title: Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts

text: TV Guide called "Kipo" a "wildly imaginative story" with diverse characters. Petrana Radulovic of "Polygon" said that Kipo is like Steven Universe, the protagonist of the series of the same name, in that she wants peace, wanting everyone to "set aside their differences and talk through their problems" and called it a "celebration of differences." Shannon Miller of "The A.V. Club" said that it better to think of the series akin to a "lengthy film split into three hearty acts." Beth Elderkin of "Gizmodo" called the relationship between Benson and Troy "perfect." Shamus Kelley of Den of Geek praised the "charmingly cute romance" between Benson and Troy and said they were delighted both were still "together in the five-year time skip." GLAAD praised the series as being "LGBTQ-inclusive" and said that Benson's story "reflected the full diversity of the community."


title: Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts

text: In June 2020, Bill Wolkoff, co-screenwriter of "Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts", said that they were lucky and glad the studio empowered this, wanting to have a "young, 16-ish year old kid" who was gay and was not ashamed of it. He also said he hoped for a season 3, but couldn't confirm it would happen. Adding to this, Shannon Miller wrote a review praising the show, specifically calling Benson the "joyful culmination of a long battle for intentional queer representation in Westernized youth animation," which has made progress from 2010 to 2020, while noting shows like "Steven Universe", "Adventure Time", and "She-Ra and the Princesses of Power" paved the way for Kipo. Miller further noted how ND Stevenson and Rebecca Sugar "faced immense challenges while dealing with merely the visual component of queerness."


title: Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts

text: In October 2020, "The A.V. Club" published an interview with Rad Sechrist and Bill Wolkoff of "Kipo". In the interview, Wolkoff said that they did not face roadblocks in presenting Benson and Troy, crediting creators like ND Stevenson, Rebecca Sugar, and others for fighting "difficult battles before Kipo came along." He also noted how he fought for gay representation in the show, "Once Upon A Time", saying they treated it "like a coming-of-age story," and said he is glad that the Season 1 episode "Ratland" meant a lot to young gay people, especially young Black people. Sechrist added that when they sold the show to DreamWorks, Peter Gal, then the head of development, stated that the character has to say "I'm gay" in an explicit way.


title: Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts

text: The same month, Karen Fukuhara, the voice of Glimmer in "She-Ra" and Kipo in "Kipo", said that it would be cool if She-Ra moved into "feature-length storytelling," with a movie focused on Bow and how he grew up with Glimmer. She also hinted that a crossover between She-Ra and Kipo could happen because although they are stories on different worlds, they could cross paths if the She-Ra crew came to Earth, helping Kipo defeat a "greater evil," leading them to band together and fight.


title: Rihanna albums discography

text: Barbadian singer Rihanna has released eight studio albums, two remix albums, one reissue, seven box sets and three extended plays. Since the beginning of her career in 2005, Rihanna has sold 60 million album units and 215 million digital tracks worldwide, making her one of the best-selling artists of all time. All of her albums have been certified platinum and multi-platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and have totalled sales of over 10 million copies in the country.


title: Rihanna albums discography

text: Rihanna released her debut studio album, "Music of the Sun" in August 2005. It reached the top ten on the Canadian Albums and the US "Billboard" 200 charts; it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and sold over 623,000 copies in the country. As of 2015, "Music of the Sun" had sold over two million copies worldwide. The next year, she released her second studio album, "A Girl like Me" (2006). It topped the albums chart in Canada and reached number five on both the UK Albums and the US "Billboard" 200 charts. It was certified two-times platinum by Music Canada (MC), the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), and RIAA; it sold over four million copies worldwide. "Good Girl Gone Bad" (2007), Rihanna's third studio album, peaked at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 chart and was certified five-times platinum by RIAA in the United States and six-times Platinum by BPI in the United Kingdom. The next year, it was reissued under the title "" (2008) with several new songs. It had sold over nine million copies worldwide, as of 2017.


title: Rihanna albums discography

text: Rihanna's fourth studio album, "Rated R" (2009), peaked at number one on the Swiss Albums Chart and sold over three million copies worldwide. It was also certified two-times platinum by both BPI and RIAA. Rihanna's fifth studio album "Loud" was released in November 2010. "Loud" peaked at number one on the UK Albums Chart and was certified six-times platinum by the BPI. The album was also certified three-times platinum in the United States and had sold over eight million copies worldwide. The next year, she released her sixth studio album, "Talk That Talk" (2011). It became Rihanna's third number one record in the United Kingdom and sold over one million copies in the country. It was also certified three-times platinum by the RIAA and sold over 5.5 million copies worldwide. Rihanna's seventh studio album, "Unapologetic" (2012) became Rihanna's first record to top the "Billboard" 200 chart and received a three-times platinum certification by RIAA. It also peaked at number one on the album charts in Canada, Ireland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom; it had sold over four million copies worldwide. She released her eighth album, "Anti" in 2016; it peaked at number one in Canada and the United States and was certified three-times platinum by the RIAA.


title: Leven Rambin

text: Leven Rambin is an American actress. She is known for playing look-alike half-sisters Lily Montgomery and Ava Benton on "All My Children", and for her recurring roles on "Grey's Anatomy" and "Gone", as well as "", "One Tree Hill", "Wizards of Waverly Place", and "". She appeared in the sci-fi film "The Hunger Games" (2012) as the District 1 tribute Glimmer, and appeared as Clarisse La Rue in the fantasy film "" (2013).


title: Leven Rambin

text: Rambin was born in Houston, Texas, to Howard and Karen Rambin, founders of a real estate company. While acting, she has also pursued her high school diploma through the Texas Tech University Independent School District.


title: Leven Rambin

text: Rambin started her career at age of 13, as a series regular on ABC's "All My Children" from 2004 to 2008, playing the role of Lily Montgomery, the autistic daughter of Jackson Montgomery, played by Walt Willey. It was announced that Rambin had been cast in another role on "All My Children", playing the street-smart but lovable older half sister of Lily Montgomery, Ava Benton, where the role only lasted for two consecutive years. Rambin was the only actress from "All My Children" to be nominated for the 33rd Annual Daytime Awards and 34th Annual Daytime Emmy Awards. She was nominated for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series for her roles of Lily Montgomery and Ava Benton. She later appeared on an episode of "".


title: Leven Rambin

text: Rambin appeared on NBC's new series, "Lipstick Jungle". Leven filmed a pilot presentation for the CW titled "Austin Golden Hour", directed by Sanford Bookstaver. Leven made her feature film debut in Killer Film's independent picture, "Gigantic" (2008). The film starred Paul Dano. Rambin joined the cast of "", playing the character Riley Dawson, a school friend and love interest of John Connor. Rambin left the show after filming her last episode "Ourselves Alone".. Rambin landed a recurring role as Sloan Riley, the 18-year-old-daughter of Dr. Mark Sloan on the medical-drama, "Grey's Anatomy". Rambin briefly returned to "All My Children" as Lily Montgomery on January 5, 2010 for the show's 40th Anniversary.


title: Leven Rambin

text: In 2010, Rambin appeared as the daughter of Virginia Madsen's and David James Elliott's characters on the ABC television series, "Scoundrels". However, the series ended its eight-episode run on August 15, 2010, due to low ratings. Rambin appeared on the Disney Channel show, "Wizards of Waverly Place", in the recurring role of Rosie, who is a Guardian Angel turned Angel of Darkness who was in love with Justin to steal the Moral Compass; Rambin made her debut on the episode "Everything Rosie for Justin" and left the show after the episode "Wizards vs. Angels". Later, Rambin was cast in the recurring role of Chloe Hall, on the long-running CW series, "One Tree Hill". Then later, Rambin was cast as Molly Sloan on the CBS crime-drama "".


title: Leven Rambin

text: It was announced that Lionsgate and director Gary Ross cast Rambin in her first major studio film, in the role of Glimmer, the cut-throat District 1 Tribute in the first film adaption (2012) of the popular book series called "The Hunger Games" by Suzanne Collins. In an interview with "Seventeen", Rambin explained how she trained for the role, "I did a lot of sword training, which was really challenging. I also did a lot of boxing training and hand-to-hand combat. I just had to get in the mindset of someone who would want to do that every day! It was cool because I pushed myself physically and mentally. I couldn’t be vain about being sweating and smelling gross or worry about taking a hit or two.". After the film's success, Rambin and the cast of "The Hunger Games" went on a "The Hunger Games Convention Tour" and also appeared in "The World Is Watching: Making the Hunger Games".


title: Leven Rambin

text: Further film roles include "Chasing Mavericks" (2012), which is based on a real-life story about a surfer called Jay Moriarty. In the film, Rambin played the lead love interest, Kim Moriarty. Rambin later starred in the music video for Green Day's "Stray Heart" which was officially released on November 7, 2012.


title: Leven Rambin

text: Rambin had a lead role in the fantasy film "" (2013), playing Clarisse La Rue, a hot-tempered, arrogant, large, and strong demigod (also the lead counselor of the Ares Cabin 5) and Percy's rival throughout the story. In an interview with "comingsoon.net", Rambin explained her casting and her time as a brunette, "Yeah, I was really lucky that Thor was able to see me as a brunette with this blonde hair. That's not typically the first thing that comes to mind when you look at me, I don't think. But when I put on that wig – luckily they didn't dye my hair – and change my physicality a lot... Nothing against brunettes – I still felt beautiful. But I felt a lot less inhibited, and I felt down to be a little more brash and powerful and strong. I kind of hid behind all this brown hair, and it gave me the power and confidence to verbally rip this one over here. [Laughs.]" Her portrayal as Clarisse was met with mostly positive reviews. In 2013, Rambin moved to New York City to study acting full-time at the Playhouse West Brooklyn Lab and is now a teacher and staff member at the school.


title: Leven Rambin

text: Rambin was cast as Daisy in the romantic comedy "Two Night Stand" (2014). Rambin appeared in the comedy drama, "Walter" (2014) as Kendall, the main love interest of the title character. Rambin also appeared in "Seven Minutes" (2014) as Kate. She was cast as Natalie in "The Tomorrow People", appearing in the final three episodes of the television series in 2014. Rambin later appeared in "True Detective" as Athena Bezzerides and appeared in the film "I Am Michael" in 2015 as Catherine. In 2014, she landed the lead role of Kayla Canyon in the independently produced pilot, Dr. Del, opposite John Hawkes. Later that year, she was cast in the lead role of Fern Sreaves in "Tatterdemalion", an independent film co-written and directed by Ramaa Moseley. In 2016, she was cast in a series regular role on the Hulu cult drama, "The Path", opposite Aaron Paul and Michelle Monaghan. In 2017, Rambin was cast in the starring role of Kick Lanigan in the NBC Universal series, "Gone", based on the novel "One Kick" by Chelsea Cain.


title: Leven Rambin

text: Rambin was previously engaged to producer Geoffrey James Clark. She began dating "True Blood" actor Jim Parrack in the second quarter of 2014. The couple became engaged in August 2014. and married October 10, 2015. In March 2017, it was announced that the couple had split after less than two years of marriage. Rambin filed and was granted an annulment, and the marriage was dissolved. Rambin has since referred to her relationship with Parrack as "abusive", later revealing that he had cheated on her.


title: Leven Rambin

text: Rambin is a fashion enthusiast and has written several editorials on New York Fashion Week for "Paper Magazine" and "Page Six". Rambin is very passionate about autism research and awareness as well as the humane treatment of animals. Rambin is also involved with "Surf for Life", an organization that creates educational and cultural development projects in coastal communities around the world.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland or Cromwellian war in Ireland (1649–1653) was the re-conquest of Ireland by the forces of the English Parliament, led by Oliver Cromwell, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Cromwell invaded Ireland with the New Model Army on behalf of England's Rump Parliament in August 1649.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Following the Irish Rebellion of 1641, most of Ireland came under the control of the Irish Catholic Confederation. In early 1649, the Confederates allied with the English Royalists, who had been defeated by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. By May 1652, Cromwell's Parliamentarian army had defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, ending the Irish Confederate Wars (or Eleven Years' War). However, guerrilla warfare continued for a further year. Cromwell passed a series of Penal Laws against Roman Catholics (the vast majority of the population) and confiscated large amounts of their land. As punishment for the rebellion of 1641, almost all lands owned by Irish Catholics were confiscated and given to British settlers. The remaining Catholic landowners were transplanted to Connacht. The Act of Settlement 1652 formalised the change in land ownership. Catholics were barred from the Irish Parliament altogether, forbidden to live in towns and from marrying Protestants.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The Parliamentarian conquest was brutal, and Cromwell remains a deeply reviled figure in Ireland. The extent to which Cromwell, who was in direct command for the first year of the campaign, was responsible for the atrocities is debated to this day. Some historians have argued that the actions of Cromwell were within what many empires at the time viewed as accepted rules of war, while others disagree.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The impact of the war on the Irish population was unquestionably severe and although there is no consensus as to the magnitude of the loss of life, most modern estimates generally fall in between 15 and 50% of the native population. The war resulted in famine, which was worsened by an outbreak of bubonic plague. Older estimates of the drop in the Irish population resulting from the Parliamentarian campaign reach as high as 83 percent. The Parliamentarians also transported about 50,000 people as indentured labourers to the English colonies in North America and Caribbean. Some estimates cover population losses over the course of the Conquest Period (1649–52) only, while others cover the period of the Conquest to 1653 and the period of the Cromwellian Settlement from August 1652 to 1659 together.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The English Rump Parliament, victorious in the English Civil War, and having executed King Charles in January 1649, had several reasons for sending the New Model Army to Ireland in 1649.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The first and most pressing reason was an alliance signed in 1649 between the Irish Confederate Catholics, Charles II, proclaimed King of Ireland in January 1649, and the English Royalists. This allowed for Royalist troops to be sent to Ireland and put the Irish Confederate Catholic troops under the command of Royalist officers led by James Butler, Earl of Ormonde. Their aim was to invade England and restore the monarchy there. This was a threat which the new English Commonwealth could not afford to ignore.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Secondly, Parliament also had a longstanding commitment to re-conquer Ireland dating back to the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Even if the Irish Confederates had not allied themselves with the Royalists, it is likely that the English Parliament would have eventually tried to invade the country to crush Catholic power there. They had sent Parliamentary forces to Ireland throughout the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (most of them under Michael Jones in 1647). They viewed Ireland as part of the territory governed by right by the Kingdom of England and only temporarily out of its control since the Rebellion of 1641. Many Parliamentarians wished to punish the Irish for atrocities against the mainly Scottish Protestant settlers during the 1641 Uprising. Furthermore, some Irish towns (notably Wexford and Waterford) had acted as bases from which privateers had attacked English shipping throughout the 1640s.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: In addition, the English Parliament had a financial imperative to invade Ireland to confiscate land there in order to repay its creditors. The Parliament had raised loans of £10 million under the Adventurers Act to subdue Ireland since 1642, on the basis that its creditors would be repaid with land confiscated from Irish Catholic rebels. To repay these loans, it would be necessary to conquer Ireland and confiscate such land. The Parliamentarians also had internal political reasons to send forces to Ireland. Army mutinies at Banbury and Bishopsgate in April and May 1649 were unsettling the New Model Army, and the soldiers' demands would probably increase if they were left idle.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Finally, for some Parliamentarians, the war in Ireland was a religious war. Cromwell and much of his army were Puritans who considered all Roman Catholics to be heretics, and so for them the conquest was partly a crusade. The Irish Confederates had been supplied with arms and money by the Papacy and had welcomed the papal legate Pierfrancesco Scarampi and later the Papal Nuncio Giovanni Battista Rinuccini in 1643–49.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: By the end of the period, known as Confederate Ireland, in 1649 the only remaining Parliamentarian outpost in Ireland was in Dublin, under the command of Colonel Jones. A combined Royalist and Confederate force under the Marquess of Ormonde gathered at Rathmines, south of Dublin, to take the city and deprive the Parliamentarians of a port in which they could land. Jones, however, launched a surprise attack on the Royalists while they were deploying on 2 August, putting them to flight. Jones claimed to have killed around 4,000 Royalist or Confederate soldiers and taken 2,517 prisoners.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Oliver Cromwell called the battle "an astonishing mercy, so great and seasonable that we are like them that dreamed", as it meant that he had a secure port at which he could land his army in Ireland, and that he retained the capital city. With Admiral Robert Blake blockading the remaining Royalist fleet under Prince Rupert of the Rhine in Kinsale, Cromwell landed on 15 August with thirty-five ships filled with troops and equipment. Henry Ireton landed two days later with a further seventy-seven ships.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Ormonde's troops retreated from around Dublin in disarray. They were badly demoralised by their unexpected defeat at Rathmines and were incapable of fighting another pitched battle in the short term. As a result, Ormonde hoped to hold the walled towns on Ireland's east coast to hold up the Cromwellian advance until the winter, when he hoped that "Colonel Hunger and Major Sickness" (i.e. hunger and disease) would deplete their ranks.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Upon landing, Cromwell proceeded to take the other port cities on Ireland's east coast, to facilitate the efficient landing of supplies and reinforcements from England. The first town to fall was Drogheda, about 50 km north of Dublin. Drogheda was garrisoned by a regiment of 3,000 English Royalist and Irish Confederate soldiers, commanded by Arthur Aston. After a week-long siege, Cromwell's forces breached the walls protecting the town. Aston refused Cromwell's request that he surrender. In the ensuing battle for the town, Cromwell ordered that no quarter be given, and the majority of the garrison and Catholic priests were killed. Many civilians also died in the sack. Aston was beaten to death by the Roundheads with his own wooden leg.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The massacre of the garrison in Drogheda, including some after they had surrendered and some who had sheltered in a church, was received with horror in Ireland and is used today as an example of Cromwell's extreme cruelty.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Having taken Drogheda, Cromwell took most of his army south to secure the southeastern ports. He sent a detachment of 5,000 men north under Robert Venables to take eastern Ulster from the remnants of a Scottish Covenanter army that had landed there in 1642. They defeated the Scots at the Battle of Lisnagarvey (6 December 1649) and linked up with a Parliamentarian army composed of English settlers based around Derry in western Ulster, which was commanded by Charles Coote.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The New Model Army then marched south to secure the ports of Wexford, Waterford and Duncannon. Wexford was the scene of another infamous atrocity: the Sack of Wexford, when Parliamentarian troops broke into the town while negotiations for its surrender were ongoing, and sacked it, killing about 2,000 soldiers and 1,500 townspeople and burning much of the town. Cromwell's responsibility for the sack of Wexford is disputed. He did not order the attack on the town, and had been in the process of negotiating its surrender when his troops broke into the town. On the other hand, his critics point out that he made little effort to restrain his troops or to punish them afterwards for their conduct.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Arguably, the sack of Wexford was somewhat counter-productive for the Parliamentarians. The destruction of the town meant that the Parliamentarians could not use its port as a base for supplying their forces in Ireland. Secondly, the effects of the severe measures adopted at Drogheda and at Wexford were mixed. To some degree they may have been intended to discourage further resistance. The Gaelic Irish majority saw such towns as culturally English; seeing the Anglo-Irish being punished so harshly, the rural Gaelic Irish might expect even worse unless they complied with the invaders.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The Royalist commander Ormonde thought that the terror of Cromwell's army had a paralysing effect on his forces. Towns like New Ross and Carlow subsequently surrendered on terms when besieged by Cromwell's forces. On the other hand, the massacres of the defenders of Drogheda and Wexford prolonged resistance elsewhere, as they convinced many Irish Catholics that they would be killed even if they surrendered.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Such towns as Waterford, Duncannon, Clonmel, Limerick and Galway only surrendered after determined resistance. Cromwell was unable to take Waterford or Duncannon and the New Model Army had to retire to winter quarters, where many of its men died of disease, especially typhoid and dysentery. The port city of Waterford and Duncannon town eventually surrendered after prolonged sieges in 1650.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The following spring, Cromwell mopped up the remaining walled towns in Ireland's southeast—notably the Confederate capital of Kilkenny, which surrendered on terms: see Siege of Kilkenny. The New Model Army met its only serious reverse in Ireland at the Siege of Clonmel, where its attacks on the town's defences were repulsed at a cost of up to 2,000 men. The town nevertheless surrendered the following day.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Cromwell's treatment of Kilkenny and Clonmel is in contrast to that of Drogheda and Wexford. Despite the fact that his troops had suffered heavy casualties attacking the former two, Cromwell respected surrender terms which guaranteed the lives and property of the townspeople and the evacuation of armed Irish troops who were defending them. The change in attitude on the part of the Parliamentarian commander may have been a recognition that excessive cruelty was prolonging Irish resistance. However, in the case of Drogheda and Wexford no surrender agreement had been negotiated, and by the rules of continental siege warfare prevalent in the mid-17th century, this meant no quarter would be given; thus it can be argued that Cromwell's attitude had not changed.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Ormonde's Royalists still held most of Munster, but were outflanked by a mutiny of their own garrison in Cork. The British Protestant troops there had been fighting for the Parliament up to 1648 and resented fighting with the Confederates. Their mutiny handed Cork and most of Munster to Cromwell and they defeated the local Irish garrison at the Battle of Macroom. The Irish and Royalist forces retreated behind the River Shannon into Connacht or (in the case of the remaining Munster forces) into the fastness of County Kerry.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: In May 1650, Charles II repudiated his father's (Charles I's) alliance with the Irish Confederates in preference for an alliance with the Scottish Covenanters (see Treaty of Breda). This totally undermined Ormonde's position as head of a Royalist coalition in Ireland. Cromwell published generous surrender terms for Protestant Royalists in Ireland and many of them either capitulated or went over to the Parliamentarian side.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: This left in the field only the remaining Irish Catholic armies and a few diehard English Royalists. From this point onwards, many Irish Catholics, including their bishops and clergy, questioned why they should accept Ormonde's leadership when his master, the King, had repudiated his alliance with them. Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 to fight the Third English Civil War against the new Scottish–Royalist alliance. He passed his command onto Henry Ireton.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The most formidable force left to the Irish and Royalists was the 6,000 strong army of Ulster, formerly commanded by Owen Roe O'Neill, who died in 1649. However the army was now commanded by an inexperienced Catholic bishop named Heber MacMahon. The Ulster Army met a Parliamentarian army, composed mainly of British settlers and commanded by Charles Coote, at the Battle of Scarrifholis in County Donegal in June 1650. The Ulster army was routed and as many as 2,000 of its men were killed. In addition, MacMahon and most of the Ulster Army's officers were either killed at the battle or captured and executed after it. This eliminated the last strong field army opposing the Parliamentarians in Ireland and secured for them the northern province of Ulster. Coote's army, despite suffering heavy losses at the Siege of Charlemont, the last Catholic stronghold in the north, was now free to march south and invade the west coast of Ireland.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The Parliamentarians crossed the River Shannon into the western province of Connacht in October 1650. An Irish army under Clanricarde had attempted to stop them but this was surprised and routed at the Battle of Meelick Island. Ormonde was discredited by the constant stream of defeats for the Irish and Royalist forces and no longer had the confidence of the men he commanded, particularly the Irish Confederates. He fled for France in December 1650 and was replaced by an Irish nobleman Ulick Burke of Clanricarde as commander. The Irish and Royalist forces were penned into the area west of the River Shannon and placed their last hope on defending the strongly walled cities of Limerick and Galway on Ireland's west coast. These cities had built extensive modern defences and could not be taken by a straightforward assault as at Drogheda or Wexford. Ireton besieged Limerick while Charles Coote surrounded Galway, but they were unable to take the strongly fortified cities and instead blockaded them until a combination of hunger and disease forced them to surrender. An Irish force from Kerry attempted to relieve Limerick from the south, but was intercepted and routed at the Battle of Knocknaclashy. Limerick fell in 1651 and Galway the following year. Disease however killed indiscriminately and Ireton, along with thousands of Parliamentarian troops, died of plague outside Limerick in 1651.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The fall of Galway saw the end of organised resistance to the Cromwellian conquest, but fighting continued as small units of Irish troops launched guerrilla attacks on the Parliamentarians.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The guerrilla phase of the war had been going since late 1650 and at the end of 1651, despite the defeat of the main Irish or Royalist forces, there were still estimated to be 30,000 men in arms against the Parliamentarians. Tories (from the Irish word "tóraí" meaning "pursuer" or "outlaw") operated from difficult terrain such as the Bog of Allen, the Wicklow Mountains and the drumlin country in the north midlands, and within months made the countryside extremely dangerous for all except large parties of Parliamentarian troops. Ireton mounted a punitive expedition to the Wicklow mountains in 1650 to try to put down the tories there, but without success.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: By early 1651, it was reported that no English supply convoys were safe if they travelled more than two miles outside a military base. In response, the Parliamentarians destroyed food supplies and forcibly evicted civilians who were thought to be helping the Tories. John Hewson systematically destroyed food stocks in counties Wicklow and County Kildare, Hardress Waller did likewise in the Burren in County Clare, as did Colonel Cook in County Wexford. The result was famine throughout much of Ireland, aggravated by an outbreak of bubonic plague. As the guerrilla war ground on, the Parliamentarians, as of April 1651, designated areas such as County Wicklow and much of the south of the country as what would now be called free-fire zones, where anyone found would be, "taken slain and destroyed as enemies and their cattle and good shall be taken or spoiled as the goods of enemies". This tactic had succeeded in the Nine Years' War.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: This phase of the war was by far the most costly in terms of civilian loss of life. The combination of warfare, famine and plague caused a huge mortality among the Irish population. William Petty estimated (in the 1655–56 Down Survey) that the death toll of the wars in Ireland since 1641 was over 618,000 people, or about 40% of the country's pre-war population. Of these, he estimated that over 400,000 were Catholics, 167,000 killed directly by war or famine, and the remainder by war-related disease. Modern estimates put the toll at closer to 20%.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: In addition, some fifty thousand Irish people, including prisoners of war, were sold as indentured servants under the English Commonwealth regime. They were often sent to the English colonies in North America and the Caribbean where they subsequently comprised a substantial portion of certain Caribbean colony populations in the late 17th century. In Barbados, some of their descendants are known as Redlegs.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Eventually, the guerrilla war was ended when the Parliamentarians published surrender terms in 1652 allowing Irish troops to go abroad to serve in foreign armies not at war with the Commonwealth of England. Most went to France or Spain. The largest Irish guerrilla forces under John Fitzpatrick (in Leinster, Edmund O'Dwyer (in Munster) and Edmund Daly (in Connacht) surrendered in 1652, under terms signed at Kilkenny in May of that year. However, up to 11,000 men, mostly in Ulster, were still thought to be in the field at the end of the year. The last Irish and Royalist forces (the remnants of the Confederate's Ulster Army, led by Philip O'Reilly) formally surrendered at Cloughoughter in County Cavan on 27 April 1653. However, low-level guerrilla warfare continued for the remainder of the decade and was accompanied by widespread lawlessness. Undoubtedly some of the tories were simple brigands, whereas others were politically motivated. The Cromwellians distinguished in their rewards for information or capture of outlaws between "private tories" and "public tories".


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Cromwell imposed an extremely harsh settlement on the Irish Catholic population. This was because of his deep religious antipathy to the Catholic religion and to punish Irish Catholics for the rebellion of 1641, in particular the massacres of Protestant settlers in Ulster. Also he needed to raise money to pay off his army and to repay the London merchants who had subsidised the war under the Adventurers Act back in 1640.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Anyone implicated in the rebellion of 1641 was executed. Those who participated in Confederate Ireland had all their land confiscated and thousands were transported to the West Indies as indentured labourers. Those Catholic landowners who had not taken part in the wars still had their land confiscated, although they were entitled to claim land in Connacht as compensation. In addition, no Catholics were allowed to live in towns. Irish soldiers who had fought in the Confederate and Royalist armies left the country in large numbers to find service in the armies of France and Spain—William Petty estimated their number at 54,000 men. The practice of Catholicism was banned and bounties were offered for the capture of priests, who were executed when found.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The Long Parliament had passed the Adventurers Act in 1640 (the act received royal assent in 1642), under which those who lent money to Parliament for the subjugation of Ireland would be paid in confiscated land in Ireland. In addition, Parliamentarian soldiers who served in Ireland were entitled to an allotment of confiscated land there, in lieu of their wages, which the Parliament was unable to pay in full. As a result, many thousands of New Model Army veterans were settled in Ireland. Moreover, the pre-war Protestant settlers greatly increased their ownership of land (see also: The Cromwellian Plantation). Before the wars, Irish Catholics had owned 60% of the land in Ireland, whereas by the time of the Stuart Restoration, when compensations had been made to Catholic Royalists, they owned only 20% of it. During the Commonwealth period, Catholic landownership had fallen to 8%. Even after the Restoration of 1660, Catholics were barred from all public office, but not from the Irish Parliament.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The Parliamentarian campaign in Ireland was the most ruthless of the Civil War period. In particular, Cromwell's actions at Drogheda and Wexford earned him a reputation for cruelty.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Cromwell's critics point to his response to a plea by Catholic Bishops to the Irish Catholic people to resist him in which he states that although his intention was not to "massacre, banish and destroy the Catholic inhabitants", if they did resist "I hope to be free from the misery and desolation, blood and ruin that shall befall them, and shall rejoice to exercise the utmost severity against them".


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Tom Reilly in "Cromwell, an Honourable Enemy" (Dingle 1999), argues that what happened at Drogheda was not unusually severe by the standards of 17th century siege warfare. In "Cromwell was Framed" (2014), he claims that civilians were not targeted.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: It has also recently been argued, by Tom Reilly in "Cromwell, an Honourable Enemy", that what happened at Drogheda and Wexford was not unusually severe by the standards of 17th century siege warfare, in which the garrisons of towns taken by storm were routinely killed to discourage resistance in the future. John Morrill commented, "A major attempt at rehabilitation was attempted by Tom Reilly, Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy (London, 1999) but this has been largely rejected by other scholars." Morrill himself argued, that what happened at Drogheda, "was without straightforward parallel in 17th century British or Irish history... So the Drogheda massacre does stand out for its mercilessness, for its combination of ruthlessness and calculation, for its combination of hot- and cold-bloodiness". Moreover, historians critical of Cromwell point out that at the time the killings at Drogheda and Wexford were considered atrocities. They cite such sources as Edmund Ludlow, the Parliamentarian commander in Ireland after Ireton's death, who wrote that the tactics used by Cromwell at Drogheda showed "extraordinary severity".


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Cromwell's actions in Ireland occurred in the context of a mutually cruel war. In 1641–42 Irish insurgents in Ulster killed some 4,000 Protestant settlers who had settled on land confiscated from their former Catholic owners. These events were magnified in Protestant propaganda as an attempt by Irish Catholics to exterminate the English Protestant settlers in Ireland, with English Parliamentarian pamphlets claiming that over 200,000 Protestants had died. In turn, this was used as justification by English Parliamentary and Scottish Covenant forces to take vengeance on the Irish Catholic population. A Parliamentary tract of 1655 argued that, "the whole Irish nation, consisting of gentry, clergy and commonality are engaged as one nation in this quarrel, to root out and extirpate all English Protestants from amongst them".


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Atrocities were subsequently committed by all sides. When Murrough O'Brien, the Earl of Inchiquin and Parliamentarian commander in Cork, took Cashel in 1647, he slaughtered the garrison and Catholic clergy there (including Theobald Stapleton), earning the nickname "Murrough of the Burnings". Inchiquin switched allegiances in 1648, becoming a commander of the Royalist forces. After such battles as Dungans Hill and Scarrifholis, English Parliamentarian forces executed thousands of their Irish Catholic prisoners. Similarly, when the Confederate Catholic general Thomas Preston took Maynooth in 1647, he hanged its Catholic defenders as apostates.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Seen in this light, some have argued that the severe conduct of the Parliamentarian campaign of 1649–53 appears unexceptional.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Nevertheless, the 1649–53 campaign remains notorious in Irish popular memory as it was responsible for a huge death toll among the Irish population. The main reason for this was the counter-guerrilla tactics used by such commanders as Henry Ireton, John Hewson and Edmund Ludlow against the Catholic population from 1650, when large areas of the country still resisted the Parliamentary Army. These tactics included the wholesale burning of crops, forced population movement, and killing of civilians.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: Total excess deaths for the entire period of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in Ireland was estimated by Sir William Petty, the 17th century economist, to be 600,000 out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000 in 1641. One modern estimate estimated that at least 200,000 were killed out of a population of allegedly 2 million.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: In addition, the whole post-war Cromwellian settlement of Ireland has been characterised by historians such as Mark Levene and Alan Axelrod as ethnic cleansing, in that it sought to remove Irish Catholics from the eastern part of the country, others such as the historical writer Tim Pat Coogan have described the actions of Cromwell and his subordinates as genocide. The aftermath of the Cromwellian campaign and settlement saw extensive dispossession of landowners who were Catholic, and a huge drop in population. In the event, the much larger number of surviving poorer Catholics were not moved westwards; most of them had to fend for themselves by working for the new landowners.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The Cromwellian conquest completed the British colonisation of Ireland, which was merged into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1653–59. It destroyed the native Irish Catholic land-owning classes and replaced them with colonists with a British identity. The bitterness caused by the Cromwellian settlement was a powerful source of Irish nationalism from the 17th century onwards.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: After the Stuart Restoration in 1660, Charles II of England restored about a third of the confiscated land to the former landlords in the Act of Settlement 1662, but not all, as he needed political support from former parliamentarians in England. A generation later, during the Glorious Revolution, many of the Irish Catholic landed class tried to reverse the remaining Cromwellian settlement in the Williamite War in Ireland (1689–91), where they fought en masse for the Jacobites. They were defeated once again, and many lost land that had been regranted after 1662. As a result, Irish and English Catholics did not become full political citizens of the British state again until 1829 and were legally barred from buying valuable interests in land until the Papists Act 1778.


title: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland

text: The Cromwellian government also contributed to the decline and eventual extinction of wolves in Ireland, through such methods as deforestation and anti-wolf legislation, the latter including bounties paid out for killing wolves.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: Berchtesgaden () is a municipality in the district Berchtesgadener Land, Bavaria, in southeastern Germany, near the border with Austria, south of Salzburg and southeast of Munich. It lies in the Berchtesgaden Alps, south of Berchtesgaden; the Berchtesgaden National Park stretches along three parallel valleys.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: "Berchtesgaden", Upper Bavaria (Achental), earlier "Perchterscadmen", "Perhtersgadem", "Berchirchsgadem", "Berchtoldesgadem"; the word underwent a Latin distortion of Old High German "parach", Romance "bareca" 'hay shed'. After the basic meaning was forgotten, a variant word of Old High German "gadem" 'room, one-room hut' was added, implying the same meaning: 'hay shed'. Cf. Old High German "muosgadem" 'spice room'.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: There was a folk etymology that supported a derivation based on the legendary figure of "Frau" Perchta (Berchta), a woman ("Holle" < "Holda" 'well disposed, dear') with good and bad changing features, who was venerated on "Perchtertag" (Shrovetide) and was sworn to during the Perchta procession.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: The first ever historical note dates back to 1102 and mentions the area because of its rich salt deposits. Much of Berchtesgaden's wealth has been derived from its salt mines, the first of which started operations in 1517. The town served as independent "Fürstpropstei" until the "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" in 1803. During the Napoleonic wars, Berchtesgaden changed hands a few times, such as in 1805 under the Treaty of Pressburg, when the area was ceded to Austria.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: Berchtesgaden came under Bavarian rule in 1810 and became instantly popular with the Bavarian royal family, the House of Wittelsbach, who often visited Königssee and maintained a royal hunting residence in the former Augustine monastery (still used today by Franz, Duke of Bavaria). Nascent tourism started to evolve and a number of artists came to the area, which reportedly gave rise to "Malereck" ("painters' corner") on the shore of the Königssee in nearby Schönau am Königssee. The most famous author who lived in Berchtesgaden was Ludwig Ganghofer.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: Adolf Hitler had been vacationing in the Berchtesgaden area since the 1920s. He purchased a home in the Obersalzberg above the town on the flank of the Hoher Goll and began extensive renovations on his "Berghof" in the following years. As other top Third Reich figures, such as Hermann Göring, Joseph Goebbels, Martin Bormann, Heinrich Himmler, and Albert Speer, began to frequent the area the Party began to purchase and requisition land in the Obersalzberg.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: In order to serve as an outpost of the German "Reichskanzlei" (Imperial Chancellery), Berchtesgaden and its environs ("Stanggass") saw substantial expansion of offices, security, and support services, mainly on the Obersalzberg. Included in the town were a new railway station, with a reception area for Hitler and his guests, and an adjacent post office. The Berchtesgadener Hof Hotel, where famous visitors such as Neville Chamberlain and David Lloyd George stayed, was substantially upgraded.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: Even though a feared Alpine Fortress last stand of the Nazi Regime in the Alps failed to materialize late in World War II, the Allies launched a devastating air raid on the Berchtesgaden area in the spring of 1945. The 25 April bombing of Obersalzberg did little damage to the town. On 4 May, forward elements of the 7th Infantry Regiment of the 3rd Infantry Division arrived and received the town's surrender.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: After the war, Berchtesgaden became a military zone and most of its buildings were requisitioned by the U.S. Army. Hotel Platterhof was rebuilt and renamed the General Walker Hotel in 1952. It served as an integral part of the U.S. Armed Forces Recreation Centers for the duration of the Cold War and beyond. The remnants of homes of former Nazi leaders were all demolished in the early postwar years, though traces of some remained. In 1995, fifty years after the end of World War II and five years after German reunification, the AFRC Berchtesgaden was turned over to Bavarian authorities to facilitate military spending reductions mandated within the Base Realignment and Closure program by the US Congress and Pentagon during the administration of President Bill Clinton. The General Walker Hotel was demolished in 2000–2001.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: In 1986, Berchtesgaden was a first-round candidate city to host the XVI Olympic Winter Games to be held in 1992. The vote eventually went to Albertville, France, in October of that year.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: The Hotel Türken, which was near the Nazi buildings and was often used by the SS and then by the "Generalmajor" of the Police, was badly damaged in 1945. It was rebuilt in 1950 and reopened as a hotel before Christmas. Visitors can still explore the historic underground hallways and tunnels that had been used by the Nazis.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: In 1972, local government reform united the then independent municipalities of Salzberg, Maria Gern and Au (consisting of Oberau and Unterau) under the administration of the town of Berchtesgaden. Another suggested reform uniting all remaining five municipalities in the Berchtesgaden valley (Bischofswiesen, Ramsau, Marktschellenberg and Schönau) failed to gain enough popular support; it passed in Berchtesgaden but failed everywhere else.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: The Berchtesgaden National Park was established in 1978 and has gradually become one of Berchtesgaden's largest draws. Mass tourism is confined to a few popular spots, leaving the rest to nature-seekers. Other tourist draws are the Königssee, the salt mine, the "Kehlsteinhaus", open seasonally as a restaurant, and the Dokumentationszentrum Obersalzberg museum about the area's history, operated by the Munich Institut für Zeitgeschichte since 1999.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: Recreational and competitive sports have grown in importance. The town's ski slope is popular. The Königssee bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton track has hosted ski-running and a number of international events and competitions. Berchtesgaden's most famous sports personality is Georg Hackl, a multiple Olympic medal winner. The city is home to the International Luge Federation (FIL).


title: Berchtesgaden

text: Unlike the northern part of Berchtesgadener Land and the Salzburg area, Berchtesgaden has virtually no manufacturing industry.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: Berchtesgaden Central Station is connected by the Salzburg–Berchtesgaden railway to the Rosenheim–Salzburg railway at Freilassing.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: The Bavarian state government facilitated the erection of a hotel, which opened in 2005 and is operated by the InterContinental Hotels Group. Since May 2015, the hotel has been the Kempinski Berchtesgaden.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: Berchtesgaden's neighbouring towns are Bischofswiesen, Marktschellenberg, Ramsau, and Schönau am Königssee.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: The municipality counts the following villages which are ("Ortsteil"): Am Etzerschlößl, Anzenbach, Hintergern, Metzenleiten, Mitterbach, Oberau, Obergern, Obersalzberg, Resten, Unterau, Untersalzberg I, Untersalzberg II, and Vordergern.


title: Berchtesgaden

text: in the 1760s a number of anonymous toy symphonies (including the famous Toy Symphony often attributed to Haydn or Leopold Mozart) were composed at Berchtesgaden, then a manufacturing centre for toy instruments. Some of the instruments used for these can be seen in the Museum Carolino Augusteum in Salzburg.


title: Maud Adams

text: Maud Adams (born Maud Solveig Christina Wikström; 12 February 1945) is a Swedish actress and model, known for her roles as two different Bond girls, first in "The Man with the Golden Gun" (1974) and then as the eponymous character in "Octopussy" (1983), as well as making many other appearances in both films and television including "The Christian Licorice Store" (1971), "Rollerball" (1975), "Killer Force" (1976), "Merciless Man" (1976), "Hell Hunters" (1986) and "The Kill Reflex" (1989).


title: Maud Adams

text: Adams was born Maud Solveig Christina Wikström in Luleå, Sweden, the daughter of Thyra, a government tax inspector, and Gustav Wikström, a comptroller. She is fluent in five languages, and at one time wanted to work as an interpreter. She was discovered in 1963 in a shop by a photographer who asked to take her picture, a picture he submitted to the "Miss Sweden" contest arranged by the magazine "Allers"; from there her modeling career took off.


title: Maud Adams

text: Adams moved to Paris and later to New York City to work for Eileen Ford. Her acting career started when she was asked to appear in the 1970 movie "The Boys in the Band", in which she played a photo-shoot model in the opening credits. During the 1970s she guest-starred in such American TV series as "Hawaii Five-O" and "Kojak".


title: Maud Adams

text: Adams was catapulted to international fame as the doomed mistress of the villain (Christopher Lee) in "The Man with the Golden Gun" (1974). In short order she appeared in Norman Jewison's futuristic "Rollerball" (1975) and several European films, and she starred in the obsession thriller "Tattoo" (1981) with Bruce Dern. She was so well regarded by James Bond film series producer Albert Broccoli that she was asked to return in "Octopussy" in 1983, this time as a lead, the title character—an exotic and mysterious smuggler, again opposite Roger Moore. Adams had Swedish co-stars in her three Bond films: Britt Ekland as Mary Goodnight in "The Man with the Golden Gun"; in "Octopussy" both Kristina Wayborn as Magda, and Mary Stävin as an Octopussy girl; and in "A View to a Kill" (1985), in which she was an extra, Mary Stävin played agent Kimberley Jones, and Dolph Lundgren played Venz. While portraying a Bond girl has not always indicated continued success as an actress, Adams comments, "Looking back on it, how can you not really enjoy the fact that you were a Bond Girl? It's pop culture and to be part of that is very nice."


title: Maud Adams

text: Adams appeared in the U. S. television series "Emerald Point NAS" in 1983 and 1984, but was unable to sustain her high profile, falling back on second-rate material such as "Jane and the Lost City" in 1987. In September of that year she also appeared in "Playboy" in an issue on the Bond girls.


title: Maud Adams

text: She hosted the Swedish TV show "Kafé Luleå" in 1994, and played a guest role in the Swedish soap opera "Vita lögner" in 1998.


title: Maud Adams

text: She guest-starred in "That '70s Show" in 2000, appearing as a bridesmaid to Tanya Roberts, along with Kristina Wayborn (her "Octopussy" co-star) and Barbara Carrera; all four share the title of 'Bond girl'.


title: Maud Adams

text: Adams married photographer Roy Adams in 1966 and then divorced him in 1975. She married her current husband, private mediator and retired judge, Charles Rubin, in 1999. Adams has no children from either marriage.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: 112 is a common emergency telephone number that can be dialed free of charge from most mobile telephones, and in some countries, fixed telephones in order to reach emergency services (ambulance, fire and rescue, police).


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: 112 is a part of the GSM standard and all GSM-compatible telephone handsets are able to dial 112 even when locked or, in some countries, with no SIM card present. It is also the common emergency number in nearly all member states of the European Union as well as several other countries of Europe and the world. 112 is often available alongside other numbers traditionally used in the given country to access emergency services. In some countries, calls to 112 are not connected directly but forwarded by the GSM network to local emergency numbers (e.g. 911 in North America, 999 in the United Kingdom and Hong Kong, and 000 in Australia).


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: 112 was first standardised as the pan-European number for emergency services following the adoption of recommendation by the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) in 1976 and has since been enshrined a CEPT Decision ECC/DEC/(17)05.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: The European Emergency Number Association, founded in 1999, an organization of emergency services representatives and others, has campaigned for an efficient 112 service all over Europe on behalf of European citizens. EENA continues to promote awareness of 112 as a core element of its mission.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: After adoption in continental Western Europe, other countries began to use the 112 number for emergencies. Nations that have adopted it (including as a redirect alongside a pre-existing other emergency number) include:


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: In many countries, emergency numbers previously used also continue to be available; e.g. 061 and 112 in Spain, 999 and 112 both function in Ireland and the UK. In the United States, only some carriers, including AT&T will map the number 112 to its emergency number 911.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: The International Telecommunication Union recommends that member states selecting a primary or secondary emergency number choose either 911, 112 or both.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: 112 is one of two numbers (the other being the region's own emergency number) that can be dialed on most GSM phones even if the phone is locked.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: is managed and financed in the European Union by each member state (country), who also decide on the organization of the emergency call centres.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: Adopted in July 1991, the Council Decision 91/396/EC introduced ‘112’ as the European emergency number. The Open Network Provision Directive in 1998, the Universal Service Directives in 2002 and 2009 and finally the European Electronic Communications Code in 2018 further specified how 112 should work in the European Union.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: By the European Electronic Communications Code, everyone in the European Union should be able to contact the emergency services by using the European emergency number ‘112’ free of charge wherever they are in the European Union. Member States are also required to make sure that access to the emergency services for people with disabilities is equivalent to that enjoyed by other end-users.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: This obligation was strengthened with the European Electronic Communications Code in 2018 which requires the location to include both network-based and handset-derived location information. It is now possible for emergency services to retrieve accurate location information of the caller with the Advanced Mobile Location technology.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: The "eCall" feature for automated emergency calls on crash, mandatory on European cars since April 2018, is based on E112.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: Reverse 1-1-2 is a public safety communications technology used by public safety organizations throughout the world to communicate with groups of people in a defined geographic area. Reverse 112 allows authorities to rapidly warn those in danger, directly through their mobile phones.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: Article 110 of the European Electronic Communications Code makes it mandatory for all Member States of the European Union to deploy by June 2022 a system that enables public authorities to warn immediately all the people present in a determined area of an ongoing or developing threat directly on their mobile phones. This objective can be achieved with either the Cell Broadcast or the Location-based SMS technology.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: The European Parliament, the Council of the European Union and the European Commission signed a tripartite convention in 2009 in order to introduce an annual European 112 Day. It is supposed to raise awareness for the Europe-wide availability and the advantages of the European emergency call 112. They chose 11 February since the date includes the telephone number (11/2).


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: Getting 112 to work across the EU is a complex task. It requires in particular coordination between civil protection administrations (the emergency authorities who handle the call) and electronic communications administrations (who have to make sure that a 112 call reaches the emergency operator). That is why the European Commission decided to act at European level and set up the Expert Group on Emergency Access (EGEA) at the end of 2005. The group met for the last time in May 2013.


title: 112 (emergency telephone number)

text: In 2020, the European Commission set up the Expert Group on Emergency Communications (EG112) with the task to assist the European Commission in the preparation of new legislations on the matter and exchange views on how emergency communications are handled within the European Union.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: The 1994 NBA Finals was the championship round of the National Basketball Association (NBA)'s 1993–94 season, and the culmination of the season's playoffs. The Western Conference champion Houston Rockets played the Eastern Conference champion New York Knicks for the championship, with the Rockets holding home-court advantage in the best-of-seven series. The Rockets defeated the Knicks 4 games to 3 to win the team's first NBA championship.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: This matchup was Hakeem Olajuwon's second NBA Finals appearance, his other being in 1986, where Larry Bird and the Boston Celtics defeated the Houston Rockets four games to two. The series was Patrick Ewing's first NBA Finals appearance. The Rockets came in with strong determination to win not only the franchise's first NBA championship, but the city's first championship in a league that still existed, while the Knicks were looking to add a third NBA championship trophy, as the Knicks' last trophy came from the 1973 NBA Finals. The Knicks also hoped to impress their new owners Viacom, who had just bought Paramount Communications (formerly Gulf+Western), their longtime owners (after the series however, Viacom sold the Knicks and the rest of the Madison Square Garden properties).


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: The series was hailed as a meeting of the two great centers who had previously played for a championship in college. In 1984 while Olajuwon was with the University of Houston and Ewing was with Georgetown University, Georgetown had beaten Houston 84–75 in the 1984 NCAA Championship game. In this series, however, Olajuwon outperformed Ewing, outscoring him in every game of the series and posting numbers of 26.9 ppg on 50.0% shooting compared to Ewing's 18.9 ppg on 36.3% shooting. However, Ewing set an NBA finals record in the series with a total of 30 blocks, and he tied the single-game record of 8 blocks in Game 5. Tim Duncan would later set the record for most blocks in a Finals series (2003) with 32 blocks in six games while Dwight Howard would set the record for most blocked shots in a Finals game with 9 blocked shots in Game 4 of the 2009 Finals while with the Orlando Magic.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: During the series, the Houston Rockets played seven low-scoring, defensive games against the New York Knicks. After splitting the first two games in Houston, the Knicks won two out of three games at Madison Square Garden, which also hosted the Rangers first Stanley Cup celebration in 54 years during the series.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: In Game 6, however, Rockets center Hakeem Olajuwon blocked a last-second championship-winning shot attempt by John Starks, giving the Rockets an 86–84 victory and forcing a Game 7, which made Knicks Coach Pat Riley the first (and to this date, the only) coach in a Game 7 NBA Finals on two teams, having been with the Los Angeles Lakers in and . In addition, the Knicks set a record for most playoff games played in one season, with 25. The Detroit Pistons tied this record in . The Boston Celtics, coached by Doc Rivers, would surpass it during their championship season of 2008 when they played 26.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: The Rockets beat the Knicks in Game 7, 90–84, enabling the city of Houston to not only celebrate its first NBA and fifth professional sports championship (first in an existing league), but also deny New York from having both NBA and NHL championships in the same year (Chicago had suffered this fate two years earlier in 1992, with the Bulls winning their second NBA championship and the Blackhawks losing in the Stanley Cup Finals). For his efforts Olajuwon was named NBA Finals Most Valuable Player. For the Knicks, Riley had the unfortunate distinction of having become the first (and to this date, the only) coach to lose a Game 7 NBA Finals on two teams, having lost to the Celtics in 1984. It also denied him the distinction of being the first coach to win a Game 7 NBA Finals with two teams, having defeated the Detroit Pistons in 1988.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: NBC Sports used Ahmad Rashad (Knicks sideline) and Hannah Storm (Rockets sideline). Marv Albert and Matt Guokas called the action.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: The Rockets chose Hakeem Olajuwon as the first overall pick in the 1984 NBA draft. Olajuwon's first nine NBA seasons included numerous All-Star, All-NBA and All-Defensive selections, but the closest he got to a championship was in , when the Rockets fell two games short of a title against a powerful Boston Celtics team.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: By his tenth season, Olajuwon became a more complete player, and he led the Rockets to a 15–0 start en route to a 58–24 record. But after a four-game defeat of the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round, they blew a pair of big fourth quarter leads at home and lost to the Phoenix Suns to begin the second round (in the process earning a derisive nickname of 'Choke City' by the Houston Chronicle).


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: In response, the Rockets used the headline as motivation, overcoming a 0–2 deficit to defeat the Suns in seven games (earning the nickname 'Clutch City'). In the conference finals, Houston defeated the Utah Jazz in five games to claim their third conference title. Olajuwon won the MVP and Defensive Player of the Year awards at season's end.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: Like Olajuwon, Patrick Ewing was a first overall pick of the NBA draft. Ewing was picked by the Knicks in the 1985 draft, and won Rookie of the Year that season. But despite earning All-Star accolades of his own, the Knicks teams he played with only made it past the first round twice during his first six seasons (in 1989 and 1990).


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: In the 1991 off-season, the Knicks hired Pat Riley as head coach. In contrast to the fast-paced style of Showtime he used with the Los Angeles Lakers, Riley decided to go for a more deliberate and physical approach in New York. Aided by the likes of Charles Oakley, Anthony Mason, John Starks and Charles Smith, Ewing and the Knicks rose to prominence under Riley, and in 1994, they won 57 games to finish second in the Eastern Conference.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: Their playoff run began with a 3–1 victory over their cross-river rival New Jersey Nets. However, they had a hard time disposing a Chicago Bulls team that lost Michael Jordan to retirement (which lasted until the final months of the following season), but managed to win all four home games to advance. In the conference finals, they were pitted against the upstart Indiana Pacers, who were led by Reggie Miller. Though the Pacers gave the Knicks a scare, the latter's experience proved too much as they won the series in seven games.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: Although most fans in New York, and some members of the national media, blamed John Starks' poor performance, who shot 2-for-18 from the field in Game 7, as a contributing factor in the Knicks' loss in the series, another important factor in the Rockets series win was Olajuwon's performance. Olajuwon outscored Ewing in every game of the series, while Ewing outblocked (4.3 to 3.9 bpg) and outrebounded him (12.4 rpg to 9.1 rpg). Ewing set a then NBA Finals record with a total of 30 blocks.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: During Game 5, most NBC affiliates split the coverage of the game between NFL Hall of Famer O. J. Simpson's slow speed freeway chase with the LAPD. At the time, Simpson had been an NFL analyst on NBC.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: The coverage was presented on a split screen, with the game taking up the smaller portion of the television screen on the left, while live coverage of the chase was shown in a bigger screen on the right. The audio came from the chase as narrated by NBC News anchor Tom Brokaw.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: KNBC in Los Angeles, serving the media market where the police were tracking Simpson, left the Game 5 broadcast completely for the chase with local coverage narrated by Paul Moyer and Colleen Williams; the station did not even put up a split screen until the end of the game, which was still close at the time. By this point, Simpson had returned to his mansion in Brentwood and had surrendered to police.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: A complete re-broadcast of Game 5, with natural crowd audio substituting for the parts for which NBC did not provide audio, is part of the DVD release of this series from Warner Home Video.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: The Rockets would repeat as NBA champions in 1995 although their season record wasn't so promising. Plagued by a lack of chemistry, the Rockets were stuck in the middle of the conference standings most of the year. Then, as the NBA's trading deadline approached, on February 14, 1995, the Rockets acquired Hakeem Olajuwon's "Phi Slama Jama" teammate Clyde Drexler. The Rockets finished the regular season as the 6th seed but the team on the court at season's end was clearly better than its 47–35 record. The new Rockets team had only had about two months to gel. The playoffs started rough for Houston, the team down 2 games to 1 to Utah in the First Round. However, the Rockets battled back and won that series, stealing the deciding Game 5 in Utah. The Rockets' ability to overcome adversity became more evident as the postseason wore on. They beat four 50-win squads (Utah, Phoenix, San Antonio and Orlando) to win the NBA championship, becoming the lowest seed ever to win it all.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: Also in 1995, the Knicks enjoyed another strong season, with 55 wins. However, they were eliminated in seven games by the Indiana Pacers during the second round as Pacers guard Reggie Miller's 'Knick Killer' legacy continued. After the season Pat Riley departed for the Miami Heat, with whom he would win three championships, one as the head coach and two as its president. The Knicks would make the finals again in 1999, but fell to the Spurs in five games, and have not returned since.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: Before this victory, only the Houston Oilers' AFL two championships at the close of the 1960 season and 1961 season and the Houston Aeros' two WHA Avco World Trophies in 1974 and 1975 represented Houston's only professional championships. The 1994 NBA Championship represented the city of Houston's first professional championship since those two teams, and the first in a league that did not later merge.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: This was the last NBA Finals for three of the league's longest-tenured and most recognizable referees: Darell Garretson, Jack Madden and Jake O'Donnell. Garretson and Madden retired following the 1994 Finals, while O'Donnell worked the 1994-95 season, but did not work past the second round of the playoffs, marking the first time since 1971 O'Donnell did not officiate in the championship series. O'Donnell retired in December 1995 following the end of a lockout of NBA referees by Commissioner David Stern.


title: 1994 NBA Finals

text: Overall, as of 2019, Houston's teams in the "Big Four" major professional sports are 6–1 over their New York City counterparts in terms of playoff series. The Rockets, in addition to their 1994 triumph, also defeated the Knicks in the 1975 Eastern Conference First Round. The NFL's Houston Oilers (now Tennessee Titans) followed with a victory over the New York Jets in the 1991 AFC wild card round, and the Houston Astros later prevailed over the New York Yankees in three MLB postseason series during the 2010s (2015 ALWC, 2017 ALCS, 2019 ALCS) The only time a New York-based team prevailed over Houston was in the 1986 NLCS, when the New York Mets won over the then-NL member Astros.


title: Tatsuya Endo

text: Ever since childhood, Endo aspired to become a manga artist. His family consisted of one parent and a brother. His favorite actors and actresses are Bruce Lee, Hiroshi Abe, Meg Ryan and Audrey Tautou. His favourite manga artists are Akira Toriyama, Hiroyuki Nishimori, and Minetarō Mochizuki. His hobbies include skiing, basketball, and racket-based ball games.


title: Tatsuya Endo

text: Endo worked as an assistant for the manga series "Blue Exorcist" and "Fire Punch". He was mentored by manga artists Yasuhiro Kanō and Yoshiyuki Nishi. Like many manga artists, Endo began his career creating one-shots. Some of these one off stories would have influences towards his later manga. After finishing "Tista" and "Gekka Bijin" for "Jump Square" and finishing three one-shots with editor Shihei Lin, who Endo had known and worked with for more than 10 years, the two began to plan for a series that would feature in "Shōnen Jump+". This manga would combine what Lin thought were the strengths of Endo's previous works; "Rengoku no Ashe", "Ishi ni Usubeni", "Tetsu ni Hoshi" and "I Spy", creating "Spy × Family". Lin claimed that the reception for "Spy × Family" from their editorial department was so good that its serialization was "practically decided" before an official meeting for it took place. "Spy × Family" would go on to become part of the top ten most popular manga on their website as of 2019. It became one of the most popular anime of 2022.


title: Tatsuya Endo

text: At the beginning of his career, Endo published mature stories. This is especially true for his early titles "Tista" and "Rengoku no Ashe", which are about a serial killer and witch hunting respectively. After working on so much manga with dark tones, his editor, Shihei Lin, encouraged Endo to come up with a more "bright and cheerful manga". The one-shot, "I Spy", could be seen as a transition piece between Endo's dark and bright narratives, as it incorporates the mature themes of his early work while still being a "cheerful title" like Lin had suggested. His work in "SPYxFAMILY" is the first that completely deviates into what is more considered a cheerful manga.


title: Tatsuya Endo

text: His editor claims that Endo likes to think through every detail of a plot. When proposed with an idea about his story, Endo will quickly point out any contradictions. This along with his need to create deep and well thought-out characters has pushed him into telling stories that show a positive or negative shift in the psychological state of his characters. Endo always seeks to improve the quality of his work, so he reads lots of manga, novels, and books.


title: Park Jin-joo

text: Park Jin-joo (born December 24, 1988) is a South Korean actress. She starred in television series such as "Jealousy Incarnate" (2016), and "Something About 1 Percent" (2016).


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt Halsted (May 3, 1906 – December 1, 1975) was an American writer who worked as a newspaper editor and in public relations. Halsted also wrote two children's books published in the 1930s. She was the eldest child and only daughter of the U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt and assisted him as his advisor during World War II.


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: Halsted worked with her second husband Clarence John Boettiger at the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", serving as editor of the women's pages for several years. She later worked in public relations for universities. In 1963, John F. Kennedy appointed her to the Citizen's Advisory Council on the Status of Women. She also served for several years as vice-chairman of the President's Commission for the Observance of Human Rights.


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born at 125 East 36th Street in New York City. She was named for her mother, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, and maternal grandmother, Anna Rebecca Hall. She graduated from Miss Chapin's School in 1924. She then entered Cornell University for a short course in forestry. On June 5, 1926, she married Curtis Bean Dall, a New York stockbroker, in Hyde Park, New York. They had two children, Anna Eleanor, born March 25, 1927, and Curtis Roosevelt, born April 19, 1930. The Dalls were divorced in July 1934, and Anna returned to her family, living in the White House. She then married Clarence John Boettiger, a journalist she met on her father's campaign train, in March 1935. They had one son, John Roosevelt Boettiger, born March 30, 1939.


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: Anna was active as an editor and journalist. Between 1932 and 1934 she was associate editor of a magazine called "Babies Just Babies;" hosted a radio program sponsored by Best and Company Department Store; and contributed articles to "Liberty" magazine. She also wrote two children's books, "Scamper" and "Scamper's Christmas". After her second marriage, she moved to Seattle with her husband, where he was hired by William Randolph Hearst to be the editor of the "Seattle Post Intelligencer." From December 1936 to September 1943 they ran the newspaper. Anna was editor of the women's page and a columnist for the newspaper. In 1942, Clarence Boettiger became concerned he was not doing his part for the war effort. He was given a leave of absence by Hearst and was appointed a captain in the Army.


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: After her husband joined the Army, and at her ailing father's request, Anna moved into the White House with her five-year-old son in 1944. Among other duties, she often served as First Lady due to her mother's preference for devoting her time to other political activities and worthy causes. She also served as an unofficial secretary to her father. Her responsibilities included answering mail, arranging appointments, and writing presidential speeches. She became alarmed at the obvious deterioration of the President's health and insisted on seeking the advice of a cardiologist. When he was diagnosed with congestive heart failure, she was the only family member who was informed. She petitioned to be included in the Yalta Conference as his aide-de-camp, believing that she could best protect her father, seeing to it that he followed the doctor's orders of diet and rest. She attended the conference, along with Sarah Churchill, daughter of Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Kathy Harriman, daughter of W. Averell Harriman, Ambassador to Russia. The Conference lasted from February 2, 1945, to February 11, 1945. Anna was important to Roosevelt both personally and as aide-de-camp.


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: Anna Boettiger was a witness to many historic moments, but she also carried the burden of dealing with some of the most intimate and painful decisions of her parents during their unconventional marriage. After her father's death, Anna had to tell her mother that FDR had been with his long-time mistress, Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd. In addition, she told her that Franklin had continued the relationship for decades, and people surrounding him had hidden it from Eleanor.


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: After Roosevelt's death in April 1945, William Randolph Hearst no longer had reason to favor Boettiger and they had a falling out. Boettiger left the "Seattle Post Intelligencer" and he and Anna bought a weekly newspaper in Phoenix, Arizona. They renamed it the "Arizona Times" and had turned it into a daily paper by May 1947. However, they were attempting to turn it into a left-leaning newspaper in Arizona, and the paper failed. The failure left the Boettigers bankrupt and put a great strain on their marriage. They divorced August 1, 1949. For a year after her divorce, she and Eleanor collaborated on a joint radio show called the "Eleanor and Anna Roosevelt Program". She also edited a magazine called "The Woman" and contributed a series of articles called "My Life with F.D.R."


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: In 1952 she married Dr. James Halsted, a doctor who was employed by the Veteran's Administration. They moved to New York where she took up work in public relations for hospitals and medical centers. The Halsteds moved to the Imperial State of Iran, where Halsted helped establish the Pahlavi University Medical School. Anna worked there in public relations and administration. When they returned to the United States, Anna immersed herself in humanitarian work and contributed to the legacy of both her parents.


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: In October 1963, Anna was appointed by President John F. Kennedy to the Citizen's Advisory Council on the Status of Women. In February of that year, she was appointed vice-chairman of the President's Commission for the Observance of Human Rights.


title: Anna Roosevelt Halsted

text: In 1971, the Halsteds retired to a cottage in Hillsdale, New York. Anna continued to be active in most of the same organizations until her death from throat cancer on December 1, 1975, aged 69, at Montefiore Hospital in the Bronx, New York.


title: Economic inequality

text: There are wide varieties of economic inequality, most notably income inequality measured using the distribution of income (the amount of money people are paid) and wealth inequality measured using the distribution of wealth (the amount of wealth people own). Besides economic inequality between countries or states, there are important types of economic inequality between different groups of people.


title: Economic inequality

text: Important types of economic measurements focus on wealth, income, and consumption. There are many methods for measuring economic inequality, the Gini coefficient being a widely used one. Another type of measure is the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, which is a statistic composite index that takes inequality into account. Important concepts of equality include equity, equality of outcome, and equality of opportunity.


title: Economic inequality

text: Whereas globalization has reduced global inequality (between nations), it has increased inequality within nations. Income inequality between nations peaked in the 1970s, when world income was distributed bimodally into "rich" and "poor" countries. Since then, income levels across countries have been converging, with most people now living in middle-income countries. However, inequality within most nations has risen significantly in the last 30 years, particularly among advanced countries. In this period, close to 90 percent of advanced economies have seen an increase in income inequality, with over 70% recording an increase in their Gini coefficients exceeding two points.


title: Economic inequality

text: Research has generally linked economic inequality to political and social instability, including revolution, democratic breakdown and civil conflict. Research suggests that greater inequality hinders economic growth and macroeconomic stability, and that land and human capital inequality reduce growth more than inequality of income. Inequality is at the center stage of economic policy debate across the globe, as government tax and spending policies have significant effects on income distribution. In advanced economies, taxes and transfers decrease income inequality by one-third, with most of this being achieved via public social spending (such as pensions and family benefits).


title: Economic inequality

text: In 1820, the ratio between the income of the top and bottom 20 percent of the world's population was three to one. By 1991, it was eighty-six to one. A 2011 study titled "Divided we Stand: Why Inequality Keeps Rising" by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) sought to explain the causes for this rising inequality by investigating economic inequality in OECD countries; it concluded that the following factors played a role:


title: Economic inequality

text: A 2011 OECD study investigated economic inequality in Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Russia, and South Africa. It concluded that key sources of inequality in these countries include "a large, persistent informal sector, widespread regional divides (e.g. urban-rural), gaps in access to education, and barriers to employment and career progression for women."


title: Economic inequality

text: A study by the World Institute for Development Economics Research at United Nations University reported that the richest 1% of adults alone owned 40% of global assets in the year 2000. The "three" richest people in the world possess more financial assets than the lowest 48 nations combined. The combined wealth of the "10 million dollar millionaires" grew to nearly $41 trillion in 2008.


title: Economic inequality

text: Oxfam's 2021 report on global inequality said that the COVID-19 pandemic has increased economic inequality substantially; the wealthiest people across the globe were impacted the least by the pandemic and their fortunes recovered quickest, with billionaires seeing their wealth increase by $3.9 trillion, while at the same time those living on less than $5.50 a day likely increased by 500 million. The report also emphasized that the wealthiest 1% are by far the biggest polluters and main drivers of climate change, and said that government policy should focus on fighting both inequality and climate change simultaneously. The 2022 Oxfam report said that growing economic inequality has been a factor in increased mortality rates during the pandemic, contributing to the deaths of 21,000 people on a daily basis, while the wealth of the world's 10 richest billionaires doubled, and advocated a tax on the ultra rich to ameliorate these deadly inequalities. According to economist Joseph Stiglitz, the pandemic's "most significant outcome" will be rising economic inequality in the United States and between the developed and developing world.


title: Economic inequality

text: According to PolitiFact, the top 400 richest Americans "have more wealth than half of all Americans combined." According to "The New York Times" on July 22, 2014, the "richest 1 percent in the United States now own more wealth than the bottom 90 percent". Inherited wealth may help explain why many Americans who have become rich may have had a "substantial head start". A 2017 report by the IPS said that three individuals, Jeff Bezos, Bill Gates and Warren Buffett, own as much wealth as the bottom half of the population, or 160 million people, and that the growing disparity between the wealthy and the poor has created a "moral crisis", noting that "we have not witnessed such extreme levels of concentrated wealth and power since the first gilded age a century ago." In 2016, the world's billionaires increased their combined global wealth to a record $6 trillion. In 2017, they increased their collective wealth to 8.9 trillion. In 2018, U.S. income inequality reached the highest level ever recorded by the Census Bureau.


title: Economic inequality

text: The existing data and estimates suggest a large increase in international (and more generally inter-macroregional) components between 1820 and 1960. It might have slightly decreased since that time at the expense of increasing inequality within countries. The United Nations Development Programme in 2014 asserted that greater investments in social security, jobs and laws that protect vulnerable populations are necessary to prevent widening income inequality.


title: Economic inequality

text: There is a significant difference in the measured wealth distribution and the public's understanding of wealth distribution. Michael Norton of the Harvard Business School and Dan Ariely of the Department of Psychology at Duke University found this to be true in their research conducted in 2011. The actual wealth going to the top quintile in 2011 was around 84%, whereas the average amount of wealth that the general public estimated to go to the top quintile was around 58%.


title: Economic inequality

text: According to a 2020 study, global earnings inequality has decreased substantially since 1970. During the 2000s and 2010s, the share of earnings by the world's poorest half doubled. Two researchers claim that global income inequality is decreasing due to strong economic growth in developing countries. According to a January 2020 report by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, economic inequality between states had declined, but intrastate inequality has increased for 70% of the world population over the period 1990–2015. In 2015, the OECD reported in 2015 that income inequality is higher than it has ever been within OECD member nations and is at increased levels in many emerging economies. According to a June 2015 report by the International Monetary Fund (IMF):


title: Economic inequality

text: Widening income inequality is the defining challenge of our time. In advanced economies, the gap between the rich and poor is at its highest level in decades. Inequality trends have been more mixed in emerging markets and developing countries (EMDCs), with some countries experiencing declining inequality, but pervasive inequities in access to education, health care, and finance remain.


title: Economic inequality

text: In October 2017, the IMF warned that inequality within nations, in spite of global inequality falling in recent decades, has risen so sharply that it threatens economic growth and could result in further political polarization. The Fund's Fiscal Monitor report said that "progressive taxation and transfers are key components of efficient fiscal redistribution."


title: Economic inequality

text: In October 2018 Oxfam published a "Reducing Inequality Index" which measured social spending, tax and workers' rights to show which countries were best at closing the gap between the rich and the poor.


title: Economic inequality

text: The 2022 World Inequality Report, a four-year research project organized by the economists Lucas Chancel, Thomas Piketty, Emmanuel Saez, and Gabriel Zucman, shows that "the world is marked by a very high level of income inequality and an extreme level of wealth inequality" and that these inequalities "seem to be about as great today as they were at the peak of western imperialism in the early 20th century." According to the report, the bottom half of the population owns 2% of global wealth, while the top 10% owns 76% of it. The top 1% owns 38%.


title: Economic inequality

text: The following table shows information about individual wealth distribution in different countries from a 2018 report by Crédit Suisse. The wealth is calculated by various factors, for instance: liabilities, debts, exchange rates and their expected development, real estate prices, human resources, natural resources and technical advancements, etc.


title: Economic inequality

text: Income inequality is measured by Gini coefficient (expressed in percent %) that is a number between 0 and 1. Here 0 expresses perfect equality, meaning that everyone has the same income, whereas 1 represents perfect inequality, meaning that one person has all the income and others have none. A Gini index value above 50% is considered high; countries including Brazil, Colombia, South Africa, Botswana, and Honduras can be found in this category. A Gini index value of 30% or above is considered medium; countries including Vietnam, Mexico, Poland, the United States, Argentina, Russia and Uruguay can be found in this category. A Gini index value lower than 30% is considered low; countries including Austria, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden, and Ukraine can be found in this category. In the low income inequality category (below 30%) is a wide representation of countries previously being part of Soviet Union or its satellites, like Slovakia, Czech Republic, Ukraine and Hungary.


title: Economic inequality

text: Income distribution can differ from wealth distribution within each country. The wealth inequality is also measured in Gini index. There the higher Gini index signify greater inequality within the wealth distribution in country, 0 means total wealth equality and 1 represents situation, where everyone has no wealth, except an individual that has everything.  For instance countries like Denmark, Norway and Netherlands, all belonging to the last category (below 30%, low income inequality) also have very high Gini index in wealth distribution, ranging from 70% up to 90%.


title: Economic inequality

text: There are various reasons for economic inequality within societies, including both global market functions (such as trade, development, and regulation) as well as social factors (including gender, race, and education). Recent growth in overall income inequality, at least within the OECD countries, has been driven mostly by increasing inequality in wages and salaries.


title: Economic inequality

text: Economist Thomas Piketty argues that widening economic disparity is an inevitable phenomenon of free market capitalism when the rate of return of capital (r) is greater than the rate of growth of the economy (g).


title: Economic inequality

text: In modern market economies, if competition is imperfect; information unevenly distributed; opportunities to acquire education and skills unequal; market failure results. Many such imperfect conditions exist in virtually every market. According to Joseph Stiglitz this means that there is an enormous potential role for government to correct such market failures.


title: Economic inequality

text: In the United States, real wages are flat over the past 40 years for occupations across income and education levels, e.g. auto mechanics, cashiers, doctors, and software engineers. However, stock ownership favors higher income and education levels, thereby resulting in disparate investment income.


title: Economic inequality

text: Another cause is the rate at which income is taxed coupled with the progressivity of the tax system. A progressive tax is a tax by which the tax rate increases as the taxable base amount increases. In a progressive tax system, the level of the top tax rate will often have a direct impact on the level of inequality within a society, either increasing it or decreasing it, provided that income does not change as a result of the change in tax regime. Additionally, steeper tax progressivity applied to social spending can result in a more equal distribution of income across the board. Tax credits such as the Earned Income Tax Credit in the US can also decrease income inequality. The difference between the Gini index for an income distribution before taxation and the Gini index after taxation is an indicator for the effects of such taxation.


title: Economic inequality

text: An important factor in the creation of inequality is variation in individuals' access to education. Education, especially in an area where there is a high demand for workers, creates high wages for those with this education. However, increases in education first increase and then decrease growth as well as income inequality. As a result, those who are unable to afford an education, or choose not to pursue optional education, generally receive much lower wages. The justification for this is that a lack of education leads directly to lower incomes, and thus lower aggregate saving and investment. Conversely, quality education raises incomes and promotes growth because it helps to unleash the productive potential of the poor.


title: Economic inequality

text: Access to education was in turn influenced by land inequalities. In the less industrialized parts of 19th century Europe, for example, landowners still held more political power than industrialists. These landowners did not benefit from educating their workers as much as industrialists did, since "educated workers have more incentives to migrate to urban, industrial areas than their less educated counterparts." Consequently, lower incentives to promote education in regions where land inequality was high led to lower levels of numeracy in these regions.


title: Economic inequality

text: John Schmitt and Ben Zipperer (2006) of the CEPR point to economic liberalism and the reduction of business regulation along with the decline of union membership as one of the causes of economic inequality. In an analysis of the effects of intensive Anglo-American liberal policies in comparison to continental European liberalism, where unions have remained strong, they concluded "The U.S. economic and social model is associated with substantial levels of social exclusion, including high levels of income inequality, high relative and absolute poverty rates, poor and unequal educational outcomes, poor health outcomes, and high rates of crime and incarceration. At the same time, the available evidence provides little support for the view that U.S.-style labor market flexibility dramatically improves labor-market outcomes. Despite popular prejudices to the contrary, the U.S. economy consistently affords a lower level of economic mobility than all the continental European countries for which data is available."


title: Economic inequality

text: More recently, the International Monetary Fund has published studies which found that the decline of unionization in many advanced economies and the establishment of neoliberal economics have fueled rising income inequality.


title: Economic inequality

text: The growth in importance of information technology has been credited with increasing income inequality. Technology has been called "the main driver of the recent increases in inequality" by Erik Brynjolfsson, of MIT. In arguing against this explanation, Jonathan Rothwell notes that if technological advancement is measured by high rates of invention, there is a negative correlation between it and inequality. Countries with high invention rates — "as measured by patent applications filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty" — exhibit lower inequality than those with less. In one country, the United States, "salaries of engineers and software developers rarely reach" above $390,000/year (the lower limit for the top 1% earners).


title: Economic inequality

text: Some researchers, such as Juliet B. Schor, highlight the role of for-profit online sharing economy platforms as an accelerator of income inequality and calls into question their supposed contribution in empowering outsiders of the labour market.


title: Economic inequality

text: Taking the example of TaskRabbit, a labour service platform, she shows that a large proportion of providers already have a stable full-time job and participate part-time in the platform as an opportunity to increase their income by diversifying their activities outside employment, which tends to restrict the volume of work remaining for the minority of platform workers.