title: White-collar crime

text: The term "white-collar crime" refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. It was first defined by the sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 as "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation". Typical white-collar crimes could include wage theft, fraud, bribery, Ponzi schemes, insider trading, labor racketeering, embezzlement, cybercrime, copyright infringement, money laundering, identity theft, and forgery. White-collar crime overlaps with corporate crime.


title: White-collar crime

text: The types of crime committed are a function of what is available to the potential offender. Thus, those employed in relatively unskilled environments have fewer opportunities to exploit than those who work in situations where large financial transactions occur. Blue-collar crime tends to be more obvious and thus attracts more active police attention such as vandalism or shoplifting. In contrast, white-collar employees can incorporate legitimate and criminal behavior, thus making themselves less obvious when committing the crime. Therefore, blue-collar crime will more often use physical force, whereas in the corporate world, the identification of a victim is less obvious and the issue of reporting is complicated by a culture of commercial confidentiality to protect shareholder value. It is estimated that a great deal of white-collar crime is undetected or, if detected, it is not reported.


title: White-collar crime

text: Corporate crime benefits the corporation (company or other type of business organization), rather than individuals. It may, however, result from decisions of high-ranking individuals within the corporation. Corporations are not, unlike individuals, litigated in criminal courts, which means the term "crime" does not really apply. Litigation usually takes place in civil courts or by institutions with jurisdiction over specific types of offences, such as the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission that litigates violations of financial market and investment statutes.


title: White-collar crime

text: The negotiation of agreements between a state and a corporation will be at a relatively senior level on both sides, this is almost exclusively a white-collar "situation" which offers the opportunity for crime. Although law enforcement claims to have prioritized white-collar crime, evidence shows that it continues to be a low priority.


title: White-collar crime

text: When senior levels of a corporation engage in criminal activity using the company this is sometimes called control fraud.


title: White-collar crime

text: Organized transnational crime is organized criminal activity that takes place across national jurisdictions, and with advances in transportation and information technology, law enforcement officials and policymakers have needed to respond to this form of crime on a global scale. Some examples include human trafficking, money laundering, drug smuggling, illegal arms dealing, terrorism, and cybercrime. Although it is impossible to precisely gauge transnational crime, the Millennium Project, an international think tank, assembled statistics on several aspects of transnational crime in 2009:


title: White-collar crime

text: Individuals may commit crime during employment or unemployment. The two most common forms are theft and fraud. Theft can be of varying degrees, from a pencil to furnishings to a car. Insider trading, the trading of stock by someone with access to publicly unavailable information, is a type of fraud.


title: White-collar crime

text: The crimes related to the national interests consist mainly of treason. In the modern world, there are a lot of nations which divide the crimes into some laws. "Crimes Related to Inducement of Foreign Aggression" is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. "Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression" is the treason of co-operating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside. "Crimes Related to Insurrection" is the internal treason. Depending on a country, criminal conspiracy is added to these. One example is Jho Low, a mega thief and traitor who stole billions in USA currency from a Malaysian government fund and is now on a run as a fugitive.


title: White-collar crime

text: According to a 2016 study, A considerable percentage of white-collar offenders are gainfully employed middle-aged Caucasian men who usually commit their first whitecollar offense sometime between their late thirties through their mid-forties and appear to have middle-class backgrounds. Most have some higher education, are married, and have moderate to strong ties to community, family, and religious organizations. Whitecollar offenders usually have a criminal history, including infractions that span the spectrum of illegality, but many do not overindulge in vice. Recent research examining the five-factor personality trait model determined that white-collar offenders tend to be more neurotic and less agreeable and conscientious than their non-criminal counterparts.


title: White-collar crime

text: In the United States, sentences for white-collar crimes may include a combination of imprisonment, fines, restitution, community service, disgorgement, probation, or other alternative punishment. These punishments grew harsher after the Jeffrey Skilling and Enron scandal, when the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by President George W. Bush, defining new crimes and increasing the penalties for crimes such as mail and wire fraud. Sometimes punishment for these crimes could be hard to determine due to the fact that convincing the courts that what the offender has done is challenging within itself. In other countries, such as China, white-collar criminals can be given the death penalty under aggravating circumstances, yet some countries have a maximum of 10–25 years imprisonment. Certain countries like Canada consider the relationship between the parties to be a significant feature on sentence when there is a breach of trust component involved. Questions about sentencing disparity in white-collar crime continue to be debated. The FBI, concerned with identifying this type of offense, collects annual statistical information on only three categories: fraud, counterfeiting/forgery, and embezzlement. All other types of white-collar crime are listed in a "miscellaneous" category.


title: White-collar crime

text: In the United States, the longest sentences for white-collar crimes have been for the following: Sholam Weiss (845 years for racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering in connection with the collapse of National Heritage Life Insurance Company); Norman Schmidt and Charles Lewis (330 years and 30 years, respectively, for "high-yield investment" scheme); Bernard Madoff (150 years for $65 billion fraud scheme); Frederick Brandau (55 years for $117 million Ponzi scheme); Eduardo Masferrer (30 years for accounting fraud); Chalana McFarland (30 years for mortgage fraud scheme); Lance Poulsen (30 years for $2.9 billion fraud).


title: White-collar crime

text: From the perspective of an offender, the easiest targets to entrap in "white collar" crime are those with certain degree of vulnerability or those with symbolic or emotional value to the offender. Examples of these people can be family members, clients, and close friends who are wrapped up in personal or business proceedings with the offender. The way that most criminal operations are conducted is through a series of different particular techniques. In this case, a technique is a certain way to complete a desired task. When one is committing a crime, whether it be shoplifting or tax fraud, it is always easier to successfully pull off the task with experience in the technique. Shoplifters who are experienced at stealing in plain sight are much more successful than those who do not know how to steal. The major difference between a shoplifter and someone committing a white collar crime is that the techniques used are not physical but instead consist of acts like talking on the phone, writing, and entering data.


title: White-collar crime

text: Often these criminals utilize the "blame game theory", a theory in which certain strategies are utilized by an organization or business and its members in order to strategically shift blame by pushing responsibility to others or denying misconduct. This theory is particularly used in terms of organizations and indicates that offenders often do not take blame for their actions. Many members of organizations will try to absolve themselves of responsibility when things go wrong.


title: White-collar crime

text: Forbes Magazine lays out four theories for what leads a criminal to commit a "white collar" crime. The first is that there are poorly designed job incentives for the criminal. Most finance professionals are given a certain type of compensation or reward for short-term mass profits. If a company incentivizes an employee to help commit a crime, such as assisting in a Ponzi Scheme, many employees will partake in order to receive the reward or compensation. Often, this compensation is given in the form of a cash "bonus" on top of their salaries. By doing a task in order to receive a reward, many employees feel as though they are not responsible for the crime, as they have not ordered it. The "blame game theory" comes into play as those being asked to carry out the illegal activities feel as though they can place the blame on their bosses instead of themselves. The second theory is that the company's management is very relaxed when it comes to enforcing ethics. If unethical practices are already a commonplace in the business, employees will see that as a "green light" to conduct unethical and unlawful business practices to further the business. This idea also ties into Forbes' third theory, that most stock traders see unethical practices as harmless. Many see white collar crime as a victimless crime, which is not necessarily true. Since many of these stock traders cannot see the victims of their crimes, it seems as if it hurts no one. The last theory is that many firms have unrealistic, large goals. They preach the mentality that employees should "do what it takes".


title: Universal's Epic Universe

text: Universal's Epic Universe is an upcoming theme park being constructed as part of the Universal Orlando Resort in Orlando, Florida. Its construction was announced in August 2019 but was delayed in April 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Most of the construction paused in July 2020 for nearly a year before being restarted in March 2021.


title: Universal's Epic Universe

text: The theme park will be located a few miles south from the existing resort, within a larger site south of Sand Lake Road and east of Universal Boulevard.


title: Universal's Epic Universe

text: NBCUniversal announced on August 1, 2019, that it was building a third theme park as part of the Universal Orlando Resort. Without releasing details, Tom Williams, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Universal Parks & Resorts, said Epic Universe would be the company's "most immersive and innovative theme park." Comcast and NBCUniversal officials said it would create an additional 14,000 jobs, including professional, technical, culinary and other specialized positions. A possible opening date for the park was not immediately announced.


title: Universal's Epic Universe

text: The project was delayed indefinitely in July 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but on March 3, 2021, Comcast announced the immediate restart of construction. On January 27, 2022, Jeff Shell, CEO of NBCUniversal, stated during an earnings call that the park would be opening Summer 2025. This was hinted at by the resort's official Twitter shortly thereafter.


title: Universal's Epic Universe

text: Concept art released by Universal during the official announcement in August 2019 left details purposefully vauge. However, several years worth of leaked patents and construction photos have confirmed the presence of: Universal Classic Monsters, How to Train Your Dragon, Super Nintendo World, and Wizarding World themed immersive areas. These documents have also provided details about the celestial themed hub, which will include a duel-track rollercoaster, shops, restaurants, and a 10-story hotel that will directly connect into the hub.


title: Universal's Epic Universe

text: On January 24, 2020, a Comcast executive confirmed the rumors that a Super Nintendo World themed area would be included in the park.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered an anaerobic process. It also takes place in some species of fish (including goldfish and carp) where (along with lactic acid fermentation) it provides energy when oxygen is scarce.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: The chemical equations below summarize the fermentation of sucrose (CHO) into ethanol (CHOH). Alcoholic fermentation converts one mole of glucose into two moles of ethanol and two moles of carbon dioxide, producing two moles of ATP in the process.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Sucrose is a sugar composed of a glucose linked to a fructose. In the first step of alcoholic fermentation, the enzyme invertase cleaves the glycosidic linkage between the glucose and fructose molecules.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Next, each glucose molecule is broken down into two pyruvate molecules in a process known as glycolysis. Glycolysis is summarized by the equation:


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: CHCOCOO is pyruvate, and P is inorganic phosphate. Finally, pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO in two steps, regenerating oxidized NAD+ needed for glycolysis:


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: As shown by the reaction equation, glycolysis causes the reduction of two molecules of NAD to NADH. Two ADP molecules are also converted to two ATP and two water molecules via substrate-level phosphorylation.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Fermentation of sugar to ethanol and can also be done by "Zymomonas mobilis", however the path is slightly different since formation of pyruvate does not happen by glycolysis but instead by the Entner–Doudoroff pathway.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Other microorganisms can produce ethanol from sugars by fermentation but often only as a side product. Examples are


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Fermentation does not require oxygen. If oxygen is present, some species of yeast (e.g., "Kluyveromyces lactis" or "Kluyveromyces lipolytica") will oxidize pyruvate completely to carbon dioxide and water in a process called cellular respiration, hence these species of yeast will produce ethanol only in an anaerobic environment (not cellular respiration). This phenomenon is known as the Pasteur effect.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: However, many yeasts such as the commonly used baker's yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" or fission yeast "Schizosaccharomyces pombe" under certain conditions, ferment rather than respire even in the presence of oxygen. In wine making this is known as the counter-Pasteur effect. These yeasts will produce ethanol even under aerobic conditions, if they are provided with the right kind of nutrition. During batch fermentation, the rate of ethanol production per milligram of cell protein is maximal for a brief period early in this process and declines progressively as ethanol accumulates in the surrounding broth. Studies demonstrate that the removal of this accumulated ethanol does not immediately restore fermentative activity, and they provide evidence that the decline in metabolic rate is due to physiological changes (including possible ethanol damage) rather than to the presence of ethanol. Several potential causes for the decline in fermentative activity have been investigated. Viability remained at or above 90%, internal pH remained near neutrality, and the specific activities of the glycolytic and alcohologenic enzymes (measured in vitro) remained high throughout batch fermentation. None of these factors appears to be causally related to the fall in fermentative activity during batch fermentation.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Ethanol fermentation causes bread dough to rise. Yeast organisms consume sugars in the dough and produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products. The carbon dioxide forms bubbles in the dough, expanding it to a foam. Less than 2% ethanol remains after baking.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: In all cases, fermentation must take place in a vessel that allows carbon dioxide to escape but prevents outside air from coming in. This is to reduce risk of contamination of the brew by unwanted bacteria or mold and because a buildup of carbon dioxide creates a risk the vessel will rupture or fail, possibly causing injury or property damage.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Yeast fermentation of various carbohydrate products is also used to produce the ethanol that is added to gasoline.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: The dominant ethanol feedstock in warmer regions is sugarcane. In temperate regions, corn or sugar beets are used.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: In the United States, the main feedstock for the production of ethanol is currently corn. Approximately 2.8 gallons of ethanol are produced from one bushel of corn (0.42 liter per kilogram). While much of the corn turns into ethanol, some of the corn also yields by-products such as DDGS (distillers dried grains with solubles) that can be used as feed for livestock. A bushel of corn produces about 18 pounds of DDGS (320 kilograms of DDGS per metric ton of maize). Although most of the fermentation plants have been built in corn-producing regions, sorghum is also an important feedstock for ethanol production in the Plains states. Pearl millet is showing promise as an ethanol feedstock for the southeastern U.S. and the potential of duckweed is being studied.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: In some parts of Europe, particularly France and Italy, grapes have become a "de facto" feedstock for fuel ethanol by the distillation of surplus wine. Surplus sugary drinks may also be used. In Japan, it has been proposed to use rice normally made into sake as an ethanol source.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Ethanol can be made from mineral oil or from sugars or starches. Starches are cheapest. The starchy crop with highest energy content per acre is cassava, which grows in tropical countries.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Thailand already had a large cassava industry in the 1990s, for use as cattle feed and as a cheap admixture to wheat flour. Nigeria and Ghana are already establishing cassava-to-ethanol plants. Production of ethanol from cassava is currently economically feasible when crude oil prices are above US$120 per barrel.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Currently, cassava can yield between 25 and 40 tonnes per hectare (with irrigation and fertilizer), and from a tonne of cassava roots, circa 200 liters of ethanol can be produced (assuming cassava with 22% starch content). A liter of ethanol contains circa 21.46 MJ of energy. The overall energy efficiency of cassava-root to ethanol conversion is circa 32%.


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: The yeast used for processing cassava is "Endomycopsis fibuligera", sometimes used together with bacterium "Zymomonas mobilis".


title: Ethanol fermentation

text: Ethanol fermentation produces unharvested byproducts such as heat, carbon dioxide, food for livestock, water, methanol, fuels, fertilizer and alcohols. The cereal unfermented solid residues from the fermentation process, which can be used as livestock feed or in the production of biogas, are referred to as Distillers grains and sold as WDG, "Wet Distiller's grains", and DDGS, "Dried Distiller's Grains with Solubles", respectively.


title: Cream soda

text: Cream soda (also known as creme soda or creaming soda) is a sweet soft drink. Generally flavored with vanilla and based on the taste of an Ice cream float, a wide range of variations can be found worldwide.


title: Cream soda

text: A recipe for cream soda written by E. M. Sheldon and published in "Michigan Farmer" in 1852 called for water, cream of tartar (Potassium bitartrate), Epsom salts, sugar, egg, and milk, to be mixed, then heated, and mixed when cool with water and a quarter teaspoonful of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) to make an effervescent drink. It was suggested as a temperance drink preferable to those of "Uncle Bacchus" and in compliance with the recently introduced Maine law.


title: Cream soda

text: Alexander C. Howell, of Vienna, New Jersey, was granted a patent for "cream soda-water" on June 27, 1865. Howell's cream soda-water was made with sodium bicarbonate, water, sugar, egg whites, wheat flour, and "any of the usual flavoring materials—such as oil of lemon, extracts of vanilla, pine-apple, to suit the taste". Before drinking, the cream soda-water was mixed with water and an acid such as tartaric acid or citric acid. In Canada, James William Black of Berwick, Nova Scotia was granted a U.S. patent on December 8, 1885, and a Canadian patent on July 5, 1886, for "ice-cream soda". Black's ice-cream soda, which contained whipped egg whites, sugar, lime juice, lemons, citric acid, flavoring, and bicarbonate of soda, was a concentrated syrup that could be reconstituted into an effervescent beverage by adding ordinary ice water.


title: Cream soda

text: In the United States, cream soda is often vanilla-flavored and is either clear or colored a light golden brown. Red, pink, orange, and blue colored variants of the plain soda are also made.


title: Cream soda

text: Another variety is referred to as Italian cream soda. Despite the name, this drink originated in the US, not in Italy. The name is due to it being a form of Italian soda. Italian cream soda is usually made of a mixture of carbonated water, vanilla syrup, and added half and half or cream. Ratios vary widely, but the taste is usually that of sweetened, flavored milk.


title: Cream soda

text: In Canada, cream soda is mostly pink (except in Quebec and Newfoundland, where it is sold clear). Some brands, such as Fanta, market a colourless version. Many brands have a long-lasting, foamy head.


title: Cream soda

text: Cream soda is usually served as a "red pop", particularly Fanta's Red Cream Soda. Champagne cola (also spelled "kola"), a soft drink similar to cream soda, is ubiquitous across the region. In the Caribbean there are several popular brands of clear, vanilla-flavoured cream soda.


title: Cream soda

text: In Australia, two distinctly different flavoured sodas exist. Creamy soda or brown cream soda is vanilla flavoured, whereas creaming soda refers to a pink soft drink also featuring vanilla flavours produced by Kirks, Bundaberg, and Bickford's, among other brands. Another local variant produced by Golden Circle is vanilla and fruit-flavoured, and coloured yellow to distinguish it from existing brands. More traditional brown varieties are also available, but less common. Brands include Kirks' Sno Drop (only available in South Australia, Victoria, and the Northern Territory), Tarax, River Port, Saxby's, Bert's Snowette (the original recipe of Shelley's Snowcap (Snowcap Champagne) before the line was acquired) and Schweppes, which also produce a red variety as part of its "Traditionals" range.


title: Cream soda

text: The term "creaming soda" is generally used to refer to the drink itself, the combination of soda and ice-cream is called a spider.


title: Cream soda

text: This is known as creaming soda, ice cream soda, chill drink, or cream soda, though the flavour changes are negligible. It is usually a bright yellow colour or a white opaque. It is one of the many flavours sold by Foxton Fizz. It is also one of the many carbonated drink-flavours offered by Golden Circle.


title: Cream soda

text: A brand called UGGO is sold in the Netherlands. There is a wide variety of tastes available. Asian (especially Chinese) supermarkets also sell Schweppes Cream Soda, which is imported from Hong Kong. A&W is sold in some supermarkets.


title: Cream soda

text: Ireland has a brand of clear vanilla-flavoured cream soda called Country Spring.. Country Spring was a soft drinks brand made by the , a company which was in turn purchased by in 2012 . Cream Soda made by A.G. Barr is also widely sold and consumed there.


title: Cream soda

text: In the UK, A.G. Barr and Ben Shaw's (a Cott brand), manufacture their own brands of cream soda, which are both clear and vanilla-flavoured and some supermarket chains sell it under their respective own brands.


title: Cream soda

text: A brand called Sun'n Cream Soda is made by Finnish brewery Nokian Panimo. They also have a variation called Orange Cream Soda, with a hint of orange taste.


title: Cream soda

text: In Hong Kong, the Swire Coca-Cola Company markets a yellow Schweppes Cream Soda. Some people enjoy cream soda in a 1:1 ratio with fresh milk.


title: Cream soda

text: In Japan, "cream soda" () is a term used for an ice cream float made with melon-flavored soda () topped with a scoop of vanilla ice cream.


title: Cream soda

text: In Sri Lanka, Elephant House Cream Soda is the most popular soft drink. Coca-Cola Beverages Sri Lanka launched their newest flavor, Fanta Cream Soda, in July 2009.


title: Cream soda

text: In Thailand, Hale's Trading produces Hale's Blue Boy Brand Cream Soda Flavoured Syrup, a green colored, rose/floral flavored cordial. This is mixed 1 part to 4 parts water/soda water to get a cream soda drink, very similar to the South African Creme Soda, or is used as a flavoring in their shaved-ice desserts. This syrup is sold worldwide in some Asian food stores. PepsiCo's division in Thailand produces a green, cream-flavored soda under their brand name Mirinda.


title: Cream soda

text: In South Africa, Eswatini, and Zimbabwe, cream soda is sold under the label Sparletta Creme Soda, a product of the Coca-Cola company. It is green in color.


title: Bard

text: In Celtic cultures, a bard is a professional story teller, verse-maker, music composer, oral historian and genealogist, employed by a patron (such as a monarch or chieftain) to commemorate one or more of the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities.


title: Bard

text: With the decline of a living bardic tradition in the modern period, the term has loosened to mean a generic minstrel or author (especially a famous one). For example, William Shakespeare and Rabindranath Tagore are respectively known as "the Bard of Avon" (often simply "the Bard") and "the Bard of Bengal". In 16th-century Scotland, it turned into a derogatory term for an itinerant musician; nonetheless it was later romanticised by Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832).


title: Bard

text: The English term "bard" is a loan word from the Celtic languages: Gaulish: "bardo-" ('bard, poet'), and ('bard, poet'), ('singer, poet'), Middle Breton: "barz" ('minstrel'), Old Cornish: ('jester'). The ancient Gaulish *"bardos" is attested as (sing.) in Latin and as (plur.) in Ancient Greek. It also appears as a stem in "bardo-cucullus" ('bard's hood'), "bardo-magus" ('field of the bard'), "barditus" (a song to fire soldiers), and in "bardala" ('crested lark', a singing bird).


title: Bard

text: All of these terms come from the Proto-Celtic noun ('poet-singer, minstrel'), itself derived, with regular Celtic sound shift > , from the Proto-Indo-European compound "", which literally means 'praise-maker'. It is cognate with Sanskrit: ('calls, praise'), ('grateful, pleasant, delightful'), ('praise'), and Armenian: ('raise voice').


title: Bard

text: In the words of the Oxford English Dictionary, the bards were an "ancient Celtic order of minstrel-poets, whose primary function appears to have been to compose and sing (usually to the harp) verses celebrating the achievements of chiefs and warriors, and who committed to verse historical and traditional facts, religious precepts, laws, genealogies, etc."


title: Bard

text: In medieval Gaelic and Welsh society, a "bard" (Scottish and Irish Gaelic) or "bardd" (Welsh) was a professional poet, employed to compose elegies for his lord. If the employer failed to pay the proper amount, the bard would then compose a satire (c.f. "fili", "fáith"). In other Indo-European societies, the same function was fulfilled by skalds, rhapsodes, minstrels and "scops", among others. A hereditary caste of professional poets in Proto-Indo-European society has been reconstructed by comparison of the position of poets in medieval Ireland and in ancient India in particular.


title: Bard

text: Bards (who are not the same as the Irish or ) were those who sang the songs recalling the tribal warriors' deeds of bravery as well as the genealogies and family histories of the ruling strata among Celtic societies. The pre-Christian Celtic peoples recorded no written histories; however, Celtic peoples did maintain an intricate oral history committed to memory and transmitted by bards and filid. Bards facilitated the memorization of such materials by the use of metre, rhyme and other formulaic poetic devices.


title: Bard

text: In medieval Ireland, bards were one of two distinct groups of poets, the other being the "fili". According to the Early Irish law text on status, "Uraicecht Becc", bards were a lesser class of poets, not eligible for higher poetic roles as described above. However, it has also been argued that the distinction between "filid" (pl. of "fili") and bards was a creation of Christian Ireland, and that the "filid" were more associated with the church. By the Early Modern Period, these names came to be used interchangeably.


title: Bard

text: Irish bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly trained, learned poets. The bards were steeped in the history and traditions of clan and country, as well as in the technical requirements of a verse technique that was syllabic and used assonance, half rhyme and alliteration, among other conventions. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles. They were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them. It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, , could raise boils on the face of its target.


title: Bard

text: The bardic system lasted until the mid-17th century in Ireland and the early 18th century in Scotland. In Ireland, their fortunes had always been linked to the Gaelic aristocracy, which declined along with them during the Tudor Reconquest.


title: Bard

text: The early history of the bards can be known only indirectly through mythological stories. The first mention of the bardic profession in Ireland is found in the Book of Invasions, in a story about the Irish colony of Tuatha Dé Danann (Peoples of Goddess Danu), also called Danonians. They became the "aos sí" (folk of the mound), comparable to Norse "alfr" and British fairy. During the tenth year of the reign of the last Belgic monarch, the people of the colony of Tuatha Dé Danann, as the Irish called it, invaded and settled in Ireland. They were divided into three tribes—the tribe of Tuatha who were the nobility, the tribe of De who were the priests (those devoted to serving God or De) and the tribe of Danann, who were the bards. This account of the Tuatha Dé Danann must be considered legendary; however the story was an integral part of the oral history of Irish bards themselves. One of the most notable bards in Irish mythology was Amergin Glúingel, a bard, druid and judge for the Milesians.


title: Bard

text: The best-known group of bards in Scotland were the members of the MacMhuirich family, who flourished from the 15th to the 18th centuries. The family was centred in the Hebrides, and claimed descent from a 13th-century Irish bard who, according to legend, was exiled to Scotland. The family was at first chiefly employed by the Lords of the Isles as poets, lawyers, and physicians. With the fall of the Lordship of the Isles in the 15th century, the family was chiefly employed by the chiefs of the MacDonalds of Clanranald. Members of the family were also recorded as musicians in the early 16th century, and as clergymen possibly as early as the early 15th century. The last of the family to practise classical Gaelic poetry was Domhnall MacMhuirich, who lived on South Uist in the 18th century.


title: Bard

text: In Gaelic-speaking areas, a village bard or village poet () is a local poet who composes works in a traditional style relating to that community. Notable village bards include Dòmhnall Ruadh Chorùna and .


title: Bard

text: A number of bards in Welsh mythology have been preserved in medieval Welsh literature such as the Red Book of Hergest, the White Book of Rhydderch, the Book of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin. The bards Aneirin and Taliesin may be legendary reflections of historical bards active in the 6th and 7th centuries. Very little historical information about Dark Age Welsh court tradition survives, but the Middle Welsh material came to be the nucleus of the Matter of Britain and Arthurian legend as they developed from the 13th century. The (Welsh) Laws of Hywel Dda, originally compiled around 900, identify a bard as a member of a king's household. His duties, when the bodyguard were sharing out booty, included the singing of the sovereignty of Britain—possibly why the genealogies of the British high kings survived into the written historical record.


title: Bard

text: The royal form of bardic tradition ceased in the 13th century, when the 1282 Edwardian conquest permanently ended the rule of the Welsh princes. The legendary suicide of "The Last Bard" (c. 1283), was commemorated in the poem "The Bards of Wales" by the Hungarian poet János Arany in 1857, as a way of encoded resistance to the suppressive politics of his own time. However, the poetic and musical traditions were continued throughout the Middle Ages, e.g., by noted 14th-century poets Dafydd ap Gwilym and Iolo Goch. The tradition of regularly assembling bards at an eisteddfod never lapsed, and was strengthened by formation of the Gorsedd by Iolo Morganwg in 1792, establishing Wales as the major Celtic upholder of bardic tradition in the 21st century. Many regular "eisteddfodau" are held in Wales, including the National Eisteddfod of Wales (), which was instituted in 1861 and has been held annually since 1880. Many Welsh schools conduct their own annual versions at which bardic traditions are emulated.


title: Bard

text: From its Romanticist usage, the notion of the bard as a minstrel with qualities of a priest, magician or seer also entered the fantasy genre in the 1960s to 1980s, for example as the 'Bard' class in Dungeons & Dragons and Pathfinder, "Bard" by Keith Taylor (1981), "" by Morgan Llywelyn (1984), in video games in fantasy settings such as "The Bard's Tale" (1985), and in modern literature and TV like The Witcher books by Andrzej Sapkowski(1986–2013) show by Lauren Schmidt Hissrich (2019).


title: Bard

text: As of 2020, an online trend to cover modern songs using medieval style musical instruments and composition, including rewriting the lyrics in a medieval style, is known as bardcore.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: Mark Linn-Baker (born June 17, 1954) is an American actor and director who played Benjy Stone in the film "My Favorite Year" and Larry Appleton in the television sitcom "Perfect Strangers".


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: Mark Linn-Baker was born with the given names Mark Linn and the surname Baker in St. Louis, Missouri. He later changed his surname to a compound surname by hyphenating his middle name Linn with his surname Baker, producing Linn-Baker. His mother, Joan (née Sparks), was a dancer, and his father, William Nelson Baker, co-founded the Open Stage Theater in Hartford. His parents were both active in theatre and participated in civil rights activism. He graduated from Wethersfield High School in Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1972, and from Yale University in 1976. He then attended the Yale School of Drama, receiving a MFA in Drama in 1979, and following that, found most of his early roles on stage.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: He developed and performed in a two-man comedy show, "The Laundry Hour", with Lewis Black, in the early 1980s.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: He appeared in the 1983 Broadway version of the "Doonesbury" comic strip. He appeared in "Laughter on the 23rd Floor" in 1993; the 1996 revival of "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum"; the 1998 Roundabout Theatre Company production of "A Flea in Her Ear"; the 2003 musical "A Year with Frog and Toad"; and the 2006 comedy "Losing Louie".


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: His film debut was a small part in Woody Allen's 1979 film "Manhattan". The majority of Linn-Baker's scenes were cut from the film. Three years later, he landed a far more memorable film role partly inspired by Allen himself, playing Benjy Stone in the 1982 comedy film "My Favorite Year" alongside Peter O'Toole. In a manner similar to his future role in "Perfect Strangers", Linn-Baker played the straight man to O'Toole's outrageous character, Alan Swann.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: Having attained success on stage and the big screen, Linn-Baker began to turn his sights toward television. In 1983, he appeared in an unsold detective show pilot called "O'Malley". The following year saw a role on the television movie, "The Ghost Writer", and in the summer series, "The Comedy Zone". Soon, Linn-Baker was appearing in several high-profile television shows. He guest-starred on a 1984 episode of "Miami Vice" as Bonzo Barry and portrayed hapless office worker Phil West on a 1985 episode of "Moonlighting" titled "Atlas Belched". Linn-Baker starred with Charles Kimbrough in the 1985 CBS pilot "The Recovery Room", a sitcom about a bar located across from a major city hospital and its inhabitants. Airing as a special that summer, the pilot did not lead to a regular series. Between parts, Linn-Baker also appeared during this time in television commercials pitching products ranging from Kellogg's Nutri-Grain to Kraft's Life Savers.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: Linn-Baker starred in the ABC series "Perfect Strangers" as Larry Appleton, a young man living on his own for the first time in Chicago. Larry's world was disrupted when a distant cousin from the (fictional) Mediterranean island of Mypos, Balki Bartokomous (Bronson Pinchot), showed up on his doorstep. Storylines revolved around Larry's attempts to show Balki the ways of American culture, although the neurotic Larry frequently proved to be just as naive as Balki. The series ran for eight seasons. Later, he appeared in Peter Bogdanovich's 1992 film "Noises Off".


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: In 2005, he was a regular cast member on the WB Network sitcom "Twins", which was canceled after a single season. He also appeared in the 2010 film "How Do You Know" as Ron. In 2011, he starred in his sixth Broadway show "Relatively Speaking" in a one-act play by Woody Allen. He previously appeared opposite Nathan Lane in "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum". In 2016 he appeared off-Broadway as Sir Peter Teazle in "The School for Scandal" at the Lucille Lortel Theatre. As of 2017 he is playing the role of Carlton Miller, aide to Mayor Margaret Dutton (Lorraine Bracco) on the CBS police procedural drama "Blue Bloods".


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: On a 1992 episode of "Full House", Linn-Baker played Dick Donaldson, the wealthy, snobbish cousin of Becky Donaldson Katsopolis (Lori Loughlin). In 1997, he guest starred on "Family Matters" as the abusive boss of Harriette Winslow (Jo Marie Payton). Linn-Baker guested three times on "Hangin' with Mr. Cooper" as Larry Weeks. Additionally, he appeared on an episode of "Law & Order" as a strip club owner being extorted by the Mob. In a 1997 episode of "Sesame Street", he had a guest role as a veterinarian examining a sick—and invisible—Barkley.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: Linn-Baker also directed numerous episodes of "Family Matters", "Hangin' with Mr. Cooper", "Step By Step" and "The Trouble with Larry". He appeared as a spokesperson for Peter Pan peanut butter in a series of commercials in the late 1980s and 1990s.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: On a 2003 episode of "", he guested as an insurance investigator named Wally Stevens who displays strong Asperger's Syndrome traits. He gets a degree of empathy from Det. Robert Goren and a number of behind-his-back snickers from Goren's partner Alexandra Eames. His character made a return cameo appearance in the season 6 episode "", where it was revealed Goren has kept in touch with the character through correspondence. In season 2, episode 14 ("Probability"), the last line spoken by Eames is "I'm sure he'd like a pen pal."


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: Linn-Baker provided the voice for one of a quartet of aardvarks in the 2002 Sandra Boynton album "Philadelphia Chickens". The other three were voiced by Joe Grifasi, Michael Gross, and Devin McEwan.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: He joined his friend, fellow Yale Drama School graduate and former sidekick Lewis Black, on the audiobook version of Black's second book "Me of Little Faith" where he and Black recreate "The Laundry Hour", an act they did in New York City in the early 1980s. He guest-stars in several episodes of the children's TV show "The Electric Company" in February–March 2009 as "Uncle Sigmund Scrambler".


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: In 2009, he appeared in an episode of the U.S. version of "Life on Mars", playing a character who collected women's underwear that he later used for masturbation. In 2010, he appeared in an episode of "Law & Order", "The Taxman Cometh", as Dr. Vincent Balicheck, a physician who used controversial therapies on cancer patients which resulted in their deaths.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: Linn-Baker and "Perfect Strangers" are referenced in the HBO TV series "The Leftovers", which takes place after a fictional global event called the Sudden Departure, the inexplicable, simultaneous disappearance of 140 million people, 2% of the world's population. Within the show, the entire cast of "Perfect Strangers" has departed, except for Linn-Baker, who has faked his own departure and escaped to Mexico. Linn-Baker appears, as a fictional version of himself, in the episodes "Axis Mundi" and "Don't Be Ridiculous."


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: In 2009, he had a recurring guest-starring role in the revival of "The Electric Company", and in 2017, he started a recurring role on the CBS drama "Blue Bloods" as Deputy NYC mayor Carlton Miller. In 2019, he appeared as Josh's father Dave in the "Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt" episode "Kimmy is in a Love Square!" Also in 2019, he appeared in Season 6 (Episode 7) of "The Blacklist" as entomologist Dr. Jonathan Nikkila.


title: Mark Linn-Baker

text: In 1995, Linn-Baker married Adrianne Lobel, the daughter of children's book author Arnold Lobel, best known for his "Frog and Toad" series. They divorced after having one daughter. Linn-Baker helped adapt his father-in-law's stories into the Tony-nominated Broadway musical "A Year with Frog and Toad", in which Linn-Baker played Toad and Jay Goede played Frog. On December 29, 2012, Linn-Baker married actress Christa Justus.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: In thermodynamics, the Joule–Thomson effect (also known as the Joule–Kelvin effect or Kelvin–Joule effect) describes the temperature change of a "real" gas or liquid (as differentiated from an ideal gas) when it is forced through a valve or porous plug while keeping it insulated so that no heat is exchanged with the environment. This procedure is called a "throttling process" or "Joule–Thomson process". At room temperature, all gases except hydrogen, helium, and neon cool upon expansion by the Joule–Thomson process when being throttled through an orifice; these three gases experience the same effect but only at lower temperatures. Most liquids such as hydraulic oils will be warmed by the Joule–Thomson throttling process.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The gas-cooling throttling process is commonly exploited in refrigeration processes such as liquefiers in air separation industrial process. In hydraulics, the warming effect from Joule–Thomson throttling can be used to find internally leaking valves as these will produce heat which can be detected by thermocouple or thermal-imaging camera. Throttling is a fundamentally irreversible process. The throttling due to the flow resistance in supply lines, heat exchangers, regenerators, and other components of (thermal) machines is a source of losses that limits their performance.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The effect is named after James Prescott Joule and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, who discovered it in 1852. It followed upon earlier work by Joule on Joule expansion, in which a gas undergoes free expansion in a vacuum and the temperature is unchanged, if the gas is ideal.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The "adiabatic" (no heat exchanged) expansion of a gas may be carried out in a number of ways. The change in temperature experienced by the gas during expansion depends not only on the initial and final pressure, but also on the manner in which the expansion is carried out.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The temperature change produced during a Joule–Thomson expansion is quantified by the Joule–Thomson coefficient, formula_1. This coefficient may be either positive (corresponding to cooling) or negative (heating); the regions where each occurs for molecular nitrogen, N, are shown in the figure. Note that most conditions in the figure correspond to N being a supercritical fluid, where it has some properties of a gas and some of a liquid, but can not be really described as being either. The coefficient is negative at both very high and very low temperatures; at very high pressure it is negative at all temperatures. The maximum inversion temperature (621 K for N) occurs as zero pressure is approached. For N gas at low pressures, formula_1 is negative at high temperatures and positive at low temperatures. At temperatures below the gas-liquid coexistence curve, N condenses to form a liquid and the coefficient again becomes negative. Thus, for N gas below 621 K, a Joule–Thomson expansion can be used to cool the gas until liquid N forms.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: There are two factors that can change the temperature of a fluid during an adiabatic expansion: a change in internal energy or the conversion between potential and kinetic internal energy. Temperature is the measure of thermal kinetic energy (energy associated with molecular motion); so a change in temperature indicates a change in thermal kinetic energy. The internal energy is the sum of thermal kinetic energy and thermal potential energy. Thus, even if the internal energy does not change, the temperature can change due to conversion between kinetic and potential energy; this is what happens in a free expansion and typically produces a decrease in temperature as the fluid expands. If work is done on or by the fluid as it expands, then the total internal energy changes. This is what happens in a Joule–Thomson expansion and can produce larger heating or cooling than observed in a free expansion.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: where formula_5 is internal energy, formula_6 is pressure, and formula_7 is volume. Under the conditions of a Joule–Thomson expansion, the change in formula_8 represents the work done by the fluid (see the proof below). If formula_8 increases, with formula_3 constant, then formula_5 must decrease as a result of the fluid doing work on its surroundings. This produces a decrease in temperature and results in a positive Joule–Thomson coefficient. Conversely, a decrease in formula_8 means that work is done on the fluid and the internal energy increases. If the increase in kinetic energy exceeds the increase in potential energy, there will be an increase in the temperature of the fluid and the Joule–Thomson coefficient will be negative.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: For an ideal gas, formula_8 does not change during a Joule–Thomson expansion. As a result, there is no change in internal energy; since there is also no change in thermal potential energy, there can be no change in thermal kinetic energy and, therefore, no change in temperature. In real gases, formula_8 does change.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The ratio of the value of formula_8 to that expected for an ideal gas at the same temperature is called the compressibility factor, formula_16. For a gas, this is typically less than unity at low temperature and greater than unity at high temperature (see the discussion in compressibility factor). At low pressure, the value of formula_16 always moves towards unity as a gas expands. Thus at low temperature, formula_16 and formula_8 will increase as the gas expands, resulting in a positive Joule–Thomson coefficient. At high temperature, formula_16 and formula_8 decrease as the gas expands; if the decrease is large enough, the Joule–Thomson coefficient will be negative.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: For liquids, and for supercritical fluids under high pressure, formula_8 increases as pressure increases. This is due to molecules being forced together, so that the volume can barely decrease due to higher pressure. Under such conditions, the Joule–Thomson coefficient is negative, as seen in the figure above.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The physical mechanism associated with the Joule–Thomson effect is closely related to that of a shock wave, although a shock wave differs in that the change in bulk kinetic energy of the gas flow is not negligible.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The rate of change of temperature formula_23 with respect to pressure formula_6 in a Joule–Thomson process (that is, at constant enthalpy formula_3) is the "Joule–Thomson (Kelvin) coefficient" formula_1. This coefficient can be expressed in terms of the gas's volume formula_7, its heat capacity at constant pressure formula_28, and its coefficient of thermal expansion formula_29 as:


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: See the below for the proof of this relation. The value of formula_1 is typically expressed in °C/bar (SI units: K/Pa) and depends on the type of gas and on the temperature and pressure of the gas before expansion. Its pressure dependence is usually only a few percent for pressures up to 100 bar.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: All real gases have an "inversion point" at which the value of formula_1 changes sign. The temperature of this point, the "Joule–Thomson inversion temperature", depends on the pressure of the gas before expansion.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: In a gas expansion the pressure decreases, so the sign of formula_33 is negative by definition. With that in mind, the following table explains when the Joule–Thomson effect cools or warms a real gas:


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: Helium and hydrogen are two gases whose Joule–Thomson inversion temperatures at a pressure of one atmosphere are very low (e.g., about 45 K, −228 °C for helium). Thus, helium and hydrogen warm when expanded at constant enthalpy at typical room temperatures. On the other hand, nitrogen and oxygen, the two most abundant gases in air, have inversion temperatures of 621 K (348 °C) and 764 K (491 °C) respectively: these gases can be cooled from room temperature by the Joule–Thomson effect.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: For an ideal gas, formula_34 is always equal to zero: ideal gases neither warm nor cool upon being expanded at constant enthalpy.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: In practice, the Joule–Thomson effect is achieved by allowing the gas to expand through a throttling device (usually a valve) which must be very well insulated to prevent any heat transfer to or from the gas. No external work is extracted from the gas during the expansion (the gas must not be expanded through a turbine, for example).


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The cooling produced in the Joule–Thomson expansion makes it a valuable tool in refrigeration. The effect is applied in the Linde technique as a standard process in the petrochemical industry, where the cooling effect is used to liquefy gases, and also in many cryogenic applications (e.g. for the production of liquid oxygen, nitrogen, and argon). A gas must be below its inversion temperature to be liquefied by the Linde cycle. For this reason, simple Linde cycle liquefiers, starting from ambient temperature, cannot be used to liquefy helium, hydrogen, or neon. However, the Joule–Thomson effect can be used to liquefy even helium, provided that the helium gas is first cooled below its inversion temperature of 40 K.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: In thermodynamics so-called "specific" quantities are quantities per unit mass (kg) and are denoted by lower-case characters. So "h", "u", and "v" are the specific enthalpy, specific internal energy, and specific volume (volume per unit mass, or reciprocal density), respectively. In a Joule–Thomson process the specific enthalpy "h" remains constant. To prove this, the first step is to compute the net work done when a mass "m" of the gas moves through the plug. This amount of gas has a volume of "V" = "m" "v" in the region at pressure "P" (region 1) and a volume "V" = "m" "v" when in the region at pressure "P" (region 2). Then in region 1, the "flow work" done "on" the amount of gas by the rest of the gas is: W = "m" "P""v". In region 2, the work done "by" the amount of gas on the rest of the gas is: W = "m" "P""v". So, the total work done "on" the mass "m" of gas is


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The change in internal energy minus the total work done "on" the amount of gas is, by the first law of thermodynamics, the total heat supplied to the amount of gas.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: where "u" and "u" denote the specific internal energies of the gas in regions 1 and 2, respectively. Using the definition of the specific enthalpy "h = u + Pv", the above equation implies that


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: where h and "h" denote the specific enthalpies of the amount of gas in regions 1 and 2, respectively.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: A very convenient way to get a quantitative understanding of the throttling process is by using diagrams such as "h"-"T" diagrams, "h"-"P" diagrams, and others. Commonly used are the so-called "T"-"s" diagrams. Figure 2 shows the "T"-"s" diagram of nitrogen as an example. Various points are indicated as follows:


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: As shown before, throttling keeps "h" constant. E.g. throttling from 200 bar and 300K (point a in fig. 2) follows the isenthalpic (line of constant specific enthalpy) of 430kJ/kg. At 1 bar it results in point b which has a temperature of 270K. So throttling from 200 bar to 1 bar gives a cooling from room temperature to below the freezing point of water. Throttling from 200 bar and an initial temperature of 133K (point c in fig. 2) to 1 bar results in point d, which is in the two-phase region of nitrogen at a temperature of 77.2K. Since the enthalpy is an extensive parameter the enthalpy in d ("h") is equal to the enthalpy in e ("h") multiplied with the mass fraction of the liquid in d ("x") plus the enthalpy in f ("h") multiplied with the mass fraction of the gas in d (1 − "x"). So


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: With numbers: 150 = "x" 28 + (1 − "x") 230 so "x" is about 0.40. This means that the mass fraction of the liquid in the liquid–gas mixture leaving the throttling valve is 40%.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: It is difficult to think physically about what the Joule–Thomson coefficient, formula_1, represents. Also, modern determinations of formula_1 do not use the original method used by Joule and Thomson, but instead measure a different, closely related quantity. Thus, it is useful to derive relationships between formula_1 and other, more conveniently measured quantities, as described below.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The first step in obtaining these results is to note that the Joule–Thomson coefficient involves the three variables "T", "P", and "H". A useful result is immediately obtained by applying the cyclic rule; in terms of these three variables that rule may be written


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: Each of the three partial derivatives in this expression has a specific meaning. The first is formula_1, the second is the constant pressure heat capacity, formula_28, defined by


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: This last quantity is more easily measured than formula_1 . Thus, the expression from the cyclic rule becomes


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: This equation can be used to obtain Joule–Thomson coefficients from the more easily measured isothermal Joule–Thomson coefficient. It is used in the following to obtain a mathematical expression for the Joule–Thomson coefficient in terms of the volumetric properties of a fluid.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: To proceed further, the starting point is the fundamental equation of thermodynamics in terms of enthalpy; this is


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: The partial derivative on the left is the isothermal Joule–Thomson coefficient, formula_47, and the one on the right can be expressed in terms of the coefficient of thermal expansion via a Maxwell relation. The appropriate relation is


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: where "α" is the cubic coefficient of thermal expansion. Replacing these two partial derivatives yields


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: This provides an expression for the Joule–Thomson coefficient in terms of the commonly available properties heat capacity, molar volume, and thermal expansion coefficient. It shows that the Joule–Thomson inversion temperature, at which formula_1 is zero, occurs when the coefficient of thermal expansion is equal to the inverse of the temperature. Since this is true at all temperatures for ideal gases (see expansion in gases), the Joule–Thomson coefficient of an ideal gas is zero at all temperatures.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: It is easy to verify that for an ideal gas defined by suitable microscopic postulates that "αT" = 1, so the temperature change of such an ideal gas at a Joule–Thomson expansion is zero.


title: Joule–Thomson effect

text: This rule was originally found by Joule experimentally for real gases and is known as Joule's second law. More refined experiments found important deviations from it.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The Hyundai i20 is a supermini hatchback produced by Hyundai since 2008. The i20 made its debut at the Paris Motor Show in October 2008, and sits between the i10 and i30. The i20 replaces the Getz in nearly all of its markets, while several markets received the slightly larger Accent/Verna hatchback to replace it instead.


title: Hyundai i20

text: Currently, the largest markets for the i20 are Europe and India, with two models being developed to cater to each market.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The Hyundai i20 uses a completely new platform that was created at Hyundai's European technical centre in Rüsselsheim to allow Hyundai to move into Europe's highly competitive subcompact B segment. A wheelbase helps endow the i20 with a generous passenger cabin. Suspension follows the supermini norm of MacPherson struts at the front and a torsion beam rear end, with rack and pinion steering.


title: Hyundai i20

text: A slightly upgraded version of the i20, called the iGen i20, went on sale in India in March 2012 onward with tweaked headlamps, new front grille, tail lamps and fog lamps. It follows the "Fluidic Sculpture" design philosophy with slightly retuned engines. A new next generation model, known as Elite i20 in India, was launched in India on 11 August 2014 and in Europe in the 2014 Paris Motor Show.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The i20 was not sold in South Korea, North America and the Philippines as those markets have the Accent. The i20 was discontinued in the Indonesian market in 2012 due to the introduction of the Accent hatchback, which is known there as the Grand Avega.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The i20 was produced in Sriperumbudur (near Chennai), India for sale in Asia and Oceania, and later was also assembled in Turkey (İzmit plant) for the European market by CKD kits from India.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The i20 has a total of seven four cylinder engine options. Four are petrol, including the 1248 cc dohc 16 valve "Aditeya" engine, while the rest are diesel engines. Two of the diesel engines are 1396 cc units, one with and and the other a and high power unit.


title: Hyundai i20

text: They are joined by two 1582 cc engines having the same dohc and 16 valve top end architecture, but delivering either and of torque or and of torque.


title: Hyundai i20

text: Hyundai claims that diesel unit can return a class leading 115g/km of per litre of diesel to go (4.3L/100 km) in the European combined driving cycle. All diesel engines and 1.2-litre and 1.4-litre petrol engines come mated to five speed manual transmission, there is an option of a four speed automatic for some 1.4-litre petrol engined models, the 1.6-litre is mated to a six speed manual transmission.


title: Hyundai i20

text: In the Indian market, the Hyundai i20 is powered by a 1.2-litre Kappa engine with power at 5200 rpm and torque at 4,000 rpm. It also comes with a 1.4-litre gamma gasoline which has power at 5500 rpm and torque at 4200 rpm, but is mated only to a four speed automatic transmission. The i20 CRDi diesel has at 4000 rpm and torque between 1750 and 2750 rpm, and comes with a six speed manual transmission.


title: Hyundai i20

text: In Australia, the i20 was originally offered as a 1.4 petrol with a $3500 option of the Gamma II G4FC 1.6 petrol engine. The 1.6 makes 91 kW at 6300rpm and 157Nm at 4200rpm. However, with the arrival of the new 1.6 powered Accent in the end of 2011, the 1.6L option on the i20 has been dropped.


title: Hyundai i20

text: In South Africa, the i20 was originally offered in 2009 with either 1.4 (G4FA) or 1.6 (G4FC) engines, with the 1.4 having an optional 4 speed automatic transmission. The facelift model was introduced in the second half of 2012 with only the 1.4 gamma engine initially being offered (the 1.6 engine was discontinued), after which a 1.2 kappa engine, a 1.4 CRDi engine as well as a new 6 speed manual transmission for some 1.4 models was added to the range.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The Hyundai i20 earned a maximum five star safety rating from Euro NCAP and scored six out of a maximum of seven points in the "safety assist" category, receiving top marks for its belt reminder and electronic stability programme which minimises the risk of skidding by braking individual wheels. The i20 was named one of Euro NCAP's "top five safest cars for 2009", which was based on Euro NCAP's maximum five star awards and their overall score.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The Hyundai i20 features starts with six airbags—for driver and passenger in the front along with side and curtain airbags for rear passengers, whilst the Antilock Brake System (ABS) with Electronic Brake-force Distribution (EBD) which helps to control in slippery surfaces.


title: Hyundai i20

text: Hyundai i20 has new additions in its safety features like rain sensing wipers and automatic darkness sensing headlamps, central locking, impact sensing auto door unlock, keyless entry along with front and rear fog lamps and advanced engine immobilizer.


title: Hyundai i20

text: Despite the high safety rating from NCAP and ANCAP tests the i20 has performed poorly in real world crash data records. Monash University Used Car Safety Ratings Buyer's Guide, which researched over 8 million crashes showed the Hyundai Accent i20 2010–2015 to have a 2 star driver protection rating. https://www.monash.edu/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/1956514/2019-UCSRs-brochure.pdf


title: Hyundai i20

text: It was launched in August 2014 in India, and in November 2014 in Europe. The design of the car employs Hyundai's 'Fluidic Sculpture 2.0' design philosophy. The design for the car has been developed at Hyundai's design facilities in Rüsselsheim, Germany.


title: Hyundai i20

text: Some of the design features of the new i20 include trapezoidal fog lamps, black C pillar block, wrap around tail lamps, re worked headlights and the hexagonal front grille. The interiors feature a black and beige dual tone dashboard, multi-steering-mounted audio controls, Bluetooth integrated 2 DIN audio with USB and Aux inputs with 1 GB internal storage, rear AC vents, a dedicated engine start/stop button, and automatic temperature control. The i20 5-door was initially designed with boomerang-shaped tail lights (as visible on spyshots), but the whole rear part of the vehicle has been redesigned before launch.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The second generation i20 was launched in August 2014 in India as the Elite i20. It eventually won the 2015 Indian Car Of The Year (ICOTY) in December 2014. At launch, ten variants and two engine options are offered in the market. The car also has a higher ground clearance than before, 170 mm as against 165 mm of the old i20. The i20 has 326 litres of boot space.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The i20 is powered by 1.2-litre "Kappa" Dual VTVT petrol engine and 1.4-litre "U2" CRDi diesel engine. The hatchback has safety features such as ABS, dual front airbags and seat belt pretensioners as standard while rear camera with EOM display, headlamp escort function, reverse parking sensors and six airbags are available in higher variants.


title: Hyundai i20

text: Launched at the 2018 Auto Expo in India, the car features new front and rear bumpers, new boot lid which now also included rear number plate slot, moved from the rear bumper, and a new tail lamp design. Changes to the interior including the addition of a new infotainment system equipped with Apple CarPlay and Android Auto. The 4-speed torque converter automatic transmission was replaced with a CVT for petrol engine variants.


title: Hyundai i20

text: A crossover-styled variant called the i20 Active, was launched in India on 17 March 2015 and in Europe at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2015. It features front, rear and side black plastic cladding, along with roof rails, rugged-looking fuel cap, and both front and rear aluminum skid plates. The i20 Active also gets cornering lamps, aluminum pedals and roof rails, along with a fuel lid cover. The ground clearance of the Indian-spec i20 Active has been increased to 190 mm, which is a 20 mm gain over the standard i20 at 170 mm.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The third-generation i20 was unveiled online for the European market on 19 February 2020. It was supposed to debut at the 90th Geneva Motor Show in March 2020, but the show and the launch were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The third generation i20 is larger and lower than the previous generation, its design is now employs Hyundai's latest "Sensuous Sportiness" design philosophy, featuring a redesigned exterior and interior styling.


title: Hyundai i20

text: After its debut in February 2020, production for the European market commenced in the Izmit plant in Turkey in August 2020. The plant will produce around 85,000 units of i20 per year, covering about 50% of the global i20 production.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The top spec is equipped with two 10.25-inch displays, one for the instrument gauge cluster and one for the main infotainment display. It is also available with an N Line trim and N performance-oriented variant.


title: Hyundai i20

text: In 2021, Hyundai launched the France-only i20 N Line Michel Vaillant limited edition, featuring optional blue and red stickers.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The third-generation i20 was launched in the country on 5 November 2020. It dropped the "Elite" prefix from the previous generation, now simply marketed as the "Hyundai i20". The Indian-market i20, codenamed BI3, is shorter than the European version to circumvent the Indian tax bracket which favours vehicles shorter than , while it is wider and taller. It is built on the Hyundai-Kia K2 platform shared with other Hyundai-Kia recent compact cars. It is claimed to make use of 66 percent high-strength steel which improves its crash safety.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The i20 is sold in India with two frontal airbags, antilock brakes, front seatbelt reminders and ISOFIX anchorages standard across the range. Electronic stability control, a tyre pressure monitor, front-seat side thorax airbags and head-protecting curtain airbags are optional on the regular i20 and standard on the i20 N.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The i20 was tested by Global NCAP in the first half of 2022. In the frontal offset crash test into a deformable barrier at 64 km/h, dummy readings showed only adequate protection of the driver's head. The i20 was penalised for unstable structural performance of the passenger compartment and rupture of the driver's footwell, both of which indicate poor integrity of the recorded structural performance. Dummy readings of moderate chest compression and the unstable passenger compartment led to chest protection being rated weak, consequently the i20 could not score points for seatbelt reminders. Structures behind the dashboard could increase risk of knee injury to differently sized or positioned occupants; the unstable passenger compartment and ruptured footwell meant Hyundai were not allowed to demonstrate otherwise. Using the child seats recommended by Hyundai, dynamic performance of the 3 year-old and 18 month-old child occupants was good, but readings of excessive neck tension in the forward-facing three-year old dummy meant that the i20 narrowly missed a four star rating for child occupant protection.


title: Hyundai i20

text: A performance version called the i20 N was revealed for the European market in October 2020. It slots under the i30 N in the Hyundai N family.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The i20 N is powered by a 1.6-liter turbocharged GDi engine mated to a 6-speed manual transmission. This engine is good for and of torque. As the i20 N only weighs , it is able to accelerate from in a 6.2 seconds with a top speed of .


title: Hyundai i20

text: Its engine delivers peak torque between 1,750 and 4,500 rpm and hits peak power between 5,500 and 6,000 rpm. The broad power band helps its acceleration performance throughout the mid and high-speed range. Although the "Gamma" engine is featured in other Hyundai models, for the i20 N it is equipped with a bespoke turbocharger and intercooler system.


title: Hyundai i20

text: Changes also include a reinforced the chassis at 12 different points, and a reinforced front domes and knuckles with distinct geometry for the suspension. The camber has also been increased while a new sway bar, new springs, and new shock absorbers have been fitted. The brakes have also been enlarged.


title: Hyundai i20

text: The Hyundai i20 WRC is a World Rally Car built by Hyundai for use in the 2014 World Rally Championship. It is based on the i20, and was unveiled at the 2012 Paris Motor Show, marking Hyundai's return to the WRC after a ten-year absence. The car will be operated by Hyundai's performance division, Hyundai Motorsport from a base in Frankfurt, Germany.


title: Hyundai i20

text: Two cars were entered into 2018 FIA World Rallycross Championship, with Niclas Grönholm finishing 7th overall. Four cars were entered in 2019, with Timur Timerzyanov winning in Belgium.


title: Hyundai i20

text: Hyundai i20 Coupe WRC is the current manufacturers' championship leader in 2019 World Rally Championship built by Hyundai Shell Mobis WRT.


title: Terry Crews filmography

text: American actor Terry Crews is known for playing Sergeant/Lieutenant/Captain Terry Jeffords in the Fox/NBC sitcom "Brooklyn Nine-Nine", Julius on the UPN/The CW sitcom "Everybody Hates Chris" and for his appearances in Old Spice commercials, as well as for roles in films such as "The Expendables" and its first two sequels.


title: Terry Crews filmography

text: He also stars as Nick Kingston-Persons on the TBS sitcom "Are We There Yet?" and as himself on the BET reality series "The Family Crews".


title: Terry Crews filmography

text: Crews is currently the host of the hit reality show "America's Got Talent" and has hosted its spin-offs "", "", and "America's Got Talent: All-Stars".


title: Freedom of religion

text: Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedom to change one's religion or beliefs, "the right not to profess any religion or belief", or "not to practise a religion".


title: Freedom of religion

text: Freedom of religion is considered by many people and most nations to be a fundamental human right. In a country with a state religion, freedom of religion is generally considered to mean that the government permits religious practices of other sects besides the state religion, and does not persecute believers in other faiths (or those who have no faith).


title: Freedom of religion

text: Freedom of belief is different. It allows the right to believe what a person, group, or religion wishes, but it does not necessarily allow the right to practice the religion or belief openly and outwardly in a public manner, a central facet of religious freedom. Freedom of worship is uncertain but may be considered to fall between the two terms. The term "belief" is considered inclusive of all forms of irreligion, including atheism, humanism, existentialism or other schools of thought. Whether non-believers or humanists should be considered for the purposes of freedom of religion is a contested question in legal and constitutional contexts. Crucial in the consideration of this liberty is whether religious practices and motivated actions which would otherwise violate secular law should be permitted due to the safeguarding freedom of religion, such as (in American jurisprudence) "United States v. Reynolds" or "Wisconsin v. Yoder", (in European law) "S.A.S. v. France", and numerous other jurisdictions.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Historically, "freedom of religion" has been used to refer to the tolerance of different theological systems of belief, while "freedom of worship" has been defined as freedom of individual action. Each of these have existed to varying degrees. While many countries have accepted some form of religious freedom, this has also often been limited in practice through punitive taxation, repressive social legislation, and political disenfranchisement. An example commonly cited by scholars is the status of dhimmis under Islamic sharia law. Stemming from the Pact of Umar and literally meaning "protected individuals", it is often argued that non-Muslims possessing the dhimmi status in medieval Islamic societies enjoyed greater freedoms than non-Christians in most medieval European societies, while duly noting that the protection was limited because of regulation by and obligations to government such as taxation (compare jizya and zakat) and military service differed between religions. In modern concepts of religious freedom, the law is usually blind to religious affiliation in conferring such matters.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In Antiquity, a syncretic point of view often allowed communities of traders to operate under their own customs. When street mobs of separate quarters clashed in a Hellenistic or Roman city, the issue was generally perceived to be an infringement of community rights.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Cyrus the Great established the Achaemenid Empire ca. 550 BC, and initiated a general policy of permitting religious freedom throughout the empire, documenting this on the Cyrus Cylinder.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Some of the historical exceptions have been in regions where one of the revealed religions has been in a position of power: Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam. Others have been where the established order has felt threatened, as shown in the trial of Socrates in 399 BC.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Freedom of religious worship was established in the Buddhist Maurya Empire of ancient India by Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC, which was encapsulated in the Edicts of Ashoka.


title: Freedom of religion

text: GreekJewish clashes at Cyrene in 73 AD and 117 AD and in Alexandria in 115 AD provide examples of cosmopolitan cities as scenes of tumult.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Genghis Khan was one of the first rulers who in 13th century enacted a law explicitly guaranteeing religious freedom to everyone and every religion.


title: Freedom of religion

text: The Romans tolerated most religions, including Judaism, and encouraged local subjects to continue worshipping their own gods. They did not however, tolerate Christianity until it was legalised by the Roman emperor Galerius in 311. Holmes and Bickers note that as long as Christianity was treated as a part of Judaism it enjoyed the same freedom, but the Christian claim to religious exclusivity meant its followers found themselves subject to hostility.


title: Freedom of religion

text: The early Christian apologist Tertullian was the first-known writer referring to the term "libertas religionis". The Edict of Milan guaranteed freedom of religion in the Roman Empire until the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, which outlawed all religions except Christianity.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Following a period of fighting lasting around a hundred years before 620 AD which mainly involved Arab and Jewish inhabitants of Medina (then known as "Yathrib"), religious freedom for Muslims, Jews and pagans was declared by Muhammad in the Constitution of Medina. In early Muslim history (until mid 11th century), most Islamic scholars maintained a level of separation from the state which helped to establish some elements of institutional religious freedom. The Islamic Caliphate later guaranteed religious freedom under the conditions that non-Muslim communities accept "dhimmi" status and their adult males pay the punitive "jizya" tax instead of the "zakat" paid by Muslim citizens. Though Dhimmis were not given the same political rights as Muslims, they nevertheless did enjoy equality under the laws of property, contract, and obligation.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Religious pluralism existed in classical Islamic ethics and Sharia, as the religious laws and courts of other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Hinduism, were usually accommodated within the Islamic legal framework, as seen in the early Caliphate, Al-Andalus, Indian subcontinent, and the Ottoman Millet system. In medieval Islamic societies, the "qadi" (Islamic judges) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily choose to be judged according to Islamic law, thus the "dhimmi" communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews who would have their own "Halakha" courts.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own legal systems in cases that did not involve other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order. Non-Muslims were allowed to engage in religious practices that were usually forbidden by Islamic law, such as the consumption of alcohol and pork, as well as religious practices which Muslims found repugnant, such as the Zoroastrian practice of incestuous "self-marriage" where a man could marry his mother, sister or daughter. According to the famous Islamic legal scholar Ibn Qayyim (1292–1350), non-Muslims had the right to engage in such religious practices even if it offended Muslims, under the conditions that such cases not be presented to Islamic Sharia courts and that these religious minorities believed that the practice in question is permissible according to their religion.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Despite Dhimmis enjoying special statuses under the Caliphates, they were not considered equals, and sporadic persecutions of non-Muslim groups did occur in the history of the Caliphates.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Ancient Jews fleeing from persecution in their homeland 2,500 years ago settled in India and never faced anti-Semitism. Freedom of religion edicts have been found written during Ashoka the Great's reign in the 3rd century BC. Freedom to practise, preach and propagate any religion is a constitutional right in Modern India. Most major religious festivals of the main communities are included in the list of national holidays.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Many scholars and intellectuals believe that India's predominant religion, Hinduism, has long been a most tolerant religion. Rajni Kothari, founder of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies has written, "[India] is a country built on the foundations of a civilisation that is fundamentally non-religious."


title: Freedom of religion

text: The Dalai Lama, the Tibetan leader in exile, said that religious tolerance of 'Aryabhoomi,' a reference to India found in the Mahabharata, has been in existence in this country from thousands of years. "Not only Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism which are the native religions but also Christianity and Islam have flourished here. Religious tolerance is inherent in Indian tradition," the Dalai Lama said.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Freedom of religion in the Indian subcontinent is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi (304–232 BC) (Ashoka). One of King Ashoka's main concerns was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a just and humane society. Later he promoted the principles of Buddhism, and the creation of a just, understanding and fair society was held as an important principle for many ancient rulers of this time in the East.


title: Freedom of religion

text: On the main Asian continent, the Mongols were tolerant of religions. People could worship as they wished freely and openly.


title: Freedom of religion

text: After the arrival of Europeans, Christians in their zeal to convert local as per belief in conversion as service of God, have also been seen to fall into frivolous methods since their arrival, though by and large there are hardly any reports of law and order disturbance from mobs with Christian beliefs, except perhaps in the north eastern region of India.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Freedom of religion in contemporary India is a fundamental right guaranteed under Article 25 of the nation's constitution. Accordingly, every citizen of India has a right to profess, practice and propagate their religions peacefully.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In September 2010, the Indian state of Kerala's State Election Commissioner announced that "Religious heads cannot issue calls to vote for members of a particular community or to defeat the nonbelievers". The Catholic Church comprising Latin, Syro-Malabar and Syro-Malankara rites used to give clear directions to the faithful on exercising their franchise during elections through pastoral letters issued by bishops or council of bishops. The pastoral letter issued by Kerala Catholic Bishops' Council (KCBC) on the eve of the poll urged the faithful to shun atheists.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Even today, most Indians celebrate all religious festivals with equal enthusiasm and respect. Hindu festivals like Deepavali and Holi, Muslim festivals like Eid al-Fitr, Eid-Ul-Adha, Muharram, Christian festivals like Christmas and other festivals like Buddha Purnima, Mahavir Jayanti, Gur Purab etc. are celebrated and enjoyed by all Indians.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Most Roman Catholic kingdoms kept a tight rein on religious expression throughout the Middle Ages. Jews were alternately tolerated and persecuted, the most notable examples of the latter being the expulsion of all Jews from Spain in 1492. Some of those who remained and converted were tried as heretics in the Inquisition for allegedly practicing Judaism in secret. Despite the persecution of Jews, they were the most tolerated non-Catholic faith in Europe.


title: Freedom of religion

text: However, the latter was in part a reaction to the growing movement that became the Reformation. As early as 1380, John Wycliffe in England denied transubstantiation and began his translation of the Bible into English. He was condemned in a Papal Bull in 1410, and all his books were burned.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In 1414, Jan Hus, a Bohemian preacher of reformation, was given a safe conduct by the Holy Roman Emperor to attend the Council of Constance. Not entirely trusting in his safety, he made his will before he left. His forebodings proved accurate, and he was burned at the stake on 6 July 1415. The Council also decreed that Wycliffe's remains be disinterred and cast out. This decree was not carried out until 1429.


title: Freedom of religion

text: After the fall of the city of Granada, Spain, in 1492, the Muslim population was promised religious freedom by the Treaty of Granada, but that promise was short-lived. In 1501, Granada's Muslims were given an ultimatum to either convert to Christianity or to emigrate. The majority converted, but only superficially, continuing to dress and speak as they had before and to secretly practice Islam. The Moriscos (converts to Christianity) were ultimately expelled from Spain between 1609 (Castile) and 1614 (rest of Spain), by Philip III.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Martin Luther published his famous 95 Theses in Wittenberg on 31 October 1517. His major aim was theological, summed up in the three basic dogmas of Protestantism:


title: Freedom of religion

text: In consequence, Luther hoped to stop the sale of indulgences and to reform the Church from within. In 1521, he was given the chance to recant at the Diet of Worms before Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. After he refused to recant, he was declared heretic. Partly for his own protection, he was sequestered on the Wartburg in the possessions of Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, where he translated the New Testament into German. He was excommunicated by Papal Bull in 1521.


title: Freedom of religion

text: However, the movement continued to gain ground in his absence and spread to Switzerland. Huldrych Zwingli preached reform in Zürich from 1520 to 1523. He opposed the sale of indulgences, celibacy, pilgrimages, pictures, statues, relics, altars, and organs. This culminated in outright war between the Swiss cantons that accepted Protestantism and the Catholics. In 1531, the Catholics were victorious, and Zwingli was killed in battle. The Catholic cantons made peace with Zurich and Berne.


title: Freedom of religion

text: The defiance of Papal authority proved contagious, and in 1533, when Henry VIII of England was excommunicated for his divorce and remarriage to Anne Boleyn, he promptly established a state church with bishops appointed by the crown. This was not without internal opposition, and Thomas More, who had been his Lord Chancellor, was executed in 1535 for opposition to Henry.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In 1535, the Swiss canton of Geneva became Protestant. In 1536, the Bernese imposed the reformation on the canton of Vaud by conquest. They sacked the cathedral in Lausanne and destroyed all its art and statuary. John Calvin, who had been active in Geneva was expelled in 1538 in a power struggle, but he was invited back in 1540.


title: Freedom of religion

text: The same kind of seesaw back and forth between Protestantism and Catholicism was evident in England when Mary I of England returned that country briefly to the Catholic fold in 1553 and persecuted Protestants. However, her half-sister, Elizabeth I of England was to restore the Church of England in 1558, this time permanently, and began to persecute Catholics again. The King James Bible commissioned by King James I of England and published in 1611 proved a landmark for Protestant worship, with official Catholic forms of worship being banned.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In France, although peace was made between Protestants and Catholics at the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1570, persecution continued, most notably in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day on 24 August 1572, in which thousands of Protestants throughout France were killed. A few years before, at the "Michelade" of Nîmes in 1567, Protestants had massacred the local Catholic clergy.


title: Freedom of religion

text: The Norman Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II was characterized by its multi-ethnic nature and religious tolerance. Normans, Jews, Muslim Arabs, Byzantine Greeks, Lombards, and native Sicilians lived in harmony. Rather than exterminate the Muslims of Sicily, Roger II's grandson Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1215–1250) allowed them to settle on the mainland and build mosques. Not least, he enlisted them in his Christian army and even into his personal bodyguards.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Kingdom of Bohemia (present-day Czech Republic) enjoyed religious freedom between 1436 and 1620 as a result of the Bohemian Reformation, and became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period of time. The so-called Basel Compacts of 1436 declared the freedom of religion and peace between Catholics and Utraquists. In 1609 Emperor Rudolf II granted Bohemia greater religious liberty with his Letter of Majesty. The privileged position of the Catholic Church in the Czech kingdom was firmly established after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. Gradually freedom of religion in Bohemian lands came to an end and Protestants fled or were expelled from the country. A devout Catholic, Emperor Ferdinand II forcibly converted Austrian and Bohemian Protestants.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In the meantime, in Germany Philip Melanchthon drafted the Augsburg Confession as a common confession for the Lutherans and the free territories. It was presented to Charles V in 1530.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V agreed to tolerate Lutheranism in 1555 at the Peace of Augsburg. Each state was to take the religion of its prince, but within those states, there was not necessarily religious tolerance. Citizens of other faiths could relocate to a more hospitable environment.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In France, from the 1550s, many attempts to reconcile Catholics and Protestants and to establish tolerance failed because the State was too weak to enforce them. It took the victory of prince Henry IV of France, who had converted into Protestantism, and his accession to the throne, to impose religious tolerance formalized in the Edict of Nantes in 1598. It would remain in force for over 80 years until its revocation in 1685 by Louis XIV of France. Intolerance remained the norm until Louis XVI, who signed the Edict of Versailles (1787), then the constitutional text of 24 December 1789, granting civilian rights to Protestants. The French Revolution then abolished state religion and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) guarantees freedom of religion, as long as religious activities do not infringe on public order in ways detrimental to society.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In 1558, the Transylvanian Diet's Edict of Torda declared free practice of both Catholicism and Lutheranism. Calvinism, however, was prohibited. Calvinism was included among the accepted religions in 1564. Ten years after the first law, in 1568, the same Diet, under the chairmanship of King of Hungary, and Prince of Transylvania John Sigismund Zápolya (John II), following the teaching of Ferenc Dávid, the founder of the Unitarian Church of Transylvania, extended the freedom to all religions, declaring that ""It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for his religion"". However, it was more than a religious tolerance; it declared the equality of the religions, prohibiting all kinds of acts from authorities or from simple people, which could harm other groups or people because of their religious beliefs. The emergence in social hierarchy wasn't dependent on the religion of the person thus Transylvania had also Catholic and Protestant monarchs, who all respected the Edict of Torda. The lack of state religion was unique for centuries in Europe. Therefore, the Edict of Torda is considered as the first legal guarantee of religious freedom in Christian Europe.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Four religions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, Unitarianism) were named as accepted religions (religo recepta), having their representatives in the Transylvanian Diet, while the other religions, like the Orthodoxs, Sabbatarians and Anabaptists were tolerated churches (religio tolerata), which meant that they had no power in the law making and no veto rights in the Diet, but they were not persecuted in any way. Thanks to the Edict of Torda, from the last decades of the 16th Century Transylvania was the only place in Europe, where so many religions could live together in harmony and without persecution.


title: Freedom of religion

text: This religious freedom ended however for some of the religions of Transylvania in 1638. After this year the Sabbatarians begun to be persecuted, and forced to convert to one of the accepted Christian religions of Transylvania.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Also the Unitarians (despite of being one of the "accepted religions") started to be put under an ever-growing pressure, which culminated after the Habsburg conquest of Transylvania (1691), Also after the Habsburg occupation, the new Austrian masters forced in the middle of the 18th century the Hutterite Anabaptists (who found a safe haven in 1621 in Transylvania, after the persecution to which they were subjected in the Austrian provinces and Moravia) to convert to Catholicism or to migrate in another country, which finally the Anabaptists did, leaving Transylvania and Hungary for Wallachia, than from there to Russia, and finally in the United States.


title: Freedom of religion

text: In the Union of Utrecht (20 January 1579), personal freedom of religion was declared in the struggle between the Northern Netherlands and Spain. The Union of Utrecht was an important step in the establishment of the Dutch Republic (from 1581 to 1795). Under Calvinist leadership, the Netherlands became the most tolerant country in Europe. It granted asylum to persecuted religious minorities, such as the Huguenots, the Dissenters, and the Jews who had been expelled from Spain and Portugal. The establishment of a Jewish community in the Netherlands and New Amsterdam (present-day New York) during the Dutch Republic is an example of religious freedom. When New Amsterdam surrendered to the English in 1664, freedom of religion was guaranteed in the Articles of Capitulation. It benefitted also the Jews who had landed on Manhattan Island in 1654, fleeing Portuguese persecution in Brazil. During the 18th century, other Jewish communities were established at Newport, Rhode Island, Philadelphia, Charleston, Savannah, and Richmond.


title: Freedom of religion

text: Intolerance of dissident forms of Protestantism also continued, as evidenced by the exodus of the Pilgrims, who sought refuge, first in the Netherlands, and ultimately in America, founding Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620. William Penn, the founder of Philadelphia, was involved in a case which had a profound effect upon future American laws and those of England. In a classic case of jury nullification, the jury refused to convict William Penn of preaching a Quaker sermon, which was illegal. Even though the jury was imprisoned for their acquittal, they stood by their decision and helped establish the freedom of religion.


title: Freedom of religion

text: The General Charter of Jewish Liberties known as the Statute of Kalisz was issued by the Duke of Greater Poland Boleslaus the Pious on 8 September 1264 in Kalisz. The statute served as the basis for the legal position of Jews in Poland and led to the creation of the Yiddish-speaking autonomous Jewish nation until 1795. The statute granted exclusive jurisdiction of Jewish courts over Jewish matters and established a separate tribunal for matters involving Christians and Jews. Additionally, it guaranteed personal liberties and safety for Jews including freedom of religion, travel, and trade. The statute was ratified by subsequent Polish Kings: Casimir III of Poland in 1334, Casimir IV of Poland in 1453 and Sigismund I of Poland in 1539. Poland freed Jews from direct royal authority, opening up enormous administrative and economic opportunities to them.


title: Freedom of religion

text: The right to worship freely was a basic right given to all inhabitants of the future Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth throughout the 15th and early 16th century, however, complete freedom of religion was officially recognized in 1573 during the Warsaw Confederation. Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth kept religious freedom laws during an era when religious persecution was an everyday occurrence in the rest of Europe.