title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Maphilindo was described as a regional association that would approach issues of common concern in the spirit of consensus. However, it was also perceived as a tactic on the parts of Jakarta and Manila to delay, or even prevent, the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. Manila had its own claim to Sabah (formerly British North Borneo), and Jakarta protested the formation of Malaysia as a British imperialist plot. The plan failed when Sukarno adopted his plan of "konfrontasi" with Malaysia. The Konfrontasi, or Confrontation basically aimed at preventing Malaysia from attaining independence. The idea was inspired onto President Sukarno by the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI), or literally the Indonesian Communist Party. The party convinced President Sukarno that the formation of Malaysia is a form of neo-colonization and would affect tranquility in Indonesia. The subsequent development of ASEAN almost certainly excludes any possibility of the project ever being revived.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Before the end of his term in 1965, President Diosdado Macapagal persuaded Congress to send troops to South Vietnam. However this proposal was blocked by the opposition led by Senate President Ferdinand Marcos who deserted Macapagal's Liberal Party and defected to the Nacionalista Party.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: The U.S. government's active interest in bringing other nations into the war had been part of U.S. policy discussions as early as 1961. President Lyndon Johnson first publicly appealed for other countries to come to the aid of South Vietnam on April 23, 1964–in what was called the "More Flags" program. Chester Cooper, former director of Asian affairs for the White House, explained why the impetus came from the United States instead of from the Republic of South Vietnam: "The 'More Flags' campaign ... required the application of considerable pressure for Washington to elicit any meaningful commitments. One of the more exasperating aspects of the search…was the lassitude …... of the Saigon government. In part ... the South Vietnam leaders were preoccupied with political jockeying. ... In addition, Saigon appeared to believe that the program was a public relations campaign directed at the American people."


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: The senatorial election was held on November 12, 1963. Macapagal's Liberal Party (LP) won four out of the eight seats up for grabs during the election – thereby increasing the LP's senate seats from eight to ten.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Towards the end of his term, Macapagal decided to seek re-election to continue seeking reforms which he claimed were stifled by a "dominant and uncooperative opposition" in Congress. With Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, a fellow member of the Liberal Party, unable to win his party's nomination due to Macapagal's re-election bid, Marcos switched allegiance to the rival Nacionalista Party to oppose Macapagal.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Among the issues raised against the incumbent administration were graft and corruption, rise in consumer goods, and persisting peace and order issues. Macapagal was defeated by Marcos in the November 1965 polls.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Macapagal announced his retirement from politics following his 1965 loss to Marcos. In 1971, he was elected president of the constitutional convention that drafted what became the 1973 Constitution. The manner in which the charter was ratified and later modified led him to later question its legitimacy. In 1979, he formed the National Union for Liberation as a political party to oppose the Marcos regime.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Following the restoration of democracy in 1986, Macapagal took on the role of elder statesman, and was a member of the Philippine Council of State. He also served as honorary chairman of the National Centennial Commission, and chairman of the board of CAP Life, among others.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: In his retirement, Macapagal devoted much of his time to reading and writing. He published his presidential memoir, authored several books about government and economics, and wrote a weekly column for the "Manila Bulletin" newspaper.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Diosdado Macapagal died of heart failure, pneumonia and renal complications at the Makati Medical Center on April 21, 1997. He was accorded a state funeral and was interred at the Libingan ng mga Bayani on April 27, 1997.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: On September 28, 2009, Macapagal's daughter, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, inaugurated the President Diosdado Macapagal Museum and Library, located at his home town of Lubao, Pampanga.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: President Benigno S. Aquino III declared September 28, 2010, as a special non-working holiday in Macapagal's home province of Pampanga to commemorate the centennial of his birth.


title: Errol Musk

text: Errol Musk (born 1946) is a South African electromechanical engineer, pilot, sailor, consultant, and property developer who was once a co-owner of a Zambian emerald mine near Lake Tanganyika.


title: Errol Musk

text: He is the father of business magnate and billionaire Elon Musk, restaurateur Kimbal Musk, and filmmaker Tosca Musk. He was married to Maye Musk and also to Heide Bezuidenhout, and has two children with Bezuidenhout's daughter Jana Bezuidenhout.


title: Errol Musk

text: Errol Musk was born in 1946 in Pretoria, South Africa, to Walter Henry James Musk and Cora Amelia Robinson. His father was a South African veteran of World War II and his mother was British. His grandmother was the first chiropractor in Canada. He attended Clapham High School and later attended University of Pretoria where received a degree in Electromechanical engineering.


title: Errol Musk

text: Musk worked as a pilot, a sailor, an electrical, a mechanical engineer, a consultant, and a property developer, before retiring early. In 1969, he became a 50% owner of an emerald mine on Lake Tanganyika, that he bought for £40,000, funded by selling an airplane for £80,000. In a 2018 interview with Business Insider, Musk boasted that as a result of the emerald mine "we had so much money we couldn't even close our safe."


title: Errol Musk

text: In 1972, he was elected to the Pretoria City Council as a representative of the anti-apartheid Progressive Party, with the Musk children reportedly sharing their father's dislike of apartheid.


title: Errol Musk

text: Errol Musk's claims that he invested in Elon Musk's software company Zip2 have been rejected by Elon Musk.


title: Errol Musk

text: Musk met Maye Haldeman when he was 11 years old and they were childhood friends before marrying in 1970. She gave birth to 3 children; Elon Reeve Musk born on June 28, 1971, Kimbal Reeve Musk born on September 20, 1972, and Tosca Musk born on July 20, 1974. The family lived in Pretoria, where Maye worked as a dietician and a model. Musk told Agence France-Presse that he was a strict father who raised his children with discipline and austerity. After engaging in extra-marital affairs, Errol and Maye divorced in 1979, and both sons moved in with their father.


title: Errol Musk

text: Musk was married to Heide Bezuidenhout for eighteen years and helped her raise her young daughter Jana Bezuidenhout, a child from a previous relationship. At the time of their marriage, Jana Bezuidenhout was only four years old and lived together with them. Later in life, after splitting from Heide Bezuidenhout, he fathered two children with her daughter (his former step-daughter) Jana Bezuidenhout; a son born in 2017 and a daughter born in 2019. Musk described the first child as unplanned. At the time of their daughter's birth, according to "The Times", Musk was 72 and Jana Bezuidenhout was 30 years old. As of 2022, Musk and Jana Bezuidenhout were no longer living together. Musk has a total of seven children and as of 2022 lives in Johannesburg, South Africa. He is estranged from his son Elon.


title: Errol Musk

text: In a 2017 "Rolling Stone" interview, Musk claimed to have shot and killed seven burglars who forced their way into his Johannesburg home after the intruders opened fire.


title: Condiment

text: A condiment is a preparation that is added to food, typically after cooking, to impart a specific flavor, to enhance the flavor, or to complement the dish. A table condiment or table sauce is more specifically a condiment that is served separately from the food and is added to taste by the diner.


title: Condiment

text: Condiments are sometimes added prior to serving, for example, in a sandwich made with ketchup, mustard or mayonnaise. Some condiments are used during cooking to add flavor or texture: barbecue sauce, compound butter, teriyaki sauce, soy sauce, Marmite and sour cream are examples.


title: Condiment

text: Many condiments, such as mustard or ketchup, are available in single-serving packets, commonly when supplied with take-out or fast food meals.


title: Condiment

text: The exact definition of a condiment varies. Some definitions encompass spices and herbs, including salt and pepper, using the term interchangeably with "seasoning". Others restrict the definition to include only "prepared food compound[s], containing one or more spices", which are added to food after the cooking process, such as mustard, ketchup or mint sauce.


title: Condiment

text: The term "condiment" comes from the Latin "condimentum", meaning "spice, seasoning, sauce" and from the Latin "condire", meaning "preserve, pickle, season". The term originally described pickled or preserved foods, but its meaning has changed over time.


title: Condiment

text: Condiments were known in Ancient Rome, India, Greece and China. There is a myth that before food preservation techniques were widespread, pungent spices and condiments were used to make the food more palatable, but this claim is not supported by any evidence or historical record. The Romans made the condiments garum and liquamen by crushing the innards of various fish and then fermenting them in salt, resulting in a liquid containing glutamic acid, suitable for enhancing the flavor of food. The popularity of these sauces led to a flourishing condiment industry. "Apicius", a cookbook based on fourth and fifth century cuisine, contains a section based solely on condiments.


title: Condiment

text: In the United States, the market for condiments was US$5.6 billion in 2010 and is estimated to grow to US$7 billion by 2015. The condiment market is the second largest in specialty foods behind that of cheese.


title: What About Bob?

text: What About Bob? is a 1991 American black comedy film directed by Frank Oz and starring Bill Murray and Richard Dreyfuss. Murray plays Bob Wiley, a troubled patient who follows his self-centered psychotherapist Dr. Leo Marvin (Dreyfuss) on vacation. When Bob befriends the other members of Leo's family, the patient's problems push the doctor over the edge.


title: What About Bob?

text: The film received positive reviews and was a box office success. This film is number 43 on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies".


title: What About Bob?

text: In New York City Bob Wiley has great work ethic and treats people well, but he suffers from multiple phobias which makes it difficult for him to leave his apartment and is divorced because his ex-wife likes Neil Diamond and he does not. Despite regular therapy, he makes little progress and his fears compel him to seek constant reassurance from his therapists.


title: What About Bob?

text: Exhausted by Bob's high-maintenance conditions and invasions of personal boundaries, his current therapist refers him to the egotistical Dr. Leo Marvin, who believes his recently published book "Baby Steps" will make him a household name. Bob feels good about their initial session, but Dr. Marvin dismisses Bob in a rush to his long-standing, month-long family vacation. Unable to cope, Bob contacts Leo via his telephone exchange and tries to find out where he is, but Leo dismisses him. Then Bob pays a prostitute to impersonate Leo's sister Lily so Bob can call him, but Leo tells Bob he cannot trust him if he pulls any more stunts like that. He then disguises himself as a homicide detective telling the switchboard operator that Bob committed suicide and tracks Leo to Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire. Leo is annoyed, but sees Bob's desperation and tells him to "take a vacation" from his problems. Bob seems to have made a breakthrough, but the next morning, he tells Leo that he will also be vacationing at Lake Winnipesaukee as a guest of the Guttmans, who hold a grudge against Leo for purchasing the lakeside home they had been scrimping and saving for years to buy.


title: What About Bob?

text: Leo dismisses Bob's attempts at friendship as he believes patients are beneath him, but Bob ingratiates himself with Leo's family and relates to the problems of Leo's kids, Anna and Sigmund "Siggy", in contrast with their father's clinical approach. Bob begins to enjoy life, going sailing with Anna and helping Sigmund dive, which Leo had been unsuccessfully trying for years. After Leo angrily pushes Bob into the lake, Leo's wife Fay forces him to apologize, which he begrudgingly does. She then invites Bob to dinner and he accepts, believing Leo's slights against him are either accidental or part of his therapy. After dinner, a thunderstorm forces Bob to spend the night. Before sleeping, Bob, being germaphobic up to this point, throws away the tissues that he carried with him everywhere when making contact with various objects, showing that he is slowly making therapeutic progress. Leo wants Bob out of the house early the next morning before "Good Morning America" arrives to interview him about "Baby Steps". The TV crew, oblivious to Leo's discomfort, suggest having Bob on the show as well. Leo humiliates himself during the interview, while Bob is relaxed and speaks glowingly of Leo and the book, inadvertently stealing the spotlight.


title: What About Bob?

text: Leo attempts to have Bob institutionalized, but Bob is soon released after befriending the hospital staff and telling them therapy jokes, demonstrating his sanity and showing that he has made real therapeutic progress due to his time with Dr. Marvin's family. Forced to retrieve Bob, Leo abandons him in the middle of nowhere, but Bob quickly gets a ride back to Leo's house while various mishaps delay Leo. Returning after nightfall, Leo is surprised by the birthday party Fay has secretly planned for him and is delighted to see his beloved sister Lily. When Bob appears and puts his arm around Lily, Leo becomes completely psychotic and attacks him. Bob still remains oblivious to Leo's hostility until Fay explains Leo's grudge against Bob, to which Bob finally understands and agrees to leave.


title: What About Bob?

text: Leo breaks into a general store, stealing a shotgun and 20 pounds of explosives and kidnaps Bob at gunpoint. Leo leads him deep into the woods and ties him up with the explosives, calling it "death therapy", and returns to the house, gleefully preparing his cover story. Believing the explosives are props as a metaphor for his problems, Bob applies Leo's ""Baby Steps"" approach and manages to free himself of his restraints and remaining fears; he reunites with the Marvins and praises Leo for curing him. Leo asks Bob where the explosives are and Bob says they are in the family's vacation house, which promptly explodes into flames, much to the Guttmans' delight. Horrified, Leo is rendered catatonic and institutionalized while having his medical license revoked for attempted murder.


title: What About Bob?

text: Some time later, Bob marries Leo's sister, and upon their pronouncement as husband and wife, the still-catatonic Leo finally regains his senses and screams, "No!", but the sentiment is lost in the family's excitement at his recovery, and Leo is forced to accept Bob as his new brother-in-law. Text at the end reveals that Bob went back to school and became a psychologist, then wrote a best-selling book titled "Death Therapy", for which Leo is suing him for the rights.


title: What About Bob?

text: Before Frank Oz was hired to direct, Garry Marshall was considered, and Woody Allen was approached to play Dr. Marvin. Allen was also considered to direct and possibly co-write the script with Tom Schulman. However, because Allen had always generated his own projects rather than getting handed an existing property to make his own, Oz was hired to direct. Allen also declined the role of Dr. Marvin, thus Richard Dreyfuss was ultimately cast. Patrick Stewart was also considered for the role. Early in development, Robin Williams was attached to the project.


title: What About Bob?

text: "What About Bob?" was filmed in and around the town of Moneta, Virginia, located on Smith Mountain Lake.


title: What About Bob?

text: For the scene in which Bob accidentally blows the house up, producers used a -sized model replica of the actual house that they detonated on a nearby lot.


title: What About Bob?

text: The scenes of Bob arriving in town on the bus with his goldfish were filmed in downtown Moneta, which was spruced-up and repainted for the movie. The local institute where Leo tries to commit Bob is actually the local Elks National Home for retirees in the nearby town of Bedford, Virginia.


title: What About Bob?

text: Scenes were also shot in New York City. According to Oz, Murray was "really frightened" about filming in the city.


title: What About Bob?

text: Oz has admitted in interviews that there was tension on the set during the making of the film. In addition, both Murray and Dreyfuss have confirmed in separate interviews that they did not get along with each other during filming:


title: What About Bob?

text: In subsequent interviews, Dreyfuss reiterated what he said of his experience working with Murray, notably when he appeared at Fan Expo Canada in 2017. Dreyfuss further alleged in 2019 that at one point during the production, Murray screamed at him while intoxicated, telling him "Everyone hates you! You are tolerated!" and then threw an ashtray at him. When Murray appeared on "The Howard Stern Show" in 2014, Howard Stern asked him if he intended to annoy Dreyfuss. Murray responded: "I really try to make the other actor look good whenever I can (...) In this particular film, annoying Dreyfuss, which I kind of got to enjoy I gotta confess—but I didn't try to annoy him off the screen." Although neither of them have crossed paths since the release of the film, Dreyfuss confirmed in a 2020 interview that he has forgiven Murray.


title: What About Bob?

text: Producer Laura Ziskin recalled having a disagreement with Murray that resulted in his tossing her into a lake. Ziskin confirmed in 2003: "Bill also threatened to throw me across the parking lot and then broke my sunglasses and threw them across the parking lot. I was furious and outraged at the time, but having produced a dozen movies, I can safely say it is not common behavior".


title: What About Bob?

text: In April 2022, following the suspension of the "Being Mortal" production, Dreyfuss's son Ben tweeted a recollection about Murray's on-set behavior towards his father and Ziskin: "Bill Murray had a meltdown during ["What About Bob?"] because he wanted an extra day off and Laura said no and he ripped her glasses off her face and my dad complained about his behavior and Bill Murray threw an ashtray at him." Ben also added, "Everyone walked off the production and flew back to L.A. and it only resumed after Disney hired some bodyguards to physically separate my dad and Bill Murray in between takes."


title: What About Bob?

text: In April 2015, Richard Dreyfuss sued The Walt Disney Company over the film's profits. Dreyfuss has claimed that Disney refused to hire his chosen auditor, Robinson and Co. Christine Turner Wagner, widow of "Turner & Hooch" (1989) producer Raymond Wagner, was also involved with the lawsuit.


title: What About Bob?

text: "What About Bob?" was a financial success. Made on a $39 million budget, it grossed $64 million domestically during its original theatrical run, Buena Vista's highest-grossing live action film of the year.


title: What About Bob?

text: Critical reaction was also favorable. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a "Certified Fresh" 82% rating based on reviews from 44 critics with an average rating of 6.50/10. The site's consensus reads: "Bill Murray and Richard Dreyfuss' chemistry helps make the most of a familiar yet durable premise, elevating "What About Bob?" into the upper ranks of '90s comedies".


title: What About Bob?

text: When the television program "Siskel and Ebert" reviewed the film, Roger Ebert gave the film a "thumbs up" rating praising the different performances of Bill Murray and Richard Dreyfuss onscreen together as well as most of the film's humor. He said it was Bill Murray's best movie since "Ghostbusters" in 1984. Gene Siskel gave it a "thumbs down" rating and felt Murray gave a very funny and enjoyable performance in the film, but was rather upset by the Dreyfuss character and his angry and arrogant behaviors. He felt it would have been funnier if Dreyfuss had not given such an angry performance in the film and said that Dreyfuss ultimately ruined the film for him.


title: What About Bob?

text: Leonard Maltin also gave the film a favorable review: in "Leonard Maltin's Movie and Video Guide" he gives the film three stars out of a possible four, saying it's "a very funny outing with Murray and Dreyfuss approaching the relationship of the road runner and the coyote". Maltin faulted the film only for its ending, which he found very abrupt and silly.


title: What About Bob?

text: Lou Cedrone from "The Baltimore Sun" criticized the film: "It is too predictable and deals with a situation that is more irritating than amusing".


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: In the futuristic Academy City, which is made up of 80% students, many of whom are espers possessing unique psychic powers, Mikoto Misaka is an electromaster who is the third strongest of a mere seven espers who have been given the rank of Level 5. The series focuses on the exploits of Mikoto and her friends; Kuroko Shirai, Kazari Uiharu, and Ruiko Saten, prior to and during the events of "A Certain Magical Index".


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: "A Certain Scientific Railgun" is illustrated by Motoi Fuyukawa and started serialization in the April 2007 issue of ASCII Media Works' "Dengeki Daioh". The first volume was released on November 10, 2007 and as of February 26, 2022, 17 volumes have been published. North American publisher Seven Seas Entertainment began distributing the "Railgun" manga from June 2011.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: A 24-episode anime television series adaptation that was produced by J.C. Staff and directed by Tatsuyuki Nagai aired in Japan between October 3, 2009 and March 20, 2010. The anime was collected into eight DVD and Blu-ray Disc sets released between January 29 and August 27, 2010, with each volume containing a short story series titled "A Certain Magical Index: Kanzaki SS". The series was licensed in North America by Funimation, who released the series on DVD on April 16, 2013. A bonus episode was included with a visual book released on July 24, 2010, and an original video animation (OVA) was released in Japan on October 29, 2010.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: A 24-episode second season, also directed by Nagai, titled "A Certain Scientific Railgun S", aired in Japan between April 12 and September 27, 2013. It was simulcast by Funimation, who released the series on DVD in North America in two parts on July 1, 2014 and August 19, 2014, respectively. Another bonus episode was released with a visual book released on March 27, 2014.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: A third season titled "A Certain Scientific Railgun T" aired from January 10 to September 25, 2020. The third season ran for 25 episodes. Two bonus anime are set to be released from the third season's first and fifth Blu-Ray/DVD volumes. Unlike previous seasons, the season was simulcasted on both Funimation and Crunchyroll, with Crunchyroll streaming the series in Japanese with English subtitles, and Funimation streaming the English dub. The three seasons, including the OVA, were released on Hulu in Japan on March 24, 2022.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: The anime adaptation of "A Certain Scientific Railgun" has five pieces of theme music, two opening themes and three ending themes. The first opening theme is "Only My Railgun" by fripSide, and the first ending theme is by Elisa. The song "Smile (You & Me)" by Elisa, which uses the same tune as "Dear My Friend (Mada Minu Mirai e)", is featured as the ending theme for episode twelve. The second opening theme is "Level 5 Judgelight" by fripSide and the third ending theme is "Real Force" by Elisa. "Only My Railgun" appears in Konami's arcade music games "Pop'n Music 20: Fantasia", "Dance Dance Revolution X2" and "Jubeat Knit". For the OVA, the opening theme music is "Future Gazer" by fripSide, the single of which was released on October 13, 2010, while the ending theme is "Special One" by Elisa, the single of which was released on October 27, 2010. The opening theme for the "A Certain Scientific Railgun" PSP game is "Way to answer" by fripSide.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: For "A Certain Scientific Railgun S", it has six pieces of theme music, two opening themes and four ending themes. The first opening theme is "Sister's Noise" by fripSide and the first ending theme is "Grow Slowly" by Yuka Iguchi, the latter of which was released on May 15, 2013. The song "stand still" by Iguchi is featured as the second ending theme for episodes 11 and 14. The second opening theme is "Eternal Reality" by fripSide and the third ending theme is "Links" by Sachika Misawa. The song "Infinia" by Misawa is featured as the fourth ending theme for episode 23.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: For "A Certain Scientific Railgun T", the first opening theme is "final phase" by fripSide and the first ending theme is "nameless story" by Kishida Kyoudan & The Akeboshi Rockets. The second opening theme is "dual existence" by fripSide, and the second ending theme is "Aoarashi no Ato de" (lit. "After the summer storm") by sajou no hana.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: A visual novel based on "A Certain Scientific Railgun" for the PSP was released on December 8, 2011 after facing several delays, and comes in a special edition which includes a Kuroko Shirai Figma figure. Fuji Shoji released a pachinko based on the series, titled "A Certain Scientific Railgun P", on January 24, 2022.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: A light novel consisting of four stories about Mikoto, Kuroko, Kazari, and Ruiko was released in Japan on June 10, 2022. It is written by Kamachi and illustrated by Kiyotaka Haimura, Fuyukawa, Chuya Kogino, Arata Yamaji, Yasuhito Nogi, Teto Tachitsu, and Nankyoku Kisaragi.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: Four manga volumes distributed by Seven Seas Entertainment have been featured on The New York Times manga bestsellers list, with the most frequently listed ("A Certain Scientific Railgun" vol. 7) staying on the list for 4 weeks.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: The opening theme music for the first season of " A Certain Scientific Railgun", "Only My Railgun", won Best Theme Song at the 2010 Animation Kobe Awards. In September 2020, the anime series garnered over 300 million views in China through the Chinese streaming platform Bilibili.


title: A Certain Scientific Railgun

text: Nicoletta Christina Browne of "THEM Anime Reviews" had mixed feelings on the first season of the series. Comparing the series to "Aoi Hana", "Bodacious Space Pirates", and "Inari Kon Kon", she criticized the relationships between the characters but praised the narrative it adds to the "Index" franchise.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Le Chatelier's principle (pronounced or ), also called Chatelier's principle (or the Equilibrium Law), is a principle of chemistry used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on chemical equilibria. The principle is named after French chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier, and sometimes also credited to Karl Ferdinand Braun, who discovered it independently. It can be stated as:


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Phenomena in apparent contradiction to Le Chatelier's principle can also arise in systems of simultaneous equilibrium (see response reactions).


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: The Le Chatelier–Braun principle analyzes the qualitative behaviour of a thermodynamic system when a designated one of its externally controlled state variables, say formula_1 changes by an amount formula_2 the 'driving change', causing a change formula_3 the 'response of prime interest', in its conjugate state variable formula_4 all other externally controlled state variables remaining constant. The response illustrates 'negative feedback' and so is 'moderated' in ways evident in two related thermodynamic equilibria. Obviously, one of formula_1 formula_6 has to be intensive, the other extensive. Also as a necessary part of the scenario, there is a designated auxiliary 'moderating' or 'feedback' state variable formula_7, with its conjugate state variable formula_8 For this to be of interest, the 'moderating' variable formula_7 must undergo a change formula_10 or formula_11 in some part of the experimental protocol; this can be either by imposition of a change formula_12, or with the holding of formula_13 constant, written formula_14 For the principle to hold with full generality, formula_7 must be extensive or intensive accordingly as formula_6 is so. Obviously, to give this scenario physical meaning, the 'driving' variable and the 'moderating' or 'feedback' variable must be subject to separate independent experimental controls and measurements.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: The principle can be stated in two ways, formally different, but substantially equivalent, and, in a sense, mutually 'reciprocal'. The two ways illustrate the Maxwell relations, and the stability of thermodynamic equilibrium according to the second law of thermodynamics, evident as the spread of spread of energy amongst the state variables of the system in response to an imposed change.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: The two ways share an 'index' experimental protocol (called formula_17 that may be described as 'changed driver, feedback permitted'. Along with the driver change formula_2 it imposes a constant formula_19 with formula_20 and allows the uncontrolled 'moderating' variable response formula_21 along with the 'index' response of interest formula_22


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: The two ways differ in their respective compared protocols. One way executes a 'changed driver, no feedback' protocol (called formula_23 The other way executes a 'fixed driver, imposed feedback' protocol (called formula_24)


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: This way compares formula_25 with formula_26 to compare the effects of the imposed the change formula_27 with and without feedback. The protocol formula_28 prevents 'feedback' by enforcing that formula_29 through an adjustment formula_30 and it observes the 'no-feedback' response formula_31 Provided that the observed response is indeed that formula_32 then the principle states that formula_33.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: In other words, change in the 'moderating' state variable formula_7 moderates the effect of the driving change in formula_35 on the responding conjugate variable formula_36


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: This way also uses two experimental protocols, formula_37 and formula_38, to compare the index effect formula_39 with the effect formula_40 of feedback alone. The 'index' protocol formula_37 is executed first; the response of prime interest, formula_42 is observed, and the response formula_43 of the 'feedback' variable is also measured. With that knowledge, then the 'fixed driver, feedback imposed' protocol (formula_38) enforces that formula_45 with the driving variable formula_35 held fixed; the protocol also, through an adjustment formula_47 imposes a change formula_43 (learnt from the just previous measurement) in the 'feedback' variable, and measures the change formula_49 Provided that the 'feedback' response is indeed that formula_50 then the principle states that the signs of formula_39 and formula_40 are opposite.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Again, in other words, change in the 'feedback' state variable formula_7 opposes the effect of the driving change in formula_35 on the responding conjugate variable formula_36


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: The duration of adjustment depends on the strength of the negative feedback to the initial shock. The principle is typically used to describe closed negative-feedback systems, but applies, in general, to thermodynamically closed and isolated systems in nature, since the second law of thermodynamics ensures that the disequilibrium caused by an instantaneous shock must have a finite half-life.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: While well rooted in chemical equilibrium, Le Chatelier's principle can also be used in describing mechanical systems in that a system put under stress will respond in such a way as to reduce or minimize that stress. Moreover, the response will generally be via the mechanism that most easily relieves that stress. Shear pins and other such sacrificial devices are design elements that protect systems against stress applied in undesired manners to relieve it so as to prevent more extensive damage to the entire system, a practical engineering application of Le Chatelier's principle.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Where a shock initially induces positive feedback (such as ln thermal runaway), the new equilibrium can be far from the old one, and can take a long time to reach.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Changing the concentration of a chemical will shift the equilibrium to the side that would counter that change in concentration. The chemical system will attempt to partly oppose the change affected to the original state of equilibrium. In turn, the rate of reaction, extent, and yield of products will be altered corresponding to the impact on the system.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: This can be illustrated by the equilibrium of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas, reacting to form methanol.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Suppose we were to increase the concentration of CO in the system. Using Le Chatelier's principle, we can predict that the concentration of methanol will increase, decreasing the total change in CO. If we are to add a species to the overall reaction, the reaction will favor the side opposing the addition of the species. Likewise, the subtraction of a species would cause the reaction to "fill the gap" and favor the side where the species was reduced. This observation is supported by the collision theory. As the concentration of CO is increased, the frequency of successful collisions of that reactant would increase also, allowing for an increase in forward reaction, and generation of the product. Even if the desired product is not thermodynamically favored, the end-product can be obtained if it is continuously removed from the solution.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: The effect of a change in concentration is often exploited synthetically for condensation reactions (i.e., reactions that extrude water) that are equilibrium processes (e.g., formation of an ester from carboxylic acid and alcohol or an imine from an amine and aldehyde). This can be achieved by physically sequestering water, by adding desiccants like anhydrous magnesium sulfate or molecular sieves, or by continuous removal of water by distillation, often facilitated by a Dean-Stark apparatus.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: The effect of changing the temperature in the equilibrium can be made clear by 1) incorporating heat as either a reactant or a product, and 2) assuming that an increase in temperature increases the heat content of a system. When the reaction is exothermic (Δ"H" is negative and energy is released), heat is included as a product, and when the reaction is endothermic (Δ"H" is positive and energy is consumed), heat is included as a reactant. Hence, whether increasing or decreasing the temperature would favor the forward or the reverse reaction can be determined by applying the same principle as with concentration changes.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: If the temperature were increased, the heat content of the system would increase, so the system would consume some of that heat by shifting the equilibrium to the left, thereby producing less ammonia. More ammonia would be produced if the reaction were run at a lower temperature, but a lower temperature also lowers the rate of the process, so, in practice (the Haber process) the temperature is set at a compromise value that allows ammonia to be made at a reasonable rate with an equilibrium concentration that is not too unfavorable.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: In exothermic reactions, an increase in temperature decreases the equilibrium constant, "K", whereas in endothermic reactions, an increase in temperature increases "K".


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Le Chatelier's principle applied to changes in concentration or pressure can be understood by giving "K" a constant value. The effect of temperature on equilibria, however, involves a change in the equilibrium constant. The dependence of "K" on temperature is determined by the sign of Δ"H". The theoretical basis of this dependence is given by the Van 't Hoff equation.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: The equilibrium concentrations of the products and reactants do not directly depend on the total pressure of the system. They may depend on the partial pressure of the products and reactants, but if the number of moles of gaseous reactants is equal to the number of moles of gaseous products, pressure has no effect on equilibrium.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Changing total pressure by adding an inert gas at constant volume does not affect the equilibrium concentrations (see Effect of adding an inert gas below).


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Changing total pressure by changing the volume of the system changes the partial pressures of the products and reactants and can affect the equilibrium concentrations (see §Effect of change in volume below).


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Changing the volume of the system changes the partial pressures of the products and reactants and can affect the equilibrium concentrations. With a pressure increase due to a decrease in volume, the side of the equilibrium with fewer moles is more favorable and with a pressure decrease due to an increase in volume, the side with more moles is more favorable. There is no effect on a reaction where the number of moles of gas is the same on each side of the chemical equation.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Note the number of moles of gas on the left-hand side and the number of moles of gas on the right-hand side. When the volume of the system is changed, the partial pressures of the gases change. If we were to decrease pressure by increasing volume, the equilibrium of the above reaction will shift to the left, because the reactant side has a greater number of moles than does the product side. The system tries to counteract the decrease in partial pressure of gas molecules by shifting to the side that exerts greater pressure. Similarly, if we were to increase pressure by decreasing volume, the equilibrium shifts to the right, counteracting the pressure increase by shifting to the side with fewer moles of gas that exert less pressure. If the volume is increased because there are more moles of gas on the reactant side, this change is more significant in the denominator of the equilibrium constant expression, causing a shift in equilibrium.


title: Le Chatelier's principle

text: <!-- If we take the above reaction at standard conditions for temperature and pressure (STP), formula_56 would be as follow:


title: Family Reunion (TV series)

text: Family Reunion is an American sitcom created by Meg DeLoatch that was released via streaming on Netflix on July 10, 2019. In September 2019, the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on April 5, 2021. Part 4 was released on August 26, 2021. In October 2021, the series was renewed for a third and final season, Part 5, which premiered on October 27, 2022.


title: Family Reunion (TV series)

text: "Family Reunion" follows a family of six who move from Seattle, Washington to Columbus, Georgia for the McKellan Family Reunion and decide to stay to be closer to their family.


title: Family Reunion (TV series)

text: On October 17, 2018, it was announced that Netflix had given the production a straight-to-series order for a first season consisting of twenty episodes. The series was created by Meg DeLoatch who was also expected to executive produce. Production began in Los Angeles. The first part was released on July 10, 2019. On September 17, 2019, Netflix renewed the series for a second season consisting of sixteen episodes. It was also announced that there will be a holiday special that was released on December 9, 2019 and the nine extra season 1 episodes were released on January 20, 2020. The second season premiered on April 5, 2021. Part 4 was released on August 26, 2021. On October 18, 2021, Netflix renewed the series for a 10-episode third and final season. The third season premiered on October 27, 2022.


title: Family Reunion (TV series)

text: Alongside the initial series announcement, it was reported that Tia Mowry, Loretta Devine, Anthony Alabi, Talia Jackson, Isaiah Russell-Bailey, Cameron J. Wright, and Jordyn James had been cast in series regular roles.


title: Family Reunion (TV series)

text: The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 67% approval rating for the series, based on 6 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. On March 24, 2021, the series won a NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Comedy Series at the 52nd NAACP Image Awards.


title: John Popper

text: John Popper (born March 29, 1967) is an American musician and songwriter, known as the co-founder, lead vocalist, and frontman of the rock band Blues Traveler.


title: John Popper

text: John Popper was born in Chardon, Ohio. His father was a Hungarian immigrant who left Budapest in 1948. Through him, Popper is related to David Popper, a 19th-century European cellist whose many solo works for the cello are staples of the instrument's repertoire. Popper's mother and brother are lawyers.


title: John Popper

text: Popper was raised in Stamford, Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey. He attended Davenport Ridge School, Stamford Catholic High School (now Trinity Catholic High School), and Princeton High School, from which he graduated in 1986. He took lessons on the piano, the cello, and the guitar, but none of those instruments appealed to him, and he hated being forced to practice.


title: John Popper

text: He originally wanted to become a comedian, finding he could use humor to make friends and avoid bullies, but when he and a friend performed a routine as the Blues Brothers, he found that he enjoyed musical performance. From there, he took up the harmonica. Popper played trumpet in the Princeton High School Studio Jazz Band and convinced the teacher to let him play harmonica instead, after an in-class solo on the song "She Blinded Me with Science."


title: John Popper

text: He formed several garage bands with friends in Princeton, New Jersey, one of which evolved into Blues Traveler in 1987. After graduating from high school, the group's members all moved to New York City, where Popper enrolled in the New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music, along with two of his bandmates as well as high school friend Chris Barron. Popper attended for three years but devoted himself to the band full-time once they signed a record contract, in 1990.


title: John Popper

text: Popper is a founding member of Blues Traveler, serving as the band's frontman with lead vocals and harmonica. For some songs, he forgoes the harmonica in favor of guitar, most often a 12-string acoustic. In addition, Popper has played the tin whistle on some recordings.


title: John Popper

text: A prolific songwriter, he has composed the majority of the lyrics and music of Blues Traveler's songs.


title: John Popper

text: The band grew a following with its extensive touring, sometimes with over 300 dates a year, and gained a reputation in the jam band scene of the 1990s. Blues Traveler crossed over into mainstream pop/rock radio success with their 1994 album, "four", which garnered the group extensive media exposure. The Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1996 was awarded to "Run-Around", a song that Popper composed. In 2021, Blues Traveler's album "Traveler's Blues" was nominated by the Recording Academy for "Best Traditional Blues Album" for the 2022 GRAMMY Awards.


title: John Popper

text: In 1990, Popper began to perform occasional solo concerts in addition to touring with Blues Traveler. Several songs that originated as Popper's solo pieces have become part of Blues Traveler's repertoire, and vice versa.


title: John Popper

text: Bolstered by Blues Traveler's mainstream success, Popper released a solo album, "Zygote", in 1999, and toured in support of it with his own John Popper Band. The album was produced by Terry Manning, and the backing band consisted of longtime friends Dave Ares, Crugie Riccio, and Rob Clores of Cycomotogoat, with drummer Carter Beauford of Dave Matthews Band. The album's release came less than three months after Popper's heart surgery, and only days after the death of Bobby Sheehan, Popper's bandmate and best friend. The subsequent tour was canceled midway due to poor ticket sales, and Popper instead took the time to focus on his health.


title: John Popper

text: Popper has co-written songs with Trey Anastasio, Warren Haynes, Chris Barron, and Jonny Lang. He also frequently appears as a guest performer with musicians both famous and obscure, from a diverse variety of genres. He has performed with, among others, jam bands Spin Doctors, Dave Matthews Band, Phish, and most recently, the Allman Brothers Band in 2009; bluesmen Eric Clapton and B.B. King; singer-songwriters Jason Mraz and John Mayer; saxophonist Karl Denson; San Francisco's Culann's Hounds; heavy metal band Metallica; rock trio ZO2, and even with the Hungarian Ambassador to the United States, András Simonyi. He sat in with the Smashing Pumpkins on the second day of their acoustic 1997 Bridge School Benefit appearance, contributing harmonica for their song "Porcelina of the Vast Oceans"; Popper's solo garnered major applause from the audience. He also performed with the Grateful Dead at a tribute to Bill Graham in 1991. Popper played the harmonica on Hanson's album "This Time Around" in 2000, for which he performed on "If Only" and "In the City." He also composed, wrote, and performed the theme song for the ninth season of the sitcom "Roseanne".


title: John Popper

text: In 2017 and 2018, Popper began to play solo acoustic performances across the United States. He is often accompanied by Blues Traveler keyboardist Ben Wilson and performs songs that span both Blues Traveler and his solo catalog.


title: John Popper

text: In 1992, Popper conceived the HORDE Festival as a venue to gain exposure for up-and-coming independent musicians. It ran until 1998.


title: John Popper

text: Popper was a part of a one-time studio band brought together in 1997 by New York drummer/songwriter Solomon Deniro. Other players included Trey Gunn, Bernie Worrell, Marc Ribot, and Vernon Reid. The group's only recordings were released as the album "Gimme Gimme", under the name the Devotees. The same recording was re-released by Deniro in 2001, under the title "Solomon".


title: John Popper

text: Popper took over in 1998 as frontman of jam-band supergroup Frogwings, which then released the live album "Croakin' at Toad's".


title: John Popper

text: Popper later formed a rock/jazz/hip hop fusion group called the John Popper Project with DJ Logic, which released an album in 2006 and performs occasionally. He also performs on the 2008 album "Jason Miles: Global Noize: A Prayer for the Planet."


title: John Popper

text: Popper's latest side project is John Popper & the Duskray Troubadours, which plays Americana roots music. The group's self-titled debut from 429 Records was released in March 2011 and was produced by band member Jono Manson, who co-wrote much of the material. The first single, "Something Sweet", written by Manson and Bruce Donnola, was released February 7, 2011, on iTunes. Mason and Popper conceived the project after Popper says he was "running out of ideas" for Blues Traveler before they took a short break.


title: John Popper

text: Popper is known for singing the song "But Anyway" in the Farrelly Brothers comedy "Kingpin", starring Woody Harrelson, Randy Quaid, and Vanessa Angel.


title: John Popper

text: He had a speaking guest role in an episode of the sitcom "Roseanne" as a musician similar to himself. He appeared on episode 30 of "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" as a musical guest as well as featuring as a guest on the IFC television comedy series "Z Rock". On the show, he plays himself and befriends the band, ZO2, helping them get a record deal. He also performed the Star-Spangled Banner prior to game 4 of the 1996 World Series.


title: John Popper

text: Popper has provided narration for art projects produced by his friends, including "Das Clown", an award-winning short film in slideshow style that was screened at the Sundance Film Festival.


title: John Popper

text: He has been a recurring guest on Howard Stern's and Bill Maher's shows and sat in with the CBS Orchestra on the "Late Show with David Letterman" on occasion. In 2009, he sat in with the Roots on an episode of "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon". Popper performed "Something Sweet" with the Duskray Troubadours on the TBS show "Lopez Tonight" on March 1, 2011. He also sat in with the house band for the closing number of the show.


title: John Popper

text: Since the success of Blues Traveler, Popper has lived in various locations, including rural Pennsylvania and New Orleans. On November 23, 2015, Popper and his then-wife Jordan Auleb had their first child, a daughter; the couple later divorced in 2018.


title: John Popper

text: In October 1992, Popper was involved in a traffic collision on a motorcycle while traveling to a studio to record for Blues Traveler's third album. The crash put him in a wheelchair for several months, but Popper continued touring with the band performing in a wheelchair.


title: John Popper

text: In 1999, he suffered a near-fatal heart attack brought on by years of compulsive overeating (he had been diagnosed with diabetes a few years earlier). Doctors at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center performed an emergency angioplasty, which saved Popper's life; he had 95% arterial blockage. Popper later underwent gastric bypass surgery and lost a significant amount of weight.


title: John Popper

text: In August 2016, he announced a pending surgical procedure to repair collapsed vertebrae in his neck, necessitating the postponement and cancellation of some Blues Traveler shows.


title: John Popper

text: Popper is an avid collector of weaponry, including firearms, swords, and a working $10,000 American Civil War cannon. He cites a fascination with their aesthetic of being "life-savingly efficient" machines. Popper is a supporter of Second Amendment rights and once appeared on an MTV-sponsored roundtable discussion on gun control, which included panelists from the Law Enforcement Alliance of America and Harvard's John F. Kennedy School of Government. He carries weapons in any state where it is allowed, even when onstage. On his 2003 "Daily Show" appearance, he stated that he decided to move away from New Jersey because of the state's tight gun laws. He said that his Bucks County, Pennsylvania property had on which he built a private gun range.


title: John Popper

text: Popper is a member of the Libertarian Party and has previously expressed support for the Republicans. He endorsed George W. Bush in the 2004 U.S. presidential election. In November 2008, Popper said, regarding Barack Obama, "this is the first time I've voted for a Democrat, ever." Popper was a supporter of Ron Paul during the 2012 U.S. presidential election, even participating in phone-banking at Ron Paul's New Hampshire campaign headquarters. He also played a short set during Ron Paul's "We are the Future Rally", an alternative convention for Paul supporters that was held in Tampa the day before the 2012 Republican National Convention.


title: John Popper

text: Popper (with and without Blues Traveler) has played at conventions, fundraisers, and ceremonies for both Republican and Democratic politicians.


title: John Popper

text: Popper has said, "I was a bleeding-heart liberal, until I got a job," and describes himself as "a libertarian who is a Republican when pushed". The singer summed up his political position by saying, "I believe in freedom for markets and freedom for individuals, so I guess that makes me a libertarian."


title: John Popper

text: Popper has toured with the USO, both with Blues Traveler and solo. In the mid-2000s, he toured the Middle East, performing with the Band of the Air Force Reserve and Jamie O'Neal at various military camps.


title: John Popper

text: He has appeared with Rock the Vote and recorded "The Preamble" for the "Schoolhouse Rocks the Vote!" album.


title: John Popper

text: Most recently, Popper performed the Blues Traveler hits "Run-Around" and "Hook", as well as a rendition of "The Star-Spangled Banner", alongside Greensky Bluegrass for Bernie Sanders' "A Future to Believe In" rally at Safeco Field in Seattle on March 25, 2016.


title: John Popper

text: Popper was raised Catholic, and for a time attended Stamford Catholic High School in Connecticut. However, he does not actively practice in his adult life. He has described himself as a "recovering Catholic". He wrote the song "Trina Magna" as an exploration of his religious views. He also has Jewish ancestry through David Popper.


title: John Popper

text: In 2003, Popper was arrested for possession of marijuana. He was arrested again on March 6, 2007, near Ritzville, Washington, by the Washington State Patrol. He was the passenger in his own vehicle, which was stopped for speeding, and was found to be in the possession of a small amount of marijuana and weapons. Popper was released the same night. The vehicle had a stash of hidden compartments, which contained four rifles, nine handguns, a switchblade knife, a Taser, a set of brass knuckles, and night vision goggles. The vehicle was temporarily seized.


title: John Popper

text: No charges were filed for the weapons, as they were all registered and securely locked away, and Popper was licensed to carry them, with the exception of the brass knuckles and switchblade knife, which he agreed to surrender. A deal was reached that allowed the marijuana charge to be dropped if Popper remained free of further drug infractions for one year and attended eight hours of drug counseling. Popper and the driver had been driving back to Washington from Austin, Texas, and Popper likes to visit gun ranges during long trips.


title: John Popper

text: Popper is also known as an avid Twitter user and has caused some controversy on the platform. He also has publicly posted the home address and information of a particular Twitter user who often made jokes at his expense. Popper also drew attention for arguing with a bot named "assbott", which had become well-known during the 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump; it was the co-creator of this bot that Popper doxed in July 2017.


title: John Popper

text: On March 29, 2016, Da Capo Press released Popper's autobiography, "Suck and Blow: And Other Stories I'm Not Supposed to Tell", written by Popper with the help of "Relix" co-editor-in-chief Dean Budnick. In the book, among band exploits and a variety of topics, Popper discusses the group's rebound from the death of bassist Bobby Sheehan, the creation of the H.O.R.D.E. tour, his relationship with Bill Graham, and his personal battle with being overweight.


title: John Popper

text: John Popper has expressed a preference for the Hohner Special 20 brand blues harp, calling them "the Porsche of harmonicas." Since 2015, he uses mainly his own signature harmonicas, manufactured by Fender.


title: John Popper

text: Popper has developed some equipment innovations to accommodate his use of harmonicas during performances. Because each individual diatonic harmonica is tuned to one particular key, he fashioned belts with enough pockets to hold harmonicas in all twelve keys (plus extras) and wore them as a bandolier, or slung over his neck. He switches keys multiple times within one song, and this arrangement has allowed him to quickly trade one harmonica for another without looking. In 2002, he stopped using the belts, as they no longer fit him properly due to his weight loss. One such belt later sold for $2,700 on the History Channel series "Pawn Stars". He now carries his harmonicas in a small black attaché case. He uses a special microphone with switches that change the audio effect of the harmonica as it is played through an amplifier, similar to a guitar effects pedal. Popper was inspired by Jimi Hendrix's guitar playing to make his instrument sound however he wanted.


title: John Popper

text: He has fashioned a number of floppy-brimmed hats with flattened harmonica cover plates on the band, which he almost always wears during appearances with Blues Traveler.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: Raphael Saadiq (; born Charles Ray Wiggins; May 14, 1966) is an American singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and record producer. He rose to fame as a member of the multiplatinum group Tony! Toni! Toné! In addition to his solo and group career, he has also produced songs for such artists as Erykah Badu, Jill Scott, Stevie Wonder, Joss Stone, D'Angelo, TLC, En Vogue, Kelis, Mary J. Blige, Ledisi, Whitney Houston, Solange Knowles and John Legend. Music critic Robert Christgau has called Saadiq the "preeminent R&B artist of the '90s".


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: Saadiq was also a member of The Ummah, a music production collective, alongside D'Angelo, Q-Tip, Ali Shaheed Muhammad, and J Dilla; and was a member of the supergroup Lucy Pearl with Dawn Robinson. He has released five solo albums, including the critically acclaimed retro-styled "The Way I See It" (2008) and "Stone Rollin'" (2011). The more contemporary-sounding "Jimmy Lee" was released in 2019, and earned Saadiq further acclaim.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: He is also co-founder of the independent video game developer IllFonic, which developed "". As a songwriter Saadiq has received a Grammy Award, two Golden Globe Award nominations and an Academy Award nomination.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: Saadiq was born in Oakland, California, and was the second-youngest of 14 siblings. He attended Castlemont High School. Saadiq states that he does not want his music to be reflective of the tragedies he experienced, saying that "And through all of that I was makin' records, but it wasn't comin' out in the music. I did it to kinda show people you can have some real tough things happen in your life, but you don't have to wear it on your sleeve."


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: He has been playing the bass guitar since the age of six, and first began singing at age nine in a local gospel group. At the age of 12, he joined a group called "The Gospel Humminbirds". In 1984, shortly before his 18th birthday, Saadiq heard about tryouts in San Francisco for Sheila E.'s backing band on Prince's Parade Tour. At the audition, he chose the name "Raphael", and had difficulty remembering to respond to the name when he heard that he got the part to play bass in the band. He says of the experience, "Next thing I was in Tokyo, in a stadium, singin' Erotic City. We were in huge venues with the biggest sound systems in the world; all these roadies throwin' me basses, and a bunch of models hangin' round Prince to party. For almost two years. That was my university."


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: After returning to Oakland from touring with Prince, Saadiq began his professional career as the lead vocalist and bassist in the rhythm and blues and dance trio Tony! Toni! Toné! He used the name Raphael Wiggins while in Tony! Toni! Toné!, along with his brother Dwayne Wiggins, and his cousin Timothy Christian. In the mid-1990s, he adopted the last name Saadiq, which means "man of his word" in Arabic. His change of surname led many to speculate that he had converted to Islam at that point; in reality, Saadiq is not a Muslim, but rather just liked the way "Saadiq" sounded and changed his last name simply to distinguish himself from and avoid potential confusion with his brother, Dwayne Wiggins. As he confirmed by telling noted R&B writer Pete Lewis of the award-winning 'Blues & Soul' in May 2009, "I just wanted to have my own identity!"


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 1995, Saadiq had his biggest solo hit to date, when "Ask of You", featured on the "Higher Learning" Soundtrack peaked at #19 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and #2 on the R&B chart. In 1995, Saadiq produced and performed on Otis & Shug's debut album, "We Can Do Whatever".


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: Tony! Toni! Toné! would become major R&B superstars throughout the late 1980s and 1990s. However, after the 1996 album entitled "House of Music" failed to duplicate the group's previous success, Tony! Toni! Toné! went their separate ways in 1997.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 1999, Saadiq's next big project became the R&B supergroup Lucy Pearl. He recorded the self-titled album with Dawn Robinson (En Vogue) and Ali Shaheed Muhammad (A Tribe Called Quest). The group only lasted for one album.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: Also in 1999, he collaborated with rapper Q-Tip on the single "Get Involved", from the animated television series "The PJs". It samples The Intruders' 1973 song "I'll Always Love My Mama" and charted at number 21 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: His 2000 song collaboration "Untitled (How Does It Feel)" won D'Angelo a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance; it was also nominated for Grammy Award for Best R&B Song. The song was ranked #4 on "Rolling Stone"'s "End of Year Critics & Readers Poll" of the top singles of 2000. D'Angelo's album "Voodoo" won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Album at the 2001 Grammy Awards.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 2002, Saadiq founded his own record label, Pookie Entertainment. Among the artists on the label are Joi and Truth Hurts. In 2002, he released his first solo album "Instant Vintage", which earned him three Grammy Award nominations in addition to another two Grammy nominations for his writing work on “Love of My Life (An Ode to Hip-Hop)” the following year. He released a two-disc live album "All the Hits at the House of Blues" in 2003, and his second studio album "Ray Ray" in 2004, both on Pookie Entertainment.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 2004, Saadiq produced a remix of the song "Crooked Nigga Too" by Tupac Shakur, which is featured on the album "Loyal to the Game". Other artists he has collaborated with include Whitney Houston, Mary J. Blige, The Isley Brothers, A Tribe Called Quest, Teedra Moses, The Roots, Erykah Badu, Jill Scott, Macy Gray, Angie Stone, Snoop Dogg, Mac Dre, Devin the Dude, DJ Quik, Kelis, Q-Tip, Lil' Skeeter, Ludacris, The Bee Gees, Musiq Soulchild, Jaguar Wright, Chanté Moore, Lionel Richie, Marcus Miller, Noel Gourdin, Nappy Roots, Calvin Richardson, T-Boz from TLC, Jody Watley, Floetry, Leela James, Amp Fiddler, John Legend, Joss Stone, Young Bellz, Anthony Hamilton, Babyface, Ledisi, Goapele, Ghostface Killah, —Ginuwine, The Grouch Stevie Wonder, Earth, Wind & Fire, Bilal, Chali 2na, Larry Graham, Luniz as well as many others. In 2007, Saadiq produced "Introducing Joss Stone", the third album of British soul singer Joss Stone. According to J. Gabriel Boylan of "The New York Observer", "he's produced artists including Macy Gray, the Roots, D'Angelo, John Legend, Whitney Houston, Mary J. Blige, and more. With all of them he's pushed a classic aesthetic, heavy on organic sounds and light on studio magic, deeply indebted to the past and distrustful of easy formulas."


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: Saadiq's third solo album, "The Way I See It", released on Columbia Records on September 16, 2008, available in a collector's edition box set of 7" 45 rpm singles as well as on traditional CD, was critically well-received, made several critics' 2008 best albums lists, and garnered three Grammy nominations including Best R&B Performance by a Duo Or Group With Vocals (for "Never Give You Up", featuring Stevie Wonder & CJ Hilton); Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance (for "Love That Girl") and Best R&B Album for "The Way I See It". Music from "The Way I See It" was featured in the following motion pictures: "Madea Goes To Jail", "Bride Wars", "Cadillac Records", "Secret Life of Bees", "In Fighting (Rogue)", and "It's Complicated".


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: Touring with a nine piece band, Saadiq hit the 2009 summer music festival circuit with performances at Bonnaroo, Hollywood Bowl, Outside Lands, Pori Jazz, Stockholm Jazz Festival, North Sea Jazz, Essence Music Festival, Summer Spirit Festival, and Nice Jazz Festival, Bumbershoot Music Festival and Austin City Limits. Saadiq has been touring Europe extensively, and held a five-night residency at the House of Blues in Tokyo, Japan, in June 2009. In 2008, Saadiq formed a new label called Velma Records, a place where he promises "people can express themselves like I did with "The Way I See It"... where they can dream something up and just go with it".


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: He produced songs for LeToya Luckett's forthcoming second album "Lady Love", released August 2009. In 2009, Saadiq produced "Please Stay" and "Love Never Changes" for Ledisi's August 2009 release "Turn Me Loose". Saadiq also was the executive producer for an emerging group called Tha Boogie. Tha Boogie's first EP was released on iTunes and is titled "Love Tha Boogie, Vol. 1 (Steal This Sh*t)".


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 2009, Saadiq announced his video game development company called IllFonic. The first video game in development by IllFonic is titled "Ghetto Golf", with an expected release late in 2010. In 2009, Saadiq teamed up Bentley Kyle Evans, Jeff Franklin, Martin Lawrence, and Trenten Gumbs to create a new sitcom called "Love That Girl!" starring Tatyana Ali. Raphael is an executive producer and composer for "Love That Girl!" The show airs on TV One and debuted on January 19, 2010. That same year, Saadiq performed The Spinners hit "It's A Shame" in a legendary Levi's commercial and sang as part of the chorus in the 2010 remake of "We Are the World" for Haiti.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 2011, Saadiq was the guitarist/bandleader for the group backing Mick Jagger for Jagger's tribute performance of the Solomon Burke R&B classic, "Everybody Needs Somebody to Love" at the 53rd Grammy Awards in Los Angeles and on CBS. The band that accompanied the performance was Saadiq's touring band called Stone Rollin. In 2011 he and his band performed as the ESPY's house band for the night, where he performed his latest compositions.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: Saadiq's 2011 album "Stone Rollin'" was released to great critical acclaim. "He's always had a boyish enthusiasm for performing, and a flexible, naturally joyous voice that suggests a young Stevie Wonder," wrote Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune", "but with his latest album, Saadiq finds a new gear. The album and his current tour demonstrate that there's a big difference between retro and classic, and the artist consistently finds himself on the right side of that divide." Kot ranked the album number seven in his year-end list, in which he dubbed it Saadiq's "finest achievement" and stated, "He's always written songs steeped in soul and R&B, but now he gives them a progressive edge with roaming bass lines and haunted keyboard textures. He's no longer a retro stylist – he's writing new classics." Critic Jim Derogatis called it "a stone cold gas of a party disc."


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In fall 2011, he performed on the fourth results show of "Dancing with the Stars" season 13. In December 2011, he performed a cover compilation of several Neil Diamond songs at the Kennedy Center Honors award ceremony.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 2012 he signed a deal with Toyota to do a TV commercial for the Toyota Prius. In 2013 Raphael partnered with Bay Area/ Atlanta Production company EL Seven Entertainment/ Republic Records and then-new R&B singer Adrian Marcel and released his first promotional mixtape "Raphael Saadiq Presents Adrian Marcel 7 Days of Weak".


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 2016 he executive produced Solange Knowles' album, "A Seat At The Table", which debuted at number 1 on music charts in the United States. He also guest starred in "Luke Cage", where he performs his songs "Good Man" and "Angel" at Harlem's Paradise.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 2017 he appeared in the award-winning documentary film "The American Epic Sessions," directed by Bernard MacMahon, where he recorded the Memphis Jug Band's 1928 song "Stealin' Stealin'". live on the restored first electrical sound recording system from the 1920s. Of recording on the system he said, "it's amazing to just look at how it's built, you know just look at the machine itself. It just has this like magical sound the way that it's built. It's true. It's just the truest sound you could ever get".


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 2017, Saadiq collaborated with Mary J. Blige as a songwriter for the movie "Mudbound" (2017), for which they both received Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song.


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, he released a song on his website called "Rony! Roni! Roné!", as a nod to his group "Tony! Toni! Toné!".


title: Raphael Saadiq

text: In 2022, Saadiq was credited as a collaborator on multiple songs from Brent Faiyaz's album "Wasteland", which debuted at number two on the "Billboard" 200 chart.


title: A Man Called Ove (novel)

text: A Man Called Ove (, ) is a novel by Swedish writer Fredrik Backman published in Swedish by Forum in 2012. The novel was published in English in 2013 and reached the "New York Times" Best Seller list 18 months after its publication and stayed on the list for 42 weeks.


title: A Man Called Ove (novel)

text: It was adapted into a film of the same name, which premiered in Sweden on 25 December 2015, with Rolf Lassgård in the leading role.


title: A Man Called Ove (novel)

text: Backman got his inspiration for this book after reading an article about a man named Ove who had a fit while buying tickets at an art museum. Backman instantly related to this man as he claims to be "not great at talking to people". He started writing blogposts under the heading, "I am a Man Called Ove", where he wrote about his pet peeves and annoyances. Eventually, he realized that his writing had potential for the creation of an interesting fictional character.


title: A Man Called Ove (novel)

text: "Ove is a curmudgeon—the kind of man who points at people he dislikes as if they were burglars caught outside his bedroom window. He has staunch principles, strict routines, and a short fuse. People call him 'the bitter neighbour from hell.' However, behind the cranky exterior there is a story and a sadness. So when one November morning a chatty young couple with two chatty young daughters move in next door and accidentally flatten Ove's mailbox, it is the lead-in to a comical and heart-warming tale of unkempt cats, unexpected friendship, and the ancient art of backing up a U-Haul. All of which will change one cranky old man and a local residents' association to their very foundations."


title: A Man Called Ove (novel)

text: Overall, "A Man Called Ove" was received well, with the review aggregator website, Bookmarks, giving the book a "rave" review. "Kirkus Reviews" gave a positive review of the novel, describing how, "the back story chapters have a simple, fablelike quality, while the current-day chapters are episodic and, at times, hysterically funny. In both instances, the narration can veer toward the preachy or overly pat, but wry descriptions, excellent pacing and the juxtaposition of Ove's attitude with his deeds add plenty of punch to balance out any pathos." "Publishers Weekly" called the novel "a fuzzy crowd-pleaser that serves up laughs to accompany a thoughtful reflection on loss and love. Though Ove's antics occasionally feel repetitive, the author writes with winning charm."


title: A Man Called Ove (novel)

text: The novel was adapted into "A Man Called Ove", a Swedish film released on 25 December 2015, written and directed by Hannes Holm and starring Rolf Lassgård as Ove. The film was nominated for six awards, winning two, at the 51st Guldbagge Awards in 2016. It was nominated for the Best Foreign Language Film and Best Makeup and Hairstyling categories at the 89th Academy Awards.


title: A Man Called Ove (novel)

text: An English-language film adaptation called "A Man Called Otto" has also been announced, with Tom Hanks set to star and produce.


title: A Man Called Ove (novel)

text: In January 2015, a stage version of the book, starring Johan Rheborg in the leading role as Ove, premiered in Stockholm.


title: A Man Called Ove (novel)

text: In July 2014, Dreamscape Media released an audiobook version of this book, read in English by the American actor George Newbern.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: Taking Lives is a 2004 American psychological thriller film directed by D. J. Caruso and starring Angelina Jolie and Ethan Hawke, with supporting roles by Kiefer Sutherland, Olivier Martinez, Tchéky Karyo, Jean-Hugues Anglade, and Gena Rowlands. Loosely adapted from the novel of the same name by Michael Pye, the film centers on an enigmatic serial killer who takes on the identities of his victims.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: The film was shot on-location in Montréal and Quebec City, Quebec. The original music score was composed by Philip Glass and the main title's theme was composed by Walter Werzowa of the electronica group Edelweiss.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: The film was released in the United States on March 19, 2004 by Warner Bros. Pictures, where it received negative reviews.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: In the early 1980s, teenagers Martin Asher and Matt Soulsby meet on a bus to Mont-Laurier, Quebec. The bus breaks down, and the two acquire a car, which soon blows a tire. As Matt changes the tire, Martin comments that they are about the same height, and kicks him into the path of an oncoming truck, killing Matt and the driver. Taking Matt's guitar and clothes, Martin continues on foot, singing in a voice similar to Matt's.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: Twenty years later, FBI profiler Illeana Scott is summoned by Inspector Leclair to help Montreal authorities in apprehending a serial killer who assumes his victims’ identities, enabling him to travel undetected across North America. Illeana interviews art dealer James Costa, an eyewitness to the killer’s most recent murder. James makes a drawing of the killer and the authorities track down the suspect's apartment, finding a decaying corpse chained in the ceiling. Martin's mother Rebecca claims to have seen her son – believed dead in Matt’s place years earlier – alive on a ferry to Quebec City, leading to the body buried as Martin being exhumed for forensic examination, and he becomes the primary suspect. At Rebecca's home, Illeana questions her about her son, learning that Martin was an unwanted child who became unstable after the death of his favored twin brother. Illeana discovers a hidden passageway behind a cabinet leading to Martin’s secret room, where she is attacked by a hidden assailant, who escapes before she can identify him.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: Illeana deduces that Asher targets his victims to live as someone different than himself, and that his latest target is James after his apartment is ransacked. James is used in a sting operation to lure Asher, but the trap fails. During a show at his gallery, James is attacked by an assailant, presumed to be Asher, whom Illeana tries to apprehend but loses in the crowd. The police prepare to move James out of town, but he is confronted by the assailant, who attacks him and kills his police escort before driving away with James at gunpoint. Illeana gives chase, and causes the car to crash and explode just as James manages to escape.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: James visits Illeana’s hotel room where, having grown close over the course of the investigation, they make passionate love surrounded by gruesome crime scene photos. Illeana awakens to find herself covered in James’ blood, but he has merely popped the stitches he received after the car chase.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: As James’ stitches are repaired in the hospital, Illeana is called to the morgue, where Rebecca is unable to identify the charred body of the assailant, and Illeana realizes that Asher must still be alive. Before Illeana can reach her, Rebecca enters the elevator and is confronted by James, revealing himself as the real Martin Asher. He kills his mother, and Illeana is shocked to see him covered in blood before the elevator doors close again, and he escapes the hospital. The police determine that the assailant killed in the car chase was Christopher Hart, a drug addict and art thief to whom Asher owed money. In the struggle in his apartment, Asher killed Hart and staged being taken hostage. Pursued by the police, Asher escapes by train and selects his next victim, taunting Illeana by phone before disappearing. Admitting to having consensual sex with Asher, Illeana is fired from the FBI.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: Seven months later, Illeana is living alone in a desolate farmhouse in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, apparently heavily pregnant with Asher's twins. She is confronted by Asher, who declares that they can start over and live together as a family, but Illeana refuses. Enraged, Asher beats her and prepares to choke her into unconsciousness, seizing a pair of scissors from her when she defends herself and stabbing her in the belly. Illeana stabs Asher in the heart with the same scissors and removes her prosthetic pregnant belly, explaining that the past months were a carefully planned trap. Asher dies, and Illeana informs Leclair the ordeal is over.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: The film is based on the novel of the same title by Michael Pye. Numerous hands had a part in the screenplay as script doctors. The cover page of the screenplay credits Jon Bokenkamp with the original draft, Nicholas Kazan with subsequent revisions, Hilary Seitz with more revisions, and David Ayer with the last revisions (to February 28, 2003). The WGA screenwriting credit system ultimately awarded screenplay and adaptation credit to Bokenkamp alone.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: On April 3, 2001, it was announced that Jennifer Lopez is in negotiations to star in the film, with Tony Scott attached to direct. On September 19, 2002, it was reported that Angelina Jolie and Ethan Hawke are in talks to topline the thriller. Before Jolie was circling the project, Cate Blanchett and Gwyneth Paltrow were approached to play the part. On May 9, 2003, Kiefer Sutherland joined the cast, with D. J. Caruso confirmed to helm the film. On May 21, 2003, Olivier Martinez joined the film, Gena Rowlands being also cast in an unspecified role. Principal photography began later that month in Montreal.


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: The film has received mostly poor reviews; Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 22% based on reviews from 157 critics. The site's consensus states: "A stylish, but predictable thriller where the only thrills are offered by the sensuous Angelina Jolie."


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: Film critic Roger Ebert gave it three out of four stars, describing it as "an effective thriller, on its modest but stylish level". "Total Film", a UK film magazine, gave it two stars out of five with the verdict: "Starting off well but rapidly losing its way, "Taking Lives" is more serial-killer flick than serial killer -- we've been fed this mush a thousand times."


title: Taking Lives (film)

text: Angelina Jolie earned a Razzie Award nomination for Worst Actress for her performance in the movie (also for "Alexander"), but lost the trophy to Halle Berry for "Catwoman".


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Buckminsterfullerene is a type of fullerene with the formula C. It has a cage-like fused-ring structure (truncated icosahedron) made of twenty hexagons and twelve pentagons, and resembles a soccer ball. Each of its 60 carbon atoms is bonded to its three neighbors.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Buckminsterfullerene is a black solid that dissolves in hydrocarbon solvents to produce a violet solution. The compound was discovered in 1985 and has received intense study, although few real world applications have been found.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Buckminsterfullerene is the most common naturally occurring fullerene. Small quantities of it can be found in soot.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: It also exists in space. Neutral C has been observed in planetary nebulae and several types of star. The ionised form, C, has been identified in the interstellar medium, where it is the cause of several absorption features known as diffuse interstellar bands in the near-infrared.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Theoretical predictions of buckyball molecules appeared in the late 1960s  and early 1970s. Buckminsterfullerene was first generated in 1984 by Eric Rohlfing, Donald Cox, and Andrew Kaldor using a laser to vaporize carbon in a supersonic helium beam, although the group did not realize that buckminsterfullerene had been produced. In 1985 their work was repeated by Harold Kroto, James R. Heath, Sean C. O'Brien, Robert Curl, and Richard Smalley at Rice University, who recognized the structure of C as buckminsterfullerene.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Concurrent but unconnected to the Kroto-Smalley work, astrophysicists were working with spectroscopists to study infrared emissions from giant red carbon stars. Smalley and team were able to use a laser vaporization technique to create carbon clusters which could potentially emit infrared at the same wavelength as had been emitted by the red carbon star. Hence, the inspiration came to Smalley and team to use the laser technique on graphite to generate fullerenes.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Using laser evaporation of graphite the Smalley team found C clusters (where and even) of which the most common were C and C. A solid rotating graphite disk was used as the surface from which carbon was vaporized using a laser beam creating hot plasma that was then passed through a stream of high-density helium gas. The carbon species were subsequently cooled and ionized resulting in the formation of clusters. Clusters ranged in molecular masses, but Kroto and Smalley found predominance in a C cluster that could be enhanced further by allowing the plasma to react longer. They also discovered that C is a cage-like molecule, a regular truncated icosahedron.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their roles in the discovery of buckminsterfullerene and the related class of molecules, the fullerenes.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: The experimental evidence, a strong peak at 720 atomic mass units, indicated that a carbon molecule with 60 carbon atoms was forming, but provided no structural information. The research group concluded after reactivity experiments, that the most likely structure was a spheroidal molecule. The idea was quickly rationalized as the basis of an icosahedral symmetry closed cage structure. Kroto mentioned geodesic dome structures of the noted futurist and inventor Buckminster Fuller as influences in the naming of this particular substance as buckminsterfullerene.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: In 1989 physicists Wolfgang Krätschmer, Konstantinos Fostiropoulos, and Donald R. Huffman observed unusual optical absorptions in thin films of carbon dust (soot). The soot had been generated by an arc-process between two graphite electrodes in a helium atmosphere where the electrode material evaporates and condenses forming soot in the quenching atmosphere. Among other features, the IR spectra of the soot showed four discrete bands in close agreement to those proposed for C.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Another paper on the characterization and verification of the molecular structure followed on in the same year (1990) from their thin film experiments, and detailed also the extraction of an evaporable as well as benzene-soluble material from the arc-generated soot. This extract had TEM and X-ray crystal analysis consistent with arrays of spherical C molecules, approximately 1.0 nm in van der Waals diameter as well as the expected molecular mass of 720 Da for C (and 840 Da for C) in their mass spectra. The method was simple and efficient to prepare the material in gram amounts per day (1990) which has boosted the fullerene research and is even today applied for the commercial production of fullerenes.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: The discovery of practical routes to C led to the exploration of a new field of chemistry involving the study of fullerenes.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: The discoverers of the allotrope named the newfound molecule after Buckminster Fuller, who designed many geodesic dome structures that look similar to C and who had died in 1983, the year before discovery. This is slightly misleading, however, as Fuller's geodesic domes are constructed only by further dividing hexagons or pentagons into triangles, which are then deformed by moving vertices radially outward to fit the surface of a sphere. Geometrically speaking, buckminsterfullerene is a naturally-occurring example of a Goldberg polyhedron. A common, shortened name for buckminsterfullerene is buckyballs.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Soot is produced by laser ablation of graphite or pyrolysis of aromatic hydrocarbons. Fullerenes are extracted from the soot with organic solvents using a Soxhlet extractor. This step yields a solution containing up to 75% of C, as well as other fullerenes. These fractions are separated using chromatography. Generally, the fullerenes are dissolved in a hydrocarbon or halogenated hydrocarbon and separated using alumina columns.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Buckminsterfullerene is a truncated icosahedron with 60 vertices, 32 faces (20 hexagons and 12 pentagons where no pentagons share a vertex), and 90 edges (30 edges between 5-membered & 6-membered rings and 60 edges are shared between 6-membered & 6-membered rings), with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge. The van der Waals diameter of a molecule is about 1.01 nanometers (nm). The nucleus to nucleus diameter of a molecule is about 0.71 nm. The molecule has two bond lengths. The 6:6 ring bonds (between two hexagons) can be considered "double bonds" and are shorter than the 6:5 bonds (between a hexagon and a pentagon). Its average bond length is 0.14 nm. Each carbon atom in the structure is bonded covalently with 3 others. A carbon atom in the can be substituted by a nitrogen or boron atom yielding a or CB respectively.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: For a time buckminsterfullerene was the largest known molecule observed to exhibit wave–particle duality; theoretically every object exhibits this behavior. In 2020 the dye molecule phthalocyanine exhibited the duality that is more famously attributed to light, electrons and other small particles and molecules.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Fullerenes are sparingly soluble in aromatic solvents and carbon disulfide, but insoluble in water. Solutions of pure C have a deep purple color which leaves a brown residue upon evaporation. The reason for this color change is the relatively narrow energy width of the band of molecular levels responsible for green light absorption by individual C molecules. Thus individual molecules transmit some blue and red light resulting in a purple color. Upon drying, intermolecular interaction results in the overlap and broadening of the energy bands, thereby eliminating the blue light transmittance and causing the purple to brown color change.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: In solid buckminsterfullerene, the C molecules adopt the fcc (face-centered cubic) motif. They start rotating at about −20 °C. This change is associated with a first-order phase transition to an fcc structure and a small, yet abrupt increase in the lattice constant from 1.411 to 1.4154 nm.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: undergoes six reversible, one-electron reductions, ultimately generating . It's oxidation is irreversible. The first reduction occurs at ≈-1.0 V (Fc/), showing that C is a reluctant electron acceptor. tends to avoid having double bonds in the pentagonal rings, which makes electron delocalization poor, and results in not being "superaromatic". C behaves like an electron deficient alkene. For example, it reacts with some nucleophiles.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: C exhibits a small degree of aromatic character, but it still reflects localized double and single C–C bond characters. Therefore, C can undergo addition with hydrogen to give polyhydrofullerenes. C also undergoes Birch reduction. For example, C reacts with lithium in liquid ammonia, followed by "tert"-butanol to give a mixture of polyhydrofullerenes such as CH, CH, CH, with CH being the dominating product. This mixture of polyhydrofullerenes can be re-oxidized by 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone to give C again.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: A selective hydrogenation method exists. Reaction of C with 9,9′,10,10′-dihydroanthracene under the same conditions, depending on the time of reaction, gives CH and CH respectively and selectively.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: C can be hydrogenated, suggesting that a modified buckminsterfullerene called organometallic buckyballs (OBBs) could become a vehicle for "high density, room temperature, ambient pressure storage of hydrogen". These OBBs are created by binding atoms of a transition metal (TM) to C or CB and then binding many hydrogen atoms to this TM atom, dispersing them evenly throughout the inside of the organometallic buckyball. The study found that the theoretical amount of H that can be retrieved from the OBB at ambient pressure approaches 9 wt %, a mass fraction that has been designated as optimal for hydrogen fuel by the U.S. Department of Energy.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Addition of fluorine, chlorine, and bromine occurs for C. Fluorine atoms are small enough for a 1,2-addition, while Cl and Br add to remote C atoms due to steric factors. For example, in CBr and CBr, the Br atoms are in 1,3- or 1,4-positions with respect to each other. Under various conditions a vast number of halogenated derivatives of C can be produced, some with an extraordinary selectivity on one or two isomers over the other possible ones. Addition of fluorine and chlorine usually results in a flattening of the C framework into a drum-shaped molecule.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Solutions of C can be oxygenated to the epoxide CO. Ozonation of C in 1,2-xylene at 257K gives an intermediate ozonide CO, which can be decomposed into 2 forms of CO. Decomposition of CO at 296 K gives the epoxide, but photolysis gives a product in which the O atom bridges a 5,6-edge.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: The Diels–Alder reaction is commonly employed to functionalize C. Reaction of C with appropriate substituted diene gives the corresponding adduct.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: The Diels–Alder reaction between C and 3,6-diaryl-1,2,4,5-tetrazines affords C. The C has the structure in which a four-membered ring is surrounded by four six-membered rings.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: The C molecules can also be coupled through a [2+2] cycloaddition, giving the dumbbell-shaped compound C. The coupling is achieved by high-speed vibrating milling of C with a catalytic amount of KCN. The reaction is reversible as C dissociates back to two C molecules when heated at . Under high pressure and temperature, repeated [2+2] cycloaddition between C results in polymerized fullerene chains and networks. These polymers remain stable at ambient pressure and temperature once formed, and have remarkably interesting electronic and magnetic properties, such as being ferromagnetic above room temperature.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Reactions of C with free radicals readily occur. When C is mixed with a disulfide RSSR, the radical CSR• forms spontaneously upon irradiation of the mixture.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Stability of the radical species CY depends largely on steric factors of Y. When "tert"-butyl halide is photolyzed and allowed to react with C, a reversible inter-cage C–C bond is formed:


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Cyclopropanation (the Bingel reaction) is another common method for functionalizing C. Cyclopropanation of C mostly occurs at the junction of 2 hexagons due to steric factors.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: The first cyclopropanation was carried out by treating the β-bromomalonate with C in the presence of a base. Cyclopropanation also occur readily with diazomethanes. For example, diphenyldiazomethane reacts readily with C to give the compound CPh. Phenyl-C-butyric acid methyl ester derivative prepared through cyclopropanation has been studied for use in organic solar cells.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: The LUMO in C is triply degenerate, with the HOMO–LUMO separation relatively small. This small gap suggests that reduction of C should occur at mild potentials leading to fulleride anions, [C] ("n" = 1–6). The midpoint potentials of 1-electron reduction of buckminsterfullerene and its anions is given in the table below:


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: C oxidizes with difficulty. Three reversible oxidation processes have been observed by using cyclic voltammetry with ultra-dry methylene chloride and a supporting electrolyte with extremely high oxidation resistance and low nucleophilicity, such as [BuN] [AsF].


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: C forms complexes akin to the more common alkenes. Complexes have been reported molybdenum, tungsten, platinum, palladium, iridium, and titanium. The pentacarbonyl species are produced by photochemical reactions.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: In the case of platinum complex, the labile ethylene ligand is the leaving group in a thermal reaction:


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: One such iridium complex, [Ir("η"-C)(CO)Cl(PhCHCHOCHPh)] has been prepared where the metal center projects two electron-rich 'arms' that embrace the C guest.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Metal atoms or certain small molecules such as H and noble gas can be encapsulated inside the C cage. These endohedral fullerenes are usually synthesized by doping in the metal atoms in an arc reactor or by laser evaporation. These methods gives low yields of endohedral fullerenes, and a better method involves the opening of the cage, packing in the atoms or molecules, and closing the opening using certain organic reactions. This method, however, is still immature and only a few species have been synthesized this way.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Endohedral fullerenes show distinct and intriguing chemical properties that can be completely different from the encapsulated atom or molecule, as well as the fullerene itself. The encapsulated atoms have been shown to perform circular motions inside the C cage, and their motion has been followed using NMR spectroscopy.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: The optical absorption properties of C match the solar spectrum in a way that suggests that C-based films could be useful for photovoltaic applications. Because of its high electronic affinity it is one of the most common electron acceptors used in donor/acceptor based solar cells. Conversion efficiencies up to 5.7% have been reported in C–polymer cells.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: C is sensitive to light, so leaving C under light exposure causes it to degrade, becoming dangerous. The ingestion of C solutions that have been exposed to light could lead to developing cancer (tumors). So the management of C products for human ingestion requires caution measures such as: elaboration in very dark environments, encasing into bottles of great opacity, and storing in dark places, and others like consumption under low light conditions and using labels to warn about the problems with light.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Solutions of C dissolved in olive oil or water, as long as they are preserved from light, have been found nontoxic to rodents.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Otherwise, a study found that C remains in the body for a longer time than usual, especially in the liver, where it tends to be accumulated, and therefore has the potential to induce detrimental health effects.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: An experiment in 2011–2012 administered a solution of C in olive oil to rats, achieving a major prolongation of their lifespan. Since then, many oils with C have been sold as antioxidant products, but it does not avoid the problem of their sensitivity to light, that can turn them toxic. A later research confirmed that exposition to light degrades solutions of C in oil, making it toxic and leading to a "massive" increase of the risk of developing cancer (tumors) after its consumption.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: To avoid the degradation by effect of light, C oils must be made in very dark environments, encased into bottles of great opacity, and kept in darkness, consumed under low light conditions and accompanied by labels to warn about the dangers of light for C.


title: Buckminsterfullerene

text: Some producers have been able to dissolve C in water to avoid possible problems with oils, but that would not protect C from light, so the same cautions are needed.