UMNO, and instead he set in motion the machinery to form a new surrogate party, and in due course, registered a party formally called Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu (Baru) or UMNO (New) a week after UMNO Malaysia's registration was rejected. Eventually the suffix "(New)" was dropped, and UMNO (Baru) became both the "de facto" and "de jure" successor of original UMNO, dropping the 'Baru' suffix with the old UMNO's assets handed over. Most of its leaders, however, were selected from Team A of the old UMNO, with Team B ignored.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In 10th general election in 1999, rocked by the arrest and trial of former UMNO deputy Anwar Ibrahim and the subsequent formation of the Barisan Alternatif opposition coalition, UMNO's share dipped to 54% of the vote and 102 out of 144 seats.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: After Mahathir stepped down as President of UMNO in 2003, he was replaced by his designated successor, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, who became Prime Minister of Malaysia. Najib Razak, the son of Tun Abdul Razak, took over as the Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In the 11th general election in 2004, Barisan Nasional, under Abdullah's leadership, enjoyed a landslide victory. However, in the 12th general election in 2008, the coalition for the first time fell short of a two-thirds majority in the Parliament. UMNO Chief Ministers were ousted in the states of Selangor, Perak, Penang and Kedah. As a result, Abdullah resigned as President of UMNO and Prime Minister in 2009. He was succeeded by Najib.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: Under Najib's leadership, UMNO gained a total of 9 seats in the 13th general election and retook the state of Kedah.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In 2018, UMNO was required to hold an leadership election 19 April by the requirements of the Registry of Societies (RoS), to hold a leadership election within five years of the last leadership election, as the last leadership election was in 2013. In April, some UMNO members filed a suit to declare UMNO illegal but was dismissed by the High Court. UMNO announced in May that the RoS had in 2017 allowed UMNO to postpone the election until 19 April 2019.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: On 9 May 2018, Mahathir and the Pakatan Harapan coalition won the 14th General Election ending UMNO's 61 year long rule as part of the Alliance and later Barisan Nasional coalition. UMNO experienced a mass exodus of rank-and-file members, state chiefs, as well as Members of Parliament in favour of Mahathir's Bersatu and regionalist parties such as Parti Warisan Sabah in the months after the election.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: After the general election defeat, UMNO held the UMNO leadership election in June 2018 instead of 2019. Ahmad Zahid Hamidi won the election and became the president of UMNO.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In September 2019, UMNO decided to form a pact with the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party called Muafakat Nasional. Its main purpose is to unite the Malay Muslim communities for electoral purposes. There is however no formal agreement with the other parties of Barisan Nasional, although there are calls for Barisan Nasional to migrate to Muafakat Nasional. Barisan Nasional continued to function as a coalition of four parties comprising UMNO, MCA, MIC and PBRS, but aligned themselves with Perikatan Nasional to form a new government in March 2020 after the collapse of the Pakatan Harapan government.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In February 2020, in the leadup to the 2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis, UMNO leaders Ahmad Zahid Hamidi and Ismail Sabri Yaakob, along with Bersatu President Muhyiddin Yassin, PAS President Abdul Hadi Awang and PKR defector members led by Azmin Ali, collectively convened at the Sheraton Petaling Jaya hotel to initiate a change in government, thus causing political instability by depriving the elected Pakatan Harapan government of a majority within the 14th Malaysian Parliament. As a result, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad (along with the Seventh Mahathir cabinet) tendered their resignation. In March 2020, after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong consulted all members of the 14th Malaysian Parliament, Muhyiddin Yassin, with the support of UMNO and other parties, was deemed to have the greatest support within Parliament and was selected as the 8th Prime Minister of Malaysia.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In Muhyiddin cabinet, which formed on 10 March 2020, six UMNO MP's became Ministers & eight UMNO MP's became Deputy Ministers.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In July 2021, further political instability ensued when UMNO, at the direction of its President Ahmad Zahid Hamidi, withdrew support for the government led by Muhyiddin along with his cabinet. Zahid claimed that as Muhyiddin failed to spearhead economic recovery and effectively handle the Covid-19 pandemic, therefore Zahid claimed Muhyiddin failed to fulfil the conditions underlined by UMNO when it backed Muhyiddin to become prime minister in March 2020. In August 2021, after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong required all members of the 14th Malaysian Parliament to submit a statutory declaration (SD) indicating their preference of Prime Minister, Ismail Sabri Yaakob possessed the greatest support within Parliament (with 114 affirmative SDs out of a possible 222) and was selected as the 9th Prime Minister of Malaysia (without an electoral mandate).


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In the 2022 election, UMNO, as a part of BN, faced the worst-ever result in Malaysian history, with only winning 26 out of 222 seats. Several key figures including Noh Omar, Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah, Mahdzir Khalid, Azeez Rahim, Tengku Zafrul Aziz, Khairy Jamaluddin, lost to either PN or PH candidates. UMNO was also defeated at several state elections held in Pahang, Perlis and Perak. Ahmad Zahid Hamidi, the party president, was re-elected with a slim majority.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: UMNO overtly represents the Malays of Malaysia, although any Bumiputra (indigenous Malaysian, a category which includes people such as the non-Malay and usually non-Muslim Kadazan, Iban, Dayak, etc. of East Malaysia) may join the party. The party propagates Ketuanan Melayu, the concept that the Bumiputra, including ethnic Malays, enjoy a special status within the country by virtue of their earlier settlement of the lands that now form Malaysia and as a result of the recognition of Malays in Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In 2018, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad announced the cabinet's decision for the government to "ratify all remaining core UN instruments related to the protection of human rights", including International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) and other five previously unratified conventions at a United Nations General Assembly, UMNO, PAS along with various non-governmental organisations, staged an anti-ICERD rally that was held at the Dataran Merdeka, Kuala Lumpur, to protest against the ratifications of the relevant international conventions, due to their perception that these human rights instruments contravene with the special position of the Malays, bumiputera and Islam within the country; all of which are enshrined within the Malaysian Constitution.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: On 23 November 2018, the Prime Minister's Office announced they would not ratify the convention and would continue defending the Federal Constitution, which they said represents a social contract that was agreed upon by all races during the formation of the country.


title: United Malays National Organisation

text: In 2021, a new equity policy for "bumiputeras" in the Twelfth Malaysia Plan (12MP) attracted controversy which were announced by Ismail Sabri Yaakob. It is said to ensure sustainable equity holdings by bumiputeras, an equity safety net would be launched to guarantee that the sale of shares or bumiputera-owned firms would only be sold solely to bumiputera-owned companies, consortium or individuals. Syed Saddiq said that the new rulings were unfair as they would be tantamount to taking equity from the non-bumiputeras and giving them to bumiputeras. Former Health Minister, Dzulkefly Ahmad had also described the policy as "suicidal" and claimed that the new policy would only kill the bumiputera companies economically if that is their intention. He also said that based on the feedback from Malay businessmen, most were against the idea of the new bumiputera-only policy being implemented. Ismail Sabri announced it after revealing that the government’s target to raise bumiputera equity ownership to 30% had yet to be achieved. He also announced funding to improve bumiputera businesses’ sustainability to hit 15% contribution in gross domestic product (GDP) by bumiputera micro, small and medium enterprises by 2025.


title: Blackmail

text: Blackmail is an act of coercion using the threat of revealing or publicizing either substantially true or false information about a person or people unless certain demands are met. It is often damaging information, and it may be revealed to family members or associates rather than to the general public. These acts can also involve using threats of physical, mental or emotional harm, or of criminal prosecution, against the victim or someone close to the victim. It is normally carried out for personal gain, most commonly of position, money, or property.


title: Blackmail

text: Blackmail may also be considered a form of extortion. Although the two are generally synonymous, extortion is the taking of personal property by threat of future harm. Blackmail is the use of threat to prevent another from engaging in a lawful occupation and writing libelous letters or letters that provoke a breach of the peace, as well as use of intimidation for purposes of collecting an unpaid debt.


title: Blackmail

text: In many jurisdictions, blackmail is a statutory offense, often criminal, carrying punitive sanctions for convicted perpetrators. Blackmail is the name of a statutory offense in the United States, England and Wales, and Australia, and has been used as a convenient way of referring to certain other offenses, but was not a term used in English law until 1968.


title: Blackmail

text: Blackmail was originally a term from the Scottish Borders meaning payments rendered in exchange for protection from thieves and marauders. The "mail" part of blackmail derives from Middle English meaning "rent or tribute". This tribute (male or "reditus") was paid in goods or labour ("nigri"); hence "reditus nigri", or "blackmail". Alternatively, it may be derived from two Scottish Gaelic words - to protect; and - tribute or payment.


title: Blackmail

text: The word blackmail is variously derived from the word for tribute (in modern terms, protection racket) paid by English and Scottish border dwellers to Border Reivers in return for immunity from raids and other harassment. The "mail" part of blackmail derives from Middle English "male", "rent, tribute". This tribute was paid in goods or labour ("reditus nigri", or "blackmail"); the opposite is "blanche firmes" or "reditus albi", or "white rent" (denoting payment by silver). An alternative version is that rents in the Scottish Borders were often paid in produce of the land, called "greenmail" ('green rent'), suggesting "blackmail" as a counterpart paid perforce to the reivers. Alternatively, Mackay derives it from two Scottish Gaelic words "blathaich" pronounced (the th silent) bla-ich (to protect) and "mal" (tribute, payment), cf. buttock mail. He notes that the practice was common in the Scottish Highlands as well as the Borders. In the Irish language, the term "cíos dubh", meaning "black-rent", has also been employed.


title: Blackmail

text: Some scholars have argued that blackmail should not be a crime. Objections to the criminalization of blackmail often rest on what legal scholars call "the paradox of blackmail": it takes two separate actions that, in many cases, people are legally and morally entitled to do, and criminalizes them if done together. One American legal scholar uses the example of a person who threatens to expose a criminal act unless he is paid money. The person has committed the crime of blackmail, even though he separately has the legal right both to threaten to expose a crime and to request money from a person.


title: Blackmail

text: This observation has been rebutted by pointing out that while drinking alcohol and driving are both legal separately, their combinations are not.


title: Blackmail

text: Sextortion has been linked and is popular among people who are considered to have power or a position of power (in any form) in any field such as politics, education, and the workplace. Sextortion, by definition, is a form of blackmail where power is abused and used to extort sexual favors or images from someone in exchange for something that the victim wants/needs like a job or grade. An example of this is Webcam Blackmail.


title: Blackmail

text: "Criminals might befriend victims online by using a fake identity and then persuade them to perform sexual acts in front of their webcam, often by using an attractive woman to entice the victim to participate. These women may have been coerced into these actions using financial incentives or threats." As reported by the NCA (National Crime Agency), both men and women can be victims of this crime. This crime can be carried out by either crime groups or individuals.


title: Blackmail

text: Dubai Police in the UAE stated that there have been 2,606 crimes that involve blackmail in the past three years. The reason it is so easy to commit these crimes online is the anonymity the internet gives. It is far easier and encouraging to commit crimes whenever personal identity is hidden. People have the opportunity to give in to temptation since they are anonymous and possibly commit criminal acts such as blackmailing. The ability to be anonymous encourages antisocial tendencies and the ability to spread fake news.


title: Bibliography

text: Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes "bibliography" as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is "the study of books as physical objects" and "the systematic description of books as objects" (or descriptive bibliography).


title: Bibliography

text: The word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for "the intellectual activity of composing books." The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.


title: Bibliography

text: Bibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about "the science of bibliography." However, there have recently been voices claiming that "the bibliographical paradigm" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).


title: Bibliography

text: The quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.


title: Bibliography

text: Carter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.


title: Bibliography

text: Bowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.


title: Bibliography

text: Descriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, "The Principles of Bibliographic Description". The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.


title: Bibliography

text: In addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.


title: Bibliography

text: D. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as "the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include "non-book texts" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.


title: Bibliography

text: Bibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.


title: Bibliography

text: An enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from "works cited" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's "A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers" (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a "bibliography," is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.


title: Bibliography

text: Enumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.


title: Bibliography

text: A bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.


title: Bibliography

text: Bibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.


title: Bibliography

text: Fredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his "Principles of Bibliographical Description"


title: Bibliography

text: (1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, "[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents" (124).


title: Bibliography

text: Descriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:


title: Bibliography

text: This branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining "the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text" (Bowers 498[1]).


title: Bibliography

text: A "bibliographer" is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer."


title: Bibliography

text: A bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.


title: Bibliography

text: The term "bibliographer" is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.


title: Bibliography

text: One of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in "Bibliotheca Universalis" (1545).


title: Bibliography

text: Systematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to "bibliography":


title: Sinc function

text: In mathematics, physics and engineering, the sinc function, denoted by , has two forms, normalized and unnormalized.


title: Sinc function

text: Alternatively, the unnormalized sinc function is often called the sampling function, indicated as Sa("x").


title: Sinc function

text: In digital signal processing and information theory, the normalized sinc function is commonly defined for by


title: Sinc function

text: The normalization causes the definite integral of the function over the real numbers to equal 1 (whereas the same integral of the unnormalized sinc function has a value of ). As a further useful property, the zeros of the normalized sinc function are the nonzero integer values of .


title: Sinc function

text: The normalized sinc function is the Fourier transform of the rectangular function with no scaling. It is used in the concept of reconstructing a continuous bandlimited signal from uniformly spaced samples of that signal.


title: Sinc function

text: The only difference between the two definitions is in the scaling of the independent variable (the axis) by a factor of . In both cases, the value of the function at the removable singularity at zero is understood to be the limit value 1. The sinc function is then analytic everywhere and hence an entire function.


title: Sinc function

text: The term "sinc" was introduced by Philip M. Woodward in his 1952 article "Information theory and inverse probability in telecommunication", in which he said that the function "occurs so often in Fourier analysis and its applications that it does seem to merit some notation of its own", and his 1953 book "Probability and Information Theory, with Applications to Radar".


title: Sinc function

text: The function itself was first mathematically derived in this form by Lord Rayleigh in his expression (Rayleigh's Formula) for the zeroth-order spherical Bessel function of the first kind.


title: Sinc function

text: The zero crossings of the unnormalized sinc are at non-zero integer multiples of , while zero crossings of the normalized sinc occur at non-zero integers.


title: Sinc function

text: The local maxima and minima of the unnormalized sinc correspond to its intersections with the cosine function. That is, for all points where the derivative of is zero and thus a local extremum is reached. This follows from the derivative of the sinc function:


title: Sinc function

text: The first few terms of the infinite series for the coordinate of the -th extremum with positive coordinate are


title: Sinc function

text: and where odd lead to a local minimum, and even to a local maximum. Because of symmetry around the axis, there exist extrema with coordinates . In addition, there is an absolute maximum at .


title: Sinc function

text: where the rectangular function is 1 for argument between − and , and zero otherwise. This corresponds to the fact that the sinc filter is the ideal (brick-wall, meaning rectangular frequency response) low-pass filter.


title: Sinc function

text: The normalized sinc function has properties that make it ideal in relationship to interpolation of sampled bandlimited functions:


title: Sinc function

text: The normalized sinc function can be used as a "nascent delta function", meaning that the following weak limit holds:


title: Sinc function

text: In the above expression, as , the number of oscillations per unit length of the sinc function approaches infinity. Nevertheless, the expression always oscillates inside an envelope of , regardless of the value of .


title: Sinc function

text: This complicates the informal picture of as being zero for all except at the point , and illustrates the problem of thinking of the delta function as a function rather than as a distribution. A similar situation is found in the Gibbs phenomenon.


title: Sinc function

text: Euler famously compared this series to the expansion of the infinite product form to solve the Basel problem.


title: Sinc function

text: The product of 1-D sinc functions readily provides a multivariate sinc function for the square Cartesian grid (lattice): , whose Fourier transform is the indicator function of a square in the frequency space (i.e., the brick wall defined in 2-D space). The sinc function for a non-Cartesian lattice (e.g., hexagonal lattice) is a function whose Fourier transform is the indicator function of the Brillouin zone of that lattice. For example, the sinc function for the hexagonal lattice is a function whose Fourier transform is the indicator function of the unit hexagon in the frequency space. For a non-Cartesian lattice this function can not be obtained by a simple tensor product. However, the explicit formula for the sinc function for the hexagonal, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic and other higher-dimensional lattices can be explicitly derived using the geometric properties of Brillouin zones and their connection to zonotopes.


title: Ke-mo sah-bee

text: Ke-mo sah-bee (; often spelled kemo sabe, kemosabe or kimosabe) is the term used by the fictional Native American sidekick Tonto as the "Native American" name for the Lone Ranger in the American television and radio programs "The Lone Ranger". Derived from , an Ojibwe and Potawatomi word that may mean 'he/she looks out in secret', it has been occasionally translated as 'trusty scout' (the first "Lone Ranger" TV episode, 1949) or 'faithful friend'.


title: Ke-mo sah-bee

text: Jim Jewell, director of "The Lone Ranger" from 1933 to 1939, took the phrase from Kamp Kee-Mo Sah-Bee, a boys' camp on Mullett Lake in Michigan, established by Charles W. Yeager (Jewell's father-in-law) in 1916. Yeager himself probably took the term from Ernest Thompson Seton, one of the founders of the Boy Scouts of America, who had given the meaning "scout runner" to "Kee-mo-sah'-bee" in his 1912 book "The Book of Woodcraft and Indian Lore".


title: Ke-mo sah-bee

text: Kamp Kee-Mo Sah-Bee was in an area inhabited by the Ottawa, who speak a language that is mutually comprehensible with Ojibwe. John D. Nichols and Earl Nyholm's "A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe" defines the Ojibwe word as 'he peeks' (and, in theory, 'he who peeks'), making use of the prefix , 'secretly'; Rob Malouf, now an associate professor of linguistics at San Diego State University, suggested that may indeed have also meant scout (i.e., 'one who sneaks').


title: Hannelore Knuts

text: Hannelore Knuts (born 4 November 1977) is a Belgian actress and fashion model who began modeling in the late 90s. According to "Vanity Fair", " She started modeling for Branquinho and Simons shortly after being spotted at the Antwerp train station, and would go on to model for Gucci and Chanel."


title: Hannelore Knuts

text: She has appeared on the cover of "Vogue" seven times: five times on the Italian edition, and once each on the South Korean and Japanese editions. Her 2011-12 film credits include Nicolas Provost's "The Invader" and the Radio Soulwax project "Dave", in which she plays the title role of David Bowie.


title: Hannelore Knuts

text: She has collaborated on art projects with several artists, including a project in 2011 where video artists applied 365 layers of makeup to her face. She served as the model for Michaël Borremans's painting "The Angel". In 2013, she curated an exhibition "UltraMegaLore" at the , based on her career of acting and modeling.


title: Vertical Limit

text: Vertical Limit is a 2000 American survival thriller film directed by Martin Campbell, written by Robert King, and starring Chris O'Donnell, Bill Paxton, Robin Tunney, and Scott Glenn. The film was released on December 8, 2000, in the United States by Columbia Pictures, receiving mixed reviews and grossed $215 million at the box office.


title: Vertical Limit

text: The film was the third collaboration between Campbell and actor Stuart Wilson, after "No Escape" (1994) and "The Mask of Zorro" (1998).


title: Vertical Limit

text: While climbing in Monument Valley, siblings Peter and Annie Garrett lose their father, Royce. After two falling climbers leave the family dangling, Royce forces Peter to cut him loose in order to save Peter and Annie. Three years later, Peter has retired from climbing, but Annie has become a renowned climber. Their relationship is strained, as Annie still blames Peter for Royce's death. Peter reunites with Annie at the K2 base camp, where Annie is planning a summit attempt on K2. The expedition is funded by wealthy industrialist Elliot Vaughn. Their team includes Annie, Vaughn, renowned climber Tom McLaren, mountaineer Ali Nazir, and one other.


title: Vertical Limit

text: The night before the climb, Vaughn throws a party. The gala is interrupted by reclusive Montgomery Wick, reportedly the foremost K2 expert, who verbally challenges Vaughn. It's later revealed that Wick's wife, an expedition guide, died during Vaughn's previous expedition. Vaughn claims they were hit by a storm and Wick's wife died of pulmonary edema because her supply of dexamethasone was swept away in the storm. Wick has never believed that story and has spent years trying to find his wife's body. Back in the present day, Vaughn forces McLaren to continue despite a radio warning from base camp of an approaching storm. An avalanche occurs, and Annie, Vaughn, and McLaren become trapped in a crevasse, while the other two are killed. Radio contact is lost, but Peter hears Annie using static and Morse code to signal that they are alive. Peter assembles a rescue team, which includes Wick. Pairs are assigned, and after a treacherous helicopter drop-off, each pair takes a different path to increase chances of success. Each pair carries a canister of explosive nitroglycerine donated by the Pakistani army to clear the entrance to the crevasse.


title: Vertical Limit

text: Monique and Cyril experience a harrowing incident after Cyril loses his balance at the edge of a cliff. While Monique attempts to rescue him their nitro canister falls over the cliff and explodes, causing another avalanche. Monique survives but Cyril does not. At the military station the nitroglycerine canisters are exposed to sunlight and explode. Base camp tells the team to get their cases of nitro into the shade. Kareem and Malcolm do so, but their canister leaks fluid into the sunlight, causing another explosion that kills them. Underground, McLaren is severely injured and has lost his dexamethasone. Annie shares her dex with him, but Vaughn refuses it. Annie risks her life to reach Ali's backpack and manages to obtain more dex, but Vaughn says that since McLaren is unlikely to survive, he and Annie should keep the dex for themselves.


title: Vertical Limit

text: The explosions have shaken loose some ice, and Wick finally discovers his wife's body. The empty dex container nearby suggests that Vaughn lied and stole her dex, ensuring his own survival while leaving Wick's wife to die. Monique, Peter and Wick camp for the night. Peter is wary of Wick, who seems more intent on taking revenge than in rescuing the survivors. In the crevasse, Annie falls asleep, and Vaughn kills McLaren with a syringe full of air to avoid having to give McLaren more dex. Wick awakens to find that Peter and Monique have left without him. Annie and Vaughn manage to mark the crevasse entrance by detonating a flare inside a bag of McLaren's blood which explodes over the snow. Peter and Monique see the marker and use nitro to blast a hole, enabling access to the survivors. They drop a rope, and Vaughn harnesses Annie.


title: Vertical Limit

text: Wick descends into the cave, and although Vaughn thinks Wick will attack him, Wick attaches a clip to Vaughn. Monique and Peter attempt to pull Annie out of the crevasse, but an ice boulder falls, knocking Wick and Vaughn from the ledge in the crevice, and pulling Annie and Peter down, creating a scenario similar to the opening scene: Monique alone remains on the ledge holding the rope from which the other four are dangling. To save Annie and Peter and, to fulfill his desire for revenge against Vaughn, Wick cuts the rope and he and Vaughn fall to their deaths.


title: Vertical Limit

text: Recovering at base camp, Annie reconciles with Peter, who then pays his respects at a makeshift memorial for climbers who have died.


title: Vertical Limit

text: "Vertical Limit" was filmed on location in Pakistan (location of K2), Queenstown, New Zealand and the United States.


title: Vertical Limit

text: Bell 212 helicopters contracted from Hevilift Australia were painted in a khaki green colour to represent the Pakistani Air Force.


title: Vertical Limit

text: "Vertical Limit" grossed $69.2 million domestically and $215.7 million worldwide, becoming the 17th-highest-grossing film of 2000. Against a budget of $75 million, the film was a success.


title: Vertical Limit

text: In the United States, the film opened at No. 1 during its opening day, December 8, earning an estimated $5.1 million, overtaking "How the Grinch Stole Christmas", which had stayed since November 17. On its opening weekend, the film finished second at the box office, with $15.5 million.


title: Vertical Limit

text: "Vertical Limit" received mixed reviews from critics, as the film holds a 48% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 110 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "The plot in "Vertical Limit" is ludicrously contrived and clichéd. Meanwhile, the action sequences are so over-the-top and piled one on top of another, they lessen the impact on the viewer". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". The movie has the rating of on Allmovie.com. According to free-soloing legend Alex Honnold, the unrealistic opening scene is "horrendous and probably the worst scene in all of Hollywood climbing".


title: Vertical Limit

text: Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out four, commenting, "It's made from obvious formulas and pulp novel conflicts, but strongly acted and well crafted... "Vertical Limit" delivers with efficiency and craft, and there are times, when the characters are dangling over a drop of a mile, when we don't even mind how it's manipulating us." James DiGiovanna of "Tucson Weekly" wrote, "...now O'Donnell brings his shockingly wholesome whiteness to "Vertical Limit", the best mountain-climbing movie starring Chris O'Donnell to come out this week." Philip French of "The Guardian" mentioned, "Campbell sustains the tension pretty well and the settings are spectacular. More interesting than the characters, however, are two aspects of the dramatic background. The first is an isolated army post on a mountain peak from which ill-equipped Pakistani soldiers fire an artillery barrage every afternoon in the direction of India as an absurd daily ritual. The second is seeing rich, mindless Americans ruining a beautiful corner of the world in the name of self-discovery. They're a new class of anti-social climbers." David Ansen of "Newsweek" wrote, ""Vertical Limit" produces a decidedly split reaction in an audience. You gasp at the action sequences, then giggle at the drama, then gasp, then giggle until finally the filmmakers pile on one cliffhanger too many. By that point, the gasps have become muted by sheer disbelief... Alternately generating adrenaline and ennui, "Vertical Limit" battles itself to a hard-earned draw."


title: Behzinga

text: Ethan Payne (born 20 June 1995), better known as Behzinga, is an English YouTuber, streamer, and Internet personality. He produces videos on gaming, football, comedy, and fitness, and is a co-founder and member of the British YouTube group Sidemen. He, as well as other Sidemen members co-founded XIX Vodka, and a restaurant chain known as Sides. In 2019, Payne was listed as the 31st most influential online creator in the United Kingdom by "The Sunday Times". , his main YouTube channel has over 4 million subscribers and 500 million video views.


title: Behzinga

text: Payne was born on 20 June 1995 in London and was raised almost entirely by his mother Ruth, who battled with cancer during his childhood. His biological father left before he was born and his stepfather, whom he had met when he was six months old and believed was his actual father, left when he was thirteen, due to drug addiction and debt. Payne attended Marshalls Park School, and then studied video games development at South Essex College.


title: Behzinga

text: Payne registered the "Behzinga" YouTube channel on 24 February 2012 while he was still in school. He explained that the name comes from one of his favourite television series "The Big Bang Theory" in which Sheldon Cooper often uses the catchphrase "Bazinga!"; Payne altered the spelling. His early content primarily featured video game commentaries of the "Call of Duty" and "FIFA" video game series. Over time, his style of content diversified to include football, comedy, and fitness videos.


title: Behzinga

text: On 19 October 2013, Payne and four other British YouTubers formed the entertainment collective Ultimate Sidemen, later shortened to simply Sidemen. Since 2014, the group has consisted of seven British YouTubers: Vikram Barn (Vikkstar123), Joshua Bradley (Zerkaa), Tobi Brown (TBJZL), Harry Lewis (W2S), Simon Minter (Miniminter), JJ Olatunji (KSI), and Payne. The group produces online videos, most often consisting of challenges, sketches and video-game commentary, as well as selling exclusive Sidemen merchandise.


title: Behzinga

text: In September 2019, Payne was listed as the 31st most influential online creator in the United Kingdom by "The Sunday Times". That November, he provided commentary for KSI vs. Logan Paul II for Sky Sports Box Office.


title: Behzinga

text: In October 2020, he starred in the three-episode YouTube Originals documentary series "How to Be Behzinga" about his struggle with depression and his path towards running the London Marathon to raise money for the Teenage Cancer Trust. He revealed that he had previously been suffering from alcoholism and wanted to take his own life, but with support from his fellow Sidemen members, he was able to overcome his challenges. Also during a stretch of time between 2018 and 2019, he had lost .


title: Behzinga

text: He has become an advocate for mental health and has talked about the importance of sharing feelings and breaking down the stigma surrounding mental illness in men.


title: Behzinga

text: Payne is a supporter of West Ham United F.C. He and his girlfriend, Faith Louisa Kelly, have a child together, born in September 2022.


title: First Czechoslovak Republic

text: The First Czechoslovak Republic (, ), often colloquially referred to as the First Republic (, Slovak: "Prvá republika"), was the first Czechoslovak state that existed from 1918 to 1938, a union of ethnic Czechs and Slovaks. The country was commonly called Czechoslovakia (Czech and ), a compound of "Czech" and "Slovak"; which gradually became the most widely used name for its successor states. It was composed of former territories of Austria-Hungary, inheriting different systems of administration from the formerly Austrian (Bohemia, Moravia, a small part of Silesia) and Hungarian territories (mostly Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia).


title: First Czechoslovak Republic

text: After 1933, Czechoslovakia remained the only "de facto" functioning democracy in Central Europe, organized as a parliamentary republic. Under pressure from its Sudeten German minority, supported by neighbouring Nazi Germany, Czechoslovakia was forced to cede its Sudetenland region to Germany on 1 October 1938 as part of the Munich Agreement. It also ceded southern parts of Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia to Hungary and the Zaolzie region in Silesia to Poland. This, in effect, ended the First Czechoslovak Republic. It was replaced by the Second Czechoslovak Republic, which lasted less than half a year before Germany occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.


title: First Czechoslovak Republic

text: The independence of Czechoslovakia was proclaimed on 28 October 1918 by the Czechoslovak National Council in Prague. Several ethnic groups and territories with different historical, political, and economic traditions were obliged to be blended into a new state structure. The origin of the First Republic lies in Point 10 of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points: "The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development."


title: First Czechoslovak Republic

text: The full boundaries of the country and the organization of its government was finally established in the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920. Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk had been recognized by World War I Allies as the leader of the Provisional Czechoslovak Government, and in 1920 he was elected the country's first president. He was re-elected in 1925 and 1929, serving as President until 14 December 1935 when he resigned due to poor health. He was succeeded by Edvard Beneš.


title: First Czechoslovak Republic

text: Following the "Anschluss" of Austria by Germany in March 1938, the Nazi leader Adolf Hitler's next target for annexation was Czechoslovakia. His pretext was the privations suffered by ethnic German populations living in Czechoslovakia's northern and western border regions, known collectively as the Sudetenland. Their incorporation into Nazi Germany would leave the rest of Czechoslovakia powerless to resist subsequent occupation.


title: First Czechoslovak Republic

text: To a large extent, Czechoslovak democracy was held together by the country's first president, Tomáš Masaryk. As the principal founding father of the republic, Masaryk was regarded similar to the way George Washington is regarded in the United States. Such universal respect enabled Masaryk to overcome seemingly irresolvable political problems. Masaryk is still regarded as the symbol of Czechoslovak democracy.