title: Theodolite

text: Many modern theodolites are equipped with integrated electro-optical distance measuring devices, generally infrared based, allowing the measurement in one step of complete three-dimensional vectors—albeit in instrument-defined polar coordinates, which can then be transformed to a preexisting coordinate system in the area by means of a sufficient number of control points. This technique is called a resection solution or free station position surveying and is widely used in mapping surveying.


title: Theodolite

text: Such instruments are "intelligent" theodolites called self-registering tacheometers or colloquially "total stations", and perform all the necessary angular and distance calculations, and the results or raw data can be downloaded to external processors, such as ruggedized laptops, PDAs or programmable calculators


title: Theodolite

text: A gyrotheodolite is used when the north-south reference bearing of the meridian is required in the absence of astronomical star sights. This occurs mainly in the underground mining industry and in tunnel engineering. For example, where a conduit must pass under a river, a vertical shaft on each side of the river might be connected by a horizontal tunnel. A gyrotheodolite can be operated at the surface and then again at the foot of the shafts to identify the directions needed to tunnel between the base of the two shafts. Unlike an artificial horizon or inertial navigation system, a gyrotheodolite cannot be relocated while it is operating. It must be restarted again at each site.


title: Theodolite

text: The gyrotheodolite comprises a normal theodolite with an attachment that contains a gyrocompass, a device which senses the rotation of the Earth in order to find true north and thus, in conjunction with the direction of gravity, the plane of the meridian. The meridian is the plane that contains both the axis of the Earth's rotation and the observer. The intersection of the meridian plane with the horizontal defines the true north-south direction found in this way. Unlike magnetic compasses, gyrocompasses are able to find "true" north, the surface direction toward the north pole.


title: Theodolite

text: A gyrotheodolite will function at the equator and in both the northern and southern hemispheres. The meridian is undefined at the geographic poles. A gyrotheodolite cannot be used at the poles where the Earth's axis is precisely perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the spinner, indeed it is not normally used within about 15 degrees of the pole where the angle between the earth's rotation and the direction of gravity is too small for it to work reliably. When available, astronomical star sights are able to give the meridian bearing to better than one hundred times the accuracy of the gyrotheodolite. Where this extra precision is not required, the gyrotheodolite is able to produce a result quickly without the need for night observations.


title: Christopher George

text: Christopher John George (Greek: Χριστόφορος Γεωργίου; February 25, 1931 – November 28, 1983) was an American television and film actor who starred in the 1960s television series "The Rat Patrol". He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1967 as Best TV Star for his performance in the series. He was also the recipient of a New York Film Festival award as the Best Actor in a Television Commercial. George was married to actress Lynda Day George.


title: Christopher George

text: Christopher George was born in Royal Oak, Michigan, on February 25, 1931, the son of Greek immigrants John George (Greek: Ιωάννης Γεωργίου) and Vaseleke (Vassiliki) George (Greek: Βασιλική Γεωργίου). John was born in Thebes, Greece, and Vaseleke was born in Athens, Greece.


title: Christopher George

text: George did not speak English until he was six years old, because his family only spoke Greek at home. His father was a traveling salesman during his childhood. He accompanied his father on selling trips to cities such as Akron, New York City, Chicago, St. Louis, Memphis, and Detroit.


title: Christopher George

text: From Michigan, the family moved to Mountain Lakes, New Jersey. Once he began learning to speak English, his father enrolled him in Greek school in addition to his regular school so that he would not forget the Greek language. That was where George first became interested in acting; at Greek school they performed Greek plays and recited Greek poetry.


title: Christopher George

text: When he was 14, he and his family moved to Miami, Florida. As a child, he lived in the Coconut Grove section of Miami and attended Shenandoah Elementary School and Miami Senior High School. In school, he played soccer, football and baseball and ran track. While in Florida, he used to hunt for alligators in the Everglades. After obtaining his driver's license, he worked for his father, driving trucks between Miami and other cities along the Eastern seaboard.


title: Christopher George

text: When he was young, George felt bound to become a priest in the Greek Orthodox Church, and his family prepared him for it; his brother Nick said that all through his childhood, Christopher was an altar boy and a choir boy and that his parents and the priest were trying to groom him to become a priest. He served as an altar boy at St. Sophia Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Miami.


title: Christopher George

text: George enlisted in the United States Marine Corps (USMC) on October 13, 1948, at Jacksonville, Florida, at age 17. He lied about his age on his recruitment form by giving his year of birth as 1929, which then stuck with him for most of his adult life. He attributed his enlistment to being inspired by John Wayne, saying, "You know, he caused the enlistment of hundreds of kids in the Marines and I was one of them." According to his military record at the National Personnel Records Center, he attended boot camp at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina, and graduated with a meritorious promotion to private first class on December 31, 1948.


title: Christopher George

text: His first duty station was Headquarters Squadron, Marine Corps Air Station Quantico, Virginia. In April 1950, he transferred to Aircraft Engineering Squadron 12 (AES-12), also located at Quantico. AES-12 maintained the aircraft for school pilots and also used them as a demonstration squadron for members of the United States Congress, demonstrating new rockets and bombs. While assigned to AES-12, he rose to the rank of sergeant. He had forced landings in airplanes while he was in the Marines, and while stationed at Quantico, was very sick, lying in the hospital with "a 110-degree fever."


title: Christopher George

text: While stationed at Quantico, George was a passenger in an aircraft flown by one of AES-12's officers The weather was clear and sunny that day when both of the engines failed at approximately above the Carolinas. Both pilots worked to get the engines restarted, dipping to an altitude of about before they succeeded. Another time, an aircraft caught fire; he had to bail out, in the first parachute jump of his life.


title: Christopher George

text: During the Korean War, George skippered a Marine Corps crash boat, and served as gunner aboard the type of rescue aircraft used to fly wounded out of Korea. He completed a three-year enlistment with the Marines and stayed for an additional year, before requesting an honorable discharge and returning home to Miami. He left active service on August 29, 1952.


title: Christopher George

text: After that, as a sergeant in the Marine Corps Reserves, he joined Marine Fighter Squadron 142 (VMF-142) of the Marine Air Reserve Training Command, Marine Corps Air Station Miami, Florida. He also served in the 4th Supply Company, in Stockton, California. Finally, he reverted to inactive reserve status and was assigned to Headquarters, 6th MCR&RD (Marine Corps Reserve and Recruiting District), Atlanta, Georgia, until completing his enlisted service and receiving a discharge on September 3, 1956.


title: Christopher George

text: While in the Marine Corps, his superior officers encouraged him to apply for flight school and a commission; instead, he chose to receive a discharge so he could return to school. He passed a high school equivalency exam.


title: Christopher George

text: During the summer of 1976, he appeared in a recruiting film made for the Marine Corps Air Reserve. On May 5, 2009, the Marine Corps flew a flag over the Iwo Jima Memorial in honor of his service in the Corps.


title: Christopher George

text: George earned the Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal and the National Defense Service Medal. These awards are documented in his official military personnel file available at the National Archives and Records Administration.


title: Christopher George

text: After completing his enlistment, George attended the University of Miami from 1953 to 1958, where he earned a Bachelor's in Business Administration degree from the school of business. He was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon, along with his brother Nick, who also attended the University of Miami.


title: Christopher George

text: George held down a variety of jobs before he began acting for a living, including working as a private investigator and as a bartender in a Miami bar. He owned and operated eateries and beer bars, one called the Dragnet Drive-In in Miami and another in Stockton, California. The inn in Stockton where he worked for five months during a break from college had been owned by his late uncle for seven years and was off-limits to Marines. He held black belts in karate and judo. He worked as a bouncer in tough restaurants and held a pilot's license.


title: Christopher George

text: George was hired by a friend who owned a 110-foot converted Canadian gunboat and transported cargo through the Caribbean for two years. Before graduating from the University of Miami, he had a job lined up with a big investment company; however he instead turned to acting after completing a vocational test battery that indicated that he should work in drama.


title: Christopher George

text: After graduating from college, George began acting in New York City, where he performed on the stage and in television commercials. His big break came when he was working as a bouncer at a New York waterfront bar and producer Robert Rafelson convinced him to begin an acting career. He studied acting under Wynn Handman and landed roles in Off-Broadway productions of popular plays of the day. Small theater productions in which he appeared while he was studying drama included "All My Sons", "The Moon Is Blue", "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof", "Stalag 17" and "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" Under drama coach Wynn Handman, he landed a sixteen-week engagement in the play "Mr. Roberts" with actor Hugh O'Brian; parts in Shakespeare and Tennessee Williams works followed.


title: Christopher George

text: His career took off after he made a 60-second TV commercial for shaving cream, where he played the young man in the "Good morning, Mr. Gray" shaving spot, and won the New York Film Festival Award for best actor in a commercial. During this 1962 shaving-cream commercial, George played a groom lathering up before his first honeymoon night, with a line where he said, "It's all for you." The commercial earned him over $30,000. He also appeared in roles on the television series "Naked City" and "Bewitched". While in New York City, George played in the Lemos Greek Repertory Theater because he could speak Greek fluently.


title: Christopher George

text: He first appeared on the screen when he landed a role in the film "In Harm's Way" (1965), playing a dying sailor for 30 seconds. This gave him his first opportunity to meet and work with John Wayne, who had been his boyhood idol and who would become a lifelong friend. He first rose to prominence playing a supporting role in the Howard Hawks-directed Western film "El Dorado" (1966) starring both John Wayne and Robert Mitchum in the lead roles. George and Wayne became friends while shooting the film and would co-star in additional Westerns, including "Chisum" (1970) and "The Train Robbers" (1973).


title: Christopher George

text: From 1966 to 1968 over the course of two seasons and 58 episodes, George played the lead role of Sergeant Sam Troy on "The Rat Patrol". The television series followed the exploits of four Allied soldiers who were part of a long range desert patrol group in the North African campaign during World War II. Along with fellow Rat Patrol members, he appeared in the April 1967 Cherry Blossom Festival and Parade in Washington, D.C. While starring in "The Rat Patrol", Chris also served as an awards presenter at the 1966 Washington, D.C. local version of the Emmy Awards, hosted at the Washington, D.C. Sheraton Park Hotel.


title: Christopher George

text: While filming a scene on January 4, 1967, George, as well as fellow cast members Justin Tarr and Gary Raymond, were injured when the Jeep Tarr was driving overturned on a dry lakebed at Rosamond, California as they made a tight turn. George sustained a concussion, tearing something in his neck and injuring his back. Doctors at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in California were able to determine that his back had been badly sprained, not fractured as they had initially feared.


title: Christopher George

text: George also joined actor Lawrence P. Casey on a USO tour of Vietnam, Japan and Thailand, which lasted for almost a month and which started on November 12, 1967, and went into December 1967.


title: Christopher George

text: During the tour of Vietnam, he visited III Corps Headquarters at Bien Hoa Army Base and used the III Corps signal switchboard to place a telephone call to his girlfriend and future wife, Lynda Day. While in Vietnam, he did not confine himself to the rear echelon, but instead pressed his escorts to allow him to go as far out into the field as they would permit; at one time, they were even pinned down by the Viet Cong.


title: Christopher George

text: In November 1967, the USO and the Air Force sent him and several other Hollywood celebrities to visit a military hospital in San Antonio, where military personnel returning from Vietnam with serious burns were being treated. The visit, to Brooke Army Medical Center in San Antonio, was arranged by Johnny Grant, a Hollywood radio personality who had taken troupes of performers to Vietnam; during the visit George and some of the actresses, including his future wife Lynda Day, spent over an hour with a wounded veteran who had been previously uncommunicative and got him to talk.


title: Christopher George

text: Following the cancellation of "The Rat Patrol", George played the lead role in several genre films of the 1960s, including "Tiger by the Tail" (1968) co-starring Tippi Hedren; "Project X" (1968), directed by William Castle; and "The Devil's 8" (1969) co-starring Fabian. He narrated a documentary about the careers of Craig Breedlove and Lee Breedlove, a husband-and-wife auto racing team, "The Racers: Craig and Lee Breedlove" (1968).


title: Christopher George

text: In September 1969, he portrayed Ben Richards in the pilot movie for "The Immortal" which ran on the "ABC Movie of the Week". The pilot is based on the science fiction novel "The Immortals", by James Gunn. The film was picked up as a television series and ran for 15 episodes from 1970 to 1971. Although the series was cancelled mid-season, episodes were rerun by ABC in the summer of 1971. It was later shown in reruns on the Syfy channel.


title: Christopher George

text: During this time, he played Dan August in the television film "House on Greenapple Road" (1970), which evolved into the television series "Dan August" starring Burt Reynolds. In addition, he starred in an unsold series pilot, "Escape" with Avery Schreiber and Huntz Hall, which ABC released in 1971 as a television movie. In it, he portrayed Robin-Hood-like escapologist and nightclub owner Cameron Steele.


title: Christopher George

text: He continued his television work throughout the 1970s with guest roles on many popular series, including "", "Police Story", "S.W.A.T.", "Charlie's Angels", and "Fantasy Island". In 1973, he starred opposite of Jim Brown in "I Escaped from Devil's Island". He also surprised fans by posing nude for "Playgirl" magazine in the June 1974 issue. In 1976, he played a supporting role as Lieutenant Commander Wade McClusky in the all-star World War II epic "Midway". That same year, he would play the lead role of Ranger Michael Kelly in the Film Ventures International independent film "Grizzly". A thinly veiled "Jaws" clone, the killer animal horror/thriller film became one of the most popular films of George's career, earning more than $39 million at the box office.


title: Christopher George

text: He followed that success with a busy string of horror, action, splatter and slasher B movies over the next seven years, including "Dixie Dynamite" (1976) co-starring Warren Oates; "Day of the Animals" (1977); "City of the Living Dead" (1980); "Graduation Day" (1981); "Enter the Ninja" (1981); "Pieces" (1982) and "Mortuary" (1983).


title: Christopher George

text: In the summer of 1976, prior to returning to MCAS Quantico for a visit, George traveled to Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland to appear in a recruiting video for the US Marine Corps Air Reserves. This video featured Marines assigned to Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 321 just returned from their annual training tour as reservists. The commander of the unit at the time was LtCol Charles McLeran. It was filmed by the J. Walter Thompson advertising company and provided to recruiters in 1978. Archive records show that George was under contract with J. Walter Thompson for this work.


title: Christopher George

text: George co-starred with his wife Lynda in multiple television films, including "Mayday at 40,000 Feet!" (1976) and "Cruise Into Terror" (1978). They also worked together in episodes of "The F.B.I." (1970), "" (1971), "McCloud" (1975), "Wonder Woman" (1976), "Love Boat" (1977) and "Vega$" (1978). In addition, George and his wife Lynda co-starred in the feature film, "Day Of The Animals" (1977).


title: Christopher George

text: One of his last film roles was a supporting role in the horror film "Mortuary". Released in September 1983, it was actually filmed in 1981, more than two years prior to his death.


title: Christopher George

text: George first met actress Lynda Day in New York where they were doing a fashion layout; prophetically, she was modeling the bride's outfit and he was the groom. They met again later when they starred together in the independent film "The Gentle Rain" (1966). They would appear in supporting roles together four years later in "Chisum" starring John Wayne, where they fell in love. On May 15, 1970, they were married in an Episcopal ceremony in a judge's chamber in Palm Beach, Florida. They had two children together — a daughter, Casey and a son, Nicholas.


title: Christopher George

text: George's niece is "Wheel of Fortune" hostess Vanna White. According to White, although George was not a biological relation of hers, her mother grew up with his family and, years later in Los Angeles, he and his wife took her under their wing.


title: Christopher George

text: George died of a heart attack at age 52 in the late evening of November 28, 1983, at Westside Hospital in After dinner at home with his wife, he felt sudden chest pains and was taken by ambulance to the hospital. He later went into cardiac arrest and was pronounced dead at 10:35 p.m., over three hours after he was admitted, while under the care and observation of his cardiologist, His age at the time of his death was listed as 54, due to an incorrect year of birth (1929), which he listed on his military recruitment form for the U.S. Marines.


title: Christopher George

text: Although several sources in the last two decades cite his "Rat Patrol" injuries as a contributing factor to his death, George was a frequent smoker of cigars, a heavy drinker, had known heart disease and had undergone coronary bypass surgery about five years prior to his death.


title: Christopher George

text: A Greek Orthodox mnemósynon (Greek: μνημόσυνον) service was conducted at Westwood Memorial Park and a private funeral was held at Saint Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church in Northridge on Thursday,


title: Christopher George

text: On May 5, 2009, the Marine Corps flew a flag over the Iwo Jima Memorial in honor of his service in the Corps.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Andrew Ivan Bell (born 25 April 1964) is an English singer-songwriter and lead singer of the synth-pop duo Erasure. The band achieved mainstream success (receiving a Brit Award for Best British Group) and are popular within the LGBT community, for whom the openly gay Bell has become an icon.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Erasure have penned over 200 songs and have sold over 25 million albums worldwide. They have achieved five consecutive number ones on the UK Albums Chart. Hit singles include "A Little Respect", "Sometimes" and "Always". Bell is known for his soulful voice and flamboyant stage persona, which contrast with bandmate Vince Clarke's low-key, deadpan demeanour.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: His solo career includes the studio albums "Electric Blue" (2005), "Non-Stop" (2010), and "iPop" (2014).


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Bell grew up in the Dogsthorpe area of Peterborough. His family still reside in the city and surrounding areas such as Market Deeping. Bell was educated at the King's School in the city.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: In 1985, during a period in which he worked selling women's shoes and was performing in a band called the Void, he responded to a newspaper advertisement for a singer. Vince Clarke had been Bell's "hero"; Bell was successful in his audition and together they formed the group Erasure.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Bell sang the role of Montresor in the opera "The Fall of the House of Usher" by Peter Hammill and Judge Smith, released in 1991 and reissued with a new recording in 1999.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Bell's first solo studio album was announced in July 2005. He signed a worldwide solo recording contract with Sanctuary Records, and announced details of his debut album, released on 3 October 2005 and entitled "Electric Blue". The album featured fourteen tracks, including three duets, with Claudia Brücken of Propaganda and Jake Shears of Scissor Sisters.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: The first single, "Crazy", released on 26 September 2005, included club remixes from his Erasure partner Vince Clarke, plus Cicada, MHC and King Roc. "Electric Blue" was co-written and recorded throughout 2004 and 2005 with Manhattan Clique (Philip Larsen and Chris Smith) who have worked with Erasure, Moby, the B-52s, Stereophonics and Goldfrapp.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Bell released his second solo studio album, "Non-Stop", on 7 June 2010. It was co-written and co-produced by Bell and Pascal Gabriel, who previously remixed "It Doesn't Have to Be" for Erasure. It also features a collaboration with Perry Farrell of Jane's Addiction.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Using the pseudonym "Mimó", Bell released two Pascal Gabriel-produced singles on Mute Records: "Running Out" (2009) and "Will You Be There?" (2010) prior to his second solo album. The name, used as a "tribute to good friend Tomeau Mimó”, was not used on any subsequent solo releases, as a legal block was issued against Bell by another artist already using the Mimó name. Both songs appear on "Non-Stop" and have since been re-branded as Andy Bell.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: In June 2011, he appeared on the second season of ITV series "Popstar to Operastar" and finished in fifth place.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Bell has also donated time and made recordings for charities. These include Ferry Aid's cover of "Let It Be" (1987); a cover of Cole Porter's "Too Darn Hot", that was included in 1990s "Red Hot + Blue" album to raise funds for AIDS and HIV research; re-making Lene Lovich's "Rage" alongside her to be included in "PETA"'s album (1991) in favour of a wildlife campaign; and performing twice on Big Spender's Red Hot and Dance events to support various AIDS projects (in both December 1994 and November 2004). Bell also performed on the True Colours Tour 2008.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Bell is openly gay, and has had long-time partners. The first, Paul M. Hickey, died on 11 April 2012 at the age of 62. In January 2013, Bell married his subsequent partner Stephen Moss.


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: On 17 December 2004, Bell publicly announced that he has been HIV-positive since 1998. In a 2007 interview, he remarked that there is a complacency among gay men about HIV:


title: Andy Bell (singer)

text: Bell suffers from avascular necrosis. He has had both hips replaced, which keeps him from "pogoing around" in more recent performances.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: Poison Ivy is a 1992 American erotic thriller film directed by Katt Shea. It stars Drew Barrymore, Sara Gilbert, Tom Skerritt, and Cheryl Ladd. The original music score is composed by David Michael Frank. The film was shot in Los Angeles.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: It was nominated for the 1992 Grand Jury prize of Best Film at the Sundance Festival. Sara Gilbert was nominated for Best Supporting Female at the 1993 Independent Spirit Awards. Although it did not fare very well at the box office, grossing $1,829,804 with its limited theatrical release to 20 movie theaters, the film received favorable word-of-mouth, and became a success on cable and video in the mid-1990s. It is the first installment in a "Poison Ivy" film series that includes three direct-to-video sequels.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: Sylvie Cooper is a young girl at a private school for the wealthy. At a local hangout, she first meets Ivy, a street-smart but poor girl, and witnesses Ivy mercy-killing a heavily wounded dog.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: In their second meeting, when Sylvie's father Darryl comes to pick her up, Ivy asks for a ride, and Darryl reluctantly agrees. Ivy makes an excuse to sit in the front with Darryl. She puts her feet on the dashboard and deliberately allows her mini-skirt to fall back onto her hip, revealing her legs, which Darryl notices.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: A few weeks later, Sylvie invites Ivy to her house. She tells Ivy that Darryl is her adoptive father and that her biological father is African-American. She also says that she once tried to kill herself. They meet Sylvie's sickly mother, Georgie, whom Ivy later wins over by talking about her scholarship and helping her unblock her oxygen tank.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: Soon after, as both of Sylvie's parents enjoy Ivy's company, they practically allow Ivy to move in. Ivy and Sylvie share clothes and sleep in the same bed. As they have similar figures, Georgie lends Ivy some of her clothes.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: In an attempt to improve his failing career, Darryl decides to throw a party at his house, and enlists Sylvie to help him. However, Sylvie is needed at work on the night of the party, which is orchestrated by Ivy so that she will be the one to assist Darryl. After the party, she dances with Darryl in the kitchen and they hug. Georgie walks in on them and storms upstairs. Ivy apologizes to Georgie and claims that Darryl was under stress and she was only comforting him. Georgie believes Ivy, accepts a glass of champagne drugged with sleeping pills, and falls asleep. Ivy sits on the bed next to Georgie and begins to massage Darryl with her foot while he kisses her legs.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: Over the next few days, Ivy continues changing her appearance and wears Georgie's clothing more often. Sylvie becomes increasingly irritated with Ivy for her growing presence in her family, and her anger reaches a breaking point when even her dog chooses Ivy over her, which in fact is because Ivy has some dog treats in her pockets. Sylvie skips school and tries to spend some time alone. Darryl picks Ivy up and they go into the forest, where she gets him drunk and has sex with him.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: The next morning, Georgie plays a cassette tape that Sylvie made for her and walks out onto her balcony. Ivy walks up behind Georgie, talks to her and without warning, pushes her off the balcony to her death. Because Georgie is known to have a mental illness, and has threatened to commit suicide previously, Ivy is not suspected. A few weeks later, Sylvie talks Ivy into going for a ride in her mother's sports car. When Sylvie becomes suspicious of her involvement in Georgie's death, Ivy crashes the car, then moves the unconscious Sylvie into the driver's seat.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: In the hospital, Sylvie hallucinates that her mother is sitting in front of her. This inspires her to get back to her house in an attempt to save her father from Ivy. When she gets to her house, there is a raging storm. She runs inside to get out of the rain, experiencing hallucinations all along the way. When she gets inside, she sees Darryl and Ivy having sex, and flees the room.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: As Darryl runs outside to look for Sylvie, Ivy runs out after him, accidentally revealing that she was behind the wheel; due to scarring on her chest. She lies, claiming that it was to protect him. He drives off to find Sylvie and Ivy goes up to Georgie's old room, plays the tape Sylvie made for Georgie, wears Georgie's robe and walks out to the balcony. Sylvie sees Ivy and, because of her head injury, believes that it is her mother and makes her way to the balcony. Sylvie tells Georgie that she loves her and Georgie says she loves Sylvie too. When they kiss, Ivy begins to use her tongue, which breaks Sylvie out of her hallucination. Ivy says Georgie wanted to die and now the three of them can be a family. Sylvie rejects her delusion and pushes Ivy over the balcony, but Ivy holds onto Sylvie's necklace in an attempt to take Sylvie with her. Her attempt backfires, as the chain breaks, and a screaming Ivy falls to her death alone. Darryl returns to see Ivy's corpse on the ground with Sylvie above.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: The film ends with Sylvie narrating that she still loves and misses "her", following the parallel between Ivy and Georgie.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: Producers Melissa Goddard and Peter Morgan brought the original idea to New Line. The studio then hired Katt Shea who had made a number of movies for Roger Corman; according to head of production Sara Risher, the studio wanted "a teenage "Fatal Attraction"".


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: The film developed greatly from this premise. There were three different drafts of the script and four different endings. According to Shea, the original ending had Ivy getting away with her crimes and hitch-hiking along a road. However, New Line insisted that Ivy be punished and made her shoot a new ending where Ivy died. New Line then wanted Shea to revive the character for sequels which the director refused to do; Shea now says she regrets the decision.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: Shea says that she never regarded Ivy as villainous, but rather as a tragic character who just wants to be loved. She credits this for the film's popularity.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: The film debuted at the Sundance Film Festival where, according to "The New York Times", viewers were "either enraptured or insulted". At the Seattle International Festival of Women Directors it was perceived to be politically incorrect. Shea stated:


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: I always told New Line it was going to be different from what they thought. I'm out to prove it's possible to make a film that's really artistic, that's an honest expression that comes from me and that can still be commercial. I told them I can only make movies for myself. I just know that if I really love it there's going to be a market for it.


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 41% rating based on 32 reviews. The site's critics consensus reads, "An unpleasant thriller that lacks the self-awareness to dilute its sordid undertones, "Poison Ivy" is liable to give audiences a rash." On Metacritic it has a score of 51 out of 100 based on reviews from 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: Variety wrote: "Suicide, hints of lesbianism, murder, staged accidents and every other applicable melodramatic contrivance is dragged in. Unfortunate thesps take it all very seriously, while technical aspects are emptily polished."


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 2.5 out of 4 and wrote "Here the casting is so wrong that nothing quite works."


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: The character Ivy was ranked at number six on the list of the top 26 "bad girls" of all time by "Entertainment Weekly".


title: Poison Ivy (1992 film)

text: "Poison Ivy" spawned three sequels: "Poison Ivy II: Lily" in 1996, "Poison Ivy: The New Seduction" in 1997 and "Poison Ivy: The Secret Society" in 2008.


title: Tomokazu Sugita

text: He is best known for his roles as Gintoki Sakata in "Gintama", Tadaomi Karasuma in "Assassination Classroom", Hideki Motosuwa in "Chobits", Rin Tsuchimi in "Shuffle!", Gyoumei Himejima in "", Kyon in "The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya", Yuichi Aizawa in "Kanon", Kazuyoshi "Switch" Usui in "Sket Dance", Hidenori Tabata in "Daily Lives of High School Boys", Yuuya Kizami from the Corpse Party series, Gundham Tanaka from the Danganronpa series, Ragna the Bloodedge in "Blazblue", Joseph Joestar in the 2012 "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure" anime and "", Yusuke Kitagawa in "Persona 5", Chrom in "Fire Emblem", Akuru Akutsu in "Aho Girl", Yahiro Takigawa in "The Testament of Sister New Devil", Kaede Manyuda in "Kakegurui", Charlotte Katakuri in "One Piece", and Ultraman Ginga and Dark Lugiel in "Ultraman Ginga".


title: Tomokazu Sugita

text: Sugita was born in Ranzan, Saitama. When he was in elementary school and watched the TV anime "", he noticed that the character Hyunckel had a much lower voice than he had imagined from reading the original manga, and thought he was "still cool," but the moment he said his special move, Sugita realized that it was the same voice as Phoenix Ikki from "Saint Seiya" (Hideyuki Hori). In junior high school, he was a member of the tennis club and served as the head of the club, while in high school, he joined the Shorinji Kempo club (1-dan). When he was a child, he wanted to be a temple priest, and in high school he wanted to be a home economics teacher, a confectioner, or a designer. At the time, when he thought about writing a script for a stage performance at a school event and added sound effects and background music to a recording of his own voice, his older brother heard it and suggested that he try to find a job that made use of him voice and speech, which led him to become a voice actor. While still in high school, he won the Myuras & Animage Award at the Voice Actor Spring School sponsored by the Japan Narration Actor Institute, and entered the Myuras Actors School (now the Vocal and Dance Division of the Japan Narration Actor Institute), while at the same time belonging to the Myuras entertainment agency. At the age of 17, he made his voice acting debut as a gift announcement narrator for "Kamen Rider" on SKY PerfecTV!.


title: Tomokazu Sugita

text: In 1999, when he was a prep school student, he got his first regular role in an anime production with "Cybuster", and continued his voice acting career while studying until he graduated from university. After the dissolution of Myuras in 2001, he joined Atomic Monkey after a period of freelancing, and made his first leading role playing Hideki Motosuwa in the anime series "Chobits".


title: Tomokazu Sugita

text: Sugita played the leading roles in both "Gintama" (Gintoki Sakata) and "The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya" (Kyon), greatly increasing his fame. In 2009, he won the Best Actor in supporting role award at the 3rd Seiyu Awards. In October 2013, he won the Male Voice Actor Award at the "Newtype x Machi★Asobi Anime Awards 2013", and his role in "Gargantia on the Verdurous Planet", Chamber K6821, also won the Mascot Character Award.


title: Tomokazu Sugita

text: In 2010, he starred in a live-action film "Wonderful World", alongside Mamoru Miyano, Tomokazu Seki, Rikiya Koyama, Yuka Hirata, Showtaro Morikubo and Daisuke Namikawa. On April 1, 2020, Sugita left Atomic Monkey, the company he had been affiliated with for many years, and established AGRS Inc. with Kai Itō, a lawyer well versed in the entertainment industry, as an advisor and himself as the representative director.


title: NOx

text: In atmospheric chemistry, is shorthand for nitric oxide () and nitrogen dioxide (), the nitrogen oxides that are most relevant for air pollution. These gases contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain, as well as affecting tropospheric ozone.


title: NOx

text: ' is defined as the sum of plus the ' compounds produced from the oxidation of which include nitric acid, nitrous acid (HONO), dinitrogen pentoxide (NO), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), alkyl nitrates (RONO), peroxyalkyl nitrates (ROONO), the nitrate radical (NO), and peroxynitric acid (HNO).


title: NOx

text: Because of energy limitations, oxygen and nitrogen do not react at ambient temperatures. But at high temperatures, they undergo an endothermic reaction producing various oxides of nitrogen. Such temperatures arise inside an internal combustion engine or a power station boiler, during the combustion of a mixture of air and fuel, and naturally in a lightning flash.


title: NOx

text: In atmospheric chemistry, the term denotes the total concentration of NO and since the conversion between these two species is rapid in the stratosphere and troposphere. During daylight hours, these concentrations together with that of ozone are in steady state, also known as photostationary state (PSS); the ratio of NO to is determined by the intensity of sunshine (which converts to NO) and the concentration of ozone (which reacts with NO to again form ).


title: NOx

text: In other words, the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is determined by the ratio of these two species.


title: NOx

text: The time τ that is needed to reach a steady state among and ozone is dominated by reaction (), which reverses reactions ()+():


title: NOx

text: for mixing ratio of NO, [NO] = 10 part per billion (ppb), the time constant is 40 minutes; for [NO] = 1 ppb, 4 minutes.


title: NOx

text: When and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight, they form photochemical smog, a significant form of air pollution. The presence of photochemical smog increases during the summer when the incident solar radiation is higher. The emitted hydrocarbons from industrial activities and transportation react with NO quickly and increase the concentration of ozone and peroxide compounds, especially peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).


title: NOx

text: Children, people with lung diseases such as asthma, and people who work or exercise outside are particularly susceptible to adverse effects of smog such as damage to lung tissue and reduction in lung function.


title: NOx

text: where M denotes a third molecule required to stabilize the addition product. Nitric acid (HNO) is highly soluble in liquid water in aerosol particles or cloud drops.


title: NOx

text: During the daytime, NO is quickly photolyzed back to NO, but at night it can react with a second NO to form dinitrogen pentoxide.


title: NOx

text: NO reacts rapidly with liquid water (in aerosol particles or cloud drops, but not in the gas phase) to form HNO,


title: NOx

text: These are thought to be the principal pathways for formation of nitric acid in the atmosphere. This nitric acid contributes to acid rain or may deposit to soil, where it makes nitrate, which is of use to growing plants. The aqueous phase reaction


title: NOx

text: Nitric oxide is produced during thunderstorms due to the extreme heating and cooling within a lightning strike. This causes stable molecules such as N and O to convert into significant amounts of NO similar to the process that occurs during high temperature fuel combustion. NO from lightning can become oxidized to produce nitric acid (HNO), this can be precipitated out as acid rain or deposited onto particles in the air. Elevated production of NO from lightning depends on the season and geographic location. The occurrence of lightning is more common over land near the equator in the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) during summer months. This area migrates slightly as seasons change. NO production from lightning can be observed through satellite observations.


title: NOx

text: Scientists Ott et al. estimated that each flash of lightning on average in the several mid-latitude and subtropical thunderstorms studied turned of nitrogen into chemically reactive . With 1.4 billion lightning flashes per year, multiplied by 7 kilograms per lightning strike, they estimated the total amount of produced by lightning per year is 8.6 million tonnes. However, emissions resulting from fossil fuel combustion are estimated at 28.5 million tonnes.


title: NOx

text: A recent discovery indicated that cosmic ray and solar flares can significantly influence the number of lightning strikes occurring on Earth. Therefore, space weather can be a major driving force of lightning-produced atmospheric . Atmospheric constituents such as nitrogen oxides can be stratified vertically in the atmosphere. Ott noted that the lightning-produced is typically found at altitudes greater than 5 km, while combustion and biogenic (soil) are typically found near the sources at near surface elevation (where it can cause the most significant health effects).


title: NOx

text: Agricultural fertilization and the use of nitrogen fixing plants also contribute to atmospheric , by promoting nitrogen fixation by microorganisms. The nitrification process transforms ammonia into nitrate. Denitrification is basically the reverse process of nitrification. During denitrification, nitrate is reduced to nitrite, then NO, then NO and finally nitrogen. Through these processes, NO is emitted to the atmosphere.


title: NOx

text: A recent study conducted by the University of California Davis found that adding nitrogen fertilizer to soil in California is contributing 25 percent or more to state-wide NO pollution levels. When nitrogen fertilizer is added to the soil, excess ammonium and nitrate not used by plants can be converted to NO by microorganisms in the soil, which escapes into the air. NO is a precursor for smog formation which is already a known issue for the state of California. In addition to contributing to smog, when nitrogen fertilizer is added to the soil and the excess is released in the form of NO, or leached as nitrate this can be a costly process for the farming industry.


title: NOx

text: A 2018 study by the Indiana University determined that forests in the eastern United States can expect to see increases in NO and in turn, changes in the types of trees which predominate. Due to human activity and climate change, the maples, sassafras, and tulip poplar have been pushing out the beneficial oak, beech, and hickory. The team determined that the first three tree species, maples, sassafras, and tulip poplar, are associated with ammonia-oxidizing bacteria known to "emit reactive nitrogen from soil." By contrast, the second three tree species, oak, beech and hickory, are associated with microbes that "absorb reactive nitrogen oxides," and thus can have a positive impact on the nitrogen oxide component of air quality. Nitrogen oxide release from forest soils is expected to be highest in Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Kentucky and Ohio.


title: NOx

text: Thermal formation, which is highly temperature dependent, is recognized as the most relevant source when combusting natural gas. Fuel tends to dominate during the combustion of fuels, such as coal, which have a significant nitrogen content, particularly when burned in combustors designed to minimise thermal . The contribution of prompt is normally considered negligible. A fourth source, called "feed" is associated with the combustion of nitrogen present in the feed material of cement rotary kilns, at between 300 °C and 800 °C, where it is considered a minor contributor.


title: NOx

text: Thermal refers to formed through high temperature oxidation of the diatomic nitrogen found in combustion air. The formation rate is primarily a function of temperature and the residence time of nitrogen at that temperature. At high temperatures, usually above 1300 °C (2600 °F), molecular nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) in the combustion air dissociate into their atomic states and participate in a series of reactions.


title: NOx

text: All three reactions are reversible. Zeldovich was the first to suggest the importance of the first two reactions. The last reaction of atomic nitrogen with the hydroxyl radical, HO, was added by Lavoie, Heywood and Keck to the mechanism and makes a significant contribution to the formation of thermal .


title: NOx

text: It is estimated that transportation fuels cause 54% of the anthropogenic (i.e. human-caused) . The major source of production from nitrogen-bearing fuels such as certain coals and oil, is the conversion of fuel bound nitrogen to during combustion. During combustion, the nitrogen bound in the fuel is released as a free radical and ultimately forms free N, or NO. Fuel can contribute as much as 50% of total emissions through the combusting oil and as much as 80% through the combusting of coal.


title: NOx

text: Although the complete mechanism is not fully understood, there are two primary pathways of formation. The first involves the oxidation of volatile nitrogen species during the initial stages of combustion. During the release and before the oxidation of the volatiles, nitrogen reacts to form several intermediaries which are then oxidized into NO. If the volatiles evolve into a reducing atmosphere, the nitrogen evolved can readily be made to form nitrogen gas, rather than . The second pathway involves the combustion of nitrogen contained in the char matrix during the combustion of the char portion of the fuels. This reaction occurs much more slowly than the volatile phase. Only around 20% of the char nitrogen is ultimately emitted as , since much of the that forms during this process is reduced to nitrogen by the char, which is nearly pure carbon.


title: NOx

text: Nitrogen oxides are released during manufacturing of nitrogen fertilizers. Though nitrous oxide is emitted during its application, it is then reacted in atmosphere to form nitrogen oxides. This third source is attributed to the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen, N, with radicals such as C, CH, and CH fragments derived from fuel, rather than thermal or fuel processes. Occurring in the earliest stage of combustion, this results in the formation of fixed species of nitrogen such as NH (nitrogen monohydride), NCN (diradical cyanonitrene), HCN (hydrogen cyanide), HCN (dihydrogen cyanide) and CN (cyano radical) which can oxidize to NO. In fuels that contain nitrogen, the incidence of prompt is comparatively small and it is generally only of interest for the most exacting emission targets.


title: NOx

text: There is strong evidence that respiratory exposure can trigger and exacerbate existing asthma symptoms, and may even lead to the development of asthma over longer periods of time. It has also been associated with heart disease, diabetes, birth outcomes, and all-cause mortality, but these nonrespiratory effects are less well-established.


title: NOx

text: The direct effect of the emission of has positive contribution to the greenhouse effect. Instead of reacting with ozone in Reaction 3, NO can also react with HO· and organic peroxyradicals (RO·) and thus increase the concentration of ozone. Once the concentration of exceeds a certain level, atmospheric reactions result in net ozone formation. Since tropospheric ozone can absorb infrared radiation, this indirect effect of is intensifying global warming.


title: NOx

text: There are also other indirect effects of that can either increase or decrease the greenhouse effect. First of all, through the reaction of NO with HO radicals, OH radicals are recycled, which oxidize methane molecules, meaning emissions can counter the effect of greenhouse gases. For instance, ship traffic emits a great amount of NO which provides a source of NO over the ocean. Then, photolysis of NO leads to the formation of ozone and the further formation of hydroxyl radicals (·OH) through ozone photolysis. Since the major sink of methane in the atmosphere is by reaction with OH radicals, the NO emissions from ship travel may lead to a net global cooling. However, in the atmosphere may undergo dry or wet deposition and return to land in the form of HNO/NO. Through this way, the deposition leads to nitrogen fertilization and the subsequent formation of nitrous oxide (NO) in soil, which is another greenhouse gas. In conclusion, considering several direct and indirect effects, emissions have a negative contribution to global warming.


title: NOx

text: Biodiesel and its blends in general are known to reduce harmful tailpipe emissions such as: carbon monoxide; particulate matter (PM), otherwise known as soot; and unburned hydrocarbon emissions. While earlier studies suggested biodiesel could sometimes decrease and sometimes increase emissions, subsequent investigation has shown that blends of up to 20% biodiesel in USEPA-approved diesel fuel have no significant impact on emissions compared with regular diesel. The state of California uses a special formulation of diesel fuel to produce less relative to diesel fuel used in the other 49 states. This has been deemed necessary by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) to offset the combination of vehicle congestion, warm temperatures, extensive sunlight, PM, and topography that all contribute to the formation of ozone and smog. CARB has established a special regulation for Alternative Diesel Fuels to ensure that any new fuels, including biodiesel, coming into the market do not substantially increase emissions. The reduction of emissions is one of the most important challenges for advances in vehicle technology. While diesel vehicles sold in the US since 2010 are dramatically cleaner than previous diesel vehicles, urban areas continue to seek more ways to reduce the formation of smog and ozone. formation during combustion is associated with a number of factors such as combustion temperature. As such, it can be observed that the vehicle drive cycle, or the load on the engine have more significant impact on emissions than the type of fuel used. This may be especially true for modern, clean diesel vehicles that continuously monitor engine operation electronically and actively control engine parameters and exhaust system operations to limit emission to less than 0.2 g/km. Low-temperature combustion or LTC technology may help reduce thermal formation of during combustion, however a tradeoff exists as high temperature combustion produces less PM or soot and results in greater power and fuel efficiency.


title: NOx

text: Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) reduce post combustion by reacting the exhaust with urea or ammonia to produce nitrogen and water. SCR is now being used in ships, diesel trucks and in some diesel cars. The use of exhaust gas recirculation and catalytic converters in motor vehicle engines have significantly reduced vehicular emissions. was the main focus of the Volkswagen emissions violations.


title: NOx

text: Other technologies such as flameless oxidation (FLOX) and staged combustion significantly reduce thermal in industrial processes. Bowin low technology is a hybrid of staged-premixed-radiant combustion technology with major surface combustion preceded by minor radiant combustion. In the Bowin burner, air and fuel gas are premixed at a ratio greater than or equal to the stoichiometric combustion requirement. Water Injection technology, whereby water is introduced into the combustion chamber, is also becoming an important means of reduction through increased efficiency in the overall combustion process. Alternatively, the water (e.g. 10 to 50%) is emulsified into the fuel oil before the injection and combustion. This emulsification can either be made in-line (unstabilized) just before the injection or as a drop-in fuel with chemical additives for long-term emulsion stability (stabilized). Excessive water addition facilitates hot corrosion, which is the primary reason why dry low- technologies are favored today besides the requirement of a more complex system.


title: Palatine uvula

text: The palatine uvula, usually referred to as simply the uvula, is a conic projection from the back edge of the middle of the soft palate, composed of connective tissue containing a number of racemose glands, and some muscular fibers. It also contains many serous glands, which produce thin saliva. It is only found in human beings.


title: Palatine uvula

text: The muscular part of the uvula () shortens and broadens the uvula. This changes the contour of the posterior part of the soft palate. This change in contour allows the soft palate to adapt closely to the posterior pharyngeal wall to help close the nasopharynx during swallowing.


title: Palatine uvula

text: A bifid or bifurcated uvula is a split or cleft uvula. Newborns with cleft palate often also have a split uvula. The bifid uvula results from incomplete fusion of the palatine shelves but it is considered only a slight form of clefting. Bifid uvulas have less muscle in them than a normal uvula, which may cause recurring problems with middle ear infections. While swallowing, the soft palate is pushed backwards, preventing food and drink from entering the nasal cavity. If the soft palate cannot touch the back of the throat while swallowing, food and drink can enter the nasal cavity. Splitting of the uvula occurs infrequently but is the most common form of mouth and nose area cleavage among newborns. Bifid uvula occurs in about 2% of the general population, although some populations may have a high incidence, such as Native Americans who have a 10% rate.


title: Palatine uvula

text: Bifid uvula is a common symptom of the rare genetic syndrome Loeys–Dietz syndrome, which is associated with an increased risk of aortic aneurysm.


title: Palatine uvula

text: During swallowing, the soft palate and the uvula move together to close off the nasopharynx, and prevent food from entering the nasal cavity.


title: Palatine uvula

text: It has also been proposed that the abundant amount of thin saliva produced by the uvula serves to keep the throat well lubricated.


title: Palatine uvula

text: It has a function in speech as well. In many languages, a range of consonant sounds, known as uvular consonants, are articulated by creating a constriction of airflow between the uvula and the back of the tongue. The voiced uvular trill, written in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is one example; it is used in French, Arabic and Hebrew, among other languages. Due to the large amount of saliva produced from glands in the uvula that are absent in other mammals, it has been suggested that the uvula is an accessory speech organ.


title: Palatine uvula

text: Stimulation of the uvula also causes the gag reflex to initiate. This is often a problem for people with uvula piercings, and a common method of inducing vomiting.


title: Palatine uvula

text: At times, the mucous membrane around the uvula may swell, causing the uvula to expand 3–5 times its normal size. This condition is known as uvulitis. When the uvula touches the throat or tongue, it can cause sensations like gagging or choking, although there is no foreign matter present. This can cause problems with breathing, talking, and eating.


title: Palatine uvula

text: There are many theories about what causes the uvula to swell, including dehydration (e.g. from arid weather); excessive smoking or other inhaled irritants; snoring; allergic reaction; or a viral or bacterial infection. An aphthous ulcer which has formed on the uvula can also cause swelling and discomfort.


title: Palatine uvula

text: If the swelling is caused by dehydration, drinking fluids may improve the condition. If the cause is a bacterial infection, gargling salt water may help. However, it can also be a sign of other problems. Some people with a history of recurring uvulitis carry an epinephrine autoinjector to counteract symptoms of an attack. A swollen uvula is not normally life-threatening and subsides in a short time, typically within a day.


title: Palatine uvula

text: The uvula can also contribute to snoring or heavy breathing during sleep; having an elongated uvula can cause vibrations that lead to snoring. In some cases this can lead to sleep apnea, which may be treated by removal of the uvula or part of it if necessary, an operation known as uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (commonly referred to as UPPP, or UP3). However, this operation can also cause sleep apnea if scar tissue forms and the airspace in the velopharynx is decreased. The success of UPPP as a treatment for sleep apnea is unknown, but some research has shown 40–60% effectiveness in reducing symptoms. Typically apnea subsides for the short term, but returns over the medium to long term, and sometimes is worse than it was before the UPPP.


title: Palatine uvula

text: In a small number of people, the uvula does not close properly against the back of the throat, causing a condition known as velopharyngeal insufficiency. This causes "nasal" (or more properly "hyper-nasal") speech, where extra air comes down the nose, and the speaker is unable to say certain consonants, such as pronouncing 'b' like 'm'.


title: Palatine uvula

text: During swallowing, the soft palate and the uvula move superiorly to close off the nasopharynx, preventing food from entering the nasal cavity. When this process fails, the result is called "nasal regurgitation". It is common in people with VPI, the myositides, and neuromuscular disease. Regurgitation of fluids in this way may also occur if a particularly high volume of liquid is regurgitated, or during vigorous coughing, for example being caused by the accidental inhalation of water. Due to the action of coughing preventing the uvula from blocking the nasopharynx, liquid may be expelled back through the nose.


title: Palatine uvula

text: In some parts of Africa, including Ethiopia and Eritrea, the uvula or a section of it is ritually removed by a traditional healer. In this case, the uvula may be noticeably shortened. It is not thought to contribute to velopharyngeal inadequacy, except in cases where the tonsils have also been removed.


title: Palatine uvula

text: In Latin, "ūvula" means "little grape", the diminutive form of "ūva" "grape" (of unknown origin). A swollen uvula was called "ūva".


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: The central dogma of molecular biology is an explanation of the flow of genetic information within a biological system. It is often stated as "DNA makes RNA, and RNA makes protein", although this is not its original meaning. It was first stated by Francis Crick in 1957, then published in 1958:


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: He re-stated it in a "Nature" paper published in 1970: "The central dogma of molecular biology deals with the detailed residue-by-residue transfer of sequential information. It states that such information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid."


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: A second version of the central dogma is popular but incorrect. This is the simplistic DNA → RNA → protein pathway published by James Watson in the first edition of "The Molecular Biology of the Gene" (1965). Watson's version differs from Crick's because Watson describes a two-step (DNA → RNA and RNA → protein) process as the central dogma. While the dogma, as originally stated by Crick, remains valid today, Watson's version does not.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: The dogma is a framework for understanding the transfer of sequence information between information-carrying biopolymers, in the most common or general case, in living organisms. There are 3 major classes of such biopolymers: DNA and RNA (both nucleic acids), and protein. There are conceivable direct transfers of information that can occur between these. The dogma classes these into 3 groups of 3: three general transfers (believed to occur normally in most cells), two special transfers (known to occur, but only under specific conditions in case of some viruses or in a laboratory), and four unknown transfers (believed never to occur). The general transfers describe the normal flow of biological information: DNA can be copied to DNA (DNA replication), DNA information can be copied into mRNA (transcription), and proteins can be synthesized using the information in mRNA as a template (translation). The special transfers describe: RNA being copied from RNA (RNA replication), DNA being synthesised using an RNA template (reverse transcription). The unknown transfers describe: proteins being synthesised directly from a DNA template without the use of mRNA, a protein being copied from a protein, synthesis of RNA using the primary structure of a protein as a template, DNA synthesis using the primary structure of a protein as a template - these are not thought to naturally occur.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: The biopolymers that comprise DNA, RNA and (poly)peptides are linear polymers (i.e.: each monomer is connected to at most two other monomers). The sequence of their monomers effectively encodes information. The transfers of information described by the central dogma ideally are faithful, deterministic transfers, wherein one biopolymer's sequence is used as a template for the construction of another biopolymer with a sequence that is entirely dependent on the original biopolymer's sequence. When DNA is transcribed to RNA, it's complement is paired to it. DNA codes A, G, T, and C are transferred to RNA codes U, C, A, and G, respectively. The encoding of proteins is done in groups of three, known as codons. The standard codon table applies for humans and mammals, but some other lifeforms (including human mitochondria) use different translations.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: In the sense that DNA replication must occur if genetic material is to be provided for the progeny of any cell, whether somatic or reproductive, the copying from DNA to RNA arguably is the fundamental step in the central dogma. A complex group of proteins called the replisome performs the replication of the information from the parent strand to the complementary daughter strand.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is replicated in the form of a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA). Enzymes facilitating the process include RNA polymerase and transcription factors. In eukaryotic cells the primary transcript is pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA must be processed for translation to proceed. Processing includes the addition of a 5' cap and a poly-A tail to the pre-mRNA chain, followed by splicing. Alternative splicing occurs when appropriate, increasing the diversity of the proteins that any single mRNA can produce. The product of the entire transcription process (that began with the production of the pre-mRNA chain) is a mature mRNA chain.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: The mature mRNA finds its way to a ribosome, where it gets translated. In prokaryotic cells, which have no nuclear compartment, the processes of transcription and translation may be linked together without clear separation. In eukaryotic cells, the site of transcription (the cell nucleus) is usually separated from the site of translation (the cytoplasm), so the mRNA must be transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it can be bound by ribosomes. The ribosome reads the mRNA triplet codons, usually beginning with an AUG (adenine−uracil−guanine), or initiator methionine codon downstream of the ribosome binding site. Complexes of initiation factors and elongation factors bring aminoacylated transfer RNAs (tRNAs) into the ribosome-mRNA complex, matching the codon in the mRNA to the anti-codon on the tRNA. Each tRNA bears the appropriate amino acid residue to add to the polypeptide chain being synthesised. As the amino acids get linked into the growing peptide chain, the chain begins folding into the correct conformation. Translation ends with a stop codon which may be a UAA, UGA, or UAG triplet.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: The mRNA does not contain all the information for specifying the nature of the mature protein. The nascent polypeptide chain released from the ribosome commonly requires additional processing before the final product emerges. For one thing, the correct folding process is complex and vitally important. For most proteins it requires other chaperone proteins to control the form of the product. Some proteins then excise internal segments from their own peptide chains, splicing the free ends that border the gap; in such processes the inside "discarded" sections are called inteins. Other proteins must be split into multiple sections without splicing. Some polypeptide chains need to be cross-linked, and others must be attached to cofactors such as haem (heme) before they become functional.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: Reverse transcription is the transfer of information from RNA to DNA (the reverse of normal transcription). This is known to occur in the case of retroviruses, such as HIV, as well as in eukaryotes, in the case of retrotransposons and telomere synthesis.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: It is the process by which genetic information from RNA gets transcribed into new DNA. The family of enzymes involved in this process is called Reverse Transcriptase.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: RNA replication is the copying of one RNA to another. Many viruses replicate this way. The enzymes that copy RNA to new RNA, called RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, are also found in many eukaryotes where they are involved in RNA silencing.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: RNA editing, in which an RNA sequence is altered by a complex of proteins and a "guide RNA", could also be seen as an RNA-to-RNA transfer.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: Direct translation from DNA to protein has been demonstrated in a cell-free system (i.e. in a test tube), using extracts from "E. coli" that contained ribosomes, but not intact cells. These cell fragments could synthesize proteins from single-stranded DNA templates isolated from other organisms (e,g., mouse or toad), and neomycin was found to enhance this effect. However, it was unclear whether this mechanism of translation corresponded specifically to the genetic code.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: After protein amino acid sequences have been translated from nucleic acid chains, they can be edited by appropriate enzymes. Although this is a form of protein affecting protein sequence, not explicitly covered by the central dogma, there are not many clear examples where the associated concepts of the two fields have much to do with each other.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: An intein is a "parasitic" segment of a protein that is able to excise itself from the chain of amino acids as they emerge from the ribosome and rejoin the remaining portions with a peptide bond in such a manner that the main protein "backbone" does not fall apart. This is a case of a protein changing its own primary sequence from the sequence originally encoded by the DNA of a gene. Additionally, most inteins contain a homing endonuclease or HEG domain which is capable of finding a copy of the parent gene that does not include the intein nucleotide sequence. On contact with the intein-free copy, the HEG domain initiates the DNA double-stranded break repair mechanism. This process causes the intein sequence to be copied from the original source gene to the intein-free gene. This is an example of protein directly editing DNA sequence, as well as increasing the sequence's heritable propagation.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: Variation in methylation states of DNA can alter gene expression levels significantly. Methylation variation usually occurs through the action of DNA methylases. When the change is heritable, it is considered epigenetic. When the change in information status is not heritable, it would be a somatic epitype. The effective information content has been changed by means of the actions of a protein or proteins on DNA, but the primary DNA sequence is not altered.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: Prions are proteins of particular amino acid sequences in particular conformations. They propagate themselves in host cells by making conformational changes in other molecules of protein with the same amino acid sequence, but with a different conformation that is functionally important or detrimental to the organism. Once the protein has been transconformed to the prion folding it changes function. In turn it can convey information into new cells and reconfigure more functional molecules of that sequence into the alternate prion form. In some types of prion in fungi this change is continuous and direct; the information flow is Protein → Protein.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: Some scientists such as Alain E. Bussard and Eugene Koonin have argued that prion-mediated inheritance violates the central dogma of molecular biology. However, Rosalind Ridley in "Molecular Pathology of the Prions" (2001) has written that "The prion hypothesis is not heretical to the central dogma of molecular biology—that the information necessary to manufacture proteins is encoded in the nucleotide sequence of nucleic acid—because it does not claim that proteins replicate. Rather, it claims that there is a source of information within protein molecules that contributes to their biological function, and that this information can be passed on to other molecules."


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: James A. Shapiro argues that a superset of these examples should be classified as natural genetic engineering and are sufficient to falsify the central dogma. While Shapiro has received a respectful hearing for his view, his critics have not been convinced that his reading of the central dogma is in line with what Crick intended.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: In his autobiography, "", Crick wrote about his choice of the word "dogma" and some of the problems it caused him:


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: "I called this idea the central dogma, for two reasons, I suspect. I had already used the obvious word hypothesis in the sequence hypothesis, and in addition I wanted to suggest that this new assumption was more central and more powerful. ... As it turned out, the use of the word dogma caused almost more trouble than it was worth. Many years later Jacques Monod pointed out to me that I did not appear to understand the correct use of the word dogma, which is a belief "that cannot be doubted". I did apprehend this in a vague sort of way but since I thought that "all" religious beliefs were without foundation, I used the word the way I myself thought about it, not as most of the world does, and simply applied it to a grand hypothesis that, however plausible, had little direct experimental support."


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: "My mind was, that a dogma was an idea for which there was "no reasonable evidence". You see?!" And Crick gave a roar of delight. "I just didn't "know" what dogma "meant". And I could just as well have called it the 'Central Hypothesis,' or — you know. Which is what I meant to say. Dogma was just a catch phrase."


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

text: The Weismann barrier, proposed by August Weismann in 1892, distinguishes between the "immortal" germ cell lineages (the germ plasm) which produce gametes and the "disposable" somatic cells. Hereditary information moves only from germline cells to somatic cells (that is, somatic mutations are not inherited). This, before the discovery of the role or structure of DNA, does not predict the central dogma, but does anticipate its gene-centric view of life, albeit in non-molecular terms.


title: Darsheel Safary

text: Darsheel Safary (born 9 March 1997) is an Indian actor who appears in Hindi films and television. Safary made his film debut with the leading role of a student with learning disorder in Aamir Khan's directorial debut, the critically acclaimed drama "Taare Zameen Par" (2007), for which he won the Filmfare critic's Award for Best Actor.


title: Darsheel Safary

text: In 2007, Safary made his acting debut in "Taare Zameen Par", playing the film's protagonist Ishaan Nandkishore Awasthi. Safary was discovered by script writer and creative director, Amol Gupte in late 2006 when he was looking for a male lead for "Taare Zameen Par". After going through hundreds of auditions, Gupte found Safary at Shiamak Davar's dancing school, "Summer Funk". In choosing Safary, Gupte had a number of boys audition for a scene in which they would informally describe how they would "bunk" school after being given a few scenarios. He recalls, "It was a tough call. But Darsheel has the mischief in his eyes to be Ishaan. Everyone just naturally gravitated towards him."


title: Darsheel Safary

text: Safary's performance as a struggling dyslexic child was praised by film critics. He won several awards for his performance. Taran Adarsh from "indiaFM" wrote, ""Taare Zameen Par" belongs to Master Darsheel Safary. A performance that makes the best of performances pale in comparison. A performance that deserves brownie points. A performance that'll always come first on your mind the moment someone mentions "Taare Zameen Par". A performance that's impeccable, flawless and astounding. A performance that moves you and makes you reflect on your growing years. A performance that merits a special award!" Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN wrote, "Darsheel Safary steals your heart as Ishaan Awasthi. Darsheel is a revelation as an actor, he's spontaneous and lovable and carries this film completely on his shoulders". Other reviewers called Safary the "real star of the film" and his performance as "brilliant". In a 2007 interview, Safary stated that his career plans may include singing, dancing, becoming a businessman or jewellery designer.


title: Darsheel Safary

text: His second film "Bumm Bumm Bole" came in 2010 and according to some sources he was paid ₹ 3 lakh, highest amount paid to any child actor. After that he did two more films, Disney India's superhero film "Zokkomon" (2011) and Deepa Mehta's "Midnight's Children" (2012).


title: Darsheel Safary

text: In 2012, he participated in dance reality show "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa" with Avneet Kaur as his dance partner, but was eliminated and came in seventh position. In 2016, he played the role of Abhay in anthology series "Yeh Hai Aashiqui".


title: Religion in Africa

text: Religion in Africa is multifaceted and has been a major influence on art, culture and philosophy. Today, the continent's various populations and individuals are mostly adherents of Christianity, Islam, and to a lesser extent several traditional African religions. In Christian or Islamic communities, religious beliefs are also sometimes characterized with syncretism with the beliefs and practices of traditional religions.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Africa encompasses a wide variety of traditional beliefs. Although religious customs are sometimes shared by many local societies, they are usually unique to specific populations or geographic regions. All traditional African religions are united by a shared animistic core with special importance to ancestor worship.


title: Religion in Africa

text: According to Dr J Omosade Awolalu, The "olden" in this context means indigenous, that which is foundational, handed down from generation to generation, meant as to be upheld and practised today and forevermore. A heritage from the past, yet not treated as a thing of the past but that which connects the past with the present and the present with eternity.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Often spoken of in the terms of a singularity, deliberate; yet conscious of the fact that Africa is a large continent with multitudes of nations who have complex cultures, innumerable languages and myriad dialects.


title: Religion in Africa

text: The essence of this school of thought is based mainly on oral transmission; that which is written in people's hearts, minds, oral history, customs, temples and religious functions. It has no founders or leaders like Gautama Buddha, Jesus, or Muhammed. It has no missionaries or the intent to propagate or to proselytise. Some of the African traditional religions are those of the Serer of Senegal, the Yoruba and Igbo of Nigeria, and the Akan of Ghana and the Ivory Coast, and the Bono of Ghana and Ivory Coast. The western coast is also consisted of the Yoruba and Anglican religion of syncretism. The religion of the Gbe peoples (mostly the Ewe and Fon) of Benin, Togo and Ghana is called Vodun and is the main source for similarly named religions in the diaspora, such as Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, Cuban Vodú, Dominican Vudú and Brazilian Vodum. Many of these religions still hold strong in today's society, but there is a rise in diversity for established religions.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Some distinctions between West African and East or Horn African traditional religion often includes considering the supernatural and natural or tangible as being one and the same, and using this stance to incorporate divination. Clergymen from this region who would historically catechize to the masses was often referred to as "waganga". Another distinction of East African and Horners is the greater prevalence of prophets within the oral traditionas and other forms of generational transmissions of traditional African religion.


title: Religion in Africa

text: The most prominent indigenous deity among Cushitic "Horners" is Waaq, which continues to be manifested into the modern era with religions such as Waaqeffanna and Waaqism. According to the author Lugira, the Traditional African religions are the only religions "that can claim to have originated in Africa. Other religions found in Africa have their origins in other parts of the world."


title: Religion in Africa

text: The majority of Africans are adherents of Christianity or Islam. African people often combine the practice of their traditional belief with the practice of Abrahamic religions. Abrahamic religions are widespread throughout Africa. They have both spread and replaced indigenous African religions, but are often adapted to African cultural contexts and belief systems. This adaptation of both has raised grown to raise issues for some families as they start to focus on one. The World Book Encyclopedia has estimated that in 2002 Christians formed 45% of the continent's population, with Muslims forming 40%. It was also estimated in 2002 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, with Muslims forming 40.6%.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Christianity is now one of the most widely practiced religions in Africa along with Islam and is the largest religion in Sub-Saharan Africa. Several syncretistic and messianic sects have formed throughout much of the continent, including the Nazareth Baptist Church in South Africa and the Aladura churches in Nigeria. There is also fairly widespread populations of Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses. The oldest Christian denominations in Africa are the Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (which rose to prominence in the fourth century AD after King Ezana the Great made Ethiopia one of the first Christian nations.)


title: Religion in Africa

text: In the first few centuries of Christianity, Africa produced many figures who had a major influence outside the continent, including St Augustine of Hippo, St Maurice, Origen, Tertullian, and three Roman Catholic popes (Victor I, Miltiades and Gelasius I), as well as the Biblical characters Simon of Cyrene and the Ethiopian eunuch baptised by Philip the Evangelist. Christianity existed in Ethiopia before the rule of King Ezana the Great of the Kingdom of Axum, but the religion grasped a strong foothold when it was declared a state religion in 330 AD, becoming one of the first Christian nations.


title: Religion in Africa

text: The earliest and best known reference to the introduction of Christianity to Africa is mentioned in the Christian Bible's Acts of the Apostles, and pertains to the evangelist Phillip's conversion of an Ethiopian traveller in the 1st century AD. Although the Bible refers to them as Ethiopians, scholars have argued that Ethiopia was a common term encompassing the area South-Southeast of Egypt.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Other traditions have the convert as a Jew who was a steward in the Queen's court. All accounts do agree on the fact that the traveller was a member of the royal court who successfully succeeded in converting the Queen, which in turn caused a church to be built. Tyrannius Rufinus, a noted church historian, also recorded a personal account as do other church historians such as Socrates and Sozemius.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Some experts predict the shift of Christianity's center from the European industrialized nations to Africa and Asia in modern times. Yale University historian Lamin Sanneh stated, that "African Christianity was not just an exotic, curious phenomenon in an obscure part of the world, but that African Christianity might be the shape of things to come." The statistics from the World Christian Encyclopedia (David Barrett) illustrate the emerging trend of dramatic Christian growth on the continent and supposes, that in 2025 there will be 633 million Christians in Africa.


title: Religion in Africa

text: A 2015 study estimates 2,161,000 Christian believers from a Muslim background in Africa, most of them belonging to some form of Protestantism.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Islam is the other major religion in Africa alongside Christianity, with 45% of the population being Muslim, accounting for 1/4 of the world's Muslim population. The faith's historic roots on the continent stem from the time of the Prophet Muhammad, whose early disciples migrated to Abyssinia (hijira) in fear of persecution from the pagan Arabs.


title: Religion in Africa

text: The spread of Islam in North Africa came with the expansion of Arab empire under Caliph Umar, through the Sinai Peninsula. The spread of Islam in West Africa was through Islamic traders and sailors. The religion had also began influencing Harla Kingdom in the Horn of Africa early on.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Islam is the dominant religion in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. It has also become the predominant religion on the Swahili Coast as well as the West African seaboard and parts of the interior. There have been several Muslim empires in Western Africa which exerted considerable influence, notably the Mali Empire, which flourished for several centuries and the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Mansa Musa, Sunni Ali and Askia Mohammed.


title: Religion in Africa

text: The vast majority of Muslims in Africa are followers of Sunni Islam. There are also small minorities of other sects.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Adherents of Judaism can be found scattered in a number of countries across Africa; including North Africa, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Cameroon, Gabon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Southern Africa.


title: Religion in Africa

text: The Baháʼí Faith in Africa has a diverse history. It especially had wide-scale growth in the 1950s which extended further in the 1960s. The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on World Christian Encyclopedia) lists many large and smaller populations of Baháʼís in Africa with Kenya (#3: 512,900), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (#5: 282,900), South Africa (#8: 238,500) and Zambia (#10: 190,400) among the top ten numerical populations of Baháʼís in the world in 2010, and Mauritius (#4: 1.8% of population) joining Zambia (#3: 1.8%) and Kenya (#10: 1.0%) in the top ten in terms of percentage of the national population.


title: Religion in Africa

text: All three individual heads of the religion, Bahá'u'lláh, `Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi, were in Africa at various times. More recently the roughly 2000 Baháʼís of Egypt have been embroiled in the Egyptian identification card controversy from 2006 through 2009. Since then there have been homes burned down and families driven out of towns. On the other hand, Sub-Saharan Baháʼís were able to mobilize for nine regional conferences called for by the Universal House of Justice 20 October 2008 to celebrate recent achievements in grassroots community-building and to plan their next steps in organizing in their home areas.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Hinduism has existed in Africa mainly since the late 19th century. There are an estimated 2-2.5 million adherents of Hinduism in Africa. It is the largest religion in Mauritius, and several other countries have Hindu temples.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Hindus came to South Africa as indentured laborers in the 19th century. The young M.K. Gandhi lived and worked among the Indian community in South Africa for twenty years before returning to India to participate in India's freedom movement.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Buddhism is a tiny religion in Africa with around 250,000 practicing adherents, and up to nearly 400,000 if combined with Taoism and Chinese Folk Religion as a common traditional religion of mostly new Chinese migrants (significant minority in Mauritius, Réunion, and South Africa). About half of African Buddhists are now living in South Africa, while Mauritius has the highest Buddhist percentage in the continent, between 1.5% to 2% of the total population.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Other faiths are practiced in Africa, including Sikhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and Rastafari among others.


title: Religion in Africa

text: A Gallup poll found that the irreligious comprise 20% in South Africa, 16% in Botswana, 13% in Mozambique, 13% in Togo, 12% in Ivory Coast, 10% in Ethiopia and Angola, 9% in Sudan, Zimbabwe and Algeria, 8% in Namibia and 7% in Madagascar.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Syncretism is the combining of different (often contradictory) beliefs, often while melding practices of various schools of thought. In the commonwealth of Africa syncretism with indigenous beliefs is practiced throughout the region. It is believed by some to explain religious tolerance between different groups. Kwesi Yankah and John Mbiti argue that many African peoples today have a 'mixed' religious heritage to try to reconcile traditional religions with Abrahamic faiths.


title: Religion in Africa

text: Jesse Mugambi claims that the Christianity taught to Africans by missionaries had a fear of syncretism, which was carried on by current African Christian leadership in an attempt to keep Christianity "pure." Syncretism in Africa is said by others to be overstated, and due to a misunderstanding of the abilities of local populations to form their own orthodoxies and also confusion over what is culture and what is religion. Others state that the term syncretism is a vague one, since it can be applied to refer to substitution or modification of the central elements of Christianity or Islam with beliefs or practices from somewhere else.


title: Religion in Africa

text: The consequences under this definition, according to missiologist Keith Ferdinando, are a fatal compromise of the religion's integrity. However, communities in Africa (e.g. Afro-Asiatic) have many common practices which are also found in Abrahamic faiths, and thus these traditions do not fall under the category of some definitions of syncretism.


title: Mexican Army

text: The Mexican Army () is the combined land and air branch and is the largest part of the Mexican Armed Forces; it is also known as the National Defense Army.


title: Mexican Army

text: The Army is under the authority of the Secretariat of National Defense or SEDENA and is headed by the Secretary of National Defence.


title: Mexican Army

text: It was the first army to adopt (1908) and use (1910) a self-loading rifle, the Mondragón rifle. The Mexican Army has an active duty force of 198,000 with 76,000 men and women of military service age.


title: Mexican Army

text: In the prehispanic era, there were many indigenous tribes and highly developed city-states in what is now known as central Mexico. The most advanced and powerful kingdoms were those of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan, which comprised populations of the same ethnic origin and were politically linked by an alliance known as the Triple Alliance; colloquially these three states are known as the Aztec. They had a center for higher education called the Calmecac in Nahuatl, this was where the children of the Aztec priesthood and nobility receive rigorous religious and military training and conveyed the highest knowledge such as: doctrines, divine songs, the science of interpreting codices, calendar skills, memorization of texts, etc. In Aztec society, it was compulsory for all young males, nobles as well as commoners, to join part of the armed forces at the age of 15. Recruited by regional and clan groups ("calpulli") the conscripts were organized in units of about 8,000 men ("Xiquipilli"). These were broken down into 400 strong sub-units. Aztec nobility (some of whom were the children of commoners who had distinguished themselves in battle) led their own serfs on campaign.


title: Mexican Army

text: Itzcoatl "Obsidian Serpent" (1381–1440), fourth king of Tenochtitlán, organized the army that defeated the Tepanec of Atzcapotzalco, freeing his people from their dominion. His reign began with the rise of what would become the largest empire in Mesoamerica. Then Moctezuma Ilhuicamina ""The arrow to the sky"" (1440–1469) came to extend the domain and the influence of the monarchy of Tenochtitlán. He began to organize trade to the outside regions of the Valley of Mexico. This was the Mexica ruler who organized the alliance with the lordships of Texcoco and Tlacopan to form the Triple Alliance.


title: Mexican Army

text: The Aztec established the Flower Wars as a form of worship; these, unlike the wars of conquest, were aimed at obtaining prisoners for sacrifice to the sun. Combat orders were given by kings (or Lords) using drums or blowing into a sea snail shell that gave off a sound like a horn. Giving out signals using coats of arms was very common. For combat outside of cities, they would organize several groups, only one of which would be involved in action, while the others remained on the alert. When attacking enemy cities, they usually divided their forces into three equal-sized wings, which simultaneously assaulted different parts of the defences – this enabled the leaders to determine which division of warriors had distinguished themselves the most in combat.


title: Mexican Army

text: During the 18th century the Spanish colonial forces in the greater Mexico region consisted of regular "Peninsular" regiments sent from Spain itself, augmented by locally recruited provincial and urban militia units of infantry, cavalry and artillery. A few regular infantry and dragoon regiments (e.g. the "Regimiento de Mexico") were recruited within Mexico and permanently stationed there. Mounted units of "soldados de cuera" (so called from the leather protective clothing that they wore) patrolled frontier and desert regions.


title: Mexican Army

text: In the early morning of 16 September 1810, the Army of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the independence movement. Hidalgo was followed by his loyal companions, among them Mariano Abasolo, and a small army equipped with swords, spears, slingshots and sticks. Captain General Ignacio Allende was the military brains of the insurgent army in the first phase of the War of Independence and secured several victories over the Spanish Royal Army. Their troops were about 5,000 strong and were later joined by squadrons of the Queen's Regiment where its members in turn contributed infantry battalions and cavalry squadrons to the insurrection cause.


title: Mexican Army

text: The Spaniards saw that it was important to defend the Alhóndiga de Granaditas public granary in Guanajuato, which maintained the flow of water, weapons, food and ammunition to the Spanish Royal Army. The insurgents entered Guanajuato and proceeded to lay siege to the Alhóndiga. The insurgents suffered heavy casualties until Juan Jose de los Reyes, the "Pípila", fitted a slab of rock on his back to protect himself from enemy fire and crawled to the large wooden door of the Alhóndiga with a torch in hand to set it on fire. With this stunt, the insurgents managed to bring down the door and enter the building and overrun it. Hidalgo headed to Valladolid (now Morelia), which was captured with little opposition. While the Insurgent Army was, by then, over 60,000 strong, it was mostly formed of poorly armed men with arrows, sticks and tillage tools – it had a few guns, which had been taken from Spanish stocks.


title: Mexican Army

text: In Aculco, the Royal Spanish forces under the command of Felix Maria Calleja, Count of Calderón, and Don Manuel de Flon (and comprising 200 infantrymen, 500 cavalry and 12 cannons) defeated the insurgents, who lost many men as well as the artillery they had obtained at Battle of Monte de las Cruces. On 29 November 1810, Hidalgo entered Guadalajara, the capital of Nueva Galicia, where he organized his government and the Insurgent Army; he also issued a decree abolishing slavery.


title: Mexican Army

text: At Calderon Bridge ("Puente de Calderón") near the city of Guadalajara Jalisco, insurgents held a hard-fought battle with the royalists. During the fierce fighting, one of the insurgents' ammunition wagons exploded, which led to their defeat. The insurgents lost all their artillery, much of their equipment and the lives of many men.


title: Mexican Army

text: At the Wells of Baján ("Norias de Baján") near Monclova, Coahuila, a former royalist named Ignacio Elizondo, who had joined the insurgent cause, betrayed them and seized Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Ignacio Allende, Juan Aldama, José Mariano Jiménez and the rest of the entourage. They were brought to the city of Chihuahua where they were tried by a military court and executed by firing squad on 30 July 1811. Hidalgo's death resulted in a political vacuum for the insurgents until 1812. Meanwhile, the royalist military commander, General Félix María Calleja, continued to pursue rebel troops. The fighting evolved into guerrilla warfare.


title: Mexican Army

text: The next major rebel leader was the priest José María Morelos y Pavón, who had formerly led the insurgent movement alongside Hidalgo. Morelos fortified the port of Acapulco and took the city of Chilpancingo. Along the way, Morelos, was joined by Leonardo Bravo, his son Nicholas and his brothers Max, Victor and Miguel Bravo.


title: Mexican Army

text: Morelos conducted several campaigns in the south, managing to conquer much of the region as he gave orders to the insurgents to promote the writing of the first constitution for the new Mexican nation: the Constitution of Apatzingan, which was drafted in 1814. In 1815, Morelos was apprehended and executed by firing squad. His death concluded the second phase of the Mexican War for Independence. From 1815 to 1820, the independence movement became sluggish; it was briefly reinvigorated by Francisco Javier Mina and Pedro Moreno, who were both quickly apprehended and executed.


title: Mexican Army

text: It was not until late 1820, when Agustín de Iturbide, one of the most bloodthirsty enemies of the insurgents, established relations with Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria, two of the rebel leaders. Guerrero and Victoria supported Iturbide's plan for Mexican independence, El Plan de Iguala and Iturbide was appointed commander of the Ejército Trigarante, or "The Army of the Three Guarantees". With this new alliance, they were able to enter Mexico City on 27 September 1821, which concluded the Mexican War for Independence.


title: Mexican Army

text: The Pastry War was the first French intervention in Mexico. Following the widespread civil disorder that plagued the early years of the Mexican republic, fighting in the streets destroyed a great deal of personal property. Foreigners whose property was damaged or destroyed by rioters or bandits were usually unable to obtain compensation from the government, and began to appeal to their own governments for help.


title: Mexican Army

text: In 1838, a French pastry cook, Monsieur Remontel, claimed that his shop in the Tacubaya district of Mexico City had been ruined in 1828 by looting Mexican officers. He appealed to France's King Louis-Philippe (1773–1850). Coming to its citizen's aid, France demanded 600,000 pesos in damages. This amount was extremely high when compared to an average workman's daily pay, which was about one peso. In addition to this amount, Mexico had defaulted on millions of dollars worth of loans from France. Diplomat Baron Deffaudis gave Mexico an ultimatum to pay, or the French would demand satisfaction. When the payment was not forthcoming from president Anastasio Bustamante (1780–1853), the king sent a fleet under Rear Admiral Charles Baudin to declare a blockade of all Mexican ports from Yucatán to the Rio Grande, to bombard the Mexican fortress of San Juan de Ulúa, and to seize the port of Veracruz. Virtually the entire Mexican Navy was captured at Veracruz by December 1838. Mexico declared war on France.