title: Qantas fleet

text: In accordance with the Lend-Lease agreement, the five modified Catalinas used for Double Sunrise service were scuttled after the war. However, Qantas obtained seven former Royal Australian Air Force Catalinas, using them to serve outlying South Pacific islands. The last two Catalinas were retired in 1958.


title: Qantas fleet

text: After World War II Qantas modernised its fleet with Lockheed Constellation aircraft, commencing with six L-749 Constellations from 1947.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In 1950, Qantas introduced the first of five Short Sandringham flying boats which flew from the Rose Bay flying boat base on Sydney Harbour to destinations in New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji, New Guinea and Lord Howe Island. Two of these were purchased from TEAL and the other three were purchased from BOAC. These were in service through to 1955.


title: Qantas fleet

text: From 1954, Qantas placed into service the first of sixteen L-1049 Super Constellation aircraft, which would remain in the fleet through to 1963. By 1956 the airline was operating 34 propeller-driven aircraft. Qantas carried a record number of passengers to the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, and also carried the Olympic flame into the Southern Hemisphere for the first time on its longest ever trip, from Athens to Darwin.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Qantas entered the Jet Age in July 1959 with Boeing 707 services to the United States. The service was extended to London via New York. Sydney to London services via Bombay began in October 1959. With the certification of the turbofan engine, Qantas modified its existing 707-138 fleet with the turbofans, naming its Boeing 707 aircraft "V-Jets", from the Latin "vannus", meaning "fan" as commonly accepted, but really standing for "thing that blows against the grain". In total, Qantas took delivery of seven Boeing 707-138s, and a further six 707-138Bs.


title: Qantas fleet

text: From 7 November 1959 until 30 May 1963, Qantas operated six de Havilland Comets, four being wet leased from BOAC. They were crewed by BOAC employees and featured Qantas titles on the fuselage in place of the BOAC titles.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Following this, Qantas placed in service twenty-two Boeing 707-338Cs, which replaced the Boeing 707-138Bs and provided for expansion of the fleet. These entered service in February 1965 and flew through until retirement in March 1979.


title: Qantas fleet

text: From 1971, Qantas operated the Boeing 747-238B, which strengthened its long haul fleet. When the Boeing 707s were retired in 1979, Qantas became the world's only all Boeing 747 operator. In 1981, two short body Boeing 747SPs entered the fleet for flights to Wellington, and they were subsequently used on non-stop flights between Sydney and Los Angeles.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In November 1984, Qantas commenced service with six Boeing 747-338s with an extended upper deck. From 1985, Qantas ceased being an all Boeing 747 operator when the first of seven Boeing 767-238ERs entered the fleet. These were followed by the Boeing 767-300ERs, with the first example delivered in ; seven additional Boeing 767-336ERs were leased and subsequently purchased from British Airways and entering service from August 2000. On its delivery flight in July 1989, Qantas' first Boeing 747-400 flew a record-breaking non-stop flight from London to Sydney in little more than 20 hours that stood until bettered by a Boeing 787 in October 2019. Qantas purchased a total of 60 Boeing 747s with the last delivered in 2003. Fifty-seven were purchased new and three second-hand, it operated a further five leased from other airlines at various stages. The last six Boeing 747-400s were retired in 2020.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In the early 1990s Qantas was one of eight major airlines working with Boeing on the design of the Boeing 777. Despite being part of the design group, Qantas ultimately never acquired any 777s. Several aviation commentators have criticised this decision, as the 777 appears to be a good fit for Qantas' requirements. While the reasons have never been made public by Qantas, it is believed that various reasons contributed to the decision, such as a Civil Aviation Safety Authority restriction on ETOPS180 operations, errors made by Qantas in the forecasting of future fuel prices which made the 777 appear expensive to operate, and a desire to keep the number of types in the fleet to a minimum.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Qantas operated Airbus A300B4 aircraft after its acquisition of Australian Airlines. The airline also operated Boeing 737-300, Boeing 747-200, Boeing 747SP, Boeing 747-300 and Boeing 767-200ER aircraft.


title: Qantas fleet

text: In 2014, Qantas retired its fleet of Boeing 737-400 aircraft, after the last scheduled service of the type on 23 February.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Throughout 2014, Qantas's Boeing 767-300ER fleet was in the process of a phase-out with the last five operating commercial services operating on 27 December. Four of them were sold to WestJet.


title: Qantas fleet

text: Qantas' oldest Boeing 747-400 (VH-OJA, "City of Canberra") was retired on and flown to Shellharbour Airport in order to be donated to the Historical Aviation Restoration Society.


title: Qantas fleet

text: On 13 October 2019, Qantas' final Boeing 747-400 (VH-OJU, "Lord Howe Island") was retired after operating QF99 from Sydney to Los Angeles. On 28 March 2020, Qantas operated its last commercial Boeing 747 flight from Santiago de Chile to Sydney.


title: Qantas fleet

text: The final Boeing 747-400ER in the fleet (VH-OEJ, "Wunala") departed Sydney on 22 July 2020 as flight number QF7474 doing a flypast of Sydney Harbour, Sydney CBD and the northern and eastern suburbs beaches followed by a low level overfly of Shellharbour Airport in a final farewell to VH-OJA. Seats on three joy flights – over Sydney, Brisbane and Canberra – were offered before the aircraft's final flight. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic's impact on Victoria, Melbourne was not offered a flight. The final flight departed from Sydney, while the aircraft was sprayed with jets of water and crowds looked on. Its flight path traced Qantas's 'Flying Kangaroo' logo in the sky as it headed east, and entered retirement in the Californian desert in Mojave.


title: Alexandre Grimaldi-Coste

text: Alexandre Grimaldi-Coste (born 24 August 2003) is the son of Prince Albert II of Monaco and Nicole Coste. As his parents never married, Grimaldi-Coste is not in the line of succession to the Monegasque throne.


title: Alexandre Grimaldi-Coste

text: Born Éric Alexandre Stéphane Tossoukpé on 24 August 2003 in Paris, France, his mother changed her surname to "Coste" on 10 November 2004. Daughter of a merchant in Togo where she grew up, his mother Nicole Coste, became a student in France when she was 17. She was a flight attendant on an Air France plane en route from the French Riviera to Paris in July 1997 when Prince Albert of Monaco, a passenger, asked for her phone number, subsequently engaging in a relationship with her for several years until, allegedly, Albert's father, Prince Rainier III, demanded that he end the affair.


title: Alexandre Grimaldi-Coste

text: Coste told "Paris Match" that she became pregnant only after a visit to celebrate her 31st birthday turned into a tryst. Albert provided for and visited mother and child promising, according to Coste, to legally acknowledge the child after a DNA test confirmed his paternity. When he did not do so, Coste offered the interview and photographs to the media. Albert made no public comment on media speculation, being in official mourning following the death of his father. Although he successfully sued "Paris-Match" for invasion of privacy, he did acknowledge paternity of the child in a statement issued by his attorney, Thierry Lacoste, on 6 July 2005. His mother later changed Alexandre's surname to Grimaldi-Coste, adding the dynastic name used by the princely family. In September 2021, Alexandre and his mother appeared in the cover of French magazine "Paris Match". He and his mother were also interviewed by the magazine.


title: Alexandre Grimaldi-Coste

text: Out-of-wedlock children are not in the line of succession to the Monegasque throne according to Article 10 of the Constitution of Monaco, as amended 2 April 2002. A child born out of wedlock may be legitimized in Monaco: Article 226-9 of the Monegasque Civil Code specifies that "the legitimization can benefit all children born out of wedlock provided that, by voluntary acknowledgement or by court judgement, their parentage has been lawfully established with regard to their two parents". The law of the principality stipulates, however, that a child of the reigning prince born out-of-wedlock may only inherit the throne if he weds the child's mother.


title: Alexandre Grimaldi-Coste

text: On 26 October 2006, Albert II gave an interview to US television personality Larry King during which he said his two eldest children would not be in line for the Monegasque throne but that they would be taken care of financially. They are also heirs to Prince Albert II's personal fortune, estimated at more than one billion dollars: Upon joining the Council of Europe on 5 October 2004, Monaco became subject to the European Convention on Human Rights regulations on inheritance rights, in addition to its own national laws, which guarantees familial inheritance for children born out of wedlock.


title: Bayesian probability

text: Bayesian probability is an interpretation of the concept of probability, in which, instead of frequency or propensity of some phenomenon, probability is interpreted as reasonable expectation representing a state of knowledge or as quantification of a personal belief.


title: Bayesian probability

text: The Bayesian interpretation of probability can be seen as an extension of propositional logic that enables reasoning with hypotheses; that is, with propositions whose truth or falsity is unknown. In the Bayesian view, a probability is assigned to a hypothesis, whereas under frequentist inference, a hypothesis is typically tested without being assigned a probability.


title: Bayesian probability

text: Bayesian probability belongs to the category of evidential probabilities; to evaluate the probability of a hypothesis, the Bayesian probabilist specifies a prior probability. This, in turn, is then updated to a posterior probability in the light of new, relevant data (evidence). The Bayesian interpretation provides a standard set of procedures and formulae to perform this calculation.


title: Bayesian probability

text: The term "Bayesian" derives from the 18th-century mathematician and theologian Thomas Bayes, who provided the first mathematical treatment of a non-trivial problem of statistical data analysis using what is now known as Bayesian inference. Mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace pioneered and popularized what is now called Bayesian probability.


title: Bayesian probability

text: Broadly speaking, there are two interpretations of Bayesian probability. For objectivists, who interpret probability as an extension of logic, "probability" quantifies the reasonable expectation that everyone (even a "robot") who shares the same knowledge should share in accordance with the rules of Bayesian statistics, which can be justified by Cox's theorem. For subjectivists, "probability" corresponds to a personal belief. Rationality and coherence allow for substantial variation within the constraints they pose; the constraints are justified by the Dutch book argument or by decision theory and de Finetti's theorem. The objective and subjective variants of Bayesian probability differ mainly in their interpretation and construction of the prior probability.


title: Bayesian probability

text: The term "Bayesian" derives from Thomas Bayes (1702–1761), who proved a special case of what is now called Bayes' theorem in a paper titled "An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances". In that special case, the prior and posterior distributions were beta distributions and the data came from Bernoulli trials. It was Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who introduced a general version of the theorem and used it to approach problems in celestial mechanics, medical statistics, reliability, and jurisprudence. Early Bayesian inference, which used uniform priors following Laplace's principle of insufficient reason, was called "inverse probability" (because it infers backwards from observations to parameters, or from effects to causes). After the 1920s, "inverse probability" was largely supplanted by a collection of methods that came to be called frequentist statistics.


title: Bayesian probability

text: In the 20th century, the ideas of Laplace developed in two directions, giving rise to "objective" and "subjective" currents in Bayesian practice.


title: Bayesian probability

text: Harold Jeffreys' "Theory of Probability" (first published in 1939) played an important role in the revival of the Bayesian view of probability, followed by works by Abraham Wald (1950) and Leonard J. Savage (1954). The adjective "Bayesian" itself dates to the 1950s; the derived "Bayesianism", "neo-Bayesianism" is of 1960s coinage. In the objectivist stream, the statistical analysis depends on only the model assumed and the data analysed. No subjective decisions need to be involved. In contrast, "subjectivist" statisticians deny the possibility of fully objective analysis for the general case.


title: Bayesian probability

text: In the 1980s, there was a dramatic growth in research and applications of Bayesian methods, mostly attributed to the discovery of Markov chain Monte Carlo methods and the consequent removal of many of the computational problems, and to an increasing interest in nonstandard, complex applications. While frequentist statistics remains strong (as demonstrated by the fact that much of undergraduate teaching is based on it ), Bayesian methods are widely accepted and used, e.g., in the field of machine learning.


title: Bayesian probability

text: The use of Bayesian probabilities as the basis of Bayesian inference has been supported by several arguments, such as Cox axioms, the Dutch book argument, arguments based on decision theory and de Finetti's theorem.


title: Bayesian probability

text: Richard T. Cox showed that Bayesian updating follows from several axioms, including two functional equations and a hypothesis of differentiability. The assumption of differentiability or even continuity is controversial; Halpern found a counterexample based on his observation that the Boolean algebra of statements may be finite. Other axiomatizations have been suggested by various authors with the purpose of making the theory more rigorous.


title: Bayesian probability

text: Bruno de Finetti proposed the Dutch book argument based on betting. A clever bookmaker makes a Dutch book by setting the odds and bets to ensure that the bookmaker profits—at the expense of the gamblers—regardless of the outcome of the event (a horse race, for example) on which the gamblers bet. It is associated with probabilities implied by the odds not being coherent.


title: Bayesian probability

text: However, Ian Hacking noted that traditional Dutch book arguments did not specify Bayesian updating: they left open the possibility that non-Bayesian updating rules could avoid Dutch books. For example, Hacking writes "And neither the Dutch book argument, nor any other in the personalist arsenal of proofs of the probability axioms, entails the dynamic assumption. Not one entails Bayesianism. So the personalist requires the dynamic assumption to be Bayesian. It is true that in consistency a personalist could abandon the Bayesian model of learning from experience. Salt could lose its savour."


title: Bayesian probability

text: In fact, there are non-Bayesian updating rules that also avoid Dutch books (as discussed in the literature on "probability kinematics" following the publication of Richard C. Jeffrey's rule, which is itself regarded as Bayesian). The additional hypotheses sufficient to (uniquely) specify Bayesian updating are substantial and not universally seen as satisfactory.


title: Bayesian probability

text: A decision-theoretic justification of the use of Bayesian inference (and hence of Bayesian probabilities) was given by Abraham Wald, who proved that every admissible statistical procedure is either a Bayesian procedure or a limit of Bayesian procedures. Conversely, every Bayesian procedure is admissible.


title: Bayesian probability

text: Following the work on expected utility theory of Ramsey and von Neumann, decision-theorists have accounted for rational behavior using a probability distribution for the agent. Johann Pfanzagl completed the "Theory of Games and Economic Behavior" by providing an axiomatization of subjective probability and utility, a task left uncompleted by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern: their original theory supposed that all the agents had the same probability distribution, as a convenience. Pfanzagl's axiomatization was endorsed by Oskar Morgenstern: "Von Neumann and I have anticipated ... [the question whether probabilities] might, perhaps more typically, be subjective and have stated specifically that in the latter case axioms could be found from which could derive the desired numerical utility together with a number for the probabilities (cf. p. 19 of The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior). We did not carry this out; it was demonstrated by Pfanzagl ... with all the necessary rigor".


title: Bayesian probability

text: Ramsey and Savage noted that the individual agent's probability distribution could be objectively studied in experiments. Procedures for testing hypotheses about probabilities (using finite samples) are due to Ramsey (1931) and de Finetti (1931, 1937, 1964, 1970). Both Bruno de Finetti and Frank P. Ramsey acknowledge their debts to pragmatic philosophy, particularly (for Ramsey) to Charles S. Peirce.


title: Bayesian probability

text: The "Ramsey test" for evaluating probability distributions is implementable in theory, and has kept experimental psychologists occupied for a half century.


title: Bayesian probability

text: This work demonstrates that Bayesian-probability propositions can be falsified, and so meet an empirical criterion of Charles S. Peirce, whose work inspired Ramsey. (This falsifiability-criterion was popularized by Karl Popper.)


title: Bayesian probability

text: Modern work on the experimental evaluation of personal probabilities uses the randomization, blinding, and Boolean-decision procedures of the Peirce-Jastrow experiment. Since individuals act according to different probability judgments, these agents' probabilities are "personal" (but amenable to objective study).


title: Bayesian probability

text: Personal probabilities are problematic for science and for some applications where decision-makers lack the knowledge or time to specify an informed probability-distribution (on which they are prepared to act). To meet the needs of science and of human limitations, Bayesian statisticians have developed "objective" methods for specifying prior probabilities.


title: Bayesian probability

text: Indeed, some Bayesians have argued the prior state of knowledge defines "the" (unique) prior probability-distribution for "regular" statistical problems; cf. well-posed problems. Finding the right method for constructing such "objective" priors (for appropriate classes of regular problems) has been the quest of statistical theorists from Laplace to John Maynard Keynes, Harold Jeffreys, and Edwin Thompson Jaynes. These theorists and their successors have suggested several methods for constructing "objective" priors (Unfortunately, it is not clear how to assess the relative "objectivity" of the priors proposed under these methods):


title: Bayesian probability

text: Each of these methods contributes useful priors for "regular" one-parameter problems, and each prior can handle some challenging statistical models (with "irregularity" or several parameters). Each of these methods has been useful in Bayesian practice. Indeed, methods for constructing "objective" (alternatively, "default" or "ignorance") priors have been developed by avowed subjective (or "personal") Bayesians like James Berger (Duke University) and José-Miguel Bernardo (Universitat de València), simply because such priors are needed for Bayesian practice, particularly in science. The quest for "the universal method for constructing priors" continues to attract statistical theorists.


title: Bayesian probability

text: Thus, the Bayesian statistician needs either to use informed priors (using relevant expertise or previous data) or to choose among the competing methods for constructing "objective" priors.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The history of the Philippines from 1898 to 1946 began with the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April 1898, when the Philippines was still a colony of the Spanish East Indies, and concluded when the United States formally recognized the independence of the Republic of the Philippines on July 4, 1946.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: With the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States. The interim U.S. military government of the Philippine Islands experienced a period of great political turbulence, characterized by the Philippine–American War.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Beginning in 1906, the military government was replaced by a civilian government—the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands—with William Howard Taft serving as its first governor-general. A series of insurgent governments that lacked significant international and diplomatic recognition also existed between 1898 and 1904.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Following the passage of the Philippine Independence Act in 1934, a Philippine presidential election was held in 1935. Manuel L. Quezon was elected and inaugurated as the second president of the Philippines on November 15, 1935. The Insular Government was dissolved and the Commonwealth of the Philippines, intended to be a transitional government in preparation for the country's full achievement of independence in 1946, was brought into existence.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: After the World War II Japanese invasion in 1941 and subsequent occupation of the Philippines, the United States and Philippine Commonwealth military completed the recapture of the Philippines after Japan's surrender and spent nearly a year dealing with Japanese troops who were not aware of Japan's August 15, 1945 surrender, leading up to U.S. recognition of Philippine independence on July 4, 1946.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896 and ended with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, a ceasefire between the Spanish colonial governor-general Fernando Primo de Rivera and the revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo that was signed on December 15, 1897. The terms of the pact called for Aguinaldo and his militia to surrender. Other revolutionary leaders were given amnesty and a monetary indemnity by the Spanish government in return for which the rebel government agreed to go into exile in Hong Kong.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The failure of Spain to engage in active social reforms in Cuba as demanded by the United States government was the basic cause for the Spanish–American War. President William McKinley issued an ultimatum to Spain on April 19, 1898. Spain found it had no diplomatic support in Europe, but nevertheless declared war; the U.S. followed on April 25 with its own declaration of war. Theodore Roosevelt, who was at that time Assistant Secretary of the Navy, ordered Commodore George Dewey, commanding the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy, to Hong Kong before the declaration of war. From there, Dewey's squadron departed on April 27 for the Philippines, reaching Manila Bay on the evening of April 30. The Battle of Manila Bay took place on May 1, 1898, with American victory being achieved in a matter of hours.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The unexpected rapidity and completeness of Dewey's victory in the first engagement of the war prompted the McKinley administration to make the decision to capture Manila from the Spanish. While awaiting the arrival of troops from the Eighth Corps, Dewey dispatched the cutter USRC "McCulloch" to Hong Kong to transport Aguinaldo back to the Philippines. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19 and, after a brief meeting with Dewey, resumed revolutionary activities against the Spanish. On May 24, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine forces and announced his intention to establish a dictatorial government with himself as dictator, saying that he would resign in favor of a duly elected president. Public jubilation marked Aguinaldo's return. Many Filipino enlisted men deserted local Spanish army units to join Aguinaldo's command and the Philippine Revolution against Spain resumed, capturing many cities and some entire provinces.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines at his house in Cavite El Viejo. On June 18, Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government. On June 23, Aguinaldo issued another decree, this time replacing the dictatorial government with a revolutionary government (and naming himself as president). On July 15, Aguinaldo issued three organic decrees assuming civil authority of the Philippines.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The first contingent of American troops arrived on June 30 under the command of Brigadier General Thomas McArthur Anderson. Anderson wrote to Aguinaldo, requesting his cooperation in military operations against the Spanish forces. Aguinaldo responded, thanking General Anderson, but saying nothing about military cooperation. General Anderson did not renew the request. American generals suspected Aguinaldo was attempting to take Manila without American assistance, had restricted supplies to American forces, and was secretly negotiating with Spanish authorities while informing them of American troop movements. Aguinaldo warned that American troops should not disembark in places conquered by the Filipinos without first communicating in writing, and did not offer his full service to arriving American forces. By June, U.S. and Filipino forces had taken control of most of the islands, except for the walled city of Intramuros. Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were able to work out a bloodless secret agreement with acting governor-general Fermín Jáudenes, staging a mock battle in which the Spanish forces would be defeated by the American forces, but the Filipino forces would not be allowed to enter the city.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On the evening of August 12, the Americans notified Aguinaldo to forbid the insurgents under his command from entering Manila without American permission. On August 13, unaware of the peace protocol signing, U.S. forces began the Battle of Manila by capturing Spanish positions in the city. While the plan was for a mock battle and simple surrender, the insurgents made an independent attack of their own, which led to confrontations with the Spanish in which some American soldiers were killed and wounded. The Spanish formally surrendered Manila to U.S. forces. Aguinaldo demanded joint occupation of the city, however U.S. commanders pressed Aguinaldo to withdraw his forces from Manila.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On August 12, 1898, a peace protocol was signed in Washington between the U.S. and Spain. The full text of the protocol was not made public until November 5, but Article III read: "The United States will occupy and hold the City, Bay, and Harbor of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace, which shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines." General Merritt received news of the peace protocol on August 16, three days after the surrender of Manila. Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were informed by a telegram dated August 17 that the president of the United States had directed that the United States should have full control over Manila, with no joint occupation permissible. After further negotiations, insurgent forces withdrew from the city on September 15. The Battle of Manila marked the end of Filipino-American collaboration.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On August 14, 1898, two days after the capture of Manila, the U.S. established a military government in the Philippines, with General Merritt acting as military governor. During military rule (1898–1902), the U.S. military commander governed the Philippines under the authority of the U.S. president as commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. After the appointment of a civil governor-general, the procedure developed that as parts of the country were pacified and placed firmly under American control, responsibility for the area would be passed to the civilian. The position of military governor was abolished in July 1902, after which the civil governor-general became the sole executive authority in the Philippines.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Under the military government, an American-style school system was introduced, initially with soldiers as teachers; civil and criminal courts were reestablished, including a supreme court; and local governments were established in towns and provinces. The first local election was conducted by General Harold W. Lawton on May 7, 1899, in Baliuag, Bulacan.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Elections were held by the revolutionary government between June and September 10, resulting in the seating of a legislature known as the Malolos Congress. In a session between September 15 and November 13, 1898, the Malolos Constitution was adopted. It was promulgated on January 21, 1899,


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: While the initial instructions of the American commission undertaking peace negotiators with Spain was to seek only Luzon and Guam, which could serve as harbours and communication links, President McKinley later wired instructions to demand the entire archipelago. The resultant Treaty of Paris, signed in December 1898, formally ended the Spanish–American War. Its provisions included the cession of the archipelago to the United States, for which $20 million would be paid as compensation. This agreement was clarified through the 1900 Treaty of Washington, which stated that Spanish territories in the archipelago which lay outside the geographical boundaries noted in the Treaty of Paris were also ceded to the U.S.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On December 21, 1898, President McKinley proclaimed a policy of benevolent assimilation with regards to the Philippines. This was announced in the Philippines on January 4, 1899. Under this policy, the Philippines was to come under the sovereignty of the United States, with American forces instructed to declare themselves as friends rather than invaders.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On December 21, 1898, President McKinley issued a proclamation of benevolent assimilation. General Otis delayed its publication until January 4, 1899, then publishing an amended version edited so as not to convey the meanings of the terms "sovereignty", "protection", and "right of cessation" which were present in the unabridged version. Meanwhile, on December 26, 1898, the Spanish yielded Iloilo to the insurgents. American forces under General Marcus P. Miller arriving in Iloilo were refused permission to land by the insurgents, who stated that landing required "express orders from the central government of Luzon". Unknown to Otis, the War Department had also sent a copy of McKinley's proclamation to General Miller in Iloilo who, unaware that a politically bowdlerized version had been sent to Aguinaldo, published it in both Spanish and Tagalog. Even before Aguinaldo received the unaltered version and observed the changes in the copy he had received from Otis, he was upset that Otis had altered his own title to "Military Governor of the Philippines" from "... "in" the Philippines". Aguinaldo did not miss the significance of the alteration, which Otis had made without authorization from Washington.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On January 5, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation summarizing American violations of the ethics of friendship, and stated that a takeover of the Visayas by the Americans would lead to hostilities. Within the same day Aguinaldo replaced this proclamation with another that directly protested American infringement on "the sovereignty of these islands". Otis took these two proclamations as a call to arms, and as tensions increased 40,000 Filipinos fled Manila within 15 days. Meanwhile, Felipe Agoncillo, who had been commissioned by the Philippine revolutionary government as minister plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties with foreign governments, filed a request in Washington for an interview with the president to discuss affairs in the Philippines. At the same time Aguinaldo protested against General Otis styling himself "Military Governor of the Philippines", and Agoncillo, along with Filipino committees in London, Paris, and Madrid, issued statements to the United States noting a refusal for the Philippines to come under American sovereignty. Filipino forced were ready to assume the offensive, but instead sought to provoke the Americans into firing the first shot. On January 31, 1899, The Minister of Interior of the revolutionary First Philippine Republic, Teodoro Sandiko, signed a decree saying that President Aguinaldo had directed that all idle lands be planted to provide food for the people, in view of impending war with the Americans.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: An outbreak of gunfire between an insurgent patrol and an American outpost on February 4 set off open hostilities between the two forces. On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Republic issued a declaration of war on the United States. As before when fighting the Spanish, the Filipino rebels did not do well in the field. Aguinaldo and his provisional government escaped after the capture of Malolos on March 31, 1899, and were driven into northern Luzon. Peace feelers from members of Aguinaldo's cabinet failed in May when the American commander, General Ewell Otis, demanded an unconditional surrender. In 1901, Aguinaldo was captured and swore allegiance to the United States, marking one end to the war.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Casualties during the war were much greater among Filipinos than among Americans. Almost 4,000 American soldiers died, out of about 125,000 that fought on the island. About 20,000 Filipino soldiers combatants died, as well as 250,000 to a million non-combatants. Causes of non-combatant deaths included a cholera epidemic as well as killings by the United States military, including specific attacks on civilians and the creation of concentration camps.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: President McKinley had appointed a five-person group on January 20, 1899, to investigate conditions in the islands and make recommendations. The three civilian members of the Philippine Commission arrived in Manila on March 4, 1899, a month after the Battle of Manila which had begun armed conflict between U.S. and revolutionary Filipino forces.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: After meetings in April with revolutionary representatives, the commission requested authorization from McKinley to offer a specific plan. McKinley authorized an offer of a government consisting of "a Governor-General appointed by the President; cabinet appointed by the Governor-General; [and] a general advisory council elected by the people." The Revolutionary Congress voted unanimously to cease fighting and accept peace and, on May 8, the revolutionary cabinet headed by Apolinario Mabini was replaced by a new "peace" cabinet headed by Pedro Paterno. At this point, General Antonio Luna arrested Paterno and most of his cabinet, returning Mabini and his cabinet to power. After this, the commission concluded that "... The Filipinos are wholly unprepared for independence ... there being no Philippine nation, but only a collection of different peoples." Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian government as rapidly as possible (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including establishment of a bicameral legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a system of free public elementary schools.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft Commission), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by William Howard Taft, was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers. On September 1, the Taft Commission began to exercise legislative functions. Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws, established a judicial system, including a supreme court, drew up a legal code, and organized a civil service. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On March 3, 1901, the U.S. Congress passed the Army Appropriation Act containing (along with the Platt Amendment on Cuba) the Spooner Amendment which provided the president with legislative authority to establish of a civil government in the Philippines. Up until this time, the president been administering the Philippines by virtue of his war powers. On July 1, 1901, civil government was inaugurated with William H. Taft as the civil governor. Later, on February 3, 1903, the U.S. Congress would change the title of "Civil Governor" to "Governor-General".


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901, using English as the medium of instruction. This created a heavy shortage of teachers, and the Philippine Commission authorized the secretary of public instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.—the so-called Thomasites. Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley. Also, the Catholic Church was disestablished, and a considerable amount of church land was purchased and redistributed.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 approved, ratified, and confirmed McKinley's executive order establishing the Philippine Commission, and also stipulated that the bicameral Philippine Legislature would be established composed of an elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly, and the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house. The act also provided for extending the U.S. Bill of Rights to the Philippines.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On July 2, 1902, the secretary of war telegraphed that the insurrection against the sovereign authority of the U.S. having come to an end, and provincial civil governments having been established, the office of military governor was terminated. On July 4, Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the U.S. presidency on September 14, 1901 after the assassination of President McKinley, proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict. An estimated 250,000 to 1 million civilians died during the war, mostly due to famine and disease.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902, with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar, and declared the centennial anniversary of that date as a national working holiday and as a special non-working holiday in the province of Batangas and in the cities of Batangas, Lipa and Tanauan.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The Kiram-Bates Treaty secured the Sultanate of Sulu. American forces also established control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Some sources have suggested that the war unofficially continued for nearly a decade, since bands of guerrillas, quasi-religious armed groups and other resistance groups continued to roam the countryside, still clashing with American Army or Philippine Constabulary patrols. American troops and the Philippine Constabulary continued hostilities against such resistance groups until 1913. Some of this resistance was from a claimed successor to the Philippines Republic. A 1907 law prohibited the display of flags and other symbols "used during the late insurrection in the Philippine Islands". Some historians consider these unofficial extensions to be part of the war.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The 1902 Philippine Organic Act was a constitution for the Insular Government, as the U.S. civil administration was known. This was a form of territorial government that reported to the Bureau of Insular Affairs. The act provided for a governor-general appointed by the U.S. president and an elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly. It also disestablished the Catholic Church as the state religion. The U.S. government, in an effort to resolve the status of the friars, negotiated with the Vatican. The church agreed to sell the friars' estates and promised gradual substitution of Filipino and other non-Spanish priests for the friars. It refused, however, to withdraw the religious orders from the islands immediately, partly to avoid offending Spain. In 1904, the administration bought for $7.2 million the major part of the friars' holdings, amounting to some , of which one-half was in the vicinity of Manila. The land was eventually resold to Filipinos, some of them tenants but the majority of them estate owners. Under the Treaty of Paris, the U.S. agreed to respect existing property rights. They introduced a Torrens title system to track ownership in 1902, and in 1903 passed the Public Lands Act which modeled the Homestead Acts of the United States, and allowed individuals to claim land on the basis of a five-year residency. Both of these systems benefited larger landowners who were more able to take advantage of the bureaucracy, and only one tenth of homestead claims were ever approved.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: While Philippine ports remained open to Spanish ships for a decade following the war, the U.S. began to integrate the Philippine economy with its own. In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. The 1909 U.S. Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act provided for free trade with the Philippines. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66% of which was with the United States. A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including various tropical diseases, to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of slavery, piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not entirely extinguished. Cultural developments strengthened the continuing development of a national identity, and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Two years after completion and publication of a census, a general election was conducted for the choice of delegates to a popular assembly. An elected Philippine Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Every year from 1907 the Philippine Assembly and later the Philippine Legislature passed resolutions expressing the Filipino desire for independence.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Philippine nationalists led by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña enthusiastically endorsed the draft Jones Bill of 1912, which provided for Philippine independence after eight years, but later changed their views, opting for a bill which focused less on time than on the conditions of independence. The nationalists demanded complete and absolute independence to be guaranteed by the United States, since they feared that too-rapid independence from American rule without such guarantees might cause the Philippines to fall into Japanese hands. The Jones Bill was rewritten and passed Congress in 1916 with a later date of independence.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The law, officially the Philippine Autonomy Act but popularly known as the Jones Law, served as the new organic act (or constitution) for the Philippines. Its preamble stated that the eventual independence of the Philippines would be American policy, subject to the establishment of a stable government. The law maintained the governor-general of the Philippines, appointed by the president of the United States, but established a bicameral Philippine Legislature to replace the elected Philippine Assembly (lower house); it replaced the appointive Philippine Commission (upper house) with an elected senate.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The Filipinos suspended their independence campaign during the First World War and supported the United States against Germany. After the war they resumed their independence drive with great vigor. On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed a "Declaration of Purposes", which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign. A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal. This commission recommended the sending of an independence mission to the United States. The "Declaration of Purposes" referred to the Jones Law as a veritable pact, or covenant, between the American and Filipino peoples whereby the United States promised to recognize the independence of the Philippines as soon as a stable government should be established. U.S. Governor-General of the Philippines Francis Burton Harrison had concurred in the report of the Philippine legislature as to a stable government.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The Philippine legislature funded an independence mission to the U.S. in 1919. The mission departed Manila on February 28 and met in the U.S. with and presented their case to U.S. Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, in his 1921 farewell message to Congress, certified that the Filipino people had performed the condition imposed on them as a prerequisite to independence, declaring that, this having been done, the duty of the U.S. was to grant the Philippines independence. The Republican Party then controlled Congress, and the recommendation of the outgoing Democratic president was not heeded.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to the U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. U.S. President Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on January 13, 1933. Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act became U.S. law. The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The law also required the Philippine Senate to ratify the law. Manuel L. Quezon urged the Philippine Senate to reject the bill, which it did. Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. The result was the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act except in minor details. The Tydings-McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate. The law provided for the granting of Philippine independence by 1946.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The Tydings–McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a constitution, for a 10-year """transitional period""" as the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence. On May 5, 1934, the Philippine legislature passed an act setting the election of convention delegates. Governor-General Frank Murphy designated July 10 as the election date, and the convention held its inaugural session on July 30. The completed draft constitution was approved by the convention on February 8, 1935, approved by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt on March 23, and ratified by popular vote on May 14. The first election under the constitution was held on September 17, and on November 15, 1935, the commonwealth was put into place.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: It was planned that the period 1935–1946 would be devoted to the final adjustments required for a peaceful transition to full independence, a great latitude in autonomy being granted in the meantime. Instead there was war with Japan, which postponed any plans for Philippine independence.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On May 14, 1935, an election to fill the newly created office of president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines was won by Manuel L. Quezon (Nacionalista Party), and a Filipino government was formed on the basis of principles superficially similar to the U.S. Constitution. The commonwealth as established in 1935 featured a very strong executive, a unicameral national assembly, and a supreme court composed entirely of Filipinos for the first time since 1901.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Quezon's priorities were defense, social justice, inequality and economic diversification, and national character. Tagalog was designated the national language, women's suffrage was introduced, and land reform mooted. The new government embarked on an ambitious agenda of establishing the basis for national defense, greater control over the economy, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the colonization of the island of Mindanao, and the promotion of local capital and industrialization. The commonwealth however, was also faced with agrarian unrest, an uncertain diplomatic and military situation in Southeast Asia, and uncertainty about the level of United States commitment to the future Republic of the Philippines.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: In 1939–40, the Philippine Constitution was amended to restore a bicameral Congress, and permit the re-election of President Quezon, previously restricted to a single, six-year term.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: From 1940 to 1941, Philippine authorities, with the support of American officials, removed from office several mayors in Pampanga who were in favor of land reform. Following the 1946 election, some legislators who opposed giving the United States special economic treatment were prevented from taking office.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: During the commonwealth years, the Philippines sent one elected resident commissioner to the United States House of Representatives, as Puerto Rico currently does today.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: A few hours after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched air raids in several cities and US military installations in the Philippines on December 8, and on December 10, the first Japanese troops landed in Northern Luzon. Filipino pilot Captain Jesús A. Villamor, leading a flight of three P-26 "Peashooter" fighters of the 6th Pursuit Squadron, distinguished himself by attacking two enemy formations of 27 planes each and downing a much-superior Japanese Zero, for which he was awarded the U.S. Distinguished Service Cross. The two other planes in that flight, flown by Lieutenants César Basa and Geronimo Aclan, were shot down.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: As the Japanese forces advanced, Manila was declared an open city to prevent it from destruction, meanwhile, the government was moved to Corregidor. In March 1942, General MacArthur and President Quezon fled the country. Guerrilla units harassed the Japanese when they could, and on Luzon native resistance was strong enough that the Japanese never did get control of a large part of the island.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the United States Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE), was forced to retreat to Bataan. Manila was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. The fall of Bataan was on April 9, 1942, with Corregidor Island, at the mouth of Manila Bay, surrendering on May 6. Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The commonwealth government by then had exiled itself to Washington, DC, upon the invitation of President Roosevelt; however many politicians stayed behind and collaborated with the occupying Japanese. The Philippine Commonwealth Army continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and were considered auxiliary units of the U.S. Army. Several Philippine Commonwealth military awards, such as the Philippine Defense Medal, Independence Medal, and Liberation Medal, were awarded to both the United States and Philippine Armed Forces.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The Second Philippine Republic, under Jose P. Laurel, was established as a puppet state. From 1942 the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity. The Hukbalahap, a communist guerilla movement formed by peasant farmers in Central Luzon, did most of the fighting. The Hukbalahap, also known as Huks, resisted invaders and punished the people who collaborated with the Japanese, but did not have a well-disciplined organization, and were later seen as a threat to the Manila government. Before MacArthur came back, the effectiveness of the guerilla movement had decimated Japanese control, limiting it to only 12 out of the 48 provinces.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: In October 1944, MacArthur had gathered enough additional troops and supplies to begin the retaking of the Philippines, landing with Sergio Osmeña who had assumed the presidency after Quezon's death. The Philippine Constabulary went on active service under the Philippine Commonwealth Army on October 28, 1944, during liberation under the commonwealth regime.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: The largest naval battle in history, according to gross tonnage sunk, the Battle of Leyte Gulf, occurred when Allied forces began liberating the Philippines from the Japanese Empire. Battles on the islands entailed long fierce fighting and some of the Japanese continued to fight after the official surrender of the Empire of Japan on September 2, 1945.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: After their landing, Filipino and American forces also undertook measures to suppress the Huk movement, which was founded to fight the Japanese Occupation. The Filipino and American forces removed local Huk governments and imprisoned many high-ranking members of the Philippine Communist Party. While these incidents happened, there was still fighting against the Japanese forces and, despite the American and Philippine measures against the Huk, they still supported American and Filipino soldiers in the fight against the Japanese.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945. By the end of the war it is estimated that over a million Filipinos (including regular and constable soldiers, recognized guerrillas and non-combatant civilians) died during the war. The 1947 final report of the High Commissioner to the Philippines documents massive damage to most coconut mills and sugar mills; inter-island shipping had all been destroyed or removed; concrete highways had been broken up for use on military airports; railways were inoperative; Manila was 80 percent destroyed, Cebu 90 percent, and Zamboanga 95 percent.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations. On July 4, 1946, the Philippines was officially recognized by the United States as an independent nation through the Treaty of Manila between the governments of the United States and the Philippine, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas. The treaty provided for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands. From 1946 to 1961, Independence Day was observed on July 4. On May 12, 1962, President Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28, proclaiming Tuesday, June 12, 1962, as a special public holiday throughout the Philippines. In 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 changed the date of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 and renamed the July 4 holiday as Philippine Republic Day.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: During World War II, over 200,000 Filipinos fought in defense of the United States against the Japanese in the Pacific theater of military operations, where more than half died. As a commonwealth of the United States before and during the war, Filipinos were legally American nationals. With American nationality, Filipinos were promised all the benefits afforded to those serving in the armed forces of the United States. In 1946, Congress passed the Rescission Act (), which stripped Filipinos of the benefits that they had been promised.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Since the passage of the Rescission Act, many Filipino veterans have traveled to the United States to lobby Congress for the benefits promised to them for their service and sacrifice. Over 30,000 of such veterans live in the United States today, with most being United States citizens. Sociologists introduced the phrase "Second Class Veterans" to describe the plight of these Filipino Americans. In 1993, numerous bills titled Filipino Veterans Fairness Act began to be introduced in Congress to return the benefits taken away from these veterans, but the bills only died in committee. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, signed into law on February 17, 2009, included provisions to pay benefits to the 15,000 remaining veterans.


title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: On January 6, 2011 Jackie Speier (D-CA), U.S. Representative for , serving since 2008, introduced a bill seeking to make Filipino World War II veterans eligible for the same benefits available to U.S. veterans. In a news conference to outline the bill, Speier estimated that approximately 50,000 Filipino veterans were alive.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: Looking is an American comedy-drama television series which ran on HBO from January 19, 2014, to July 23, 2016. Created by Michael Lannan and produced by David Marshall Grant, Sarah Condon, and Andrew Haigh, it stars Jonathan Groff, Frankie J. Alvarez, Murray Bartlett, Lauren Weedman, Russell Tovey, and Raúl Castillo. The show follows the experiences of Patrick, Agustín, and Dom, three gay friends who live and work in modern-day San Francisco. It was the network's first series centered around the lives of gay men.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: "Looking" was critically acclaimed for its writing, direction, the performances of the ensemble and its fresh take on an LGBT-centric narrative. With ten of the show's eighteen episodes directed by Andrew Haigh, the show's naturalistic shooting style drew comparisons to Haigh's 2011 film "Weekend" and to the mumblecore genre of independent film.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: Despite its critical praise, its ratings never met network expectations, with just 298,000 viewers tuning in for its second-season finale. The low ratings led to the show's cancellation after its second season. HBO ordered a one-time television film, "", to serve as the series' finale, which premiered at the Frameline Film Festival on June 26, 2016, and aired on July 23, 2016, in the U.S. on HBO and on August 2, 2016, in the UK on Sky Atlantic.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: In 2019, "The Guardian" named "Looking" one of the "100 Greatest TV shows of the 21st century". In 2022, "Esquire" ranked "Looking" #21 on the list of "The Best HBO Series of All Time".


title: Looking (TV series)

text: Patrick Murray, a 29-year-old video game designer, lives in San Francisco with his friends—aspiring restaurateur Dom and artist's assistant Agustín. Patrick has a tendency to be naïve and has been generally unlucky in love, but things in Patrick's life change upon meeting handsome yet humble Mission barber Richie and the arrival of his new boss, the attractive but partnered Kevin. Dom pursues his goal of opening his own restaurant with the support of his roommate, Doris, and the unexpected help of the successful and older San Francisco entrepreneur Lynn. Agustín struggles domesticating with his long-term boyfriend Frank and his stalling art career, as well as his penchant for recreational substance abuse.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: HBO ordered an eight-episode first season of "Looking" on May 14, 2013. The pilot was written by Michael Lannan, based on Lannan's 2011 short film entitled "Lorimer", and directed by Andrew Haigh. Filming began in the San Francisco Bay Area on September 16, 2013, and ended on November 7, 2013. The first season premiered on January 19, 2014.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: Creator Michael Lannan announced in an interview in February 2014 that the writers were already thinking of new material for a second season, should it come. His comment was quickly backed up by Nick Hall, director of comedy for HBO, who stated that the "initial one airing audience" isn't their main goal and that they [HBO] "look at it for the week, we look at it On Demand, we look at HBO Go," and that each of the episodes were doing "nicely".


title: Looking (TV series)

text: On February 26, 2014, HBO announced that "Looking" was renewed for a second season. The second season premiered on January 11, 2015.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: HBO cancelled the series after the second season citing the sharp decline in ratings. Afterwards, an online petition was started to continue the series. HBO eventually planned to air a movie to wrap up the storyline. Alvarez revealed in an interview with "Vulture" that filming was to start in September 2015 and that the length of the finale would be 2 hours. The movie premiered on June 2, 2016, at the Frameline Film Festival in San Francisco and aired on July 23, 2016.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: Throughout its run "Looking" received acclaim from critics who hailed it as a fresh take on gay-themed drama and acclaimed the performances of its actors in particular of Groff and Tovey. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 90% of critics gave the first season a positive review based on 37 reviews, with an average score of 7.6/10. The site's consensus states: "Funny without being obnoxious, "Looking" provides authentic situations that feel universal with its subtle details and top-notch performances." On the review aggregator website Metacritic, the first season holds an average of 73% based on 27 reviews, indicating generally favorable reviews. The second season received an aggregate score of 77% on Metacritic and 88% on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: Since "Looking" was announced it has been referred to by both the community and early critics as the "gay version" of "Girls" and "Sex and the City". After watching the pilot, Emily St. James of "The A.V. Club" said that "differences between the two series go beyond the surface" and one of the show's lead actors, Jonathan Groff, went on to say that "to be in the same breath as those shows is exciting [...] but the tone and writing and the style of the show is very different. And people will notice that when they see it."


title: Looking (TV series)

text: Keith Uhlich, writing for the BBC, opined that "Looking" "is one of the most revolutionary depictions of gay life ever on TV – and that’s because it makes it totally ordinary." Sonia Saraiya of "Variety" described the finale film as "moving and beautiful", and Jon Frosch of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it "essential viewing".


title: Looking (TV series)

text: In 2019, "The Guardian" ranked "Looking" amongst the "100 Greatest TV shows of the 21st century". In 2022, "Esquire" ranked "Looking" #21 on the list of "The Best HBO Series of All Time", stating, "The series never gained a massive audience, but its reverberations are still being felt."


title: Looking (TV series)

text: "Looking" was reported to have debuted to a "slow start" by "Variety" with a premiere audience of 338,000, although it went on to gain an audience of 606,000 when the encore's ratings were included. However, ratings improved as the season progressed. Ratings reached a series high in the sixth episode, attracting 519,000 viewers, up by 50% compared to the premiere episode. As of February 23, 2014, "Looking" had averaged 2million weekly viewers.


title: Looking (TV series)

text: "Looking" premiered on HBO Canada at the same time as the United States, with Australia's Showcase premiering the series on January 20, 2014. In New Zealand, SoHo premiered the series on January 23, 2014. Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland premiered it on January 27, 2014, opening to 0.067million viewers, with the highest rated episode attracting 0.129million for episode three. The second season premiered on February 5, 2015. The series premiered on May 6, 2014, on M-Net in South Africa.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: Disclosure is a 1994 American thriller film directed by Barry Levinson, starring Michael Douglas and Demi Moore. It is based on Michael Crichton's novel of the same name. The cast also includes Donald Sutherland, Caroline Goodall and Dennis Miller. The film is a combination thriller and slight mystery in an office setting within the computer industry in the mid-1990s. The main focus of the story, from which the film and book take their titles, is the issue of sexual harassment and its power structure. The film received mixed reviews from critics but was a box office success grossing $214 million against its $50 million budget.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: Bob Garvin, founder and CEO of DigiCom, a computer technology company, plans to retire when his company merges with a larger company. Production line manager Tom Sanders expects to be promoted to run the CD-ROM division. Instead, Meredith Johnson, a former girlfriend of Tom's who is responsible for the merger, is promoted to the post, as Garvin wanted to "break the glass ceiling" and promote a woman in place of his late daughter.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: Meredith calls Tom into her office to discuss some operations regarding problems with the CD-ROM production line in Malaysia, but instead sexually forces herself onto him. He initially reciprocates her desire to engage him in oral sex but rebuffs her attempts to have full sexual intercourse. Meredith angrily screams a threat towards Tom for spurning her as he leaves. Later that night, Meredith calls Tom's home and tells his wife tomorrow's meeting starts an hour later than it does, tricking Tom into arriving late, allowing her to take his place in a meeting with the merger partners to discuss the problems with the CD-ROM drives, where Meredith pressured Tom into admitting that he is unaware of the cause of the problems.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: Tom then discovers that Meredith has filed a sexual harassment complaint against Tom with legal counsel Philip Blackburn. To save the merger from a scandal, which will cause Garvin to lose $100 million if the deal is off, DigiCom officials demand that Tom accept reassignment to another location. He will lose his stock options in the new company, his career will be ruined, and he will be jobless if he takes the outplacement, as the other location is scheduled for sale after the merger. Tom receives an anonymous e-mail from "A Friend" that directs him to Seattle attorney Catherine Alvarez, who specializes in sexual harassment cases. Tom decides to sue DigiCom, alleging that it was Meredith who harassed him, at the expense of causing animosity with his wife and colleagues. The initial mediation goes badly for Tom as a tearful Meredith repeatedly lies and blames him.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: After discovering a recording from Tom's phone records of the encounter proving that Meredith's accusation is false, Garvin, who believes the merger will be unsuccessful without Meredith, proposes that if Tom drops the lawsuit, he will not have to transfer, causing Tom to suspect that Meredith's accusations are vulnerable. Tom remembers mis-dialing a number on his cell phone during the encounter with Meredith but not hanging up. This inadvertently left the recording of the incident on a colleague's voicemail. Tom plays the recording at the next meeting and discredits Meredith. DigiCom agrees to a settlement calling for Meredith to quietly be eased out following the merger.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: As Tom celebrates his apparent victory, he receives another e-mail from "A Friend" warning that all is not what it seems. Tom overhears Phillip telling Meredith that even though Tom won the sexual harassment suit, they will make Tom look incompetent at the next morning's merger conference, with Garvin's support. Since the problems with the CD-ROMs are shown as coming from the Malaysian production line, which is under Tom's responsibility, he can be fired as the cause of these problems. Tom attempts to look for clues in the company database, but his access privileges have been revoked. He remembers that the merging company's executives have a virtual reality demonstration machine in a nearby hotel that has access to the company database.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: As he gets into DigiCom's files, he sees that Meredith is deleting them. Tom receives a call from a Malaysian colleague who is able to fax Tom copies of incriminating memos and videos. They show that Meredith and one of the head of operations in Malaysia agreed to change the production specifications that Tom had laid down, without his knowledge, to gain favor with the Malaysian government and to cut costs for the upcoming merger. Because of Meredith's complete lack of technical expertise and knowledge, the production changes ordered by her resulted in the problems afflicting the CD-ROMs that Tom is responsible for. In an attempt to save the merger that she had created and unwilling to take any responsibility, Meredith had set up the sexual encounter between her and Tom to falsely accuse him of sexual harassment to force him out of DigiCom so she could blame him for the changes, with Blackburn's support, while covering up and blaming the CD-ROM problems on him.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: When Tom makes his presentation at the conference, Meredith brings up the production problems, but he is now able to publicly show the evidence exposing her direct involvement in causing defects with the hardware. After Meredith angrily accuses Tom of mounting a last-ditch effort of revenge while trying to justify her decisions involving the changes and continuing to blame him for poor decisions, Garvin realizes the full extent of her incompetence and has no other option but to fire her. Garvin subsequently announces that the merger has been completed and then names Stephanie Kaplan to head up the Seattle operation, a decision that Tom is pleased with, especially when she publicly highlights his contributions and says that she is relying on him to be her right-hand man going forward.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: Tom subsequently asks Stephanie's son, Spencer, if he knows "A Friend". Spencer says he is the research assistant of Professor Arthur Friend at the University of Washington. Tom realizes that Spencer had access to Friend's office computer, enabling Stephanie (via her son) to have previously warned him as "A Friend" when he was in trouble, and that she knew exactly everything that was going on involving the CD-ROM Drives and Meredith. A gratified Tom is happy to resume his position as the Head of Manufacturing.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: Michael Crichton sold the movie rights for $1 million before the novel was published. Miloš Forman was originally attached to direct but left due to creative differences with Crichton. Barry Levinson and Alan J. Pakula were in contention to take the helm and Levinson was hired.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: Annette Bening was originally set to play Meredith until she became pregnant and soon dropped out. Geena Davis and Michelle Pfeiffer were then considered before Levinson decided to cast Demi Moore. Crichton wrote the character Mark Lewyn for the film specifically with Dennis Miller in mind. The character from the book was somewhat modified for the screenplay to fit Miller's personality.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: The visual effects and animation for the film, including in particular the virtual reality corridor sequence were all created and designed by the visual effects technicians at Industrial Light & Magic.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: The movie was filmed in and around Seattle, Washington. The fictional corporation DigiCom is located in Pioneer Square, on a set which was constructed for the film. Production designer Neil Spisak said, "DigiCom needed to have a hard edge to it, with lots of glass and a modern look juxtaposed against the old red brick which is indigenous to the Pioneer Square area of Seattle. Barry liked the idea of using glass so that wherever you looked you'd see workers in their offices or stopping to chat. This seemed to fit the ominous sense that Barry was looking for, a sort of "Rear Window" effect, where you're looking across at people in their private spaces."


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: Also shown are the Washington State Ferries and Capt. Johnston Blakely Elementary School on Bainbridge Island, where Douglas's character's family lives. Other locations include Washington Park Arboretum, Volunteer Park, the Four Seasons Hotel on University St., Pike Place Market, and Smith Tower (Alvarez's law office). The director of photography was British cinematographer Tony Pierce-Roberts.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: The press kit for the film was the first multimedia press kit issued by Warner Bros. with them producing it on floppy disk.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: The score of "Disclosure" was composed, orchestrated and conducted by Ennio Morricone. "Original Motion Picture Soundtrack from the Film Disclosure" was released by Virgin Records on January 24, 1995.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: Critic Roger Ebert called the film's theme "basically a launch pad for sex scenes" and further said "and yet the movie is so sleek, so glossy, so filled with Possessoporn (toys so expensive they're erotic), that you can enjoy it like a Sharper Image catalog that walks and talks." He gave it two stars out of a possible four. Ian Nathan of "Empire" magazine gave it four stars out of five and called it "genuinely gripping", further stating that "Demi Moore makes an awesome femme fatale." The film has an approval rating of 60% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 62 reviews.


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: "Disclosure" was a financial success, grossing $214 million worldwide ($83 million in U.S. and Canadian ticket sales and $131 million in other territories), against a budget of about $55 million. It became one of director Barry Levinson's most successful films after his initial successes with "Good Morning, Vietnam" and "Rain Man".


title: Disclosure (1994 film)

text: The adult animated sitcom "Big Mouth" parodied the film in "Disclosure the Movie: The Musical" (season 3 episode 10), featuring a raunchy stage musical adaptation starring pre-teen students.


title: Peter Riegert

text: Peter Riegert (born April 11, 1947) is an American actor. He is best known for his roles as Donald "Boon" Schoenstein in "Animal House" (1978), oil company executive "Mac" MacIntyre in "Local Hero" (1983), pickle store owner Sam Posner in "Crossing Delancey" (1988), Lt. Mitch Kellaway in "The Mask" (1994), and glove manufacturer Lou Levov in "American Pastoral" (2016). He directed the short film "By Courier" (2000), for which he was nominated along with producer Ericka Frederick for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film.


title: Peter Riegert

text: On television, Riegert had a recurring role as crooked Newark Assemblyman and later State Senator Ronald Zellman in seasons three and four of the HBO series "The Sopranos" (2001–2002), appeared as George Moore in the first season of the FX series "Damages" (2007), and portrayed Seth Green's father in the comedy series "Dads" (2013–2014). He was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for his performance in the HBO film "Barbarians at the Gate" in 1993.


title: Peter Riegert

text: Riegert was born on April 11, 1947, in the Bronx, New York, the son of Lucille, a piano teacher, and Milton Riegert, a food wholesaler. Riegert grew up in Hartsdale, New York, and was raised in a non-observant Jewish household.


title: Peter Riegert

text: He graduated from Ardsley High School in 1964 and later from the University at Buffalo. He worked at a number of jobs, including teaching, waiting tables, and as a social worker before settling on acting as a career.


title: Peter Riegert

text: Riegert made his Broadway debut in the musical "Dance with Me". Other Broadway credits include "The Old Neighborhood", "An American Daughter", "The Nerd", and "Censored Scenes From King Kong". Off-Broadway he has appeared in "Road to Nirvana", "The Birthday Party", "Isn't It Romantic", "Sexual Perversity in Chicago", and "A Rosen by Any Other Name".


title: Peter Riegert

text: Riegert's film debut came in 1978's "National Lampoon's Animal House". He has subsequently appeared in films such as "Crossing Delancey", "Local Hero", "The Mask", "Traffic", and "We Bought a Zoo".


title: Peter Riegert

text: Riegert made his television debut in two episodes of "M*A*S*H". He has also portrayed Newark Assemblyman and later New Jersey State Senator Ronald Zellman in "The Sopranos" and defense attorney Chauncey Zeirko in multiple episodes of "". He starred opposite former girlfriend Bette Midler in the television adaptation of "Gypsy" and was featured in the HBO drama "Barbarians at the Gate" (which earned him an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Special). He also starred as composer Jake Rubin (based on real-life composer Irving Berlin) in the 1984 miniseries "Ellis Island", the final episode of "Seinfeld" as the president of NBC, and the television movie "Back When We Were Grownups". Riegert voiced the character of Max Weinstein in the controversial episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein" of "Family Guy". Riegert guest-starred in a Season 2 episode of "Leverage" as corrupt lawyer Peter Blanchard. In 2011, Riegert began a multi-episode arc on "One Tree Hill" as August Kellerman, Nathan's unforgiving college professor. Riegert appeared as the character George Moore in Season 1 of "Damages". He also appeared in a recurring role as Judge Harvey Winter in CBS' "The Good Wife". He appeared in "Dads" as David Sachs, the father of Eli Sachs, played by Seth Green. Riegert also appeared in Seasons 3 and 4 of "Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt". He made a multi-episode guest appearance in the second half of the Netflix original comedy series "Disjointed". Riegert has a recurring role as left-wing lawyer Roger Pugh on Season 3 of the HBO series "Succession".


title: Peter Riegert

text: Riegert made his screenwriting and directorial debuts with "By Courier", based on a short story by O. Henry. It received an Academy Award nomination for Best Live Action Short Film and won him the Festival Award for Best First Feature at the Marco Island Film Festival.


title: Peter Riegert

text: Riegert also directed and co-wrote "King of the Corner", a 2004 film featured at the Newport Film Festival, in which he also starred alongside Isabella Rossellini. It also featured Eric Bogosian, Dominic Chianese, Beverly D'Angelo and Rita Moreno.


title: Peter Riegert

text: Riegert narrated the audiobook of Michael Chabon's "The Yiddish Policemen's Union", which was nominated for a 2008 Audie Award in literary fiction. He also narrated the audiobook of "The Voyage of the Narwhal", and has read the stories of Raymond Carver.


title: Peter Riegert

text: He was also the narrator for "The First Basket", a documentary film on professional basketball's influence on Jewish culture.


title: Walter Huston

text: Walter Thomas Huston ( ; April 5, 1883 – April 7, 1950) was a Canadian actor and singer. Huston won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in "The Treasure of the Sierra Madre", directed by his son John Huston. He is the patriarch of the four generations of the Huston acting family, including his son John, grandchildren Anjelica Huston, Danny Huston, Allegra Huston, and great-grandchild Jack Huston. The family has produced three generations of Academy Award winners: Walter, his son John, and granddaughter Anjelica.


title: Walter Huston

text: Huston was born on April 5, 1883, in Toronto, Ontario, where he attended Winchester Street Public School. He was the son of Elizabeth (née McGibbon) and Robert Moore Huston, a farmer who founded a construction company. He was of Scottish and Irish descent. He had a brother and two sisters, one of whom was the theatrical voice coach Margaret Carrington (1877–1941).


title: Walter Huston

text: His family moved, before his birth, from Melville, just south of Orangeville, Ontario, where they were farmers. As a young man, he worked in construction and in his spare time attended the Shaw School of Acting. He made his stage debut in 1902. He went on to tour in "In Convict Stripes", a play by Hal Reid, father of Wallace Reid and also appeared with Richard Mansfield in "Julius Caesar". He again toured in another play "The Sign of the Cross". In 1904, he married Rhea Gore (1882–1938) and gave up acting to work as a manager of electric power stations in Nevada, Missouri. He maintained these jobs until 1909.


title: Walter Huston

text: In 1909, with his marriage foundering, he appeared with an older actress named Bayonne Whipple (born Mina Rose, 1865–1937). They were billed as Whipple and Huston and, in 1915, they married. Vaudeville was their livelihood into the 1920s.


title: Walter Huston

text: Huston began his Broadway career on January 22, 1924, when he performed there in the play "Mr. Pitt". He then solidified his Broadway career with roles in productions such as "Desire Under the Elms", "Kongo", "The Barker", and "Elmer the Great".


title: Walter Huston

text: Once talkies began in Hollywood, he was cast in both character roles and as a leading man. His first major role was portraying the villainous Trampas in "The Virginian" (1929), a Western that costars Gary Cooper and Richard Arlen. Some of Huston's other early sound roles include "Abraham Lincoln" (1930), "Rain" (1932), and "Gabriel Over the White House" (1933).


title: Walter Huston

text: Huston remained busy on stage and screen throughout the 1930s and 1940s, becoming during that period one of America's most prominent actors. He starred as the title character in the 1934 Broadway adaptation of Sinclair Lewis's novel "Dodsworth" as well as in the play's film version released two years later. For his role as Sam Dodsworth, Huston won the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor and was Oscar nominated. He performed "September Song" in the original Broadway production of "Knickerbocker Holiday" (1938). Huston's recording of "September Song" is heard repeatedly in "September Affair" (1950).


title: Walter Huston

text: Huston makes an uncredited appearance in the 1941 film noir classic "The Maltese Falcon", portraying the ship's captain who is shot just before delivering the black bird to Sam Spade, played by Humphrey Bogart. Walter's son, John Huston, directed the picture. As a practical joke during filming, John had his father enter the scene and die in more than 10 different takes.


title: Walter Huston

text: Among several of his contributions to World War II Allied propaganda films, Huston in an uncredited role portrays a military instructor in the short "Safeguarding Military Information" (1942). That film was produced by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and distributed by the War Activities Committee of the Motion Pictures Industry. He, along with Anthony Veiller, is also a narrator in the "Why We Fight" series of World War II documentaries directed by Frank Capra. Other films of this period in which he appears are "The Devil and Daniel Webster" (1941) as Mr. Scratch, "Yankee Doodle Dandy" (1942), and "Mission to Moscow" (1943). In the latter feature, a pro-Soviet World War II propaganda film, he plays United States Ambassador Joseph E. Davies.


title: Walter Huston

text: Huston portrays the character Howard in the 1948 adventure drama "The Treasure of the Sierra Madre", which was also directed by his son John. Based on the mysterious B. Traven's novel, the film depicts the story of three gold prospectors in 1920s post-revolution Mexico. Walter Huston won the Golden Globe Award and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the film, while John Huston won the Best Director Academy Award, thus making them the first father and son to win at the same ceremony. His last film is "The Furies" (1950) in which he costars with Barbara Stanwyck and Wendell Corey. In that Western, Huston's final line is "There will never be another one like me."


title: Walter Huston

text: On April 7, 1950, Huston died of an aortic aneurysm in his hotel suite in Beverly Hills, two days after his 67th birthday. He was cremated.


title: Walter Huston

text: In 1960, a decade after his death, Huston received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6624 Hollywood Boulevard, memorializing his contributions to the entertainment industry through his extensive, critically acclaimed work in motion pictures. He was also a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame.


title: Walter Huston

text: Huston's son John initially became a screenwriter before becoming an Academy Award-winning director and acclaimed actor. All of Huston's grandchildren have become actors, as well as his great-grandson. Granddaughter Anjelica sang "September Song" on the May 7, 2012, episode of the NBC TV series "Smash".


title: Walter Huston

text: In 1998, Scarecrow Press published John Weld's "September Song—An Intimate Biography of Walter Huston".


title: Islam in Spain

text: Spain is a Christian majority country, with Islam being a minority religion, practised mostly by the immigrants and their descendants from Muslim majority countries. Due to the secular nature of the Spanish constitution, Muslims are free to proselytize and build places of worship in the country.


title: Islam in Spain

text: Islam was a major religion on the Iberian Peninsula, beginning with the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and ending (at least overtly) with its prohibition by the modern Spanish state in the mid-16th century and the expulsion of the Moriscos in the early 17th century, an ethnic and religious minority of around 500,000 people. Although a significant proportion of Moriscos returned to Spain or avoided expulsion, the practice of Islam had faded into obscurity by the 19th century.


title: Islam in Spain

text: While the 2022 official estimation of Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) indicates that 2.8% of the population of Spain has a religion other than Catholicism, according to an unofficial estimation of 2020 by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain (UCIDE) the Muslim population in Spain represents the 4.45% of the total Spanish population as of 2019, of whom 42% were Spanish citizens (most of them with foreign family origins), 38% Moroccans, and 20% of other nationalities.


title: Islam in Spain

text: Hispania was the Latin name which was given to the whole Iberian Peninsula, and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476) the Teutonic tribe of Visigoths, who adopted Christianity, ended up ruling the whole peninsula until the Islamic conquest (during that time they pushed another Teutonic tribe out—the Vandals – and conquered another one—the Suevi). It is frequently stated in historical sources that Spain was one of the former Roman provinces where the Latin language and culture grew deep roots. After the fall of the Empire, the Visigoths continued the tradition by becoming what was probably the most Romanized Teutonic tribe. Under Visigothic rule Spain was filled with extreme instability due to lack of communication between the native Spaniards and the new rulers, who followed the Germanic notion of kingship. Visigothic kings were considered the first among equals (the nobility), and they could easily be overthrown if they did not keep the different factions happy.


title: Islam in Spain

text: News of the political unrest which existed from the late 6th century through the early 8th century was eventually received by the rulers of the growing Islamic empire which existed along the North African coast. Several historical sources state that the Islamic caliphate had not actually targeted the Visigothic Kingdom for conquest, but political divisions within it created an opportunity which was successfully exploited by an army which was led by the Muslim general Tariq ibn-Ziyad. The last Visigoth king, Roderick, was not considered a legitimate ruler by all of the inhabitants of the Spanish Kingdom, and some Visigothic nobles aided the Islamic conquest of Spain. One name frequently mentioned is Count Julian of Ceuta who invited Tariq ibn-Ziyad to invade southern Spain because his daughter had been raped by King Roderick.


title: Islam in Spain

text: On April 30, 711, Muslim General Tariq ibn-Ziyad landed at Gibraltar and by the end of the campaign most of the Iberian Peninsula (except for small areas in the north-west such as Asturias and the Basque territory) were brought under Islamic rule. This campaign's turning point was the battle of Guadalete, where the last Visigothic king, Roderick, was defeated by general Tariq ibn-Ziyad. Roderick ceases the throne in the year 711, and is later executed by Tariq ibn-Ziyad. After the defeat of Roderick, the Visigoth dominion over the Iberian peninsula folded and fell apart from the Northern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, and the province of Septimania (an area of France going from the Pyrenees to Provence), all areas previously under the rule of the Visigoths were now under Islamic rule. Muslim forces attempted to move north-east across the Pyrenees Mountains toward France, but were defeated by the Frankish Christian Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732.


title: Islam in Spain

text: Islamic rule of the Iberian peninsula lasted for varying periods of time, which ranged from only 28 years in the extreme northwest (Galicia) to 781 years in the area which surrounded the city of Granada in the southeast. This Empire added contributions to society such as libraries, schools, public bathrooms, literature, poetry, and architecture. This work was mainly developed through the unification of people of all faiths. While the three major monotheistic religious traditions certainly did borrow from one another in Al-Andalus, benefiting especially by the blooming of philosophy and the medieval sciences in the Muslim Middle East, recent scholarship has brought into question the notion that the peaceful coexistence of Muslims, Jews, and Christians — known as the — could be defined as "pluralistic." People of other religions could contribute to society and the culture developed in this time.


title: Islam in Spain

text: One of the reasons for such great success under this empire was the legal terms offered to the public, which differed from the conditions which were implemented by the Visigoth kingdom which preceded it


title: Islam in Spain

text: Moreover, the appearance of Sufism on the Iberian peninsula is especially important because Sufism's "greatest shaykh," Ibn 'Arabi, was himself from Murcia. Nakshbandi Sufi order is the widely followed Sufi order in spain.


title: Islam in Spain

text: The topic of remains a very hotly debated topic among scholars, with some of them believing that Spain was pluralistic under Muslim rule while others believe it was a very difficult place for non Muslims to live in. Those who believe that Muslim ruled Spain was pluralistic point to the audio narration in the Museum of The Three Cultures in Cordoba, Spain, where the audio narration says that "when the East was not separated from the West, Muslims were not separated from Jews or Christians". Another scholar argues that “It became possible to be a pious Jew who could recite a pre-Islamic ode or a homoerotic poem or take the peripatetic tradition seriously, in great measure because pious Muslims did it”. The Muslim ruler Abd-al-Rahman III “worked directly with the Mozarabs, a controversial term which is generally used to refer to Christians who lived under Muslim rule, and placed them in positions of power. Furthermore, the Jews and Christians could practice their religions without fear of harassment or persecution.” The Muslim rulers of Spain "relied on the Jews for diplomacy and public administration who were inaugurated into posts of commerce and played important roles in cities such as Toledo and Cordoba”.


title: Islam in Spain

text: On the other side of the debate, many scholars believe that Muslim rule of Spain was far from a utopian society where all religions treated each other with respect. In fact, “Uprisings in Cordoba in 805 and 818 were answered with mass executions and the destruction of one of the city's suburbs”. In addition, in regard to Jews and Christians in Andalusia, “one 11th-century legal text called them members of “the devil's party” and they “were subject to special taxes and, often, dress codes”. Many scholars believe that this more benign view of “masks the very presence of institutional fundamentalism in medieval Spain – both its Jewish and Muslim manifestations in the nature of forced conversions, exile, lower standards of citizenship, higher taxation and violence”. It seems that class distinctions also played a role in . In fact, “many of the lower echelons of Jewish and Christian society remained segregated or in conflict with their Abrahamic counterparts”. Other Scholars believe that Christians and Jews were treated as second class citizens where “Under Muslim rule, especially following the arrival of the Almoravids and the Almohades, both Christianity and Judaism were scarcely tolerated and regarded as decidedly “inferior” religions”.


title: Islam in Spain

text: In time Islamic migrants from places as diverse as North Africa to Yemen and Syria and Iran invaded territories in the Iberian peninsula. The Islamic rulers called the Iberian peninsula "Al-Andalus".


title: Islam in Spain

text: For a time, Al-Andalus was one of the great Muslim civilizations, reaching its summit with the Umayyad Caliphate in the 10th century. Al-Andalus had the following chronological phases:


title: Islam in Spain

text: The Madrasah of Granada was founded by the Nasrid dynasty monarch Yusuf I, Sultan of Granada in 1349 and housed many of the most greatest prominent scholars of the period.


title: Islam in Spain

text: After the disintegration of the Caliphate, Islamic control was gradually eroded by the Christian Reconquista. The Reconquista (Reconquest) was the process by which the Catholic Kingdoms of northern Spain eventually managed to succeed in defeating and conquering the Muslim states of the Iberian Peninsula. The first major city to fall to Catholic powers was Toledo in 1085, which prompted the intervention of Almoravids. After the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, most of Al-Andalus fell under control of the Catholic kingdoms, the only exception being the Nasrid dynasty Emirate of Granada. The Granada War ("Guerra de Granada") of the Reconquista began in 1482 against the Emirate of Granada. It was not until 1492 that the Emirate of Granada with city of Granada and the Alhambra and Generalife Palaces, the last remaining Muslim territory in al-Andalus, fell in the Battle of Granada to forces of the Catholic Monarchs "(los Reyes Catolicos)", Queen Isabella I of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand II of Aragon.


title: Islam in Spain

text: The conquest was accompanied by the Treaty of Granada signed by Emir Muhammad XII of Granada, allowing the Spanish crown's new Muslim subjects a large measure of religious toleration. They were also allowed the continuing use of their own language, schools, laws and customs. But the interpretation of the royal edict was largely left to the local Catholic authorities. Hernando de Talavera, the first Archbishop of Granada after its Catholic conquest, took a fairly tolerant view.