title: USS Jimmy Carter

text: "Jimmy Carter" was christened on 5 June 2004, and the ship sponsor was former First Lady Rosalynn Carter. One result of the changes was that "Jimmy Carter" was commissioned more than six years after and almost four months after the commissioning of , the first of the subs.


title: USS Jimmy Carter

text: "Jimmy Carter" has additional maneuvering devices fitted fore and aft that allow her to keep station over selected targets in odd currents. Intelligence experts speculate that the MMP may find use in missions as an underwater splicing chamber for optical fiber cables.


title: USS Jimmy Carter

text: On 19 November 2004 "Jimmy Carter" completed alpha sea trials, her first voyage in the open seas. On 22 December, Electric Boat delivered "Jimmy Carter" to the US Navy, and she was commissioned 19 February 2005 at NSB New London.


title: USS Jimmy Carter

text: "Jimmy Carter" began a transit from NSB New London to her new homeport at the Bangor Annex of Naval Base Kitsap, Washington on 14 October 2005 but was forced to return when an unusually high wave caused damage while the submarine was running on the surface. The damage was repaired and "Jimmy Carter" left New London the following day, arriving at Bangor the afternoon of 9 November 2005.


title: USS Jimmy Carter

text: In April and September 2017 "Jimmy Carter" returned twice to her homeport at Naval Base Kitsap-Bangor, flying a Jolly Roger flag, traditionally indicative of a successful mission.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The Jubilee ( "yōḇel;" Yiddish: "yoyvl") is the year at the end of seven cycles of "shmita" (Sabbatical years) and, according to biblical regulations, had a special impact on the ownership and management of land in the Land of Israel. According to the Book of Leviticus, Hebrew slaves and prisoners would be freed, debts would be forgiven, and the mercies of God would be particularly manifest.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: Rabbinic literature mentions a dispute between the Sages and Rabbi Yehuda over whether it was the 49th year (the last year of seven sabbatical cycles, referred to as the Sabbath's Sabbath), or whether it was the following (50th) year. The Jubilee ("Year of Release") deals largely with land, property, and property rights.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The biblical rules concerning Sabbatical years are still observed by many religious Jews in Israel, but the regulations for the Jubilee year have not been observed for many centuries. According to the post-exile rabbinic interpretation of Torah, observance of Jubilee only applied when the Jewish people live in the land of Israel according to their tribes. Thus, with the exile of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh (about 600 BCE), Jubilee has not been applicable.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The Septuagint used the phrase "a trumpet-blast of liberty" (ἀφέσεως σημασία "apheseôs sêmasia"), and the Vulgate used the Latin "iobeleus"; the English term "Jubilee" derives from the Latin term.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: Early modern biblical scholars believed that the Latin term derived from the Hebrew term "yobel", used in the Masoretic Text, which in turn derived from "yobhel", meaning "ram"; the Jubilee year was announced by a blast on a shofar, an instrument made from a ram's horn, during that year's Yom Kippur.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: An alternative etymology for the English and Latin terms notes that the Latin verb "iūbilō", "shout for joy," predates the Vulgate, and proposes that instead the Latin "jubilo" (meaning "shout", from Proto-Italic *"jū"), as well as Middle Irish "ilach" (victory cry), English "yowl", and Ancient Greek "iuzō" (ἰύζω: shout), derived from a Proto-Indo-European root "*yu-" (shout for joy). In this interpretation, the Hebrew term is either a borrowing from an Indo-European language, or an independent word with no etymological relation to the Latin word.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: Ancient Near Eastern societies regularly declared noncommercial debts void, typically at the coronation of a new king or at the king’s order. Biblical scholars once argued that the Jubilee was an obvious development of the Sabbatical year. Rather than waiting for the 50th or 49th year, the Deuteronomic Code requires that Hebrew slaves be liberated during their 7th year of service, as does the Covenant Code, which some textual scholars regard as pre-dating the Holiness code; the Book of Ezekiel, which some textual scholars also regard as earlier than the Holiness Code, refers to a "year of liberty" (שנת דרור), during which property is returned to the original owner (or their heirs), (earlier written mentioning in Sum: ama-gi, ama-ar-gi, 'return to the mother') but the word דרור is used by Jeremiah to describe the release of slaves during the Sabbatical year, which various scholars take to imply that Ezekiel must have been referring to the sabbatical year. Scholars suspect that the transfer of these regulations to 49th or 50th year was a deliberate attempt to parallel the fact that Shavuot is 50 days after Passover, and follows seven weeks of harvest; this parallel is regarded as significant in Kabbalah.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: According to the documentary hypothesis, originally proposed by Julius Wellhausen, the Biblical chapters that contain the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation (chapters 25 and 27 of Leviticus) were part of the so-called "P" or Priestly Code that Wellhausen believed represented the last stage in the development of Israel's religion. Wellhausen dated those chapters to a late exilic or post-exilic period though many modern proponents of the Documentary Hypothesis have arrived at different datings.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: Wellhausen's theory that the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation was written in the exilic or post-exilic period, specifically after the time of Ezekiel, has always been challenged by scholars who have maintained the traditional position of Judaism and Christianity for the Mosaic authorship of Leviticus. Recently, however, the theories of Wellhausen and others who date the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation to the exilic period or later have also been challenged by scholars who generally do not have a conservative view of the Bible. Yehezekel Kaufmann has argued that the book of Ezekiel quotes from the Sabbatical and Jubilee legislation of the Book of Leviticus, which must have been in existence before Ezekiel's writings. This argument has been expanded by Risa Levitt Kohn. Kohn examined in detail the 97 terms and phrases that are shared between Ezekiel and the Priestly Code. She concludes:


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: John Bergsma provides a further argument against an exilic or post-exilic date for the codifying of the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation, saying that the "Sitz im Leben" (life situation) of the exilic or post-exilic period is not at all addressed by this legislation.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: Bergsma therefore points out the incongruity of Wellhausen's ascribing an exilic or post-exilic date to the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation, since this would conflict with the "Sitz im Leben" of Israel during, and after, the exile. In addition, Bergsma shows that the problem that this legislation was addressing was a problem recognized by the kings of Babylon in the second millennium BC, which naturally suggests the possibility of a much earlier date of codification. These Babylonian kings (to whom could be added Ammi-Saduqa) occasionally issued decrees for the cancellation of debts and/or the return of the people to the lands they had sold. Such "clean slate" decrees were intended to redress the tendency of debtors, in ancient societies, to become hopelessly in debt to their creditors, thus accumulating most of the arable land into the control of a wealthy few. The decrees were issued sporadically. Economist Michael Hudson maintains that the Biblical legislation of the Jubilee and Sabbatical years addressed the same problems encountered by these Babylonian kings, but the Biblical formulation of the laws presented a significant advance in justice and the rights of the people. This was due to the "clean slates" now being codified into law, rather than relying on the whim of the king. Furthermore, the regular rhythm of the Sabbatical and Jubilee years meant that everyone would know when the next release was due, thereby giving fairness and equity to both creditor and debtor. Hudson therefore maintains that not only was the Levitical legislation a significant advance over the prior attempts to deal with indebtedness, but this legislation was also eminently practical, in contradiction to many Biblical interpreters who are not economists and who have labeled it "utopian".


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The biblical regulations concerning the Jubilee year appear in . According to these regulations, the Jubilee was to be sounded once 49 years had been counted, raising an ambiguity over whether the Jubilee was within the 49th year, or followed it as an intercalation in the 7-year sabbatical cycles; scholars and classical rabbinical sources are divided on the question.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The biblical requirement is that the Jubilee year was to be treated like a Sabbatical year, with the land lying fallow, but also required the compulsory return of all property to its original owners or their heirs, except the houses of laymen within walled cities, in addition to the manumission of all Israelite indentured servants.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The biblical regulations state that the land was to rest a "Sabbath" when the Children of Israel came to the land God was giving them Israel. The Seder Olam Rabbah (second century AD), stated that this verse meant that the counting was not to start until after the Israelites had gained control of Canaan, which the Seder Olam, based upon received tradition, placed at 14 years after their entry into the land. This interpretation has been largely adopted in later rabbinic scholarship. One reason for this interpretation of the Levitical text was that if counting started before the land was completely conquered, it would require the Israelites to return the land to the Canaanites within 50 years; similar nationalistic concerns about the impact of the Jubilee on land ownership have been raised by Zionist settlers. From a legal point of view, the Jubilee law effectively banned sale of land as fee simple, and instead land could only be leased for no more than 50 years. The biblical regulations go on to specify that the price of land had to be proportional to how many years remained before the Jubilee, with land being cheaper the closer it is to the Jubilee.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: Since the 49th year was already a sabbatical year, the land was required to be left fallow during it, but if the 50th year also had to be kept fallow, as the Jubilee, then no new crops would be available for two years, and only the summer fruits would be available for the following year, creating a much greater risk of starvation overall; Judah the Prince contended that the jubilee year was identical with the sabbatical 49th year. However, the majority of classical rabbis believed that the biblical phrase "hallow the fiftieth year", together with the biblical promise that there would be three years worth of fruit in the "sixth year", implies that the jubilee year was the 50th year. The opinion of the Geonim, and generally of later authorities, was that prior to the Babylonian captivity the Jubilee was the intercalation of the 50th year, but after the captivity ended the Jubilee was essentially ignored, except for the blast of the shofar, and coincided with the sabbatical 49th year; the reason was that the Jubilee was only to be observed when the Jews controlled all of Canaan, including the territories of Reuben and Gad and the eastern half-tribe of Manasseh.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The length of the Jubilee cycle continues to be of interest to modern scholarship, as does the question of the practicality of the legislation, and whether it was ever put into effect on a nationwide basis. Regarding the length of the cycle, three significant scholarly studies devoted to the Jubilee and Sabbatical years agree that it was 49 years, while disagreeing somewhat on the interpretation of the other issues involved. These major studies were those of Benedict Zuckermann, Robert North, and Jean-François Lefebvre. The reasons given by these authors to support a 49-year cycle are both textual (examining all relevant Biblical texts) and practical.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: Calendrical document 4Q319 from the Dead Sea Scrolls "represents a calendrical system based on the weekly rotation of the twenty-four priestly courses during a six-year period and constructed into six consecutive Jubilees, i.e. 294 years.".


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: An example of the textual argument is given by North in his comparison of with . The first passage establishes the timing, in days, for the Festival of Weeks ("Shavuot"), while the second prescribes the timing, in years, for the Jubilee. In the first passage, the start of counting for the Festival of Weeks is said to be "the day after the Sabbath" ("mimaharat ha-shabat", ), and is to end "the day after the seventh Sabbath" ("mimaharat ha-shabat ha-sheviyit", ). These seven weeks would constitute 49 days in most modern methods of reckoning. Nevertheless, verse 16 says that they are to be reckoned as 50 days. This method of reckoning (sometimes called "inclusive numbering") is fairly common in Scripture; for example, the Feast of Tabernacles is to last for seven days (), but the last day is called the eighth day (v. 36). North found this comparison between Leviticus 23 (Feast of Weeks) and Leviticus 25 (Jubilees) to be "the strongest possible support for the "forty-ninth" year" as the Jubilee year. His conclusion that the Jubilee was identical with the seventh Sabbatical year was followed by Lefebvre, for this as well as additional reasons.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The consideration that the Jubilee was identical with the seventh Sabbatical year solves the various practical problems, as also addressed by these authors. If the Jubilee were separate from, and following the seventh Sabbatical year, then there would be two fallow years in succession. Lefebvre points out, however, that there is no support in Scripture for two voluntary fallow years in succession, even though some have misinterpreted as if this refers to a Jubilee year following a Sabbatical year, which is not the sense of the passage. Lefebvre shows that this cannot be the case because planting is mentioned for the eighth year; it is the year after a Sabbath, a year in which planting and harvesting resume. Another practical problem that would occur if the Jubilee cycle were 50 years is that, after the first cycle, the Jubilee and Sabbatical cycles would be out of phase unless the seventh Sabbatical cycle was stretched to eight years. But Scripture gives no instructions for making such an adjustment. Instead, it is assumed that the two cycles will always be in phase so that the "shofar" can be sounded in the seventh year of the seventh Sabbatical cycle.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: In contrast, the consideration that the Jubilee year is an intercalated year separate and distinct from the Sabbatical cycles resolves an issue of the requirement for observation of the Torah of both and . For in the former passage, the command is that sowing and pruning must occur for 6 consecutive years, whereas in the latter, the command is to neither sow, nor reap nor gather from untended vines in the Jubilee year. If the Jubilee year is the 50th year as confirmed by , it must necessarily be a separate year from the first 49 years comprising the whole of the first seven Sabbatical cycles. Therefore it cannot be identical with the seventh Sabbatical year, as 49 does not equal 50. Were the Jubilee year to be considered identical with year 1 of the following Sabbatical cycle, the requirement of observing 6 consecutive years of sowing and pruning could not be observed as only 5 years would therefore be available for sowing and reaping, not the specified six as requires. A lot of the misunderstanding comes from not carefully reading the original Hebrew text. There was no requirement in the Law to observe 6 consecutive years of sowing. The command stated that you may sow for 6 years but in the 7th year the land must observe a sabbath rest. It would be a double negative to command the land to be sowed for 6 years in cases of famine and war.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: Although not cited by these authors, two historical arguments also argue for a 49-year cycle. The first is that the Samaritans celebrated a 49-year cycle. Although the Samaritans stopped counting for the Jubilee some hundreds of years ago, according to a recent report an effort is underway to determine the date when counting ceased in order to resume. The counting will again be according to a 49-year cycle. A second historical argument has been presented to the effect that the two instances of a Jubilee mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud (tractates "Arakin" 12a and "Megillah" 14b) appear to be proper historical remembrances, because the known calculation methods of rabbinic scholarship were incapable of correctly calculating the dates of the Jubilees mentioned. Rabbinic (Talmudic) scholarship always assumed non-accession reckoning for kings, whereby the first partial year of a king was double-counted both for him and as the last year of the deceased king. This reckoning would give 47 years from the Jubilee mentioned in the 18th year of Josiah ("Megillah" 14b) to the Jubilee that took place 14 years after Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians ("Arakin" 12a), whereas the correct difference was 49 years (623 BC to 574 BC). This has been presented as additional evidence that the cycle was 49 years, and further that the cycles were being measured until the last Jubilee in the days of Ezekiel, when the stipulations of the Jubilee year, long neglected except in the counting of the priests, could no longer be observed because the people were captive in a foreign land.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The "Seder Olam Rabbah" recognized the importance of the Jubilee and Sabbatical cycles as a long-term calendrical system, and attempted at various places to fit the Sabbatical and Jubilee years into its chronological scheme. As mentioned above, the "Seder Olam" put forth the idea that the counting for these cycles was deferred until 14 years after entry into the land. The reasons for this are given in "Seder Olam" chapter 11. In Joshua chapter 14, Caleb mentions that he was 40 years old when he was sent out as a spy in the second year of the 40-year wilderness journey, and his present age was 85, which meant he received his inheritance seven years after entering Canaan. Rabbi Jose assumed that everyone else received their inheritance when Caleb did, or had already received it, so that the allotment of the land to the tribes was finished at this time. Because the division of the land took seven years, the conquest that followed must also have taken seven years. "One has to say that 14 years Israel spent at Gilgal, seven when they were conquering and seven when they were distributing." Then, after putting up the Tabernacle at Shiloh, "At that moment, they started to count years for tithes, Sabbatical years, and Jubilee years."


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: Another explanation has been offered for Rabbi Jose's postponement of counting until 14 years had elapsed. In this same chapter 11 of the "Seder Olam", Rabbi Jose stated (for unknown reasons) that Israel's time in its land must have lasted an integral number of Jubilee periods. If this were true, one of those periods should have ended at the beginning of the exile in 587 BC. Yet Rabbi Jose also believed that Ezekiel 40:1 marked the beginning of the seventeenth Jubilee, and this was 14 years after the city fell. In other words, the Jubilee came 14 years too late, according to the idea that the time in the land must comprise an integral number of Jubilee cycles. Rodger Young proposes that the knowledge of when a genuine Jubilee was due was the real reason for the supposition of a delay before the start of counting:


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The reason for the fourteen-year delay in "Seder ‘Olam" 11 is that Rabbi Yose (primary author of the "Seder ‘Olam") had the "idée fixe" that the total time that Israel spent in its land must come out to an exact number of Jubilee cycles. If that had been the case, then we should have expected that 587 BC, when the exile began, would have been at the end of a Jubilee period. However, Rabbi Yose cited Ezek 40:1 as designating the time of the seventeenth Jubilee, and since he knew this was fourteen years after the city fell, he presumed that counting had been delayed for fourteen years so that he could account for the fourteen years between the fall of the city and the observance of the seventeenth Jubilee. He also mentioned the previous Jubilee, in the time of Josiah. As much as he would have liked to put these last two Jubilees fourteen years earlier in order to be consistent with his "idée fixe", Rabbi Yose could not do it because he knew these were historical dates, not dates that came from his own calculation.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: An alternative account is that counting started at the entry into the land. This follows from a straightforward reading of the relevant text in Leviticus:


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The then spoke to Moses at Mount Sinai, saying, "Speak to the sons of Israel, and say to them, 'When you come into the land which I shall give you, then the land shall have a sabbath to the . Six years you shall sow your field, and six years you shall prune your vineyard and gather in its crop, but during the seventh year the land shall have a sabbath rest, a sabbath to the ... You are also to count off seven sabbaths of years for yourself, seven times seven years, so that you have the time of the seven sabbaths of years, "namely", forty-nine years. You shall then sound a ram's horn abroad on the tenth day of the seventh month; on the day of atonement you shall sound a horn all through your land. You shall thus consecrate the fiftieth year and proclaim a release through the land to all its inhabitants. It shall be a jubilee for you (Leviticus 25:1–4, 8–10, NASB).


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The Talmud states that the people of Israel counted 17 Jubilees from the time they entered the Land of Canaan until their exile at the destruction of the First Temple. If counting is measured back 17 cycles from Ezekiel's Jubilee that began in Tishri of 574 BC, based on Thiele's computation, the first year of the first cycle would have been 1406 BC. According to the religious calendar that started the year in Nisan, and in accordance with Joshua 5:10 that places the entry in the land in Nisan, Nisan of 1406 BC is the month and year when counting started. But 1406 BC is the year of entry into the land that is traditionally derived by another method, namely taking Thiele's date of 931/930 BC for the start of the divided kingdom after Solomon's death, in conjunction with 1 Kings 6:1 (Solomon's fourth year was 480th year of Exodus-era), to derive the date of the Exodus in 1446 BC. The method of determining the date of the Exodus and entry into Canaan from the Jubilee cycles is independent of the method of deriving these dates from 1 Kings 6:1, yet the two methods agree.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: A different approach is taken in the Talmud ("Arakhin" 12a–b) which, like "Seder Olam", assigns only 410 years to the First Temple, preceded by 480 years from the exodus to its building by Solomon () in 832 BC (by the rabbinic accounting) and its destruction in 422 BC. The Talmud ("Arakhin" 12b) accounts for 40 years of wandering in the wilderness, and 7 years taken to conquer the land of Canaan and 7 years to divide the land among the tribes, putting the first Jubilee cycle precisely 54 years after the exodus (i.e. in 1258 BC), and saying that the people of Israel counted 17 Jubilees from the time they entered the Land of Canaan until their departure, and that the last Jubilee occurred 14 years after the First Temple's destruction (i.e. in 408 BC). Talmudic exegete, Rashi, explains in the Talmud ("Arakhin" 12b) that the year of the First Temple's destruction (422 BC) was actually the 36th year in the Jubilee cycle, and that fourteen years later (408 BC) would have been the next Jubilee. This time span, taken together (from 1258 BC to 408 BC), accrues to 850 years, during which time the people counted seventeen Jubilees.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The historian Josephus, however, had a different tradition, writing in his work "Antiquities" (10.8.5) that the First Temple stood 470 years, which would, of necessity, offset the number of Jubilee cycles. Moreover, Josephus' reckoning of the timeline of events does not always align with "Seder Olam", the book on which rabbinic tradition is so dependent. The discrepancies between Josephus and "Seder Olam" have led some scholars to think that the dates prescribed in "Seder Olam" are only approximations, as Josephus brings down supportive evidence by making use of two basic epochs, the Olympiad era counting and the Seleucid era counting, drawn principally from other writers, to verify the historicity of many of these events. In spite of their differences in the general span of years, there is not necessarily disagreement between Josephus and "Seder Olam" when Josephus refers to dates of Sabbatical years during the Second Temple period, as the time-frame for these dates overlap those mentioned in "Seder Olam" (chapter 30) for the Grecian, Hasmonean, and Herodian periods.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: The text of the Book of Leviticus argues that the Jubilee existed because the land was the possession of Yahweh, and its current occupiers were merely aliens or tenants, and therefore the land should not be sold forever. Midrashic sources argue that the Jubilee was created to preserve the original division of land between the Israelite tribes, as evidenced by the rabbinical tradition that the Jubilee should not be imposed until the Israelites were in control of Canaan. Leviticus also states that the Israelites were the servants of Yahweh, which classical rabbis took as justification for the manumission of Israelite slaves at the Jubilee, using the argument that no man should have two masters, and thus, as the servants of Yahweh, the Israelites should not also be the servants of men.


title: Jubilee (biblical)

text: A further theological insight afforded by the Jubilee cycles is explained in Andrew Steinmann's monograph on Biblical chronology. Steinmann has an extended discussion of the evidence for various pre-exilic Sabbatical years, and how they all occurred an integral number of seven-year periods before Ezekiel’s Jubilee (see the Historical Sabbatical Years article). He also notes that the date of the entry into the land implied by Ezekiel's Jubilee (the seventeenth) is in exact agreement with the date calculated from 1 Kings 6:1 and Joshua 5:6. These chronological considerations are usually neglected in discussions of the legislation for the Jubilee and Sabbatical years, but Steinmann stresses their theological importance as follows:


title: Karen Jarrett

text: Karen Jarrett (' Smedley and formerly Angle, born October 12, 1972) is an American professional wrestling valet and personality. She was formerly the senior vice president of the Impact Knockouts Division. She is the former wife of professional wrestler and Olympic gold medalist Kurt Angle and the current wife of Impact and GFW founder and wrestler Jeff Jarrett.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: Karen Smedley was born in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, where she was educated through the Hempfield Area School District, graduating from Hempfield Area High School in 1990. She completed a bachelor's degree from a public university. Her parents are Jack and Iva Smedley. Her father was diagnosed with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) in 1983. He recovered after a successful bone marrow transplant.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: Karen was never involved in a storyline of World Wrestling Entertainment while her then-husband Kurt Angle was under contract. She herself was never under contract, but did briefly appear at Unforgiven 2001 as a part of the big celebration with the Angle family following Kurt Angle's victory over Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship. She also made an appearance on the WrestleMania XX DVD set in a bonus segment regarding Kurt Angle.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: Karen Angle was introduced in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) in the summer of 2007 when Samoa Joe and Kurt Angle were feuding for an all-at-once Triple Crown Championship (Kurt held the TNA World Heavyweight Championship, and Joe held the TNA X Division and TNA World Tag Team Championship). Karen was supposedly wanting to divorce Kurt, claiming that he was emotionally abusive toward both her and their children. At the Hard Justice pay-per-view, however, Karen betrayed Joe during his match with her husband, resulting in Kurt winning the Triple Crown (thus turning her heel). In the following weeks, her character began to develop into a manipulative vamp, such as when she claimed that Sting slapped her at No Surrender when, in fact, he had not. This led to Kurt and Sting losing the Tag Team titles to Team Pacman after Kurt executed the Olympic slam on Sting. Another feud then erupted between Kurt Angle and Sting in which Sting had Karen arrested for violating a restraining order and Kurt stalking Sting's son. At Genesis, Karen persuaded A.J. Styles and Tomko into helping Kurt retain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship during the tag team match for the title. In late 2007, Karen began to have issues with Booker T's wife Sharmell, claiming there was only room for one "queen" in TNA (a direct reference to Booker T's and Sharmell's last WWE gimmick, where they were self-proclaimed royalty after Booker won the 2006 King of the Ring tournament). This led to a catfight at the December 12 "TNA Impact!" tapings. Karen suffered a broken foot after jumping from the apron after an in-ring segment. She did not miss any time as a result of TNA's taping schedule. On the February 14, 2008 episode of "Impact!", Karen was scheduled to renew her wedding vows to Kurt, but in the storyline, she was pronounced married to A.J. Styles after the priest, who had just been knocked down by Kevin Nash, awoke and married the two, mistaking Styles for Kurt. Kurt then started to emotionally attack Karen for not ending the "marriage". Later in the year, she proposed to separate from Kurt Angle (kayfabe) which Kurt Angle supported to "concentrate on his upcoming match with Samoa Joe at Lockdown". Since then, hints of a relationship with A.J. were given, after Kurt continued to ignore Karen, even having her ejected from her ringside seat at Lockdown. On the May 22, 2008 episode of "Impact!", Kurt Angle asked Karen to the ring to forgive him for not performing his "husbandly duties" and to ask her to come home. Karen then left a begging Kurt in the ring after he pleaded for a second chance. At the end of "Impact!", Karen came to the ring to the aid of A.J. Styles who was being beaten four on one by Booker T, Team 3D, and Tomko. After being ejected, Karen ran to the back to enlist Kurt's aid, who came out with a chair. Kurt threatened the four with the chair, only to turn around and see his estranged wife hugging a bloody AJ. Kurt freaked and hit AJ with the chair, thus prompting the four back in the ring. Team 3D held Karen up while Kurt held AJ's head, yelling at Karen, telling her this was all her fault. Kurt is quoted as saying to Karen, "This is your fault! You deceived me!" On the May 29, 2008 edition of "Impact!" after being assaulted backstage before his entrance, A.J. ran to the ring to help Karen only to be beat down by Team 3D and Kurt Angle for the second week in a row. Christian Cage came to the ring to aid Styles but was viciously assaulted for his trouble as well. It was then announced that at the Slammiversary pay-per-view it would be A.J. Styles one-on-one with Kurt Angle. Karen then interfered helping A.J. Styles win his match against Kurt Angle at Slammiversary 2008, turning her face again. Shortly thereafter, Angle was given her own interview segment, "Karen's Angle" on "iMPACT". Her first interview was Kaz on July 24, 2008. On the October 9, 2008 episode of "Impact!", it was announced that Karen had to step down as the host of "Karen's Angle" to focus on her family. Her profile and Knockout photos were taken off TNA's official website, but were put back up a few days later.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: On January 10, 2011, TNA announced that Karen would be making her return to the promotion on the January 13 edition of "Impact!", appearing beside her new husband Jeff Jarrett, who has recently been feuding with Kurt Angle. In her return appearance Karen confronted Angle just as he was about to attack Jeff, told him that she would not allow him to ruin their personal lives and promised to tell all about their divorce the following week. The following week Karen slapped Kurt, providing a distraction which allowed Jeff to beat him down. On February 13 at Against All Odds Jeff defeated Kurt in a singles match and as a result Angle was forced to walk Karen down the aisle, when she and Jarrett renewed their wedding vows on the March 3 edition of "Impact!". On March 3 Angle proceeded to destroy the wedding set with an axe and forced wedding guest, New York Jet Bart Scott to tap out with the ankle lock. On May 15 at Sacrifice, Angle and Chyna, whom Angle had recently brought to the promotion to negate Karen, defeated the Jarretts in a mixed tag team match, after Karen submitted to Chyna. Due to a storyline injury, Karen missed the culmination of Jeff's and Angle's feud at Slammiversary IX and the following "Impact Wrestling", which led to the defeated Jarrett leaving the company for a tour of Mexico. On June 18, Karen appeared beside her husband at Mexican promotion Lucha Libre AAA World Wide's (AAA) biggest event of the year, Triplemanía XIX, and provided a distraction, which led to Jeff defeating El Zorro for the AAA Mega Championship. On the September 1 edition of "Impact Wrestling!", Eric Bischoff named Karen the new commissioner of the Knockouts Division. On the October 20 edition of "Impact Wrestling", Jarrett aligned herself with Gail Kim and Madison Rayne. On the December 15 edition of "Impact Wrestling", TNA's authority figure, Sting, fired both Jarretts from TNA as a result of Jeff losing to Jeff Hardy at Final Resolution.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: Four years later, Karen, alongside her husband Jeff returned to "Impact Wrestling" on the June 24, 2015 tapings. Jeff announced that he would be the first entrant in the King of the Mountain match at Slammiversary 2015. Karen turned heel on the August 26 episode of "Impact Wrestling" when she revealed that she orchestrated the attacks on TNA General Manager Bully Ray and Drew Galloway. A team of 5 wrestlers from GFW fought against a team of 5 from TNA in a Lethal Lockdown match to determine complete control of TNA. GFW was unsuccessful when Drew Galloway pinned Brian Myers, thus exiling GFW from TNA.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: On October 12, 2013, Jarrett appeared at Family Wrestling Entertainment's Grand Prix, where she was named Commissioner.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: On January 5, 2017, it was announced that Karen Jarrett had rejoined Impact Wrestling, now under the ownership of Anthem Sports & Entertainment, as executive consultant role running Impact Wrestling. Jarrett returned as a face on the March 23 episode of "Impact Wrestling", and was welcomed back by Jeremy Borash, she soon was interrupted by Ethan Carter III and then Josh Mathews. When Mathews said he knew the Jarrets would be gone forever, Karen would slap him ending the show. On the March 30 episode of Impact Wrestling, Jarrett would call out so called leader of the knockouts Sienna and gave her 10 seconds to apologize for her treatment of Allie but was interrupted by a debuting KM, Sienna's cousin who publicly berated Jarrett for asking Sienna to apologize. Jarrett was rescued by Braxton Sutter, who knocked KM out of the ring. Jarrett made a match between KM and Sutter for later that night. Later on the same night, Jarrett handed Borash a piece of paper for him to announce a Knockouts battle royal to determine the new number 1 contender to Rosemary's Knockouts Championship. On the April 20 episode Impact Wrestling, Karen Jarrett announced that Impact Wrestling and Global Force Wrestling had merged.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: Karen has two children with her former husband Kurt Angle; a daughter named Kyra Angle (born December 2, 2002) and son named Kody Angle (born October 26, 2006). In 2008, Karen filed for divorce, which was finalized on October 26, 2008.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: Karen was romantically linked to TNA co-founder Jeff Jarrett in 2009. The relationship was said to have started while Kurt and Karen were separated. This resulted in TNA president Dixie Carter placing Jarrett on a leave of absence. The situation was revealed in July 2009 when a caller claiming to be a former TNA employee called the "Bubba the Love Sponge Show". On April 6, 2010, Karen announced that she and Jarrett were engaged. Karen and Jarrett were married on August 21, 2010.


title: Karen Jarrett

text: During April 2016, the Wrestling Observer Newsletter published a report that Karen was involved in an argument with Lucha Underground announcer Melissa Santos during a WrestleCon in Dallas over the WrestleMania 32 weekend. Details include Santos was complaining about not having a chair to sit on, somehow leading to Karen spitting on her and a confrontation that nearly escalated into a fight. It was reported as early as July 27, 2017, Karen had a confrontation with WWE superstar Braun Strowman in a bar in Nashville. The report described Karen approached Braun with a request for an autograph for her son. Braun allegedly refused to sign an autograph and disrespected Karen with an unspecified but derogatory verbal response. Karen went on to identify her child was the son of then-WWE superstar Kurt Angle, prompting Strowman to apologize. After the story made sports news, Karen went on to state the incident was "blown way out of proportion."


title: Karen Jarrett

text: Karen works to spread awareness against leukemia through her social media handles. She has also supported the Black Lives Matter movement.


title: Voltage regulator

text: A voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage. A voltage regulator may use a simple feed-forward design or may include negative feedback. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line.


title: Voltage regulator

text: A simple voltage/current regulator can be made from a resistor in series with a diode (or series of diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage across the diode changes only slightly due to changes in current drawn or changes in the input. When precise voltage control and efficiency are not important, this design may be fine. Since the forward voltage of a diode is small, this kind of voltage regulator is only suitable for


title: Voltage regulator

text: low voltage regulated output. When higher voltage output is needed, a zener diode or series of zener diodes may be employed. Zener diode regulators make use of the zener diode's fixed reverse voltage, which can be quite large.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Feedback voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element in such a way as to reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback control loop; increasing the open-loop gain tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability. (Stability is avoidance of oscillation, or ringing, during step changes.) There will also be a trade-off between stability and the speed of the response to changes. If the output voltage is too low (perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current increasing), the regulation element is commanded, "up to a point", to produce a higher output voltage–by dropping less of the input voltage (for linear series regulators and buck switching regulators), or to draw input current for longer periods (boost-type switching regulators); if the output voltage is too high, the regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage. However, many regulators have over-current protection, so that they will entirely stop sourcing current (or limit the current in some way) if the output current is too high, and some regulators may also shut down if the input voltage is outside a given range (see also: crowbar circuits).


title: Voltage regulator

text: In electromechanical regulators, voltage regulation is easily accomplished by coiling the sensing wire to make an electromagnet. The magnetic field produced by the current attracts a moving ferrous core held back under spring tension or gravitational pull. As voltage increases, so does the current, strengthening the magnetic field produced by the coil and pulling the core towards the field. The magnet is physically connected to a mechanical power switch, which opens as the magnet moves into the field. As voltage decreases, so does the current, releasing spring tension or the weight of the core and causing it to retract. This closes the switch and allows the power to flow once more.


title: Voltage regulator

text: If the mechanical regulator design is sensitive to small voltage fluctuations, the motion of the solenoid core can be used to move a selector switch across a range of resistances or transformer windings to gradually step the output voltage up or down, or to rotate the position of a moving-coil AC regulator.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Early automobile generators and alternators had a mechanical voltage regulator using one, two, or three relays and various resistors to stabilize the generator's output at slightly more than 6.7 or 13.4 V to maintain the battery as independently of the engine's rpm or the varying load on the vehicle's electrical system as possible. The relay(s) modulated the width of a current pulse to regulate the voltage output of the generator by controlling the average field current in the rotating machine which determines strength of the magnetic field produced which determines the unloaded output voltage per rpm. Capacitors are not used to smooth the pulsed voltage as described earlier. The large inductance of the field coil stores the energy delivered to the magnetic field in an iron core so the pulsed field current does not result in as strongly pulsed a field. Both types of rotating machine produce a rotating magnetic field that induces an alternating current in the coils in the stator. A generator uses a mechanical commutator, graphite brushes running on copper segments, to convert the AC produced into DC by switching the external connections at the shaft angle when the voltage would reverse. An alternator accomplishes the same goal using rectifiers that do not wear down and require replacement.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Modern designs now use "solid state" technology (transistors) to perform the same function that the relays perform in electromechanical regulators.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Electromechanical regulators are used for mains voltage stabilisation—see AC voltage stabilizers below.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Generators, as used in power stations, ship electrical power production, or standby power systems, will have automatic voltage regulators (AVR) to stabilize their voltages as the load on the generators changes. The first AVRs for generators were electromechanical systems, but a modern AVR uses solid-state devices. An AVR is a feedback control system that measures the output voltage of the generator, compares that output to a set point, and generates an error signal that is used to adjust the excitation of the generator. As the excitation current in the field winding of the generator increases, its terminal voltage will increase. The AVR will control current by using power electronic devices; generally a small part of the generator's output is used to provide current for the field winding. Where a generator is connected in parallel with other sources such as an electrical transmission grid, changing the excitation has more of an effect on the reactive power produced by the generator than on its terminal voltage, which is mostly set by the connected power system. Where multiple generators are connected in parallel, the AVR system will have circuits to ensure all generators operate at the same power factor. AVRs on grid-connected power station generators may have additional control features to help stabilize the electrical grid against upsets due to sudden load loss or faults.


title: Voltage regulator

text: This is an older type of regulator used in the 1920s that uses the principle of a fixed-position field coil and a second field coil that can be rotated on an axis in parallel with the fixed coil, similar to a variocoupler.


title: Voltage regulator

text: When the movable coil is positioned perpendicular to the fixed coil, the magnetic forces acting on the movable coil balance each other out and voltage output is unchanged. Rotating the coil in one direction or the other away from the center position will increase or decrease voltage in the secondary movable coil.


title: Voltage regulator

text: This type of regulator can be automated via a servo control mechanism to advance the movable coil position in order to provide voltage increase or decrease. A braking mechanism or high-ratio gearing is used to hold the rotating coil in place against the powerful magnetic forces acting on the moving coil.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Electromechanical regulators called "voltage stabilizers" or "tap-changers", have also been used to regulate the voltage on AC power distribution lines. These regulators operate by using a servomechanism to select the appropriate tap on an autotransformer with multiple taps, or by moving the wiper on a continuously variable auto transfomer. If the output voltage is not in the acceptable range, the servomechanism switches the tap, changing the turns ratio of the transformer, to move the secondary voltage into the acceptable region. The controls provide a dead band wherein the controller will not act, preventing the controller from constantly adjusting the voltage ("hunting") as it varies by an acceptably small amount.


title: Voltage regulator

text: The ferroresonant transformer, ferroresonant regulator or constant-voltage transformer is a type of saturating transformer used as a voltage regulator. These transformers use a tank circuit composed of a high-voltage resonant winding and a capacitor to produce a nearly constant average output voltage with a varying input current or varying load. The circuit has a primary on one side of a magnet shunt and the tuned circuit coil and secondary on the other side. The regulation is due to magnetic saturation in the section around the secondary.


title: Voltage regulator

text: The ferroresonant approach is attractive due to its lack of active components, relying on the square loop saturation characteristics of the tank circuit to absorb variations in average input voltage. Saturating transformers provide a simple rugged method to stabilize an AC power supply.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Older designs of ferroresonant transformers had an output with high harmonic content, leading to a distorted output waveform. Modern devices are used to construct a perfect sine wave. The ferroresonant action is a flux limiter rather than a voltage regulator, but with a fixed supply frequency it can maintain an almost constant average output voltage even as the input voltage varies widely.


title: Voltage regulator

text: The ferroresonant transformers, which are also known as "constant-voltage transformers" (CVTs) or "ferros", are also good surge suppressors, as they provide high isolation and inherent short-circuit protection.


title: Voltage regulator

text: A ferroresonant transformer can operate with an input voltage range ±40% or more of the nominal voltage.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Because it regenerates an output voltage waveform, output distortion, which is typically less than 4%, is independent of any input voltage distortion, including notching.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Efficiency at full load is typically in the range of 89% to 93%. However, at low loads, efficiency can drop below 60%. The current-limiting capability also becomes a handicap when a CVT is used in an application with moderate to high inrush current, like motors, transformers or magnets. In this case, the CVT has to be sized to accommodate the peak current, thus forcing it to run at low loads and poor efficiency.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Minimum maintenance is required, as transformers and capacitors can be very reliable. Some units have included redundant capacitors to allow several capacitors to fail between inspections without any noticeable effect on the device's performance.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Output voltage varies about 1.2% for every 1% change in supply frequency. For example, a 2 Hz change in generator frequency, which is very large, results in an output voltage change of only 4%, which has little effect for most loads.


title: Voltage regulator

text: It accepts 100% single-phase switch-mode power-supply loading without any requirement for derating, including all neutral components.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Input current distortion remains less than 8% THD even when supplying nonlinear loads with more than 100% current THD.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Drawbacks of CVTs are their larger size, audible humming sound, and the high heat generation caused by saturation.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Voltage regulators or stabilizers are used to compensate for voltage fluctuations in mains power. Large regulators may be permanently installed on distribution lines. Small portable regulators may be plugged in between sensitive equipment and a wall outlet. Automatic voltage regulators on generator sets to maintain a constant voltage for changes in load. The voltage regulator compensates for the change in load. Commercial voltage regulators normally operate on a range of voltages, for example 150–240 V or 90–280 V.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Many simple DC power supplies regulate the voltage using either series or shunt regulators, but most apply a voltage reference using a "shunt regulator" such as a Zener diode, avalanche breakdown diode, or voltage regulator tube. Each of these devices begins conducting at a specified voltage and will conduct as much current as required to hold its terminal voltage to that specified voltage by diverting excess current from a non-ideal power source to ground, often through a relatively low-value resistor to dissipate the excess energy. The power supply is designed to only supply a maximum amount of current that is within the safe operating capability of the shunt regulating device.


title: Voltage regulator

text: If the stabilizer must provide more power, the shunt regulator output is only used to provide the standard voltage reference for the electronic device, known as the voltage stabilizer. The voltage stabilizer is the electronic device, able to deliver much larger currents on demand.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Active regulators employ at least one active (amplifying) component such as a transistor or operational amplifier. Shunt regulators are often (but not always) passive and simple, but always inefficient because they (essentially) dump the excess current which is not available to the load. When more power must be supplied, more sophisticated circuits are used. In general, these active regulators can be divided into several classes:


title: Voltage regulator

text: Linear regulators are based on devices that operate in their linear region (in contrast, a switching regulator is based on a device forced to act as an on/off switch). Linear regulators are also classified in two types:


title: Voltage regulator

text: In the past, one or more vacuum tubes were commonly used as the variable resistance. Modern designs use one or more transistors instead, perhaps within an integrated circuit. Linear designs have the advantage of very "clean" output with little noise introduced into their DC output, but are most often much less efficient and unable to step-up or invert the input voltage like switched supplies. All linear regulators require a higher input than the output. If the input voltage approaches the desired output voltage, the regulator will "drop out". The input to output voltage differential at which this occurs is known as the regulator's drop-out voltage. Low-dropout regulators (LDOs) allow an input voltage that can be much lower (i.e., they waste less energy than conventional linear regulators).


title: Voltage regulator

text: Entire linear regulators are available as integrated circuits. These chips come in either fixed or adjustable voltage types. Examples of some integrated circuits are the 723 general purpose regulator and 78xx /79xx series


title: Voltage regulator

text: Switching regulators rapidly switch a series device on and off. The duty cycle of the switch sets how much charge is transferred to the load. This is controlled by a similar feedback mechanism as in a linear regulator. Because the series element is either fully conducting, or switched off, it dissipates almost no power; this is what gives the switching design its efficiency. Switching regulators are also able to generate output voltages which are higher than the input, or of opposite polarity—something not possible with a linear design. In switched regulators, the pass transistor is used as a "controlled switch" and is operated at either cutoff or saturated state. Hence the power transmitted across the pass device is in discrete pulses rather than a steady current flow. Greater efficiency is achieved since the pass device is operated as a low impedance switch. When the pass device is at cutoff, there is no current and it dissipates no power. Again when the pass device is in saturation, a negligible voltage drop appears across it and thus dissipates only a small amount of average power, providing maximum current to the load. In either case, the power wasted in the pass device is very little and almost all the power is transmitted to the load. Thus the efficiency of a switched-mode power supply is remarkably high-in the range of 70–90%.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Switched mode regulators rely on pulse-width modulation to control the average value of the output voltage. The average value of a repetitive pulse waveform depends on the area under the waveform. If the duty cycle is varied, the average value of the voltage changes proportionally.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Like linear regulators, nearly complete switching regulators are also available as integrated circuits. Unlike linear regulators, these usually require an inductor that acts as the energy storage element. The IC regulators combine the reference voltage source, error op-amp, pass transistor with short circuit current limiting and thermal overload protection.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Simple DC power supplies can be made with rectifiers. But they suffer from changes in the input or at load. This initiated the development of the linear regulator (series/shunt) circuits*. Linear regulators maintain a constant voltage by varying their resistance to counterbalance input voltage change. Still, the efficiency of this system is poor. They are heavy and not flexible enough to be chosen for every application. So Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS) was designed.


title: Voltage regulator

text: SMPSs use a high-frequency switch with varying duty cycle to maintain the output voltage. The output voltage variation caused by the switching is filtered out by an LC filter. Switched Mode Power Supply systems owe their origin back to the days when valve or tube car radios needed a large HT supply. For example, the radio would need to be generated from an automobile power system of normally . Today we find SMPS applications in the vast majority of electronics.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Switched Mode Power Supplies are basically DC–DC converters. If the input is AC, the input is first rectified to DC voltage. So depending on the input, an SMPS may have two (DC–AC, AC–DC) or three (AC–DC, DC–AC, AC–DC) stages.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Regulators powered from AC power circuits can use silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) as the series device. Whenever the output voltage is below the desired value, the SCR is triggered, allowing electricity to flow into the load until the AC mains voltage passes through zero (ending the half cycle). SCR regulators have the advantages of being both very efficient and very simple, but because they can not terminate an ongoing half cycle of conduction, they are not capable of very accurate voltage regulation in response to rapidly changing loads. An alternative is the SCR shunt regulator which uses the regulator output as a trigger. Both series and shunt designs are noisy, but powerful, as the device has a low on resistance.


title: Voltage regulator

text: Many power supplies use more than one regulating method in series. For example, the output from a switching regulator can be further regulated by a linear regulator. The switching regulator accepts a wide range of input voltages and efficiently generates a (somewhat noisy) voltage slightly above the ultimately desired output. That is followed by a linear regulator that generates exactly the desired voltage and eliminates nearly all the noise generated by the switching regulator. Other designs may use an SCR regulator as the "pre-regulator", followed by another type of regulator. An efficient way of creating a variable-voltage, accurate output power supply is to combine a multi-tapped transformer with an adjustable linear post-regulator.


title: Voltage regulator

text: In the simplest case a common collector amplifier also known as emitter follower is used with the base of the regulating transistor connected directly to the voltage reference:


title: Voltage regulator

text: A simple transistor regulator will provide a relatively constant output voltage "U" for changes in the voltage "U" of the power source and for changes in load "R", provided that "U" exceeds "U" by a sufficient margin and that the power handling capacity of the transistor is not exceeded.


title: Voltage regulator

text: The output voltage of the stabilizer is equal to the Zener diode voltage minus the base–emitter voltage of the transistor, "U" − "U", where "U" is usually about 0.7 V for a silicon transistor, depending on the load current. If the output voltage drops for any external reason, such as an increase in the current drawn by the load (causing a decrease in the collector–emitter voltage to observe KVL), the transistor's base–emitter voltage ("U") increases, turning the transistor on further and delivering more current to increase the load voltage again.


title: Voltage regulator

text: "R" provides a bias current for both the Zener diode and the transistor. The current in the diode is minimal when the load current is maximal. The circuit designer must choose a minimum voltage that can be tolerated across "R", bearing in mind that the higher this voltage requirement is, the higher the required input voltage "U", and hence the lower the efficiency of the regulator. On the other hand, lower values of "R" lead to higher power dissipation in the diode and to inferior regulator characteristics.


title: Voltage regulator

text: The stability of the output voltage can be significantly increased by using an operational amplifier:


title: Voltage regulator

text: In this case, the operational amplifier drives the transistor with more current if the voltage at its inverting input drops below the output of the voltage reference at the non-inverting input. Using the voltage divider (R1, R2 and R3) allows choice of the arbitrary output voltage between U and U.


title: Voltage regulator

text: The output voltage can only be held constant within specified limits. The regulation is specified by two measurements:


title: Commonwealth

text: A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. Historically, it has been synonymous with "republic". The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the 15th century. Originally a phrase (the common-wealth or the common wealth – echoed in the modern synonym "public wealth"), it comes from the old meaning of "wealth", which is "well-being", and is itself a loose translation of the Latin res publica (republic). The term literally meant "common well-being". In the 17th century, the definition of "commonwealth" expanded from its original sense of "public welfare" or "commonweal" to mean "a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people; a republic or democratic state".


title: Commonwealth

text: The term evolved to become a title to a number of political entities. Three countries – Australia, the Bahamas, and Dominica – have the official title "Commonwealth", as do four U.S. states and two U.S. territories. Since the early 20th century, the term has been used to name some fraternal associations of states, most notably the Commonwealth of Nations, an organisation primarily of former territories of the British Empire. The organisation is not to be confused with the realms of the Commonwealth.


title: Commonwealth

text: Translations of Ancient Roman writers' works to English have on occasion translated ""Res publica"", and variants thereof, to "the commonwealth", a term referring to the Roman state as a whole.


title: Commonwealth

text: The Commonwealth of England was the official name of the political unit ("de facto" military rule in the name of parliamentary supremacy) that replaced the Kingdom of England (after the English Civil War) from 1649–53 and 1659–60, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell and his son and successor Richard. From 1653 to 1659, although still legally known as a Commonwealth, the republic, united with the former Kingdom of Scotland, operated under different institutions (at times as a "de facto" monarchy) and is known by historians as the Protectorate. In a British context, it is sometimes referred to as the "Old Commonwealth".


title: Commonwealth

text: The Icelandic Commonwealth or the Icelandic Free State () was the state existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in 930 and the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king in 1262. It was initially established by a public consisting largely of recent immigrants from Norway who had fled the unification of that country under King Harald Fairhair.


title: Commonwealth

text: The Commonwealth of the Philippines was the administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946, aside from a period of exile in the Second World War from 1942 to 1945 when Japan occupied the country. It replaced the Insular Government, a United States territorial government, and was established by the Tydings–McDuffie Act. The Commonwealth was designed as a transitional administration in preparation for the country's full achievement of independence, which was achieved in 1946. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was a founding member of the United Nations.


title: Commonwealth

text: "Republic" is still an alternative translation of the traditional name "Rzeczpospolita" of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Wincenty Kadłubek (Vincent Kadlubo, 1160–1223) used for the first time the original Latin term "res publica" in the context of Poland in his "Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland". The name was used officially for the confederal union formed by Poland and Lithuania 1569–1795.


title: Commonwealth

text: It is also often referred as "Nobles' Commonwealth" (1505–1795, i.e., before the union). In the contemporary political doctrine of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, "our state is a Republic (or Commonwealth) under the presidency of the King". The Commonwealth introduced a doctrine of religious tolerance called Warsaw Confederation, had its own parliament "Sejm" (although elections were restricted to nobility and elected kings, who were bound to certain contracts "Pacta conventa" from the beginning of the reign).


title: Commonwealth

text: "A commonwealth of good counsaile" was the title of the 1607 English translation of the work of Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki "De optimo senatore" that presented to English readers many of the ideas present in the political system of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.


title: Commonwealth

text: Between 1914 and 1925, Catalonia was an autonomous region of Spain. Its government during that time was given the title "mancomunidad" (Catalan: "mancomunitat"), which is translated into English as "commonwealth". The Commonwealth of Catalonia had limited powers and was formed as a federation of the four Catalan provinces. A number of Catalan-language institutions were created during its existence.


title: Commonwealth

text: Between 1838 and 1847, Liberia was officially known as the "Commonwealth of Liberia". It changed its name to the "Republic of Liberia" when it declared independence (and adopted a new constitution) in 1847.


title: Commonwealth

text: "Commonwealth" was first proposed as a term for a federation of the six Australian crown colonies at the 1891 constitutional convention in Sydney. Its adoption was initially controversial, as it was associated by some with the republicanism of Oliver Cromwell (see above), but it was retained in all subsequent drafts of the constitution. The term was finally incorporated into law in the "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900", which established the federation. Australia operates under a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal (national) government and the state governments (the successors of the six colonies). So, in an Australian context, the term "Commonwealth" (capitalised), which is often abbreviated to Cth, refers to the federal government, and "Commonwealth of Australia" is the official name of the country.


title: Commonwealth

text: The Bahamas, a Commonwealth realm, has used the official style "Commonwealth of The Bahamas" since its independence in 1973.


title: Commonwealth

text: The small Caribbean republic of Dominica has used the official style "Commonwealth of Dominica" since 1978.


title: Commonwealth

text: Four states of the United States of America officially designate themselves as "commonwealths". All four were part of Great Britain's possessions along the Atlantic coast of North America prior to the American Revolution. As such, they share a strong influence of English common law in some of their laws and institutions. The four are:


title: Commonwealth

text: In 2016, the Washington, D.C. city council also selected "Douglass Commonwealth" as the potential name of State of Washington, D.C., following the 2016 statehood referendum, at least partially in order to retain the initials "D.C." as the state's abbreviation.


title: Commonwealth

text: The Commonwealth of Nations—formerly the British Commonwealth—is a voluntary association of 54 independent sovereign states, most of which were once part of the British Empire. The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies. The Head of the Commonwealth was Queen Elizabeth II, who also reigned as monarch directly in the 16 member states known as Commonwealth realms until her death in 2022.


title: Commonwealth

text: The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a loose alliance or confederation consisting of nine of the 15 former Soviet Republics, the exceptions being Turkmenistan (a CIS associate member), Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, and Georgia. Georgia left the CIS in August 2008 following the 2008 invasion of the Russian military into South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Its creation signalled the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its purpose being to "allow a civilised divorce" between the Soviet Republics. The CIS has developed as a forum by which the member-states can co-operate in economics, defence, and foreign policy.


title: Commonwealth

text: Labour MP Tony Benn sponsored a "Commonwealth of Britain Bill" several times between 1991 and 2001, intended to abolish the monarchy and establish a British republic. It never reached second reading.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Sylvie Laufeydottir (born Loki) is a fictional character portrayed by Sophia Di Martino in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) media franchise, partially based on the characters Lady Loki and Sylvie Lushton from the Marvel Comics. She is an alternate version of Loki who helps him fight to overthrow the Time Variance Authority (TVA). She hopes to destroy the TVA and He Who Remains for stealing away her life, viewing herself as an agent of the universe itself. She is later forced to ally with a variant of Loki from 2012, with whom she falls in love.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Di Martino debuted as the character in "Loki" (2021). Her portrayal was received positively among critics and fans despite initial confusion over her identity. For her performance as Sylvie, Di Martino received several awards and nominations.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Sylvie is an original character created for the MCU with inspiration taken from Lady Loki, a female form of the original Loki who debuted in "Thor" Vol. 2 #80 following the Ragnarok event, and Sylvie Lushton, the second iteration of the Enchantress introduced in "Dark Reign: Young Avengers" #1. In the comics, Lushton is a girl from Broxton, Oklahoma who receives magical powers granted to her when Asgardians took over her home. Later, she became a temporary member of the Young Avengers and so-called "Goddess of Mischief", a moniker that the show adapted onto Sylvie. "Fatherly" summed up the character as: "While the comics imply that some version of Loki created Sylvie, they are not the same character. What the Loki series has done is seemingly combined the character of Sylvie and Lady Loki into a new person: a Loki Variant who uses the alias 'Sylvie.'"


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Di Martino auditioned for the role with Hiddleston under the false names "Bob" and "Sarah", and it wasn't until afterwards that she was told which role she was playing. She was ultimately cast in November 2019 with reports indicating that she was playing a female version of Loki in some shape or form. According to Di Martino, it was important to make the character unique and original while retaining the important aspects of Loki's personality. Herron pitched the character as "a brand new backstory in a brand new story" with her physicality and mannerisms similar to Hiddleston's Loki. Herron wanted Di Martino cast in the role because the way she "has this fire in her and she brings this amazing vulnerability to all her characters," using her to help craft Sylvie as an alternate Loki who can hold her own without taking the attention away from her alternate counterpart. Hiddleston expressed excitement for Di Martino taking the role, commenting: "I cannot wait for audiences to see Sophia in this...she has mischief, playfulness, maybe a little bit of interior fragmentation and some broken emotions...but [she is] so committed and she made it completely her own [with] her own preparation and research and it was such a fun dynamic." Hiddleston furthered his comments by saying: "I think for Loki, it'd be quite destabilizing" at meeting an alternate version of himself.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Creator Michael Waldron's intent with Sylvie was to have her play a role in Loki's self-actualization and redemption from the villainous depiction in previous movies with Waldron commenting that "in meeting Sylvie and having a mirror held up to him, for the first time he feels [affection] about himself...in Sylvie, he sees things to admire in himself." In the show, Sylvie is Loki's love interest, an idea formed in the earliest pitches of the show from Waldron, who wanted his reluctant relationship with her to develop his character in "the hope that maybe that it's also about him learning to forgive himself." Waldron also added: "Sophia is amazing such a tremendous actress… I guess, you know what makes her a great foil for Tom...[is seen throughout]." To misgivings about the romance between Loki and Sylvie, Hiddleston praised that character thread by explaining: "I don't think Loki's relationship with himself has been very healthy...it was satisfying to see him face aspects he's on the run from...also, Sylvie's not Loki. Sylvie "is" Sylvie. That's interesting, too." Herron also found her being his romantic interest to be unique: "...[there's] kind of fun thing about it. She is him, but she's not him. They've had such different life experiences. So just from an identity perspective, it was interesting to dig into that." She added: "The look that they share, that moment, [it started as] a blossoming friendship. Then for the first time, they both feel that twinge of, 'Oh, could this be something more? What is this I'm feeling?' "


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Rachel Paige of "Marvel.com" defined Sylvie as being "incredibly guarded with tall walls built up around her to protect herself from everything—both physical fights and feelings." The character's arc sought to break down these walls while maintaining a focus on revenge against the TVA trumped all other aspects of her development. Di Martino noted the ultimate sadness of the character in the final moments of the season one finale "For All Time. Always.: "She kills him, she's just completely unfulfilled. It didn't do what she wanted to do...she doesn't feel that relief." According to Herron, Sylvie is driven by revenge, pain, and anger, a counterpart to Loki in "Thor" (2011). Of her arc in season one, she commented: "Loki tells her, 'You're not going to get what you want.' But she's not there yet. On her journey of self-healing, she's not where he is." Despite this, Herron stated her feelings, captured in the kiss between her and Loki, were genuine but her other feelings overtook it, leading to her betrayal and will to take down the TVA once and for all: "I think she definitely cares about him but I always interpret the kiss as a goodbye. I don't think it's necessarily a complete trick and I don't think her feelings were a trick." Di Martino, commenting on the season one finale, found that "for Sylvie, she's just on a revenge mission" due to "having her life...ruined, [taken away from her], this sort of anger. And if you want to think of it in these terms, her 'glorious purpose'" adding that she is "hell-bent" on her mission throughout the series.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Like Loki, she is bisexual, an aspect Herron and Di Martino found to be important for representation and to honor the Norse mythology of the character. Many news outlets including the "Los Angeles Times" noted the way this inclusion mimics the comics, finding the detail "a big step for the MCU, which has for years been called out for its abysmal track record when it comes to LGBTQ inclusion".


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Similarly to the 2012 variant of Loki, Loki was born a Frost Giant and abandoned as an infant by her father Laufey. While emulating a rescue of Asgard while playing with her toys, Loki is arrested by Ravonna Renslayer (then known as Hunter A-23) on behalf of the TVA as a child for "crimes against the Sacred Timeline". Escaping across time using Renslayer's TemPad, Loki learns to hide herself from the TVA over the following centuries, adopting the alias "Sylvie" while seeking to "free" the Sacred Timeline from the TVA, developing a method of body possession to achieve her ends.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: After killing several teams of TVA Minutemen and stealing their reset charges, Sylvie is tracked down by an alternate version of herself during a hurricane in 2050 Alabama, where, upon rejecting his offer to work together to overthrow the Time-Keepers and revealing herself to him, she executes her scheme; teleporting the charges she stole to various locations in time, "bombing" the Sacred Timeline and sending the timeline into chaos to distract the TVA so that she can assassinate the Time-Keepers. She teleports away to the TVA via a Time Door, and Loki follows her.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: At the TVA's headquarters, Sylvie and Loki are confronted by Renslayer. As Sylvie threatens to kill Loki, Loki uses a TemPad to teleport them to the moon Lamentis-1 in 2077 while it is being destroyed by a falling planet. After Loki accidentally breaks the TemPad, Sylvie and Loki join forces to escape the moon, masquerading as a guard and his prisoner to get onto an evacuation train, where Sylvie and Loki bond over drinks and the differences in their pasts. After being discovered and thrown off the train, Sylvie and Loki plan to hijack the evacuation ship, which according to the "Sacred Timeline" will be destroyed before leaving the moon, only to fail. Loki learns from Sylvie that everyone in the TVA are variants hunting other variants, to which Loki reveals to Sylvie that the majority of variants working for the TVA, including Mobius M. Mobius and Hunter B-15, are unaware that they themselves are variants.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: With the TemPad broken, Sylvie and Loki come to peace at their impending deaths. After the pair form a romantic bond which spawns a Nexus Event perpendicular to the Sacred Timeline, they are arrested by the TVA, with Hunter B-15 secretly taking Sylvie to RoxxCart in 2050 to learn the truth about herself and her life before the TVA. Loki and Sylvie are taken to the Time-Keepers, accompanied by Renslayer and a group of Minutemen. Hunter B-15 intervenes, freeing them of their collars, and in the ensuing fight, the Minutemen are killed whilst Renslayer is knocked unconscious by Sylvie. Sylvie then beheads one of the Time-Keepers, who turn out to all be androids. Renslayer regains her consciousness and erases Loki from existence just as he prepares to tell Sylvie about his feelings for her.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Sylvie demands the truth from Renslayer, who is just as unaware of the creation of the TVA as she is. Telling her that Loki was not killed but sent to the Void at the End of Time when he was pruned, she deduces that whoever beyond the Void is the actual creator of the TVA. She prunes herself and reunites with Mobius, who takes her to Loki and other Loki variants in order to make a plan to escape Alioth, a monstrous cloud-like entity which consumes matter. She and Loki combine their powers to enchant Alioth while Classic Loki buys time by distracting the creature, sacrificing himself in the process. Loki and Sylvie successfully subdue Alioth and move past the Void. Noticing a citadel in the distance, the pair walk towards it.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Upon entering the Citadel at the End of Time, Loki and Sylvie encounter Miss Minutes, who was directly created by the TVA's creator. She offers them a chance to escape by arranging a deal that would allow them to be placed back on the timeline and live a life where all their desires are fulfilled. They decline her offer, realizing that is destiny that brought them to the end of time. They meet the real creator of the TVA, a man named "He Who Remains" who cannot be killed by Sylvie's efforts because he knows everything that will happen in the future. He reveals the true history of the TVA and it ended the multiversal war waged by his variants. Loki and Sylvie fight over whether to kill He Who Remains, who has no knowledge of what is about to happen after a certain point. Though she kisses him and acknowledges their connection, Sylvie sends him to a version of the TVA Headquarters through a TemPad. In order to enact vengeance for all the suffering the TVA brought upon her and believing He Who Remains to be feinting them, Sylvie kills the man, who tells her that he would "see her soon". Realizing that He Who Remains was not lying about the origins of the TVA, she watches in anguish as many timelines branch and a Multiverse is created.


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Di Martino, Herron, costume designer Christine Wada and hair designer Amy Wood designed her look to be as practical as possible while acknowledging the character's life being a "dirty job" so as to stray away from stereotypical feminine costumes in film such as high heels. The look was meant to reflect that "this character [being] on the run... [is] not a comfortable existence" according to Di Martino and exhibited that through her initial disheveled appearance. Her helmet's broken horn was inspired by Lady Loki's headpiece in the comics and to show how rowdy her life prior to meeting Loki was, and how she is practically "broken" inside. Due to Di Martino's pregnancy while shooting, her costume was altered with hidden zippers so that she could nurse her baby between takes. Of this, Martino said: "Little (big) things like this that made it possible for me to do my job & be a parent...[I'm] forever grateful" and that '...it was just the little things and it's just saved a lot of time. Practically, it was a godsend."


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: "Screen Rant" found that despite previous issues in the MCU with uncomfortable costumes or unnecessary sexualization, coming to the conclusion that "wearing revealing outfits while fighting crime just doesn't make sense, and it's good that Marvel acknowledges that...[this] is a great start, so it appears the studio is at least trying to save its heroes from bad costumes".


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: To make her appearance match that of the life she lived prior to meeting Loki, she and Hiddleston found ways to incorporate her native accent so as to contrast with Loki's while keeping the Asgardian accent. Di Martino said of this, "Little things like keeping more of my regional accent, and not trying to sound too posh or too well spoken [were incorporated] because it just wouldn't suit the experience that Sylvie's had."


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: The character was received positively among critics and fans despite initial misgivings due to confusion over her identity. In a review for "Lamentis", Nola Pfau took note of how "Sylvie has given up a lot on this path...her insistence on not being called a Loki is interesting" adding that it paints "the picture of a person who knows herself, despite what or who others may think she is...she has had to fight just to live as herself" and called her tragic but also likable. Writing for "IGN", Simon Cardy found that Di Martino "play[ed the role] beautifully, bringing a touching sense of humanity" in a scene between her and Hiddleston in "Journey into Mystery". Lauren Puckett-Pope of "Elle" said of the character: "Sylvie, like the love for which she waxes poetic, is complicated." With respect to the Loki variant, Sylvie, from the "Loki" TV series, "Empire" considered the character "an instant new favourite". "Time"s Eliana Dockterman deemed Sylvie a "nuanced and compelling" character, adding that "it will be a real bummer if everything that goes wrong in the MCU for the next decade will be 'Sylvie's fault'", per her actions in the "Loki" episode "For All Time. Always.". For Simon Cardy of IGN, Sylvie's choices in the mentioned episode "makes complete sense for her character development," while for "Rolling Stone" she was driven by revenge. Brady Langmann of "Esquire" opined that Di Martino's turn as Sylvie "has already blown far past many of Marvel's depictions of women."


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: The character was also popular among fans, with Di Martino being number one on IMDb's "STARmeter" during season one's airing. "Screen Rant" found that this was "a real testament to how Marvel can cast a relatively unknown actor and launch them into immediate stardom by way of the MCU". "Deseret News" found Sylvie to be the "MVP" of the show because of how she "did more than any other character in this show" and how the character "drove most of the story. She was the one who wanted to bring down the Time Variance Authority and end the Sacred Timeline. She wanted to create free will. And she got all of that done."


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Some criticized the show for Loki and Sylvie's relationship, dubbing it as "selfcest" despite Waldron feeling it a necessary addition to the show in order to further their character development and self-love. "BBC Culture" critic Stephen Kelly called the relationship "some of the most perverse fan fiction the internet has ever seen" when speculating on the future of the show in a review for "The Variant". Christian P. Haines, a philosopher and assistant English professor at Penn State University, discussed with "Gizmodo" the implications of the romance, stating that "the question is less, 'does this count as incest', and more 'what would happen if this really basic social rule were loosened?...Would chaos roil the multiverse? Or, would things be pretty much the same, except we wouldn't take for granted even the most basic social and cultural rules? That strikes me as a very Loki proposition: not revolution, really, more an acerbic irony that undermines self-serious assumptions about human nature or what it means to be 'civilized.' " Haines found issue with the way people "get excited by the transgression this represents" but heaped praise on the exploration of self the show presented. Andi Ortiz of "TheWrap" found the relationship to be "a little hard to make it work long term" but praised it as a whole with note to Hiddleston and Di Martino's performances as making it work: "Loki and Sylvie have...been through a lot... they shared secrets and bared their souls to one another. And clearly, Tom Hiddleston and Sophia Di Martino have the right chemistry as actors."


title: Sylvie (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: On Sylvie's potential return in the second season of "Loki", Di Martino said in July 2021 that she was aware of "rumors" but had not "heard officially if it's happening". In 2022, Tom Hiddleston stated that the "whole cast" will be returning for season two.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: Lowell () is a city in Massachusetts, in the United States. Alongside Cambridge, It is one of two traditional seats of Middlesex County. With an estimated population of 115,554 in 2020, it was the fifth most populous city in Massachusetts as of the last census, and the third most populous in the Boston metropolitan statistical area. The city also is part of a smaller Massachusetts statistical area, called Greater Lowell, and of New England's Merrimack Valley region.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: Incorporated in 1826 to serve as a mill town, Lowell was named after Francis Cabot Lowell, a local figure in the Industrial Revolution. The city became known as the cradle of the American Industrial Revolution because of its textile mills and factories. Many of Lowell's historic manufacturing sites were later preserved by the National Park Service to create Lowell National Historical Park. During the Cambodian genocide (1975–1979), the city took in an influx of refugees, leading to a Cambodia Town and America's second largest Cambodian-American population.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: Lowell is home to two institutions of higher education. UMass Lowell, part of the University of Massachusetts system, has three campuses in the city. Middlesex Community College's two campuses are in Lowell and in the town of Bedford, Massachusetts. Arts facilities in the city include the Whistler House Museum of Art, the Merrimack Repertory Theatre, the Lowell Memorial Auditorium, and Sampas Pavilion. In sports, the city has a long tradition of boxing, hosting the annual New England Golden Gloves boxing tournament. The city has a baseball stadium, Edward A. LeLacheur Park, and a multipurpose indoor sports arena, the Tsongas Center, both of which have hosted collegiate and minor-league professional sports teams.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: Founded in the 1820s as a planned manufacturing center for textiles, Lowell is located along the rapids of the Merrimack River, northwest of Boston in what was once the farming community of East Chelmsford, Massachusetts. The so-called Boston Associates, including Nathan Appleton and Patrick Tracy Jackson of the Boston Manufacturing Company, named the new mill town after their visionary leader, Francis Cabot Lowell, who had died five years before its 1823 incorporation. As Lowell's population grew, it acquired land from neighboring towns, and diversified into a full-fledged urban center. Many of the men who composed the labor force for constructing the canals and factories had immigrated from Ireland, escaping the poverty and Great Famine of the 1830s and 1840s. The mill workers, young single women called Mill Girls, generally came from the farm families of New England.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: By the 1850s, Lowell had the largest industrial complex in the United States. The textile industry wove cotton produced in the Southern United States. In 1860, there were more cotton spindles in Lowell than in all eleven states combined that would form the Confederate States of America. Many of the coarse cottons produced in Lowell eventually returned to the South to clothe enslaved people, and, according to historian Sven Beckert, "'Lowell' became the generic term slaves used to describe coarse cottons." The city continued to thrive as a major industrial center during the 19th century, attracting more migrant workers and immigrants to its mills. Next were the Catholic Germans, followed by a large influx of French Canadians during the 1870s and 1880s. Later waves of immigrants came to work in Lowell and settled in ethnic neighborhoods, with the city's population reaching almost 50% foreign-born by 1900. By the time World War I broke out in Europe, the city had reached its economic peak.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: The Mill Cities' manufacturing base declined as companies began to relocate to the South in the 1920s. The city fell into hard times, and was even referred to as a "depressed industrial desert" by "Harper's Magazine" in 1931, as the Great Depression worsened. At this time, more than one third of its population was "on relief" (government assistance), as only three of its major textile corporations remained active. Several years later, the mills were reactivated, making parachutes and other military necessities for World War II. However, this economic boost was short-lived and the post-war years saw the last textile plants close.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: In the 1970s, Lowell became part of the Massachusetts Miracle, being the headquarters of Wang Laboratories. At the same time, Lowell became home to thousands of new immigrants, many from Cambodia, following the genocide at the hands of the Khmer Rouge. The city continued to rebound, but this time, focusing more on culture. The former mill district along the river was partially restored and became part of the Lowell National Historical Park, founded in the late 1970s.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: Although Wang went bankrupt in 1992, the city continued its cultural focus by hosting the nation's largest free folk festival, the Lowell Folk Festival, as well as many other cultural events. This effort began to attract other companies and families back to the urban center. Additional historic manufacturing and commercial buildings were adapted as residential units and office space. By the 1990s, Lowell had built a new ballpark and arena, which became home to two minor league sports teams, the Lowell Devils and Lowell Spinners. The city also began to have a larger student population. The University of Massachusetts Lowell and Middlesex Community College expanded their programs and enrollment. During the period of time when Lowell was part of the Massachusetts Miracle, the Lowell City Development Authority created a Comprehensive Master Plan which included recommendations for zoning adaptations within the city. The city's original zoning code was adopted in 1926 and was significantly revised in 1966 and 2004, with changes included to respond to concerns about overdevelopment.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: In 2002, in lieu of updating the Comprehensive Master Plan, more broad changes were recommended so that the land use and development would be consistent with the current master plan. The most significant revision to the 1966 zoning code is the adoption of an inclusion of a transect-based zoning code and some aspects of a form-based code style of zoning that emphasizes urban design elements as a means to ensure that infill development will respect the character of the neighborhood or district in question. By 2004, the recommended zoning changes were unanimously adopted by the City Council and despite numerous changes to the 2004 Zoning Code, it remains the basic framework for resolving zoning issues in Lowell to this day.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: The Hamilton Canal District (HCD) is the first district in Lowell in which regulation and development is defined by Form-Based Code (HCD-FBC) and legislated by its own guiding framework consistent to the HCD Master Plan. The HCD is a major redevelopment project that comprises 13-acres of vacant, underutilized land in downtown Lowell abutting former industrial mills. Trinity Financial was elected as the Master Developer to recreate this district with a vision of making a mixed-use neighborhood. Development plans included establishing the HCD as a gateway to downtown Lowell and enhanced connectivity to Gallagher Terminal.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: In the 1990s, Lowell had been locally notorious for being a place of high drug trafficking and gang activity, and was the setting for a real life documentary, "." In the years from 1994 to 1999, crime dropped 50 percent, the highest rate of decrease for any city in America with over 100,000 residents.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: Within one generation, by 2009, Lowell was ranked as the 139th most dangerous city of over 75,000 residents in the United States, out of 393 communities. Out of Massachusetts cities, nine are larger than 75,000 residents, and Lowell was fifth. For comparison Lowell was still rated safer than Boston (104 of 393), Providence, RI (123), Springfield (51), Lynn (120), Fall River (103), and New Bedford (85), but rated more dangerous than Cambridge (303), Newton (388), Quincy (312), and Worcester (175).


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: Lowell is located at (42.639444, −71.314722). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of of which is land and (5.23%) is water.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: Lowell features a four-season Humid continental climate, with long and very cold winters, which typically experience an average of snowfall, with the highest ever recorded seasonal snowfall being in the winter of 2014–2015. Summers are hot and humid, and of average length, with autumn and spring are brief transition periods between the two. On average, temperature in Lowell ranges from in the summer months, and between in the winter months, with the yearly average being .


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: Lowell is located at the confluence of the Merrimack and Concord rivers. The Pawtucket Falls, a mile-long set of rapids with a total drop in elevation of 32 feet, ends where the two rivers meet. At the top of the falls is the Pawtucket Dam, designed to turn the upper Merrimack into a millpond, diverted through Lowell's extensive canal system.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: The Merrimack, which flows southerly from Franklin, New Hampshire to Lowell, makes a northeasterly turn there before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean at Newburyport, Massachusetts, approximately downriver from Lowell. It is believed that in prior ages, the Merrimack continued south from Lowell to empty into the ocean somewhere near Boston. The glacial deposits that redirected the flow of the river left the drumlins that dot the city, most notably, Fort Hill in the Belvidere neighborhood. Other large hills in Lowell include Lynde Hill, also in Belvidere, and Christian Hill, in the easternmost part of Centralville at the Dracut town line.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: The Concord, or Musketaquid (its original name), forms from the confluence of the Assabet and Sudbury rivers at Concord, Massachusetts. This river flows north into the city, and the area around the confluence with the Merrimack was known as Wamesit. Like the Merrimack, the Concord, although a much smaller river, has many waterfalls and rapids that served as power sources for early industrial purposes, some well before the founding of Lowell. Immediately after the Concord joins the Merrimack, the Merrimack descends another ten feet in Hunt's Falls.


title: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: There is an ninety-degree bend in the Merrimack partway down the Pawtucket Falls. At this point, the river briefly widens and shallows. Here, Beaver Brook enters from the north, separating the city's two northern neighborhoods, Pawtucketville and Centralville. Entering the Concord River from the southwest is River Meadow, or Hale's Brook. This brook flows largely in a man-made channel, as the Lowell Connector was built along it. Both of these minor streams have limited industrial histories as well.