title: Cy Young Award

text: The Cy Young Award is given annually to the best pitchers in Major League Baseball (MLB), one each for the American League (AL) and National League (NL). The award was first introduced in 1956 by Baseball Commissioner Ford Frick in honor of Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young, who died in 1955. The award was originally given to the single best pitcher in the major leagues, but in 1967, after the retirement of Frick, the award was given to one pitcher in each league.


title: Cy Young Award

text: Each league's award is voted on by members of the Baseball Writers' Association of America, with one representative from each team. As of the 2010 season, each voter places a vote for first, second, third, fourth, and fifth place among the pitchers of each league. The formula used to calculate the final scores is a weighted sum of the votes. The pitcher with the highest score in each league wins the award. If two pitchers receive the same number of votes, the award is shared. From 1970 to 2009, writers voted for three pitchers, with the formula of five points for a first-place vote, three for a second-place vote and one for a third-place vote. Before 1970, writers only voted for the best pitcher and used a formula of one point per vote.


title: Cy Young Award

text: The Cy Young Award was first introduced in 1956 by Commissioner of Baseball Ford C. Frick in honor of Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young, who died in 1955. Originally given to the single best pitcher in the major leagues, the award changed its format over time. From 1956 to 1966, the award was given to one pitcher in Major League Baseball. After Frick retired in 1967, William Eckert became the new Commissioner of Baseball. Due to fan requests, Eckert announced that the Cy Young Award would be given out both in the American League and the National League. From 1956 to 1958, a pitcher was not allowed to win the award on more than one occasion; this rule was eliminated in 1959. After a tie in the 1969 voting for the Cy Young Award, the process was changed, in which each writer was to vote for three pitchers: the first-place vote received five points, the second-place vote received three points, and the third-place vote received one point.


title: Cy Young Award

text: The first recipient of the Cy Young Award was Don Newcombe of the Dodgers. In 1957, Warren Spahn became the first left-handed pitcher to win the award. In 1963, Sandy Koufax became the first pitcher to win the award in a unanimous vote; two years later he became the first multiple winner. In 1978, Gaylord Perry (age 40) became the oldest pitcher to receive the award, a record that stood until broken in 2004 by Roger Clemens (age 42). The youngest recipient was Dwight Gooden (age 20 in 1985). In 2012, R. A. Dickey became the first knuckleball pitcher to win the award.


title: Cy Young Award

text: In 1974, Mike Marshall became the first relief pitcher to win the award. In 1992, Dennis Eckersley was the first modern closer (first player to be used almost exclusively in ninth-inning situations) to win the award, and since then only one other relief pitcher has won the award, Éric Gagné in 2003 (also a closer). A total of nine relief pitchers have won the Cy Young Award across both leagues.


title: Cy Young Award

text: Steve Carlton in 1982 became the first pitcher to win more than three Cy Young Awards, while Greg Maddux in 1994 became the first to win at least three in a row (and received a fourth straight the following year), a feat later repeated by Randy Johnson.


title: Cy Young Award

text: Twenty-one (21) pitchers have won the award multiple times. Roger Clemens currently holds the record for the most awards won, with seven – his first and last wins separated by eighteen years. Greg Maddux (1992–1995) and Randy Johnson (1999–2002) share the record for the most consecutive awards won with four. Clemens, Johnson, Pedro Martínez, Gaylord Perry, Roy Halladay and Max Scherzer are the only pitchers to have won the award in both the American League and National League; Sandy Koufax is the only pitcher who won multiple awards during the period when only one award was presented for all of Major League Baseball. Roger Clemens was the youngest pitcher to win a second Cy Young Award, while Tim Lincecum is the youngest pitcher to do so in the National League and Clayton Kershaw is the youngest left-hander to do so. Clayton Kershaw is the youngest pitcher to win a third Cy Young Award. Clemens is also the only pitcher to win the Cy Young Award with four different teams; nobody else has done so with more than two different teams. Justin Verlander has the most seasons separating his first (2011) and second (2019) Cy Young Awards.


title: Cy Young Award

text: Only two teams have never had a pitcher win the Cy Young Award. The Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have won more than any other team with 12.


title: Cy Young Award

text: Six of these unanimous wins were accompanied by a win of the Most Valuable Player award (marked with * below; ** denotes that the player's unanimous win was accompanied by a unanimous win of the MVP Award).


title: Cy Young Award

text: In the American League, seven players have unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 11 wins.


title: Ayran

text: Ayran, doogh, dhallë, daw, xynogala or tan is a cold savory yogurt-based beverage popular across Western Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, Southeastern Europe, North Asia and Eastern Europe. The principal ingredients are yogurt, water and salt. Herbs such as mint may be optionally added. Some varieties are carbonated.


title: Ayran

text: "Ayran" (cf. "airag" in Mongolian: 'mare milk', "uyran" ("уйран") in Chuvash: 'buttermilk') is mentioned in Mahmud al-Kashgari's 11th century "Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk", although he did not give any information how ayran was made.


title: Ayran

text: The word is derived from the Old Turkic root adır- ("to separate"), cf. Turkish ayır- ("to separate").


title: Ayran

text: Doogh is served chilled and often as an accompaniment to grilled meat or rice, especially during summer. It is made by mixing yogurt with chilled or iced water and is sometimes carbonated and seasoned with mint. It has been variously described as "diluted yogurt" and "a most refreshing drink made by mixing yogurt with iced water".


title: Ayran

text: The traditional way of preparing the drink among various Iranic peoples is straight from milk, without yogurt, using a waterskin, known as "mashk" (مشک) in Luri, Kurdish and Persian in Iran, and "maskah" (مسکه) in Afghanistan. This is done by pouring the milk in the waterskin, usually made of deer or sheep skin, and shaking it for hours, sometimes using a wooden structure to keep the waterskin above the ground with woolen strings to make the task easier. In Pakistan, Ayran is sometimes called "Namkeen Lassi" ().


title: Ayran

text: Similar drinks exist elsewhere, such as "doogh" (دوغ), an Iranian fermented drink that has long been a popular drink and was consumed in ancient Iran (Persia). Described by an 1886 source as a cold drink of curdled milk and water seasoned with mint, its name (Doogh) derives from the Persian word for milking, "dooshidan".


title: Ayran

text: Other similar drinks include "t’an" in Armenia and "lassi" in Southern Asia and are popular in Asian countries; however, they can differ from "doogh".


title: Ayran

text: "Ayran" has been consumed by Turkic tribes from the distant past. According to Nevin Halıcı, "ayran" was consumed by Turkic people of Central Asia. A c. 1000 CE Turkic dictionary, "Dīwān ul-Lughat al-Turk", defines "ayran" as a "drink made out of milk".


title: Ayran

text: Regional names of the drink and its variations are: ; "šinīna" or "eayran"; "t'an"; ; ; ; "shrombey"; ; "daughe"; "xinogala" or αριάνι "ariani"; Pontic Greek: αΐραν "ayran"; .


title: Ayran

text: Salt, black pepper, dried mint, and lime juice can be mixed in. Diced cucumbers can be added to provide a crunchy texture to the beverage. Some varieties of "doogh" are carbonated. In Balkan countries, the drink is usually consumed for breakfast or lunch, usually combined with pastries like banitsa, börek or other pastries.


title: Ayran

text: In Afghanistan, ayran (known as dogh in Afghanistan) is a summer beverage. It is made with yogurt, salt, mint, diced cucumbers, lime, and is sometimes carbonated. It is enjoyed alongside bolani, afghan flatbread, and other picnic foods.


title: Ayran

text: In Cyprus, ayran, known as Ayrani (Αϊρανι) in Greek, is made with sour sheep yogurt, water, salt and mint.


title: Ayran

text: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, a Turkish politician who has held the posts of President and Prime Minister, has promoted "ayran" as a national drink. Speaking at a 2013 WHO Global Alcohol Policy Conference held in Istanbul, Erdoğan contrasted "ayran" with alcohol, which he claimed was a recent introduction to Turkey.


title: Ayran

text: Nevertheless, sales of "ayran" in Turkey lag behind other non-alcoholic beverages. According to a 2015 joint statement from the Soft Drink Producers Association, the Sparkling Water Producers Association, and the Milk Producers and Exporters Union of Turkey, "ayran" consumption during Ramadan had declined every year for the years 2010 to 2015.


title: Ayran

text: In 2015, Turkey's Ministry of Customs and Trade, imposed a 220,000 TL fine (approximately $70,000) on state-owned Çaykur manufacturers, stating that "ayran" had been "insulted without reason" in one of their advertisements for iced tea, in which the rapper Ceza rapped that "ayran" makes him sleepy; the ministry halted advertisements of Çaykur's competing ice-tea product.


title: Owen Teague

text: Owen William Teague (born December 8, 1998) is an American actor. He was born and raised in Tampa, Florida, and is known for his roles in "The Stand", "Mrs. Fletcher", "Inherit the Viper", "To Leslie", "Montana Story", "Gone in the Night", "Bloodline", and the episode "Arkangel" of the fourth season of "Black Mirror" (2017). Teague also appeared as Patrick Hockstetter in "It" and "It Chapter Two", and had key roles in the drama "Every Day" and the thriller "I See You".


title: Owen Teague

text: Teague was born and raised in Tampa, Florida. Both his parents were musicians and he played violin until 15. Teague was interested in acting beginning at a young age, performing scenes from "Beauty and the Beast" with stuffed animals at the age of four and appearing in small theater productions soon thereafter. He was a member of the Movie Makers Club at Macfarlane Park International Baccalaureate Elementary and the thespian club and orchestra at Howard W. Blake High School School of the Arts, both in Tampa.


title: Owen Teague

text: Teague is known for his roles in "Bloodline" (2015) and the episode "Arkangel" of the fourth season of "Black Mirror" (2017).


title: Owen Teague

text: In 2016, he was cast in a supporting role in the supernatural thriller "The Empty Man", based on a graphic novel by Cullen Bunn. He played Nolan Rayburn in the second season of "Bloodline", at which point Teague was still going to high school. In 2016, he also had a part in the film "Cell", based on a Stephen King book.


title: Owen Teague

text: He was cast in "Mary" in 2017. Teague was being represented by APA, Management 360, Brevard Talent Group, and Myman Greenspan. Teague also appeared as Patrick Hockstetter in "It" (2017) and "It Chapter Two" (2019).


title: Owen Teague

text: In 2017, he joined the crime thriller "Inherit the Viper". He also joined the romance film "Every Day", based on a novel by David Levithan.


title: Owen Teague

text: He signed with CAA in 2018. Also that year, he was in the film "Heft", as 17-year-old student Kel Keller dealing with baseball aspirations and family drama. In "Mrs. Fletcher", a 2019 HBO series, he played Julian, a "19-year-old enamored with a 46-year-old divorcée named Eve", and played Alec in the thriller "I See You" (2019).


title: Owen Teague

text: In August 2020, it was announced he would be playing Tommy Stinson in a Replacements biopic, "Trouble Boys". He was cast as the character Harold Lauder in the 2020 CBS miniseries "The Stand". According to Teague, "The Stand" had been a favorite book of his since the age of 13. He noted he tried to draw directly from Lauder's psychology in "The Stand" novel. As Harold Lauder, he plays a sociopathic teenager being tempted by evil during a pandemic. "Consequence of Sound" wrote that Teague plays Lauder with "nuanced perfection, capturing the insecurity, pomposity, and rage of one of the most dynamic characters in King's vast tapestry".


title: Owen Teague

text: In August 2022, Teague was cast in the lead role in the filme "Kingdom of the Planet of the Apes", to be directed by Wes Ball for 20th Century Studios.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom generated 16.1% of the country's electricity in 2020. , the UK has 9 operational nuclear reactors at five locations (8 advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGR) and one pressurised water reactor (PWR)), producing 5.9GWe.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: It also has nuclear reprocessing plants at Sellafield and the Tails Management Facility (TMF) operated by Urenco in Capenhurst.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom established the world's first civil nuclear programme, opening a nuclear power station, Calder Hall at Windscale, England, in 1956. The British installed base of nuclear reactors used to be dominated by domestically developed Magnox and their successor AGR reactors with graphite moderator and coolant but the last of those are nearing the end of their useful life and will be replaced with "international" pressurised water reactors. At the peak in 1997, 26% of the nation's electricity was generated from nuclear power. Since then several reactors have closed and by 2012 the share had declined to 19%. The older AGR reactors have been life-extended, but they are now towards the end of their life.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In October 2010, the Cameron–Clegg coalition took forward the previous Labour governments plans for private suppliers to construct up to eight new nuclear power plants. The Scottish Government, with the backing of the Scottish Parliament, has stated that no new nuclear power stations will be constructed in Scotland. E.ON UK, RWE npower and Horizon Nuclear Power have been pulling out of their initial plans for developing new nuclear power plants, placing the future of nuclear power in the UK in some doubt. Despite this, EDF Energy is still planning to build four new reactors at two sites, with construction ongoing at Hinkley Point in Somerset. In light of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the government of Boris Johnson announced a renewed commitment to nuclear power, using the EPR and potentially other PWR designs as well as yet-to-be-developed small modular reactors in a push towards energy independence and decarbonisation while replacing the ageing AGR reactors and phasing out gas and coal for electricity generation. While there is a "de facto" nuclear power phaseout underway in Scotland and there are plans to replace existing reactors with newly-built ones in England and Wales (sometimes using existing sites for the new reactors), no nuclear power plant has ever been built or planned in Northern Ireland.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: EDF Energy owns and manages the five currently operating and two de-fuelling reactor sites. Four new plants are proposed to be built in the next few decades. All nuclear installations in the UK are overseen by the Office for Nuclear Regulation.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) was established in 1954 as a statutory corporation to oversee and pioneer the development of nuclear energy within the United Kingdom.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The first station to be connected to the grid, on 27 August 1956, was Calder Hall, although the production of weapons-grade plutonium was the main reason behind this power station. Calder Hall was the world's first nuclear power station to deliver electricity in commercial quantities (although the 5 MW "semi-experimental" reactor at Obninsk in the Soviet Union was connected to the public supply in 1954).


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In February 1966 it was announced that the first prototype fast breeder reactor in the United Kingdom would be constructed in Dounreay, Scotland, at a cost of £30million.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: British Nuclear Fuels Limited (BNFL) was established in February 1971 from the demerger of the production division of the UK Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA). In 1984 BNFL became a public limited company, British Nuclear Fuels plc, wholly owned by the UK government.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In December 1979, in the wake of the industrial disputes of the Winter of Discontent and the 1979 oil crisis, the new Thatcher government announced a new long-term nuclear power programme. The existing state National Nuclear Corporation would complete its existing planned second generation AGR builds, and would develop a new programme of building one Westinghouse designed Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) per year for at least a decade from 1982 (about 15GWe in total). However, in 1981 the Select Committee on Energy and the Monopolies and Mergers Commission produced reports criticising the CEGB and government's demand forecasting and investment assessment justifying the programme. From 1982, after Nigel Lawson replaced David Howell as Secretary of State for Energy, the government began rowing back from this large proposal, in part because the government were beginning to consider privatising the electricity industry. The Electricity Act 1989 provided for the privatisation of the electricity industry, introducing the Fossil Fuel Levy to support the nuclear power industry which was exempted from privatisation and vested in Nuclear Electric.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In the end, only the Sizewell B nuclear power plant from the PWR programme was built, between 1987 and 1995. It began producing power for the national grid in February 1995. Its construction followed a four-year, 16million-word public inquiry. As of 2019 it is the most recent nuclear plant to be constructed in the United Kingdom. Sizewell B was intended to be the first of a smaller series of four new identical power stations, but the rest were dropped as uneconomic in the early 1990s when it was decided to privatise the electric power industry so low interest rate government finance would no longer be available.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: A Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP) was opened at Sellafield in 1994. Construction had begun in the 1970s and cost £2.4 billion.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 1996 the UK's eight most advanced nuclear plants, seven advanced gas-cooled reactors and one pressurized water reactor, were privatised as British Energy, raising £2.1 billion. The remaining Magnox reactors remained in public ownership as Magnox Electric. On 30 January 1998 Magnox Electric was merged into BNFL as BNFL Magnox Generation.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Margaret Beckett as Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs rejected demands for an expansion of nuclear power from a lobby including energy minister Brian Wilson and Downing Street staff. She argued there was no need for new nuclear for at least 15 years given current energy prices and generation capacity.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The practical measures identified were: continuing to participate in international research; ensuring that the nuclear skill-base is maintained, and that the regulators are adequately staffed to assess any new investment proposals; shortening the lead-time to commissioning, should new nuclear power be chosen in future; permitting nuclear power to benefit from the development of carbon taxes and similar market mechanisms; and addressing the problems of long-term nuclear waste disposal. It went on to state that ""Because nuclear is a mature technology within a well-established global industry, there is no current case for further government support"" and that ""the decision whether to bring forward proposals for new nuclear build is a matter for the private sector"".


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The Government's Energy White Paper, published in 2003 and titled ""Our Energy Future – Creating a Low Carbon Economy"" concluded that:


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In April 2005, advisers to British Prime Minister Tony Blair were suggesting that constructing new nuclear power stations would be the best way to meet the country's targets on reducing emissions of gases responsible for global warming. The energy policy of the United Kingdom has a near-term target of cutting emissions below 1997 levels by 20%, and a more ambitious target of an 80% cut by 2050. In November 2005 the Government announced an energy review, subsequently launched in January 2006, to "review the UK's progress against the medium and long-term Energy White Paper goals and the options for further steps to achieve them".


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Following the 2006 review the Office for Nuclear Regulation, an agency of Health and Safety Executive, developed the Generic Design Assessment process (GDA) to assess new nuclear reactor designs ahead of site-specific proposals. The GDA started assessing four designs: Westinghouse AP1000; Areva EPR; AECL ACR-1000; and GE-Hitachi ESBWR. However the ACR-1000 and ESBWR were subsequently withdrawn from the assessment for commercial reasons, leaving the EPR and AP1000 as contenders for new nuclear builds.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 15 February 2007, environmental group Greenpeace won a High Court ruling that threw out the government's 2006 Energy Review. Mr Justice Sullivan presiding held that the government's review was 'seriously flawed', in particular in that key details of the economics of the argument were only published after the review was completed. Justice Sullivan held that the review's wording on nuclear waste disposal was "not merely inadequate but also misleading", and held the decision to proceed to be "unlawful".


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Responding to the news, Trade and Industry Secretary Alistair Darling said that there would be a fresh consultation, but that a decision was required before the end of 2007. He stated that the government remains convinced that new nuclear power plants are needed to help combat climate change and over-reliance on imported oil and gas. Attention was drawn in the media to numerous connections to nuclear industry lobbyists within the Labour Party.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The 2007 Energy White Paper: "Meeting the Energy Challenge" was published on 23 May 2007. It contained a 'preliminary view is that it is in the public interest to give the private sector the option of investing in new nuclear power stations'. Alongside the White Paper the Government published a consultation document, "The Future of Nuclear Power" together with a number of supporting documents. One of these, a report by Jackson Consulting, suggested that it would be preferable to site new power stations on existing nuclear power stations sites that are owned by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority or British Energy.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Greenpeace responded to the release of the consultation document by repeating its position that replacing the nuclear fleet rather than decommissioning would only reduce the UK's total carbon emissions by four percent.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 7 September 2007 several anti-nuclear groups including Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, CND and the WWF announced that they had pulled out of the consultation process. They stated that it appeared as if the Government had already made up its mind regarding the future of nuclear power. The business and enterprise secretary, John Hutton, responded in a Radio 4 interview "It is not the government that has got a closed view on these issues, I think it is organisations like Greenpeace that have got a closed mind. There is only one outcome that Greenpeace and other organisations want from this consultation."


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In January 2008, the UK government gave the go-ahead for a new generation of nuclear power stations to be built. The Scottish Government has made clear that it opposes new nuclear power stations being built in Scotland and has the final say on planning matters in Scotland. Liberal Democrat spokesman Steve Webb MP said on 29 January 2008 "There is a real risk that focusing on new nuclear plants will undermine attempts to find a cleaner, greener, more sustainable and secure solution. We should be concentrating our efforts on renewables and greater energy conservation." On 10 January 2008, Alan Duncan MP issued a response to the Government's announcement on nuclear power, welcoming it and suggesting that the Conservatives supported a level economic playing field for different types of energy generation rather than a preference for one over another.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Two consortia (EDF-Centrica and RWE-E.ON) had announced outline plans to build a total of 12.5GW of new nuclear capacity, slightly more than the total capacity of British Energy's currently operating plants.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2009 government officials believed a carbon price floor would be needed to encourage companies to commit funds to nuclear build projects.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2009 Électricité de France (EDF), the state-owned French energy company, took over British Energy, paying £12.5 billion.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In August, 2009, the energy company Centrica purchased a 20% share from EDF. A subsidiary of EDF was formed called EDF Energy.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In November 2009, the Government identified ten nuclear sites which could accommodate future reactors: Bradwell in Essex; Braystones in Cumbria; Kirksanton in Cumbria; Sellafield in Cumbria; Hartlepool in County Durham; Heysham in Lancashire; Hinkley Point in Somerset; Oldbury in Gloucestershire; Sizewell in Suffolk; and Wylfa in North Wales Most of these sites already have a nuclear power station; the only new sites are Braystones and Kirksanton.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In October 2010, sites at Braystones, Kirksanton and Dungeness were ruled out by Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change Chris Huhne with the former government's list of eleven potential sites reduced to eight.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2010 the Nuclear Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre was created in Rotherham, South Yorkshire, led by the University of Sheffield with Rolls-Royce, anticipating involvement in any forthcoming new nuclear builds in the UK. It was funded with £15million from the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills and £10million from the regional development agency Yorkshire Forward.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Following the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents Chris Huhne, Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change, wrote to Dr Mike Weightman, head of the HSE's Nuclear Directorate, on 12 March, asking for a report 'on the implications of the situation and the lessons to be learned for the UK nuclear industry. The report was to be delivered within 6 months, with an interim report by mid-May, 'prepared in close cooperation with the International nuclear community and other nuclear safety regulators'. On 15 March, Huhne expressed regret that some European politicians were 'rushing to judgement' before assessments had been carried out, and said that it was too early to determine whether the willingness of the private sector to invest in new nuclear plants would be affected. In the wake of the accident the Government was criticised for having colluded with EDF Energy, Areva and Westinghouse in order to manage communications and maintain public support for nuclear power.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In January 2012, the campaign group Energy Fair, supported by a number of other organisations and environmentalists, filed a formal complaint with the European Commission over alleged unlawful State aid in the form of subsidies for nuclear power industry, in breach of European Union competition law. It claims that the subsidies arise from underwriting commercial risk and decommissioning costs, protection against terrorist attacks, the disposal of nuclear waste, and by providing 'institutional support' in the form of various government funded or subsidised bodies such as the National Nuclear Laboratory, the Nuclear Institute, and Nuclear Decommissioning Authority without providing corresponding levels of support for renewable technologies, without which nuclear power would not be commercially viable, so distorting the energy market. The group claims that the subsidies divert resources from renewable technologies that would 'cut emissions more deeply, more quickly, more cheaply, and with none of the risks and other problems with nuclear power'.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In March 2012, two of the big six power companies announced they would be pulling out of developing new nuclear power plants. The decision by RWE npower and E.ON followed uncertainty over nuclear energy following the Fukushima nuclear disaster, which had occurred the year before. Their decision followed a similar announcement by Scottish and Southern Electricity the previous year. Hitachi purchased the Horizon joint-venture, intending to build two or three 1,350MWe Advanced boiling water reactors (ABWR) at Oldbury and Wylfa.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: French-owned EDF, one of the two remaining consortia planning to build new nuclear plants in the UK, has indicated that the election victory of François Hollande will not change its plans in the UK, despite François Hollande having proposed to cut France's reliance on nuclear power generation from 75% to 50%, and despite speculation to the contrary in the UK.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2012 Russian firm Rosatom stated that in the future it intended to certify the VVER-1200 with the British and U.S. regulatory authorities, though was unlikely to apply for a British licence before 2015, after having seen what agreements EDF finally reaches. In September 2013 Rosatom, in conjunction with Fortum and Rolls-Royce, signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the UK government to prepare for a VVER Generic Design Assessment.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2013, Tim Yeo, chairman of the Commons Energy and Climate Change Committee, stated that the government reaching an agreement over nuclear power expansion was a "matter of great urgency", and warned that Britain could run out of energy if negotiations were not concluded quickly.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In the same year, a cross-party committee inquiry concluded that the UK "will not be able to meet its climate change targets without new nuclear build". A report published by the committee found that unless planned nuclear power plants are built on time, it will be "extremely challenging, if not impossible" for the country to meet its legally binding carbon reduction targets. Such a failure to build the new nuclear capacity by 2025 would also force a greater reliance on imported gas, and would affect energy security.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 26 March 2013, the government published a Nuclear Industrial Strategy which in part stated that the nuclear industry had plans for about 16GWe of new nuclear power stations by 2030, which is at least 12 new nuclear reactors at five sites. A Nuclear Industry Council will be established, and a Nuclear Innovation and Research Advisory Board will be created "to ensure that public R&D programmes are aligned to support industrial and energy policy." Public civil nuclear R&D funding for 2010–11 was £66million, which is low compared to some international competitors. The government will join the European Jules Horowitz Reactor research project.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In April 2013, EDF's negotiations with the government over the strike price for nuclear produced electricity stalled. EDF's chief executive stated EDF was "in no hurry" to agree the strike price, and was unconcerned if the negotiations failed. Commentators believed it would take several months to reach a conclusion.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The Office for National Statistics assessed that in 2015 the UK nuclear industry directly employed about 12,400 staff, though about 9,400 of those worked at Sellafield mostly on nuclear waste handling.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2016 EDF and the UK government finalised the £92.5/MWh contract for difference for the building of two EPR reactors at Hinkley Point C.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Rolls-Royce is preparing a small modular reactor (SMR) design called the UK SMR, a close-coupled four-loop PWR design. Power output is 440MWe which is above the usual range considered to be a SMR. It is seeking UK government finance to support further development.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In December 2017 The UK government provided funding of up to £56million over three years to support research and development into advanced and small nuclear reactors.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2018 the UK SMR industry sought billions of pounds of government support to finance their putative First of a Kind projects. The Expert Finance Working Group on Small Reactors produced a report stating that there was "a current market failure in supporting nuclear projects generally" and identifying options for government to support SMR development in the UK.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The UK government, through UKRI, awarded £18million in ISCF funding to a UK-based consortium led by Rolls-Royce, with matched funding of £18million from industry. This first phase was formally concluded on 30 June 2021 and successfully developed a concept design. In November 2021, the UK government provided £210million, match funded by industry, in the second phase of development for the Rolls-Royce SMR.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 26 January 2017, the UK notified the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) of its intention to withdraw, following on from its decision to withdraw from the European Union. Leaving will have wide-ranging implications for Britain's nuclear industry, including regulation and research, access to nuclear materials and impacts about twenty nuclear co-operation agreements with non-EU countries.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The UK withdrawal might raise the question of nuclear fuel availability after 2019 in the UK, and the need for the UK to enter into new treaties relating to the transportation of nuclear materials.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2018, the National College for Nuclear was opened at two hubs at Bridgwater and Taunton College and Lakes College largely funded by £22.5million from the Department for Education, intended to service the building and operation of new build nuclear power plants.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In November 2018, the UK ratified the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) framework international collaboration agreement for research and development of Generation IV nuclear reactors.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2019, Wood sold its nuclear business, mostly decommissioning work at Sellafield, for £250million to the US Jacobs Engineering Group, which has a global nuclear business.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2020, Energy Systems Catapult analysis suggested new 10GW nuclear power in order to achieve net zero emissions by 2050.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In June 2020, Zion Lights, former spokesperson of Extinction Rebellion UK, declared her support for nuclear energy as a critical part of the energy mix along with renewable energy sources and called fellow environmentalists to accept that nuclear power is part of the "scientifically assessed solutions for addressing climate change".


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2020, nuclear power generated 46terawatt hours (TWh) of UK electricity, just over 15% of gross electricity generation, and about half its 1998 peak of 91TWh.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In June 2021, EDF announced that Dungeness B would move into the defuelling phase with immediate effect, citing "station-specific risks within some key components, including parts within the fuel assemblies" identified since September 2018.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: As of 2021, the British government's attitude to the involvement of China in British nuclear power had changed following worsening of China–United Kingdom relations, and it was exploring ways to block Chinese involvement, finance and their Bradwell B new nuclear development.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The Nuclear Energy (Financing) Bill was introduced in the House of Commons in October 2021, to enable the Regulated Asset Base (RAB) financing model to be used for new nuclear, whereby consumers finance most of the capital costs during the construction period rather than the developers.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 7 January 2022, Hunterston B was closed and moved into defuelling earlier than planned due to cracks in the graphite bricks in the reactors.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: As part of the 2022 British energy security strategy policy paper, it was announced that nuclear-generating capacity would increase from 7 GW to 24 GW by 2050 and the establishment of a new nuclear development agency named Great British Nuclear.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Since 2006, Hinkley Point B and Hunterston B have been restricted to about 70% of normal MWe output because of boiler-related problems requiring that they operate at reduced boiler temperatures. In 2013, these two stations' power increased to about 80% of normal output following some plant modifications.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2010, EDF announced a five-year life extension for both Heysham 1 and Hartlepool to enable further generation until 2024.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2012, EDF announced it expects seven-year life extensions on average across all AGRs, including the recently life-extended Heysham 1 and Hartlepool. A 20-year life extension is the strategic target for the Sizewell B PWR. These life extensions are subject to detailed review and approval, and are not included in the table above.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 4 December 2012, EDF announced that Hinkley Point B and Hunterston B had been given seven-year life extensions, from 2016 to 2023.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 5 November 2013, EDF announced that Hartlepool had been given a five-year life extension, from 2019 to 2024.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 19 November 2020, EDF announced that Hinkley Point B will stop generating electricity and move into the defuelling phase no later than 15 June 2022.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 15 December 2021 EDF announced that the closure dates for Heysham 2 and Torness were to be brought forward from 2030 to March 2028.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: A number of research and development reactors also produced some power for the grid, including two Winfrith reactors, two Dounreay fast reactors, and the prototype Windscale Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The history of nuclear energy economics in the UK is complex. The first Magnox reactors were not built for purely commercial purposes, and later reactors faced delays which inflated costs (culminating in Sizewell B taking seven years from start of construction to entering service, after a lengthy public inquiry). Costs have also been complicated by the lack of national strategy or policy for spent nuclear fuel, so that a mixed use of reprocessing and short-term storage have been employed, with little regard for long-term considerations (although a national repository has been proposed).


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: There is a lack of consensus in the UK about the cost/benefit nature of nuclear energy, as well as ideological influence (for instance, those favouring 'energy security' generally arguing pro, while those worried about the 'environmental impact' against). Because of this, and a lack of a consistent energy policy in the UK since the mid-1990s, no new reactors have been built since Sizewell B in 1995. Costs have been a major influence to this, while the long lead-time between proposal and operation (at ten years or more) has put off many investors, especially with long-term considerations such as energy market regulation and nuclear waste remaining unresolved. Sizewell B was in 1995 expected to generate electricity at 3.5p/kWh (2000 prices, which is equivalent to £/MWh in ), however a post-startup evaluation estimated generating cost was about 6p/kWh (2000 prices, equivalent to £/MWh in ), excluding first-of-kind costs and using an 8% discount rate for the cost of capital.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: From 2010 until 2015, it was UK Government policy that the construction of any new nuclear power stations in the UK would be led and financed by the private sector. This transfers the running and immediate concerns to the operator, while reducing (although not eliminating) government participation and long-term involvement/liability (nuclear waste, as involving government policy, will likely remain a liability, even if only a limited one). In 2010 "The Daily Telegraph" reported that additional incentives, such as capacity payments and supplier nuclear obligations, would be needed to persuade companies to build nuclear plants in the UK. The government decided to subsidize nuclear power again in 2015.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: When the rest of the UK generating industry was privatised, the Government introduced the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation, initially as a means of supporting the nuclear generators, which remained under state ownership until the formation of British Energy. British Energy, the private sector company that operated the UK's more modern nuclear plants, came close to bankruptcy and in 2004 was restructured with UK government investment of over £3billion, although this has since been paid back in full. In January 2009, British Energy was bought for approximately £12billion by EDF Energy (a subsidiary of Électricité de France (EDF)) and Centrica (a major operator of CCGT power stations and renewable sources in the UK and parent company of British Gas) in an 80/20 split.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In January 2008, the UK government indicated that it would take steps to encourage private operators to build new nuclear power plants in the following years to meet projected energy needs. The government stated that there would be no subsidies for nuclear power. The Government hoped that the first station would be operational before 2020. However, the Welsh Government remains opposed to new nuclear plants in Wales despite the approval of Wylfa as a potential site. Scotland has decided against new nuclear power stations.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In May 2008, "The Times" reported that Wulf Bernotat, chairman and chief executive of E.ON, had stated that the cost of each new nuclear power plant in the UK could be as high as €6billion (£4.8billion), much higher than the Government's estimate of £2.8billion. The cost of replacing Britain's ten nuclear power stations could therefore reach £48billion, excluding the cost of decommissioning ageing reactors or dealing with nuclear waste.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 29 March 2012, E.ON and RWE npower, which had formed the joint venture Horizon to build NPPs in the United Kingdom, announced that they would not develop new nuclear power projects in the UK, focusing instead on shorter term investments, and were looking to find another company to take over Horizon.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 29 October 2012 it was announced that Hitachi would buy Horizon for about £700million. Hitachi intend to build two or three 1,350MWe Advanced boiling water reactors (ABWR) at Oldbury and Wylfa, but will first require a "Generic Design Assessment" for the ABWR design by the Office for Nuclear Regulation, which will take about four years.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In June 2012, in research commissioned by EDF, the Institute for Public Policy Research suggested that building 18GW of new nuclear energy capacity in the UK, with more than 10 new reactors, could create between 16,250 and 21,250 additional jobs, and enable the UK to compete in the international market for nuclear energy. The Institute of Directors also published a report stating that nuclear energy is a "clean, cheap and safe" way of generating electricity, with 84% of its members in favour of new nuclear power in Britain. However, "The Times" reported the cost of building each EPR had increased to £7billion, which Citigroup analysts did not regard as commercially viable, projecting a generation cost of 16.6p/kWh for private-sector financed reactors.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 21 October 2013, EDF Energy announced that an agreement had been reached regarding new nuclear plants to be built on the site of Hinkley Point C. EDF Group and the UK Government agreed on the key commercial terms of the investment contract. The final investment decision was still conditional on completion of the remaining key steps, including the agreement of the EU Commission.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2015, the UK government proposed to provide large subsidies to the Hinkley Point C plant, paying twice the market rate for electricity.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: A 2015 model-based study compares renewables plus storage, nuclear, and fossil fuels with and without carbon capture and storage. The study finds that, for the scenarios considered, costs were similar at about at up to 50% renewables and rose for renewables above an 80% share as grid-scale storage, imports, and tidal range generation were applied.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Rolls-Royce is preparing a small modular reactor (SMR) design called the Rolls-Royce SMR, a close-coupled four-loop PWR design. Power output is 440MWe which is above the usual range considered to be a SMR. As of 2017 Rolls-Royce was seeking UK government finance to support further development. In 2018, the UK government announced £56million of spending to fund initial SMR research and development for eight companies.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2017, a consensus of government and industry developed that the Contract for Difference financing model used for Hinkley Point C nuclear power station, involving fully private sector financing, may not used for subsequent nuclear plants, and discussions with government are under way about alternative finance mechanisms for the following possible development at Wylfa by Horizon Nuclear Power for parent Hitachi. However, on 17 January 2019, Horizon announced that it was suspending its UK nuclear development programme. The UK government had been willing to take a one-third equity stake in the project, to consider providing all the required debt financing, and to provide a Contract for Difference for the electricity generated at up to £75/MWh for 35 years. Greg Clark, minister for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, stated this was a "generous package of potential support that goes beyond what any government has been willing to consider in the past". However this did not provide an adequate "economic rationality as a private enterprise" for Hitachi to proceed.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In April 2020, a director of Horizon Nuclear Power stated that the future of next two nuclear builds, Wylfa and Oldbury, depended on the government accepting the Regulated Asset Base (RAB) financial assistance model rather than the existing Contract for Difference support mechanism, which would allow developers to need less upfront private finance with some finance backed through end consumer bills.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 2 June 2020, EDF Energy announced that it had submitted a development consent order to the UK government prior to starting construction on the Sizewell C site in Suffolk. However EDF have yet to organise financing, and cannot take on more construction risk in the UK. EDF is looking to the UK government to assist on financing either by offering a Regulated Asset Base model, though that puts an immediate cost burden on end consumers, or through other approaches such as a government equity stake in the development. On 30 June, EDF announced that it had applied to the Office for Nuclear Regulation for a licence to build and operate Sizewell C.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 24 September 2020, when Prime Minister Boris Johnson was asked about new technology in the UK's fight against climate change, he reaffirmed support for nuclear power in the UK, by saying to the BBC, "I do think nuclear has to be part of the mix", whilst also saying that the UK can be the "Saudi Arabia of wind power".


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Proposed nuclear power stations in the United Kingdom, with currently shelved proposals in italics, are:


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Two other sites, Heysham and Hartlepool, were identified as possible locations in 2010 but no commercial proposals were made for these sites.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Following the cancellation of the Moorside project by Toshiba, on 30 June 2020 EDF announced proposals to construct an EPR on the site. This would be a near replica of Hinkley Point C and Sizewell C in order to reduce the overall costs of the project. The plans come as a part of a proposed clean energy hub for the area which is backed by 14 other companies and trade unions including the UK construction firm Balfour Beatty and the union Unite. The consortium claims that 25,000 jobs will be created with the construction of the hub. The hub is also aiming to use existing nuclear supply chains within the area and also be the site of SMRs and AMRs in the future.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The project has completed its stage 4 consultation, which is allowing EDF to submit its planning application which is expected to be at the start of 2020, before a decision is made on the plant's future in 2020. After this, construction is expected to start around 2021, with an accelerated timeline due to the replication of the Hinkley point C power plant on the site. On 27 May 2020, EDF energy put in a development consent order application, prior to the start of construction at the site.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The UK has a large variety of different intermediate- and high-level radioactive wastes, coming from national programmes to develop nuclear weapons and nuclear power. It is a national responsibility to pay for the management of these. In addition, new nuclear power stations could be built, the waste management from which would be the private sector's financial responsibility, although all would be stored in a single facility. Most of the UK's higher-activity radioactive waste is currently held in temporary storage at Sellafield. , the 60-years long nuclear programme produced of high-level waste.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The UK has approximately 70,000tonnes of irradiated graphite, mainly as moderator in Magnox and AGR reactors. Most of its radioactivity will have decayed away 60–70 years after reactor closure, but its carbon-14 content is a long-term radiological hazard which can be released in gaseous form making it a large volume intermediate-level waste. Research on how to handle this waste is ongoing, which will lead to an informed decision on management.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 31 July 2006, the Committee on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM), published its final report on long-term waste management. Its main recommendation was that geological disposal should be adopted. This would involve burial of high-level waste at deep in a purpose-built facility with no intention to retrieve the waste in the future. It was concluded that this could not be implemented for several decades, and that there were "social and ethical concerns within UK society about the disposal option that would need to be resolved as part of the implementation process". Such a repository should start to be closed as soon as practicable rather than being left open for future generations. Fourteen additional recommendations were also made.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: On 12 June 2008, a white paper, "Managing Radioactive Waste Safely, A Framework for Implementing Geological Disposal" was published confirming CoRWM's conclusion of geologic disposal of higher-activity wastes. The policy announcement confirmed that there would be one geologic disposal site, for both national legacy waste as well as potential wastes from future programmes. It announced that a process of volunteerism would be used in selecting a suitable site and invited communities from the UK to express interest. They would be rewarded by the infrastructure investment for the facility, jobs for the long term and a tailored package of benefits.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In January 2014, the building of the first dry spent PWR nuclear fuel store in the UK began at Sizewell B, where the existing spent fuel pool, which stores spent fuel under water, was expected to reach full capacity in 2015. It is intended to enable spent nuclear fuel produced from 2016 until at least 2035 to be stored at Sizewell B until a deep geological repository is available. In March 2017, the first cask containing spent nuclear fuel was installed.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), formed in April 2005 under the Energy Act 2004, oversees and manages the decommissioning and clean-up of the UK's older Magnox power plants and the reprocessing facilities at Sellafield, which were transferred to its ownership from BNFL, and the former nuclear research and development facilities previously run by the UKAEA.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Prior to the 2002 white paper "Managing the Nuclear Legacy", the cost of decommissioning these facilities had been estimated at around £42billion. The white paper estimated the costs at £48billion at March 2002 prices, an increase of £6bn, with the cost of decommissioning Sellafield accounting for over 65% of the total. This figure included a rise in BNFL's estimated decommissioning liabilities from £35billion to £40.5billion, with an estimate of £7.4billion for UKAEA.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In June 2003, the Department of Trade and Industry estimated that decommissioning costs, including the cost of running the facilities still in operation for their remaining life, were approximately £56billion at 2003 prices, although the figure was 'almost certainly' expected to rise. This estimate was revised in subsequent years; to £57billion in September 2004; £63billion in September 2005; £65billion in March 2006; and to £73billion in March 2007. Around £46 billion of the £73 billion is for the decommissioning and clean-up of the Sellafield site.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In May 2008 a senior director at the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority indicated that the figure of £73billion might increase by several billion pounds. In 2019, the cost was given as £129billion.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In addition to The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority's costs, British Energy's liabilities in relation to spent nuclear fuels have risen. In February 2006, it was reported that these had increased to £5.3billion, an increase of almost £1billion. The costs of handling these is to be met by the Nuclear Liabilities Fund (NLF), the successor to the Nuclear Generation Decommissioning Fund. Although British Energy contributes to the NLF, the fund is underwritten by the Government. The House of Commons Public Accounts Committee noted in 2007 that British Energy may lack an incentive to reduce the eventual liabilities falling to the Nuclear Liabilities Fund.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Until the expansion of nuclear power in the 1980s, seismic activity in the UK had not received a great deal of attention. As a result of the new interest in the topic, in 1994 the British Geological Survey published a catalogue of earthquakes.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Although earthquakes are relatively frequent, they rarely cause damage to well-constructed structures. Two of the largest, estimated at 5.75 (moderate) on the Richter scale occurred in 1382 and 1580. Evaluation of past earthquakes indicates that the UK is unlikely to be subject to earthquakes larger than a magnitude of approximately 6.5.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The occurrence of tsunamis impacting the UK is rare, with only two (possibly three) having been identified; a high wave as a result of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, and a high tsunami in 6100 BC which occurred under very different geological conditions (Storegga Slide). In recent years there has been an accumulation of evidence indicating that the 1607 Bristol Channel floods may also have resulted from a tsunami that rose from a height of to over as it passed up the channel.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: A 2005 report for DEFRA, conducted following the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami, found that, discounting 'exotic events such as meteorite impacts', 'in most plausible circumstances it is likely that such an event would be contained by current defences, designed to resist storm surges, for all major developed areas', however the joint occurrence of events, such as a tsunami coinciding with a storm surge, was discounted. The report did, however call for additional more detailed modelling to be carried out, recommended that the Met Office should provide a tsunami warning service, and that detection devices should be upgraded. A follow-up report indicated that, of the three likely scenarios modelled, a Lisbon-type event would pose the greatest danger, potentially resulting in a tsunami wave exceeding the 1:100-year extreme sea level at the Cornish peninsula by up to , but being within the range elsewhere. This conclusion is markedly different from the greater heights calculated by Bryant and Haslett as having been encountered in the Bristol Channel during the 1607 Bristol Channel floods.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Speaking before the Energy and Climate Change Select Committee on 15 March 2011, about the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, Energy and Climate Change Minister Chris Huhne expressed concern over extreme weather events in the UK, but stated that 'we are lucky that we do not have to suffer from tsunamis'.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The Civil Nuclear Constabulary is responsible for security at civil nuclear sites, within of site boundaries, and for nuclear materials in transit. The UK is involved in the Nuclear Security Summit series of world summits held since 2010. During 2016 the UK and the US staged a training exercise simulating a cyber-attack on a nuclear power station.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In the early 1990s, concern was raised in the United Kingdom about the effect of nuclear power plants on unborn children, when clusters of leukaemia cases were discovered nearby to some of these plants. The effect was speculative because clusters were also found where no nuclear plants were present, and not all plants had clusters around them. Detailed studies carried out by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment (COMARE) in 2003 found no evidence of raised childhood cancer around nuclear power plants, but did find an excess of leukaemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) near other nuclear installations including Sellafield, AWE Burghfield and UKAEA Dounreay. COMARE's opinion is that "the excesses around Sellafield and Dounreay are unlikely to be due to chance, although there is not at present a convincing explanation for them".


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: An opinion poll in Britain in 2002 by MORI on behalf of Greenpeace showed large support for wind power and a majority for putting an end to nuclear energy if the costs were the same. In November 2005, a YouGov poll conducted by business advisory firm Deloitte found that 36% of the UK population supported the use of nuclear power, though 62% would support an energy policy that combines nuclear along with renewable technologies. The same survey also revealed high public expectations for the future rate of renewables development – with 35% expecting the majority of electricity to come from renewables in only 15 years, which is more than double the government's expectation.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In the early 2000s, there was a heated discussion about nuclear waste, leading to the creation of the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (see above).


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: A large nationally representative 2010 British survey about energy issues found that public opinion is divided on the issue of nuclear power. The majority of people are concerned about nuclear power and public trust in the government and nuclear industry remains relatively low. The survey showed that there is a clear preference for renewable energy sources over nuclear power.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: According to a national opinion poll, support for nuclear power in the UK dropped by twelve percent following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster. However, support recovered within a few months.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In October 2011, more than 200 protesters blockaded the Hinkley Point C nuclear power station site. Members of several anti-nuclear groups that are part of the Stop New Nuclear alliance barred access to the site in protest at EDF Energy's plans to renew the site with two new reactors.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In January 2012, three hundred anti-nuclear protesters took to the streets of Llangefni, against plans to build a new nuclear power station at Wylfa. The march was organised by a number of organisations, including Pobl Atal Wylfa B, Greenpeace and Cymdeithas yr Iaith, which are supporting farmer Richard Jones who is in dispute with Horizon.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In July 2012, a YouGov poll reported that 63% of UK respondents agreed that nuclear generation should be part of the country's energy mix, up from 61% in 2010. Opposition fell to 11%.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In February 2013, a YouGov poll published in the "Sunday Times" found that nuclear was the most popular choice to provide for Britain's future energy needs.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In February 2013, a poll published by Ipsos MORI which queried 1046 British individuals determined that support for new nuclear generation capacity was at 42%, with the proportion opposed to new nuclear generation being reported as unchanged at 20%, close to the lowest recorded proportion, by the agency in 2010, of 19% opposed. The results also report that the proportion that was undecided or neutral had increased, and it stood at 38%.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2013, a survey by Harris Interactive of more than 2,000 UK respondents found that 'one in four people (24%) considered nuclear power to offer the greatest potential' alongside solar (23%) and ahead of wind power (18%). Immediately following the announcement of the agreement between EDF and the UK government, 35% considered it to be a positive step, 21% felt it was a negative development and 28% were indifferent.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: The Green Party programme postulates that "nuclear power, coal and incineration of waste will be phased out" (EN014), although this position is debated within the party, as a significant group of members called for review of the policy, which they consider anti-scientific and "irrational" and consider introduction of zero-emission nuclear power, along with renewable energy sources, to be a critical instrument for mitigation of climate change.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In a 2021 YouGov poll, 65% of those surveyed said nuclear power should play a role in the country's climate policy and 12% expressed strong anti-nuclear sentiment, while 46% were aware that nuclear power is a low-carbon energy source.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: Though the UK Government has recently given the go-ahead for a new generation of nuclear power stations to be built, the Scottish Government has made clear that no new nuclear power stations will be built in Scotland and is aiming instead for a non-nuclear future. This was made clear when First Minister Alex Salmond said there was 'no chance' of any new nuclear power stations being built in Scotland.


title: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

text: In 2008, the Scottish Government's stance was backed by the Scottish Parliament that voted 63–58 to support the Scottish Government's policy of opposing new nuclear power stations.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick-upon-Tweed (), sometimes known as Berwick-on-Tweed or simply Berwick, is a town and civil parish in Northumberland, England, south of the Anglo-Scottish border, and the northernmost town in England. The 2011 United Kingdom census recorded Berwick's population as 12,043.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: The town is at the mouth of the River Tweed on the east coast, south east of Edinburgh, north of Newcastle upon Tyne, and north of London. Uniquely for England, the town is slightly further north than Denmark's capital Copenhagen and the southern tip of Sweden further east of the North Sea, which Berwick borders.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick was founded as an Anglo-Saxon settlement in the Kingdom of Northumbria, which was annexed by England in the 10th century. A civil parish and town council were formed in 2008 comprising the communities of Berwick, Spittal and Tweedmouth. It is the northernmost civil parish in England.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: The area was for more than 400 years central to historic border wars between the Kingdoms of England and Scotland, and several times possession of Berwick changed hands between the two kingdoms. The last time it changed hands was when Richard of Gloucester retook it for England in 1482. To this day, many Berwickers feel a close affinity to Scotland. Both Berwick Rangers Football Club and Berwick Rugby Football Club play in Scottish leagues.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick remains a traditional market town and also has some notable architectural features, in particular its medieval town walls, its Georgian Town Hall, its Elizabethan ramparts, and Britain's earliest barracks buildings, which Nicholas Hawksmoor built (1717–1721) for the Board of Ordnance.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick's name is of the same origin as the archaic word "berewick", denoting a portion of farmland which was detached from a manor and reserved for a lord's own use. This comes from the Old English "berewíc", meaning "corn farm" (more specifically, "bere" refers to barley). There are a number of places in Britain with the same name; one such is North Berwick in Scotland, and Berwick-upon-Tweed has also been called "South Berwick" in Scottish sources. The medieval seal of the town showed a bear and a wych tree as a pun on the name.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In the post-Roman period, the area was inhabited by the Brythons of Bryneich. Later, the region became part of the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia. Bernicia later united with the kingdom of Deira to form Northumbria, which in the mid-10th century entered the Kingdom of England under Eadred.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick remained part of the Earldom of Northumbria until control passed to the Scots following the Battle of Carham of 1018. The town itself was founded as an Anglo-Saxon settlement during the time of the Kingdom of Northumbria.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Between the late 10th and early 11th centuries, the land between the rivers Forth and Tweed came under Scottish control, either through conquest by Scotland or through cession by England. Berwick was made a royal burgh by David I (reigned 1124–1153). David also established many of the shires of Scotland, with Berwick becoming the county town of Berwickshire, which covered the town and a largely rural area to the north-west of it. A mint was present in the town by 1153. In 1276, William de Baddeby was Constable of Berwick.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: While under Scottish control, Berwick was referred to as "South Berwick" in order to differentiate it from the town of North Berwick, East Lothian, near Edinburgh.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick had a mediaeval hospital for the sick and poor, which the Church administered. A charter under the Great Seal of Scotland, confirmed by King James I of Scotland, grants the king's chaplain "Thomas Lauder of the House of God or Hospital lying in the burgh of Berwick-upon-Tweed, to be held to him for the whole time of his life with all lands, teinds, rents and profits, etc., belonging to the said hospital, as freely as is granted to any other hospital in the Kingdom of Scotland; the king also commands all those concerned to pay to the grantee all things necessary for the support of the hospital. Dated at Edinburgh June 8, in the 20th year of his reign."


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick's strategic position on the Anglo-Scottish border during centuries of war between the two nations and its relatively great wealth led to a succession of raids, sieges and takeovers. William I of Scotland invaded and attempted to capture northern England in 1173–74. After his defeat in 1174, Berwick was ceded to Henry II of England under the Treaty of Falaise, along with four other castles at Edinburgh, Jedburgh, Roxburgh, and Stirling, with the five castles to be garrisoned with English troops paid for at Scottish expense. The Treaty of Falaise was annulled in 1189 when William paid Richard I of England 10,000 marks sterling to contribute towards the latter's crusade.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick had become a prosperous town by the middle of the 13th century. According to William Edington, a bishop and chancellor of England, Berwick was "so populous and of such commercial importance that it might rightly be called another Alexandria, whose riches were the sea and the water its walls".


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In 1291–92, Berwick was the site of Edward I of England's arbitration in the contest for the Scottish crown between John Balliol and Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale. The decision in favour of Balliol was pronounced in the Great Hall of Berwick Castle on 17 November 1292.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In 1296, England went to war with France, with which Scotland was in alliance. Balliol invaded England in response, sacking Cumberland. Edward in turn invaded Scotland and captured Berwick, destroying much of the town and massacring the burgesses, merchants and artisans of the town.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Edward I went again to Berwick in August 1296 to receive formal homage from some 2,000 Scottish nobles, after defeating the Scots at the Battle of Dunbar in April and forcing John Balliol to abdicate at Kincardine Castle the following July. At this time, work began on building the town walls (and rebuilding the earlier Castle); these fortifications were complete by 1318 and subsequently improved under Scottish rule. An arm of William Wallace was displayed at Berwick after his execution and quartering on 23 August 1305.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In 1314, Edward II of England mustered 25,000 men at Berwick, who later fought in the crushing defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn. Between 1315 and 1318, Scottish armies, sometimes with the help of Flemish and German privateers, besieged and blockaded the town, finally capturing it in April 1318.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: England retook Berwick the day after the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333. The Scottish briefly took control of the town of Berwick (but not its castle) after a siege in November 1355, but were in turn besieged by the English, who retook the town in January 1356. In October 1357, a treaty was signed at Berwick by which the Scottish estates undertook to pay 100,000 marks as a ransom for David II of Scotland, who had been taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346. In 1461, Berwick was ceded back to Scotland by Margaret of Anjou on behalf of her husband, Henry VI, in return for help against the Yorkists during the Wars of the Roses.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Robert Lauder of Edrington was put in charge of the castle. He was succeeded in 1474 by David, Earl of Crawford. On 3 February 1478, Robert Lauder of the Bass and Edrington was again appointed Keeper of the castle, a position that he held until the final year of Scottish control, when Patrick Hepburn, 1st Lord Hailes, had possession.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In 1482, Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later Richard III) recaptured the town. Thomas Gower () was the English marshal of Berwick 1543-1552. The Scots did not accept this conquest as is evidenced by innumerable charters for at least two centuries after this date. Over the course of a little more than 400 years, Berwick had changed hands more than a dozen times.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In 1551, the town was made a self-governing county corporate. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, vast sums – one source reports "£128,648, the most expensive undertaking of the Elizabethan period" – were spent on its fortifications, in a new Italian style ("trace italienne"), designed both to withstand artillery and to facilitate its use from within the fortifications. These fortifications have been described as "the only surviving walls of their kind". Sir Richard Lee designed some of the Elizabethan works, and the Italian military engineer Giovanni Portinari was also involved in the project.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick’s role as a border fortress town ended with England and Scotland's Union of the Crowns. On 6 April 1603, James VI of Scotland crossed the Border on his journey southwards to be crowned James I of England. He was met at Lamberton by the Lord Governor of Berwick with a mounted party from the garrison and was conducted into the town. In December 1603, the Crown ordered the dissolution of the garrison of Berwick and the number of soldiers was reduced to 100 men and pensioners.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In 1639, the army of Charles I faced that of General Alexander Leslie at Berwick in the Bishops' Wars, which were concerned with bringing the Presbyterian Church of Scotland under Charles's control. The two sides did not fight, but negotiated a settlement, the "Pacification of Berwick".


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick Bridge, also known as the "Old Bridge" dates to 1611. It linked Islandshire on the south bank of the River Tweed with the county burgh of Berwick on the north bank. Holy Trinity Church was built in 1648–52. It is the most northerly parish church in England and was built under special licence from Oliver Cromwell during the Commonwealth period.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In 1707, the Act of Union united England and Scotland to create Great Britain. Since then, Berwick has remained within the laws and legal system of England and Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act 1746 (since repealed) deemed that whenever legislation referred to England, it applied to Berwick without the need for a specific reference to the town.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In the 1840s, Samuel Lewis included similar entries for Berwick-upon-Tweed in both his England and Scotland "Topographical Dictionary". Berwick remained a county in its own right, and was not included in Northumberland for Parliamentary purposes until 1885. In the same year, the Redistribution of Seats Act reduced the number of Members of Parliament (MPs) returned by the town from two to one.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: England now is officially defined as "subject to any alteration of boundaries under Part IV of the Local Government Act 1972, the area consisting of the counties established by section 1 of that Act, Greater London and the Isles of Scilly", which thus includes Berwick. In the 1972 act's reorganisation of English local government from 1 April 1974, the Borough of Berwick-upon-Tweed was created by the merger of the previous borough of Berwick-upon-Tweed with Belford Rural District, Glendale Rural District and Norham and Islandshires Rural District.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: The Interpretation Act 1978 provides that in legislation passed between 1967 and 1974, "a reference to England includes Berwick upon Tweed and Monmouthshire".


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In 2009 the Borough of Berwick-upon-Tweed was abolished as part of wider structural changes to local government in England. All functions previously exercised by Berwick Borough Council were transferred to Northumberland County Council, which is the unitary authority for the area.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: During periods of Scottish administration, Berwick was the county town of Berwickshire, to which the town gave its name. Thus at various points in the Middle Ages and from 1482 (when Berwick became administered by England), Berwickshire had the unique distinction of being the only county in the British Isles to be named after a town in another country.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: The town of Berwick was a county corporate for most purposes from 1482 up until 1885, when it was fully incorporated into Northumberland. Between 1885 and 1974, Berwick (north of the Tweed) was a borough council in its own right. In 1958, the borough's council applied for a coat of arms, but applied to the Lord Lyon King of Arms, the Scottish heraldic authority, for the grant "as suitable to a Burgh of Scotland", which was duly granted.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: On 1 April 1974, the borough was merged with Belford Rural District, Glendale Rural District and Norham and Islandshires Rural District to form Berwick Borough Council.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Northumberland County Council became the unitary authority for the area when the Borough of Berwick-upon-Tweed was abolished on 1 April 2009.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: A new Berwick-upon-Tweed Town Council was created on 3 March 2008 covering Berwick-upon-Tweed, Tweedmouth, and Spittal. It has taken over the former Borough's mayoralty and regalia. The current Mayor is Cllr Mike Greener.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Slightly more than 60% of the population is employed in the service sector, including shops, hotels and catering, financial services and most government activity, including health care. Some current and recent Berwick economic activities include salmon fishing, shipbuilding, engineering, sawmilling, fertilizer production, malting and the manufacture of tweed and hosiery.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick town centre comprises the Mary Gate and High Street where many local shops and some retail chains exist. New office development has been built in the Walker Gate beside the library, which combined space with the Northumberland Adult Learning Centre and Tourism centre.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: There is a retail park in Tweedmouth consisting of a Homebase, Farm Foods, Marks and Spencer, Argos, Next, Carpetright, Currys PC World and Poundland. Berwick Borough Council refused a proposal from Asda in 2006 to build a store near the site, but in 2008 gave Tesco planning permission for its new store in the town, which opened on 13 September 2010. Asda went on to take over the Co-op shop unit in Tweedmouth in early 2010.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: A Morrisons supermarket with a petrol station, alongside a branch of McDonald's, a Travelodge UK and an Aldi all exist on Loaning Meadows close to the outskirts of the town near the current A1. The current Aldi outlet is confirmed to be moving its operations to a new location in the under-construction Loaning Meadows Retail Park which will also be host to KFC and Costa Coffee drive-throughs, A Food Warehouse wholesale store, Greggs and a Home Bargains supermarket. The retail park is located adjacent to the Morrisons store.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: The old A1 road passes through Berwick. The modern A1 goes around the town to the west. The town is on the East Coast Main Line railway and is served by Berwick-upon-Tweed railway station. A small seaport at Tweedmouth facilitates the import and export of goods but provides no passenger services. The port is protected by a long breakwater built in the 19th century, at the end of which is a red and white lighthouse. Completed in 1826, the tower emits a white light every five seconds from a window overlooking the sea. Seafarers' charity Apostleship of the Sea has a chaplain to support the needs of mariners arriving at the port.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Bus services are mostly operated by Borders Buses (part of West Coast Motors) and Arriva providing both local and longer links. The town is also served by National Express coaches.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick is famous for its hesitation over whether it is part of Scotland or England. Some people are adamant they are English and their loyalty lies with Northumberland, while others feel an affinity with Scotland. Whilst it has been argued that the town's geographic and historic place between the two has led to it developing a distinctive identity of its own, many people in Berwick also have mixed Anglo-Scottish families which contributes to a sense of separate identity. Historian Derek Sharman said "The people of Berwick feel really independent. You are a Berwicker first, Scottish or English second." Former mayor Mike Elliot said "25% of the town consider themselves English, 25% Scottish and 50% Berwickers." Professor Dominic Watt of the University of Aberdeen noted that: "Older people view themselves more as Scots than the younger people in Berwick, and this can be heard in their accents."


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: In 2008, SNP Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) Christine Grahame made calls in the Scottish Parliament for Berwick to become part of Scotland again. The Liberal Democrat MSP Jeremy Purvis, who was born and brought up in Berwick, asked for the border to be moved twenty miles south, stating: "There’s a strong feeling that Berwick should be in Scotland. Until recently, I had a gran in Berwick and another in Kelso, and they could see that there were better public services in Scotland." However, Alan Beith, the former MP for Berwick, said the move would require a massive legal upheaval and is not realistic. Beith's successor as MP, Anne-Marie Trevelyan, said: "Voters in Berwick-upon-Tweed do not believe it is whether they are in England or Scotland that is important."


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: The local speech of Berwick-upon-Tweed shares many characteristics with both other rural Northumberland dialects and East Central Scots. In 1892, linguist Richard Oliver Heslop divided the county of Northumberland into four dialect zones and placed the Berwick dialect in the "north-Northumbrian" region, an area extending from Berwick down to the River Coquet. Likewise, Charles Jones (1997) classes the dialect as "predominantly North-Northumbrian" with "a few features shared with Scots".


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Features of this dialect include the "Northumbrian burr", a distinct pronunciation of the letter R historically common to many dialects of North East England; and predominant non-rhoticity: older speakers tend to be slightly rhotic, while younger speakers are universally non-rhotic.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: A sociological study of the Anglo-Scottish border region conducted in 2000 found that locals of Alnwick, south of Berwick, associated the Berwick accent with Scottish influence. Conversely, those from Eyemouth, Scotland, north of Berwick, firmly classed Berwick speech as English, identifying it as "Northumbrian or Geordie".


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick Rangers Football Club were formed in the town in 1881. The club plays in the Scottish football league system. The home stadium of Berwick Rangers is Shielfield Park, and the club currently plays in the Lowland League, the fifth tier of the Scottish football league system. The town also has a rugby union side, Berwick RFC, who play in Scottish Rugby Union's East Regional League Division 1. Before 2016, the two teams were unique in being English teams that play in Scottish leagues.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: A newer team in the town Tweedmouth Rangers Football Club has played in the East of Scotland Football League since 2016. Before this, they were members of the North Northumberland League. Their home ground is Old Shielfield Park, which the club uses under an agreement with Berwick Rangers Football Club.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Speedway has taken place in Berwick in two separate eras. The sport was introduced to Shielfield Park in May 1968. A dispute between the speedway club and the stadium owners ended the first spell. The sport returned to Shielfield Park in the mid-1990s. The lack of a venue in the town saw the team move to a rural location called Berrington Lough. The team, known as the Bandits, have raced at all levels from First Division to Conference League (first to third levels).


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: There is an apocryphal story that Berwick is (or recently has been) officially at war with Russia. According to a story by George Hawthorne in "The Guardian" of 28 December 1966, the London correspondent of "Pravda" visited the Mayor of Berwick, Councillor Robert Knox, and the two made a mutual declaration of peace. Knox said, "Please tell the Russian people through your newspaper that they can sleep peacefully in their beds." The same story, cited to the Associated Press, appeared in "The Baltimore Sun" of 17 December 1966; "The Washington Post" of 18 December 1966; and "The Christian Science Monitor" of 22 December 1966. At some point in time, the real events seem to have been turned into a story of a "Soviet official" having signed a "peace treaty" with Mayor Knox; Knox's remark to the "Pravda" correspondent was preserved in this version.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: The basis for such status was the claim that Berwick had changed hands several times, was traditionally regarded as a special, separate entity, and some proclamations referred to "England, Scotland and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed". One such was the declaration of the Crimean War against Russia in 1853, which Queen Victoria supposedly signed as "Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, Ireland, Berwick-upon-Tweed and all British Dominions". When the Treaty of Paris was signed to conclude the war, "Berwick-upon-Tweed" was left out. This meant that, supposedly, one of Britain's smallest towns was officially at war with one of the world's largest powers – and the conflict extended by the lack of a peace treaty for over a century. In reality, Berwick-upon-Tweed was not mentioned in either the declaration of war or the final peace treaty and was legally part of the United Kingdom for both.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: As with the rest of Northumberland, schools in Berwick use the three-tier system. Pupils may also commute across the Scottish border to Eyemouth or Berwickshire to attend secondary school.


title: Berwick-upon-Tweed

text: Berwick-upon-Tweed has a maritime climate with narrow temperature differences between seasons. Because of its far northern position in England coupled with considerable North Sea influence, the area has very cool summers for an English location, with a subdued July (1981–2010) high of , more resembling a Scottish climate. January, in turn, has a high of with a low of with occasional frosts averaging 38.1 times per annum. Rainfall is relatively low by British standards, with on average; nonetheless, sunshine is limited to an average of 1508.5 hours per annum. All data are sourced from the Berwick-upon-Tweed station operated by the Met Office.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: In Marxist philosophy, cultural hegemony is the dominance of a culturally diverse society by the ruling class who manipulate the culture of that society—the beliefs and explanations, perceptions, values, and mores—so that the worldview of the ruling class becomes the accepted cultural norm. As the universal dominant ideology, the ruling-class worldview misrepresents the social, political, and economic "status quo" as natural, inevitable, and perpetual social conditions that benefit every social class, rather than as artificial social constructs that benefit only the ruling class.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: In philosophy and in sociology, the denotations and the connotations of term "cultural hegemony" derive from the Ancient Greek word "hegemonia" (ἡγεμονία), which indicates the leadership and the régime of the hegemon. In political science, hegemony is the geopolitical dominance exercised by an empire, the "hegemon" (leader state) that rules the subordinate states of the empire by the threat of intervention, an implied means of power, rather than by threat of direct rule—military invasion, occupation, and territorial annexation.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: In 1848, Karl Marx proposed that the economic recessions and practical contradictions of a capitalist economy would provoke the working class to proletarian revolution, depose capitalism, restructure social institutions (economic, political, social) per the rational models of socialism, and thus begin the transition to a communist society. Therefore, the dialectical changes to the functioning of the economy of a society determine its social superstructures (culture and politics).


title: Cultural hegemony

text: To that end, Antonio Gramsci proposed a "strategic distinction" between the politics for a War of Position and for a War of Manœuvre. The war of position is an intellectual and cultural struggle wherein the anti-capitalist revolutionary creates a proletarian culture whose native value system counters the cultural hegemony of the bourgeoisie. The proletarian culture will increase class consciousness, teach revolutionary theory and historical analysis, and thus further develop revolutionary organisation among the social classes. After winning the war of position, socialist leaders would then have the necessary political power and popular support to realise the war of manœuvre, the political praxis of revolutionary socialism.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: As Marxist philosophy, cultural hegemony analyses the functions of economic class within the base and superstructure, from which Gramsci developed the functions of social class within the social structures created for and by cultural domination. In the practise of imperialism, cultural hegemony occurs when the working and the peasant classes believe and accept that the prevailing cultural norms of a society (the dominant ideology imposed by the ruling class) realistically describes the natural order of things in society.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: In the war for position, the working-class intelligentsia politically educate the working classes to perceive that the "prevailing cultural norms" are not natural and inevitable social conditions, and to recognize that the social constructs of bourgeois culture function as instruments of socio-economic domination, e.g. the institutions (state, church, and social strata), the conventions (custom and tradition), and beliefs (religions and ideologies), etc. That to realise their own working-class culture the workers and the peasants, by way of their own intellectuals, must perform the necessary analyses of their culture and national history in order for the proletariat to transcend the old ways of thinking about the order of things in a society under the cultural hegemony of an imperial power.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: Cultural hegemony is neither a monolithic intellectual praxis (politics and policies), nor a unified system of values (ideology), but a complex of social relations produced by the social stratification of the individual social structures of a society; the social class system and the social strata of each class. Social cohesion arises from each social and economic class having a specific societal purpose, and each class has an in-group subculture that allows social behaviours particular to and different from the behaviours of other social classes; the social structures establish and demarcate the cohesive social order. Consequent to their assigned socio-economic purposes, the social classes will intellectually coalesce into a society with a greater sense of national purpose, determined in the dominant ideology of the ruling class.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: Gramsci said that cultural and historical analyses of the "natural order of things in society" established by the dominant ideology, would allow common-sense men and women to intellectually perceive the social structures of bourgeois cultural hegemony. In each sphere of life (private and public) common sense is the intellectualism with which people cope with and explain their daily life within their social stratum within the greater social order; yet the limits of common sense inhibit a person's intellectual perception of the exploitation of labour made possible with cultural hegemony. Given the difficulty in perceiving the "status quo" hierarchy of bourgeois culture (social and economic classes), most people concern themselves with private matters, and so do not question the fundamental sources of their socio-economic oppression, individual and collective.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: To perceive and combat ruling-class cultural hegemony, the working class and the peasant class depend upon the moral and political leadership of their native intelligentsia, the scholars, academics, and teachers, scientists, philosophers, administrators "et al." from their specific social classes; thus Gramsci's political distinction between the intellectuals of the bourgeoisie and the intellectuals of the working class, respectively, the men and women who are the proponents and the opponents of the cultural "status quo":


title: Cultural hegemony

text: In 1967, regarding the politics and society of West Germany, the leader of the German Student Movement, Rudi Dutschke, applied Gramsci's analyses of cultural hegemony using the phrase the “Long March through the Institutions” to describe the ideological work necessary to realise the war of position. The allusion to the Long March (1934–35) of the Chinese People's Liberation Army indicates the great work required of the working-class intelligentsia to produce the working-class popular culture with which to replace the dominant ideology imposed by the cultural hegemony of the bourgeoisie.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: In Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1970), Louis Althusser describes the complex of social relationships among the different organs of the State that transmit and disseminate the dominant ideology to the populations of a society. The ideological state apparatuses (ISA) are the sites of ideological conflict among the social classes of a society; and, unlike the military and police forces, the repressive state apparatuses (RSA), the ISA exist as a plurality throughout society.


title: Cultural hegemony

text: Despite the ruling-class control of the RSA, the ideological apparatuses of the state are both the sites and the stakes (the objects) of class struggle, because the ISA are not monolithic social entities, and exist amongst society. As the public and the private sites of continual class struggle, the ideological apparatuses of the state (ISA) are overdetermined zones of society that are composed of elements of the dominant ideologies of previous modes of production, hence the continual political activity in:


title: Cultural hegemony

text: The parliamentary structures of the State, by which elected politicians exercise "the will of the people" also are an ideological apparatus of the State, given the State's control of which populations are allowed to participate as political parties. In itself, the political system is an ideological apparatus, because citizens' participation involves intellectually accepting the ideological "fiction, corresponding to a 'certain' reality, that the component parts of the [political] system, as well as the principle of its functioning, are based on the ideology of the 'freedom' and 'equality' of the individual voters and the 'free choice' of the people's representatives, by the individuals that 'make up' the people".