title: Morgan Earp

text: At 10:50 p.m. on Saturday, March 18, 1882, after returning from a musical at Schieffelin Hall, Morgan was ambushed. He was playing a late round of billiards at the Campbell & Hatch Billiard Parlor against owner Bob Hatch. Dan Tipton, Sherman McMaster, and Wyatt watched, having received threats that same day.


title: Morgan Earp

text: The assailant shot Morgan through the upper half of a four-pane windowed door. The bottom two windows had been painted over. The door opened onto a dark alley that ran through the block between Allen and Fremont Streets. Morgan, about from the door, was struck by a bullet in the back which injured his spine then exited his front and entered the thigh of mining foreman George A. B. Berry. Another bullet lodged in the wall near the ceiling over Wyatt's head. Several men rushed into the alley but found the shooter had fled.


title: Morgan Earp

text: After Morgan was shot, his brothers tried to help him stand, but Morgan said "Don't, I can't stand it. This is the last game of pool I'll ever play." They moved him to the floor near the card room door. Dr. William Miller arrived first, followed by Drs. Matthews and George Goodfellow. They all examined Morgan. Goodfellow, who would earn recognition in the United States as the nation's leading expert at treating abdominal gunshot wounds, concluded that Morgan's wounds were fatal.


title: Morgan Earp

text: In the book "", author Stuart Lake wrote that Wyatt said that Morgan, before dying, whispered to Wyatt, "I can't see a damned thing." Wyatt said that they had promised each other to report visions of the next world when at the point of death. They moved him to a lounge and Morgan's family—Wyatt, Virgil, and James, along with Allie and Bessie—gathered around him. Morgan's wife Louisa was in Colton with his parents, and Warren Earp was out of town. Morgan died less than an hour after he was shot.


title: Morgan Earp

text: After his death, Morgan was laid out in a blue suit belonging to Doc Holliday. The family held his funeral in the Cosmopolitan Hotel. Wyatt learned that Frank Stilwell and others were waiting for them in Tucson, and assembled several deputies who guarded Virgil, Maddie, Ally and James. The Earps took Morgan's body by wagon the next day to Benson, where they hired a wagon to get to the New Mexico and Arizona railroad station in Contention. From Contention, they caught a train to Tucson. While waiting for the next train in Tucson, they saw Stilwell apparently lying in wait and killed him. From Tucson, James accompanied Virgil, Maddie, Ally and Morgan's body to Colton, California where Morgan's wife and parents were waiting. Morgan was first buried in the old city cemetery of Colton, near Mount Slover. When the cemetery was moved in 1892, Morgan's body was reburied in the Hermosa Cemetery in Colton.


title: Morgan Earp

text: While Wyatt and James were traveling to Contention with Morgan's body, Coroner Dr. D. M. Mathew organized a Coroner's Jury to conduct an inquest into Morgan's death.


title: Morgan Earp

text: While Wyatt was out of town, Coroner Dr. D.M. Mathew held an inquest into Morgan's death. Pete Spence's wife, Marietta Duarte, was ready to talk to the Coroner's Jury. She had been abused by her husband and may have had motivation to implicate him. She implicated her husband and four other men in Morgan's murder.


title: Morgan Earp

text: She testified that the day before, her husband and Indian Charlie were on the front porch, when they saw Morgan Earp walk by. She said Pete Spence told Indian Charlie; (Florentino Cruz) "That's him; that's him," and the Indian walked ahead of Earp to get a good look at him. The night of the shooting, her husband was away. Around midnight, Cruz and Frank Stilwell showed up, armed with pistols and carbines, and her husband arrived soon after with Freis (Frederick Bode) and a fifth unidentified man (later identified as Hank Swilling), all carrying rifles. They talked in low and excited tones. The next morning, her husband struck both her and her mother, and threatened to shoot Marietta if she told what she knew. Witnesses said they saw Frank Stilwell running from the scene.


title: Morgan Earp

text: The Coroner's jury concluded that Spence, Stilwell, Frederick Bode, and "Indian Charlie" were the prime suspects in Morgan Earp's death.


title: Morgan Earp

text: When the prosecution called Marietta Duarte to testify at the preliminary hearing, the defense objected because her testimony was hearsay and because a spouse could not testify against her husband. The judge agreed and the charges were dismissed.


title: Morgan Earp

text: On May 27, 1882, a "strong Democrat" was quoted in a letter in the Yuma, Arizona newspaper "The Arizona Sentinel" describing the events following the "murder of the noted desperado Frank Stilwell." Readers may want to know "how these so-called Republican outlaws are regarded by decent, law-abiding people in Tombstone, regardless of politics." The writer was of the opinion that Cochise County Sheriff Behan wanted the warrant from Governor Fremont with the "object was to have them assassinated... Neither the Sheriff nor any of his deputies have ever turned a hand to find the murderers" of Morgan Earp. "There is no hope for any honest man to get justice here against these scoundrels as long as Behan is in office."


title: Morgan Earp

text: Wyatt Earp finally concluded that he could not rely on the court system for justice and decided to take matters into his own hands. He concluded that the only way to deal with Virgil's shooters and Morgan's murderers was to find and kill the Cowboys he believed were responsible. He gathered a band of loyal men and deputized them. They rode out to find those responsible.


title: Morgan Earp

text: Unknown to Wyatt, three of the Cowboys he sought were in Behan's jail. After the Coroner's Jury ended, Spence immediately turned himself in, protected in Behan's jail. On the day of the inquest, two of Behan's deputy sheriffs arrested two of the suspects for other reasons. Cochise County Deputy Sheriff William Bell brought Indian Charlie from Charleston and placed him under arrest in the Tombstone jail for shooting a man in Charleston. Separately, Cochise County Deputy Sheriff Frank Hereford arrested "John Doe" Freeze. They were all later released.


title: Morgan Earp

text: While accompanying his brother Virgil to the rail head in Tucson, Wyatt spotted Frank Stilwell lying in wait. He was a suspect in Morgan's assassination. Wyatt and others pursued Stilwell and killed him. Earp then assembled and deputized a federal posse. They set out to track down others they believed responsible for shooting Virgil and killing Morgan. During the Earp Vendetta Ride, the federal posse looked for Pete Spence but found he was already in jail. They killed Florentino "Indian Charlie" Cruz, who had been identified by Pete Spence's wife as taking part in ambushing Virgil. They also accidentally came upon Curly Bill Brocius at a spring and Wyatt killed him with a single shotgun blast. Wyatt shot Johnny Barnes in the same gunfight and he died soon after.


title: Jousting

text: Jousting is a martial game or hastilude between two horse riders wielding lances with blunted tips, often as part of a tournament. The primary aim was to replicate a clash of heavy cavalry, with each participant trying to strike the opponent while riding towards him at high speed, breaking the lance on the opponent's shield or jousting armour if possible, or unhorsing him. The joust became an iconic characteristic of the knight in Romantic medievalism. The participants experience close to three and a quarter times their body weight in G-forces when the lances collide with their armour.


title: Jousting

text: The term is derived from Old French , ultimately from Latin "to approach, to meet". The word was loaned into Middle English around 1300, when jousting was a very popular sport among the Anglo-Norman knighthood. The synonym tilt (as in tilting at windmills) dates .


title: Jousting

text: Jousting is based on the military use of the lance by heavy cavalry. It transformed into a specialized sport during the Late Middle Ages, and remained popular with the nobility in England and Wales, Germany and other parts of Europe throughout the whole of the 16th century (while in France, it was discontinued after the death of King Henry II in an accident in 1559). In England, jousting was the highlight of the Accession Day tilts of Elizabeth I and of James VI and I, and also was part of the festivities at the marriage of Charles I.


title: Jousting

text: From 10 July to 9 August 1434, the Leonese knight Suero de Quiñones and ten of his companions encamped in a field beside a bridge and challenged each knight who wished to cross it to a joust. This road was used by pilgrims all over Europe on the way to a shrine at Santiago de Compostela, and at this time of the summer, many thousands would cross the bridge. Suero and his men swore to "break 300 lances" before moving on. The men fought for over a month, and after 166 battles Suero and his men were so injured they could not continue and declared the mission complete.


title: Jousting

text: Jousting was discontinued in favour of other equestrian sports in the 17th century, although non-contact forms of "equestrian skill-at-arms" disciplines survived. There has been a limited revival of theatrical jousting re-enactment since the 1970s.


title: Jousting

text: The medieval joust has its origins in the military tactics of heavy cavalry during the High Middle Ages. By the 14th century, many members of the nobility, including kings, had taken up jousting to showcase their own courage, skill and talents, and the sport proved just as dangerous for a king as a knight, and from the 15th century on, jousting became a sport (hastilude) without direct relevance to warfare.


title: Jousting

text: From the 11th to 14th centuries when medieval jousting was still practised in connection to the use of the lance in warfare, armour evolved from mail (with a solid, heavy helmet, called a "great helm", and shield) to plate armour. By 1400, knights wore full suits of plate armour, called a "harness" (Clephan 28–29).


title: Jousting

text: In this early period, a "joust" was still a (martial) "meeting", i.e. a duel in general and not limited to the lance.


title: Jousting

text: Combatants would begin riding on one another with the lance, but might continue with shorter range weapons after the distance was closed or after one or both parties had been unhorsed.


title: Jousting

text: Tournaments in the High Medieval period were much rougher and less "gentlemanly" affairs than in the late medieval era of chivalry. The rival parties would fight in groups, with the aim of incapacitating their adversaries for the sake of gaining their horses, arms and ransoms.


title: Jousting

text: With the development of the courtly ideals of chivalry in the late medieval period, the joust became more regulated.


title: Jousting

text: This tendency is also reflected in the pas d'armes in general. It was now considered dishonourable to exploit an opponent's disadvantage, and knights would pay close attention to avoid being in a position of advantage, seeking to gain honour by fighting against the odds.


title: Jousting

text: This romanticised "chivalric revival" was based on the chivalric romances of the high medieval period, which noblemen tried to "reenact" in real life, sometimes blurring the lines of reality and fiction.


title: Jousting

text: The development of the term "knight" ("chevalier") dates to this period. Before the 12th century, "cniht" was a term for a servant. In the 12th century, it became used of a military follower in particular. Also in the 12th century, a special class of noblemen serving in cavalry developed, known as "milites nobiles". By the end of the 13th century, "chivalry" ("chyualerye") was used not just in the technical sense of "cavalry" but for martial virtue in general. It was only after 1300 that "knighthood" ("kniȝthod", originally a term for "boyhood, youth") came to be used as a junior rank of nobility. By the later 14th century, the term became romanticised for the ideal of the young nobleman seeking to prove himself in honourable exploits, the knight-errant, which among other things encompassed the pas d'armes, including the joust. By the 15th century, "knightly" virtues were sought by the noble classes even of ranks much senior than "knight". The iconic association of the "knight" stock-character with the joust is thus historical, but develops only at the end of the Middle Ages.


title: Jousting

text: The "lists", or "list field", was the arena where a jousting event was held. More precisely, it was the roped-off enclosure where tournament fighting took place. In the late medieval period, castles and palaces were augmented by purpose-built tiltyards as a venue for "jousting tournaments". Training for such activities included the use of special equipment, of which the best-known was the quintain.


title: Jousting

text: The "Chronicles of Froissart", written during the 1390s, and covering the period of 1327 to 1400, contain many details concerning jousting in this era. The combat was now expected to be non-lethal, and it was not necessary to incapacitate the opponent, who was expected to honourably yield to the dominant fighter. The combat was divided into rounds of three encounters with various weapons, of which the joust proper was one. During this time, the joust detached itself from the reality on the battlefield and became a chivalric sport. Knights would seek opportunities to duel opponents from the hostile camp for honour off the battlefield.


title: Jousting

text: As an example, Froissart records that, during a campaign in Beauce in the year 1380, a squire of the garrison of Toury castle named Gauvain Micaille (Michaille)—also mentioned in the "Chronique du bon duc Loys de Bourbon" as wounded in 1382 at Roosebeke, and again in 1386; in 1399 was in the service of the duke of Bourbon—yelled out to the English,


title: Jousting

text: The challenge was answered by a squire named Joachim Cator, who said "I will deliver him from his vow: let him make haste and come out of the castle."


title: Jousting

text: Micaille came to meet his opponent with attendants carrying three lances, three battle-axes, three swords and three daggers. The duel began with a joust, described as follows:


title: Jousting

text: In spite of the French squire's injury, the duel was continued with three thrusts with the sword. After this, the encounter was stopped because of the Micaille's loss of blood. He was given leave to rejoin his garrison with a reward of a hundred francs by the earl of Buckingham, who stated that he had acquitted himself much to his satisfaction.


title: Jousting

text: Froissart describes a tournament at Cambray in 1385, held on the marriage of the Count d'Ostrevant to the daughter of Duke Philip of Burgundy. The tournament was held in the market-place of the town, and forty knights took part. The king jousted with a knight of Hainault, Sir John Destrenne, for the prize of a clasp of precious stones, taken off from the bosom of the Duchess of Burgundy; it was won by Sir Destrenne, and formally presented by the Admiral of France and Sir Guy de la Trimouille.


title: Jousting

text: A knightly duel in this period usually consisted in three courses of jousting, and three blows and strokes exchanged with battle-axes, swords, and daggers. This number tended to be extended towards the end of the century, until the most common number was five, as in the duel between Sir Thomas Harpenden and Messire Jean des Barres, at Montereau sur Yonne in 1387 ("cinq lances a cheval, cinq coups d'épée, cinq coups de dague et cinq coups de hache"). Later could be as high as ten or even twelve. In the 1387 encounter, the first four courses of the joust were run without decisive outcome, but in the fifth Sir Thomas was unhorsed and lost consciousness. He was revived, however, and all the strokes and blows could be duly exchanged, without any further injury.


title: Jousting

text: On another instance, a meeting with sharp lances was arranged to take place near Nantes, under the auspices of the Constable of France and the Earl of Buckingham. The first encounter was a combat on foot, with sharp spears, in which one of the cavaliers was slightly wounded; the pair then ran three courses with the lance without further mishap. Next Sir John Ambreticourt of Hainault and Sir Tristram de la Jaille of Poitou advanced from the ranks and jousted three courses, without hurt. A duel followed between Edward Beauchamp, son of Sir Robert Beauchamp, and the bastard Clarius de Savoye. Clarius was much the stronger man of the two, and Beauchamp was unhorsed. The bastard then offered to fight another English champion, and an esquire named Jannequin Finchly came forward in answer to the call; the combat with swords and lances was very violent, but neither of the parties was hurt.


title: Jousting

text: Another encounter took place between John de Chatelmorant and Jannequin Clinton, in which the Englishman was unhorsed. Finally Chatelmorant fought with Sir William Farrington, the former receiving a dangerous wound in the thigh, for which the Englishman was greatly blamed, as being an infraction of the rules of the tourney, but an accident was pleaded just as in the case of the 1380 duel between Gauvain Micaille and Joachim Cator.


title: Jousting

text: The medieval joust took place on an open field. Indeed, the term "joust" meant "a meeting" and referred to arranged combat in general, not just the jousting with lances. At some point in the 14th century, a cloth barrier was introduced as an option to separate the contestants. This barrier was presumably known as "tilt" in Middle English (a term with an original meaning of "a cloth covering"). It became a wooden barrier or fence in the 15th century, now known as "tilt barrier", and "tilt" came to be used as a term for the joust itself by . The purpose of the tilt barrier was to prevent collisions and to keep the combatants at an optimal angle for breaking the lance. This greatly facilitated the control of the horse and allowed the rider to concentrate on aiming the lance. The introduction of the barrier seems to have originated in the south, as it only became a standard feature of jousting in Germany in the 16th century, and was there called the Italian or "" mode. Dedicated tilt-yards with such barriers were built in England from the time of Henry VIII.


title: Jousting

text: Specialised jousting armour was produced in the late 15th to 16th century. It was heavier than suits of plate armour intended for combat, and could weigh as much as 50 kg (110 lb), compared to some 25 kg (55 lb) for field armour; as it did not need to permit free movement of the wearer, the only limiting factor was the maximum weight that could be carried by a warhorse of the period.


title: Jousting

text: During the 1490s, emperor Maximilian I invested much effort into perfecting the sport, for which he received his nickname of "The Last Knight". ' and ' were two sportive forms of the joust developed during the 15th century and practised throughout the 16th century. The armours used for these two respective styles of the joust were known as ' and ', respectively. The ' in particular developed into extremely heavy armour which completely inhibited the movement of the rider, in its latest forms resembling an armour-shaped cabin integrated into the horse armour more than a functional suit of armour. Such forms of sportive equipment during the final phase of the joust in 16th-century Germany gave rise to modern misconceptions about the heaviness or clumsiness of "medieval armour", as notably popularised by Mark Twain's "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court". The extremely heavy helmets of the ' are explained by the fact that the aim was to detach the crest of the opponent's helmet, resulting in frequent full impact of the lance to the helmet.


title: Jousting

text: By contrast the ' was a type of joust with lighter contact. Here, the aim was to hit the opponent's shield. The specialised ' was developed on the request of Maximilian, who desired a return to a more agile form of joust compared to the heavily armoured "full contact" '. In the ', the shield was attached to the armour with a mechanism of springs and would detach itself upon contact.


title: Jousting

text: In France, the death of King Henry II in 1559 from wounds suffered in a tournament led to the end of jousting as a sport.


title: Jousting

text: The tilt continued through Henry VIII and onto the reign of Elizabeth I. Under her rule, tournaments were seen as more of a parade or show than an actual martial exercise.


title: Jousting

text: The last Elizabethan Accession Day tilt was held in November 1602; Elizabeth died the following spring. Tilts continued as part of festivities marking the Accession Day of James I, 24 March, until 1624, the year before his death. In the early 17th century, the joust was replaced as the equine highlight of court festivities by large "horse-ballet" displays called carousels, although non-combat competitions such as the ring-tilt lasted until the 18th century. Ring tournaments were introduced into North America, and jousting continues as the state sport of Maryland.


title: Jousting

text: The two most common kinds of horses used for jousting were warmblood "chargers" and larger "destriers". Chargers were medium-weight horses bred and trained for agility and stamina. Destriers were heavier, similar to today's Andalusian horse, but not as large as the modern draft horse.


title: Jousting

text: During a jousting tournament, the horses were cared for by their grooms in their respective tents. They wore caparisons, a type of ornamental cloth featuring the owner's heraldic signs. Competing horses had their heads protected by a chanfron, an iron shield for protection from otherwise lethal lance hits.


title: Jousting

text: Other forms of equipment on the horse included long-necked spurs that enabled the rider to control the horse with extended legs, a saddle with a high back to provide leverage during the charge or when hit, as well as stirrups for the necessary leverage to deliver blows with the lance.


title: Jousting

text: Jousting reenactors have been active since the 1970s. A more popular modern-day jousting show took place in 1972 at the Principality of Gwrych in North Wales near Abergele. Various companies, such as Knights Limited, held organized shows with anywhere between five to fifty actors present.


title: Jousting

text: Between 1980 and 1982, the Little England theme park in Orlando, Florida was planned to become a jousting stadium, ultimately being cancelled due to high-interest rates. Other companies such as The Medieval Times include this sport in its dinner show. Jousting shows are also held seasonally at Warwick Castle and Hever Castle in England. Groups like the Knights of Royal England travel around Britain and Europe staging medieval jousting tournaments. At the Danish museum Middelaldercentret, daily jousting tournaments are held during the season.


title: Jousting

text: "The Knights of Valour" was a theatrical jousting group formed by Shane Adams in 1993. Members of this group began to practice jousting competitively, and their first tournament was held in 1997. Adams founded the World Championship Jousting Association (WCJA) as a body dedicated to jousting as a combat sport, which held its inaugural tournament in Port Elgin, Ontario on 24 July 1999. The sport is presented in the 2012 television show "Full Metal Jousting", hosted by Adams. The rules are inspired by "Realgestech" (also "Plankengestech"), one of the forms of "stechen" practised in 16th-century Germany, where reinforcing pieces were added to the jousting armour to serve as designated target areas. Instead of using a shield, the jousters aim for such a reinforcing piece added to the armour's left shoulder known as "" (also "Stechtartsche"). A number of Jousting events are held regularly in Europe, some organised by Arne Koets, including The Grand Tournament of Sankt Wendel and The Grand Tournament at Schaffhausen. Koets is one of a number of Jousters who travel internationally to events.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Shirk ( "širk") in Islam is the sin of idolatry or polytheism ("i.e.", the deification or worship of anyone or anything besides Allah). Islam teaches that God does not share his divine attributes with any partner. Associating partners with God is disallowed according to the Islamic doctrine of "Tawhid" ("oneness"). "Mušrikūn" (pl. of "mušrik" ) are those who practice "shirk", which literally means "association" and refers to accepting other gods and divinities alongside God (as God's "associates"). The Qur'an considers shirk as a sin that will not be forgiven if a person dies without repenting of it.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: In the context of the Quran, the particular sense of "sharing as an equal partner" is usually understood, so that polytheism means "attributing a partner to Allah". In the Quran, "shirk" and the related word "mušrikūn" ()—those who commit shirk and plot against Islam—often refer to the enemies of Islam (as in At-Tawbah verses 9:1–15).


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, the Quran states "twice", in surah "an-Nisa", verses 48 and 116, "that God can pardon all sins save one", that of shirk ("associationism").


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Islamic commentators on the Quran have emphasized that pre-Islamic Arabic idolatry made a number of godlings, most memorably the three goddesses Manāt, Al-Lāt and Al-‘Uzzá, equal associates of Allah (as the Quran discusses in the 53rd surat) and the word "mushrikūn" (singular: "mushrik") is often translated into English as "polytheists".


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: The Quran and what the people of Nuh's community would say in an effort by the idolaters to ignore and mock Nuh. "They (idolaters) have said: "You shall not leave your gods nor shall you leave Wadd, nor Suwa', nor Yaghuth, nor Ya'uq nor Nasr." ()


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Other forms of "shirk" include the worship of wealth and other material objects. This is pointed out in the Quran in Al-A'raf in one of the stories of the Children of Israel, when they took a calf made of gold for worship, and for which Moses ordered them to repent.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Entities worshipped besides God are called "shuraka". Although the existence of such entities is not denied, as they can accept sacrifices, their divinity is. After Judgement Day, they will be cast into hell along with fallen angels (shayatin) and evil jinn, whom the pagans are said to likewise sacrifice in order to gain protection.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Another form of shirk mentioned in the Quran At-Tawbah is to take scholars of religion, monks, divines, or religious lawyers as Lord(s) in practice by following their doctrines, and/or by following their rulings on what is lawful when it is at variance to the law or doctrines prescribed by Allah's revelation.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text:
And do not eat of that on which Allah's name has not been mentioned, and that is most surely a transgression; and most surely the Shaitans suggest to their friends that they should contend with you; and if you obey them, you shall most surely be polytheists.

 — Quran, sura «№6», ayah №121.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Medieval Muslim and Jewish philosophers identified belief in the Trinity with the heresy of "shirk" in Arabic ("shituf" in Hebrew), meaning "associationism", in limiting the infinity of God by associating his divinity with physical existence.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: In a theological context, one commits "shirk" by associating some lesser being with Allah. The sin is committed if one imagines that there is a partner with "Allah" whom it is suitable to worship. It is stated in the Quran: "Allah forgives not that partners should be set up with Him, but He forgives anything else, to whom He pleases, to set up partners with Allah is to devise a sin most heinous indeed" (Quran An-Nisa 4:48).


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Some followers of a Sufistic interpretation of Islam tend to regard the belief in any power other than God as a type of polytheism ("shirk"). That includes false gods but also the belief in other sources of existence. Beliefs usually accepted by monotheism, such as a devil as a source of evil or free will as source for God's creation's own responsibilities, are equated with beliefs in other powers than God and therefore denounced.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: The status of the People of the Book ("ahl al-kitab"), particularly Jews and Christians, with respect to the Islamic notions of unbelief is not clearcut. Charles Adams writes that the Quran reproaches the People of the Book with "kufr" for rejecting Muhammad's message when they should have been the first to accept it as possessors of earlier revelations, and he singles out Christians for disregarding the evidence of God's unity. The Quranic verse Al-Ma'idah 5:73 ("Certainly they disbelieve ["kafara"] who say: God is the third of three"), among other verses, has been traditionally understood in Islam as rejection of the Christian Trinity doctrine, but modern scholarship has suggested alternative interpretations. Other Quranic verses strongly deny the deity of Jesus Christ, the son of Mary, and reproach the people who treat Jesus as equal with God as disbelievers, who will be doomed to eternal punishment in Hell. The Quran also does not recognise the attribute of Jesus as the Son of God or God himself but respects Jesus as a prophet and messenger of God, who was sent to children of Israel. Some Muslim thinkers such as Mohamed Talbi have viewed the most extreme Qur'anic presentations of the dogmas of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus (Al-Ma'idah 5:19, 5:75-76, 5:119) as non-Christian formulas, which were rejected by the Church.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Cyril Glasse criticises the use of "kafirun" [pl. of "kafir"] to describe Christians as a "loose usage". According to the "Encyclopaedia of Islam", traditional Islamic jurisprudence has "ahl al-kitab" being "usually regarded more leniently than other "kuffar" [pl. of "kafir"]," and "in theory," a Muslim commits a punishable offense if he says to a Jew or a Christian, "Thou unbeliever."


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Historically, People of the Book permanently residing under Islamic rule were entitled to a special status known as "dhimmi", and those who were visiting Muslim lands received a different status known as "musta'min".


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Other interpretations divide greater "shirk" into three main categories. "Shirk" can be committed by acting against the three different categories.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: This category of "shirk" refers to either the belief that others share Allah's lordship over creation as his equal or near equal or to the belief that there is no lord over creation at all.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: This category of "shirk" includes both the non-believer practices of giving Allah the attributes of his creation and the act of giving Allah's names and attributes to created beings.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: In this category of "shirk", acts of worship are directed to others besides Allah, and the reward for worship is sought from the creation, instead of the creator. As in the case of the previous categories, "shirk" in "al-'Ibadah" has two main aspects.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: This form of "shirk" occurs when any act of worship is directed to someone else besides Allah. It represents the most obvious form of idolatry against which the prophets were specifically sent by Allah and called the masses of mankind to give it up. Examples of this "shirk" are asking for forgiveness and admittance to paradise, which only Allah can provide, from others besides Allah.


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Lesser "shirk", or "Shirke-e-Asghar", means hidden polytheism. A person commits it by professing "tawhid" (there is no god except Allah) but having thoughts and actions that do not reflect that belief:


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Mahmud ibn Lubayd reported, "Allah's messenger said: 'The thing I fear for you the most is ash-Shirk al-Asghar.'"


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Mahmud ibn Lubayd also said, "The Prophet came out and announced, 'O people, beware of secret Shirk!'"


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: Umar ibn al-Khattab narrated that the Messenger of Allah said: "Whoever swears by other than Allah has committed an act of kufr or shirk." (graded "hasan" by Al-Tirmidhi and "saheeh" by Al-Hakim)


title: Shirk (Islam)

text: According to Ibn Mas’ood, one of Muhammad's companions said: "That I should swear by Allah upon a lie is more preferable to me than that I should swear by another upon the truth."


title: Greek tragedy

text: Greek tragedy is a form of theatre from Ancient Greece and Greek inhabited Anatolia. It reached its most significant form in Athens in the 5th century BC, the works of which are sometimes called Attic tragedy.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Greek tragedy is widely believed to be an extension of the ancient rites carried out in honor of Dionysus, and it heavily influenced the theatre of Ancient Rome and the Renaissance. Tragic plots were most often based upon myths from the oral traditions of archaic epics. In tragic theatre, however, these narratives were presented by actors. The most acclaimed Greek tragedians are Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. These tragedians often explored many themes around human nature, mainly as a way of connecting with the audience but also as way of bringing the audience into the play.


title: Greek tragedy

text: The origin of the word "tragedy" has been a matter of discussion from ancient times. The primary source of knowledge on the question is the "Poetics" of Aristotle. Aristotle was able to gather first-hand documentation from theater performance in Attica, which is inaccessible to scholars today. His work is therefore invaluable for the study of ancient tragedy, even if his testimony is open to doubt on some points.


title: Greek tragedy

text: According to Aristotle, tragedy evolved from the satyr dithyramb, an Ancient Greek hymn, which was sung along with dancing in honor of Dionysus. The term , derived from "goat" and "song", means "song of the goats," referring to the chorus of satyrs. Others suggest that the term came into being when the legendary Thespis (the root for the English word "thespian") competed in the first tragic competition for the prize of a goat (hence tragedy).


title: Greek tragedy

text: Alexandrian grammarians understood the term as a "song for the sacrifice of the goat" or "song for the goat", believing the animal was a prize in a race, as attested by Horace's "Ars Poetica":


title: Greek tragedy

text: There are other suggested etymologies for the word "tragedy". The "Oxford English Dictionary" adds to the standard reference to "goat song", that:As to the reason of the name, many theories have been offered, some even disputing the connection with ‘goat’.


title: Greek tragedy

text: J. Winkler proposed that "tragedy" could be derived from the rare word "tragizein" (), which refers to "adolescent voice-change" referring to the original singers as "representative of those undergoing social puberty".


title: Greek tragedy

text: Other hypotheses have included an etymology that would define the tragedy as an ode to beer. Jane Ellen Harrison pointed out that Dionysus, god of wine (a drink of the wealthy classes) was actually preceded by Dionysus, god of beer (a drink of the working classes). Athenian beer was obtained from the fermentation of barley, which is "tragos" in Greek. Thus, it is likely that the term was originally meant to be "odes to spelt," and later on, it was extended to other meanings of the same name. She writes:


title: Greek tragedy

text: The origin of Greek tragedy is one of the unsolved problems of classical scholarship. Ruth Scodel notes that, due to lack of evidence and doubtful reliability of sources, we know nearly nothing about tragedy's origin. Still, R.P. Winnington-Ingram points out that we can easily trace various influences from other genres. The stories that tragedy deals with stem from epic and lyric poetry, its meter—the iambic trimeter—owed much to the political rhetoric of Solon, and the choral songs' dialect, meter and vocabulary seem to originate in choral lyric. How these have come to be associated with one another remains a mystery however.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Three innovations must have taken place for tragedy as we know it to exist. First, somebody created a new kind of performance by combining a speaker with a chorus and putting both speaker and chorus in disguise as characters in a story from legend or history. Second, this performance was made part of the City Dionysia at Athens. Third, regulations defined how it was to be managed and paid for. It is theoretically possible that all these were simultaneous, but it is not likely.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Aristotle writes in the "Poetics" that, in the beginning, tragedy was an improvisation "by those who led off the dithyramb", which was a hymn in honor of Dionysus. This was brief and burlesque in tone because it contained elements of the satyr play. Gradually, the language became more serious and the meter changed from trochaic tetrameter to the more prosaic iambic trimeter. In Herodotus "Histories" and later sources, the lyric poet Arion of Methymna is said to be the inventor of the dithyramb. The dithyramb was originally improvised, but later written down before performance. The Greek chorus of up to 50 men and boys danced and sang in a circle, probably accompanied by an aulos, relating to some event in the life of Dionysus.


title: Greek tragedy

text: "Somebody, presumably Thespis, decided to combine spoken verse with choral song. ... As tragedy developed, the actors began to interact more with each other, and the role of the chorus became smaller." Scodell notes that:


title: Greek tragedy

text: The Greek word for “actor” is "hypocrites", which means “answerer” or “interpreter,” but the word cannot tell us anything about tragedy’s origins, since we do not know when it came into use.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Also, Easterling says: There is .. much to be said for the view that "hypokrites" means 'answerer'. He answers the questions of the chorus and so evokes their songs. He answers with a long speech about his own situation or, when he enters as messenger, with a narrative of disastrous events ... Naturally, the transformation of the leader into an actor entailed a dramatization of the


title: Greek tragedy

text: Tradition attributes Thespis as the first person to represent a character in a play. This took place in 534 BC during the Dionysia established by Peisistratus. Of his tragedies we know little except that the choir was still formed by Satyrs and that, according to Aristotle, he was the first to win a dramatic contest, and the first () who portrayed a character rather than speaking as himself. Moreover, Themistius, a writer of the 4th century AD, reports that Thespis invented the prologue as well as the spoken part (). Other playwrights of the time were Choerilus, author of probably one hundred and sixty tragedies (with thirteen victories), and Pratinas of Phlius, author of fifty works, of which thirty-two are satyr plays. We have little record of these works except their titles. At this time, satyr plays were presented alongside tragedies. Pratinas definitely competed with Aeschylus and worked from 499 BC.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Another playwright was Phrynichus. Aristophanes sings his praises in his plays: for example, "The Wasps" presents him as a radical democrat close to Themistocles. Besides introducing dialogues in iambic trimeter and including female characters for the first time, Phrynichus also introduced historical content to the genre of tragedy (e.g. in the "Capture of Miletus"). His first victory in a contest was in 510 BC. At this time, the organization of plays into trilogies began.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Aeschylus was to establish the basic rules of tragic drama. He is credited with inventing the trilogy, a series of three tragedies that tell one long story, and introduced the second actor, making the dramatization of a conflict possible. Trilogies were performed in sequence over a full day, sunrise to sunset. At the end of the last play, a satyr play was staged to revive the spirits of the public, possibly depressed by the events of the tragedy.


title: Greek tragedy

text: In the work of Aeschylus, comparing the first tragedies with those of subsequent years, there is an evolution and enrichment of the proper elements of tragic drama: dialogue, contrasts, and theatrical effects. This is due to the competition in which the older Aeschylus was with other playwrights, especially the young Sophocles, who introduced a third actor, increased plot complexity and developed more human characters, with which the audience could identify.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Aeschylus was at least partially receptive to Sophocles' innovations, but remained faithful to a very strict morality and a very intense religiosity. So, for instance, in Aeschylus, Zeus always has the role of ethical thinking and action. Musically Aeschylus remains tied to the "nomoi", rhythmic and melodic structures developed in the Archaic period.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Plutarch, in the "Life of Cimon", recounts the first triumph of the young talented Sophocles against the famous and hitherto unchallenged Aeschylus. This competition ended in an unusual manner, without the usual draw for the referees, and caused the voluntary exile of Aeschylus to Sicily. Many innovations were introduced by Sophocles, and earned him at least twenty triumphs. He introduced a third actor, increased the number of chorus members to fifteen; he also introduced scenery and the use of scenes.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Compared to Aeschylus, the chorus became less important in explaining the plot and there was a greater emphasis on character development and conflict. In "Oedipus at Colonus", the chorus repeats "not to be born is best." The events that overwhelm the lives of the heroes are in no way explained or justified, and in this we see the beginning of a painful reflection on the human condition, still current in the contemporary world.


title: Greek tragedy

text: The peculiarities that distinguish the Euripidean tragedies from those of the other two playwrights are the search for technical experimentation, and increased attention for feelings, as a mechanism to elaborate the unfolding of tragic events.


title: Greek tragedy

text: The experimentation carried out by Euripides in his tragedies can be observed mainly in three aspects that characterize his theater: he turned the prologue into a monologue informing the spectators of the story's background, introduced the "deus ex machina" and gradually diminished the choir's prominence from the dramatic point of view in favor of a monody sung by the characters.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Another novelty of Euripidean drama is represented by the realism with which the playwright portrays his characters' psychological dynamics. The hero described in his tragedies is no longer the resolute character as he appears in the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles, but often an insecure person, troubled by internal conflict.


title: Greek tragedy

text: He uses female protagonists of the plays, such as Andromache, Phaedra and Medea, to portray the tormented sensitivity and irrational impulses that collide with the world of reason.


title: Greek tragedy

text: The structure of Greek tragedy is characterized by a set of conventions. The tragedy usually begins with a prologue, (from" pro" and" logos", "preliminary speech") in which one or more characters introduce the drama and explain the background of the ensuing story. The prologue is followed by the "parodos (entry of the characters/group)" (πάροδος), after which the story unfolds through three or more episodes (ἐπεισόδια, epeisodia). The episodes are interspersed by stasima (στάσιμoν, stasimon), choral interludes explaining or commenting on the situation developing in the play. In the episode, there is usually interaction between characters and the chorus. The tragedy ends with the "exodus" (ἔξοδος), concluding the story. Some plays do not adhere to this conventional structure. Aeschylus' "The Persians" and "Seven Against Thebes", for example, have no prologue.


title: Greek tragedy

text: The Greek dialects used are the Attic dialect for the parts spoken or recited by individual characters, and a literary Doric dialect for the chorus. For the metre, the spoken parts mainly use the iambic (iambic trimeter), described as the most natural by Aristotle, while the choral parts rely on a variety of meters. Anapaests were typically used as the chorus or a character moved on or off the stage, and lyric metres were used for the choral odes. These included Dactylo-epitrites and various Aeolic metres, sometimes interspersed with iambics. Dochmiacs often appear in passages of extreme emotion.


title: Greek tragedy

text: As already mentioned, Aristotle wrote the first critical study of the tragedy: the "Poetics". He uses the concepts of "mimesis" (, "imitation"), and "catharsis" or "katharsis" (, "cleansing") to explain the function of tragedy. He writes: "Tragedy is, therefore, an imitation ("mimēsis") of a noble and complete action [...] which through compassion and fear produces purification of the passions." Whereas "mimēsis" implies an imitation of human affairs, "catharsis" means a certain emotional cleansing of the spectator. What exactly is meant by "emotional cleansing" (κάθαρσις των παθήματων) however, remains unclear throughout the work. Although many scholars have attempted to define this element vital to the understanding of Aristotle's "Poetics", they remain divided on the subject.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Gregory, for instance, argues that there is "a close relationship between tragic "katharsis" and the transformation of pity and fear [...] into essentially pleasurable emotions in the theater".


title: Greek tragedy

text: Katharsis, on this reading, will denote the overall ethical benefit that accrues from such an intense yet fulfillingly integrated experience. Exempt from the stresses that accompany pity and fear in social life, the audience of tragedy can allow these emotions an uninhibited flow that ... is satisfyingly attuned to its contemplation of the rich human significance of a well-plotted play. A "katharsis" of this kind is not reducible to either ‘‘purgation’’ or ‘‘purification.’’


title: Greek tragedy

text: promotes as "the most sophisticated view of katharsis", the idea that it "provides an education for the emotions." "Tragedy ... provides us with the appropriate objects towards which to feel pity or fear."


title: Greek tragedy

text: Aristotle asserted that a play must be complete and whole, in other words, it must have unity, i.e. a beginning, a middle and an end. The philosopher also asserted that the action of epic poetry and tragedy differ in length, "because in tragedy every effort is made for it to take place in one revolution of the sun, while the epic is unlimited in time."


title: Greek tragedy

text: These unities were considered key elements of the theatre until a few centuries ago, although they were not always observed (such as by authors like Shakespeare, Calderón de la Barca and Moliere).


title: Greek tragedy

text: Friedrich Nietzsche at the end of the 19th century highlighted the contrast between the two main elements of tragedy: firstly, the Dionysian (the passion that overwhelms the character) and the Apollonian (the purely pictorial imagery of the theatrical spectacle).


title: Greek tragedy

text: Contrasted with that is "nemesis", the divine punishment that determines the fall or death of the character.


title: Greek tragedy

text: In ancient Greek culture, says Nietzsche, "there is a conflict between the plastic arts, namely the Apollonian, and non-plastic art of music, the Dionysian." Both drives, so different from each other, go side by side, mostly in open discord and opposition, always provoking each other to new, stronger births, in order to perpetuate in themselves the struggle of opposites which is only apparently bridged over by the common word 'art'; until, finally, by a wonderful act of Hellenic 'will,' they seem to pair up and in this pairing, at last, produce Attic Tragedy, which is as much a Dionysian as an Apollonian artwork.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Greek tragedy as we understand it today, was not merely a show, but rather a collective ritual of the "polis". It took place in a sacred, consecrated space (the altar of the god stood at the center of the theatre).


title: Greek tragedy

text: A spectator of a Greek dramatic performance in the latter half of the fifth century B.C. would find himself seated in the "theatron", or "koilon",a semi-circular, curved bank of seats, resembling in some respects the closed end of a horseshoe stadium. ... Below him, in the best location in the theatre, is the throne of the priest of Dionysus who presides in a sense over the whole performance. The theatron is large-in fact, the one in Athens, in the Theatre of Dionysus, with its seats banked up on the south slope of the Acropolis, seated approximately 17,000 persons.


title: Greek tragedy

text: the Chorus. Directly beyond the circular "orchestra" lies the "skene" or scene building. ... In most plays the skene represents the facade of a house, a palace, or a temple.


title: Greek tragedy

text: above the level of the orchestra. This was called the "proskenion" or "logeion" where much of the dramatic action of the plays takes place. Flanking the


title: Greek tragedy

text: The theatre voiced ideas and problems from the democratic, political and cultural life of Athens. Tragedies can discuss or use the Greek mythical past as a metaphor for the deep problems of current Athenian society. In such plays, "the poet alludes directly to fifth-century events or developments, but moves them back into the mythological past. In this category [can be placed] Aeschylus’ Persians and Oresteia."


title: Greek tragedy

text: In the case of Aeschylus' tragedy "The Persians", it was performed in 472 BC in Athens, eight years after the battle of Salamis, when the war with Persia was still in progress. It tells the story of the Persian fleet's defeat at Salamis and how the ghost of former Persian King Darius accuses his son Xerxes of "hubris" against the Greeks for waging war on them.


title: Greek tragedy

text: "The possibility that a reflection of Athens is to be seen in Aeschylus’ Persian mirror could explain why the poet asks his audience to look at Salamis through Persian eyes and elicits great sympathy for the Persians, including Xerxes."


title: Greek tragedy

text: Other tragedies avoid references or allusions to 5th century BC events, but "also draw the mythological past into the present." The bulk of the plays in this category are by Euripides. Strains of fifth-century Athenian rhetoric, sketches of political types, and reflections of Athens’ institutions and society lend plays of this category a distinctly fifth-century Athenian flavor. The emphasis in Euripides’ Orestes on political factions, for example, is directly relevant to the Athens of 408 BCE.


title: Greek tragedy

text: The performances of the tragedies took place in Athens on the occasion of the Great Dionysia, feasts in honor of Dionysus celebrated in the month of Elaphebolion, towards the end of March. It was organized by the State and the eponymous archon, who picked three of the richest citizens to pay for the drama's expenses. In the Athenian democracy wealthy citizens were required to fund public services, a practice known as "liturgy".


title: Greek tragedy

text: During the Dionysia a contest took place between three plays, chosen by the "archon eponymous". This procedure might have been based on a provisional script, each of which had to submit a tetralogy consisting of three tragedies and a satyr play. Each tetralogy was recited in one day, so that the recitation of tragedies lasted three days. The fourth day was dedicated to the staging of five comedies. At the end of these three days a jury of ten people chosen by lot from the body of citizens chose the best choir, best actor and best author. At the end of the performances, the judges placed a tablet inscribed with the name of their choice inside an urn, after which five tablets were randomly selected. The person who received the highest number of votes won. The winning author, actor and choir were thus selected not purely by lot, but chance did play a part.


title: Greek tragedy

text: The passion of the Greeks for the tragedy was overwhelming: Athens, said the critics, spent more on theatre than on the fleet. When the cost for the shows became a sensitive subject, an admission fee was instated, alongside the so-called "theorikon", a special fund to pay for festival's expenses.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Of the many tragedies known to have been written, just 32 full-length texts by only three authors, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, survive.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Seventy-nine titles of Aeschylus' works are known (out of about ninety works), both tragedies and satyr plays. Seven of these have survived, including the only complete trilogy which has come down from antiquity, the "Oresteia", and some papyrus fragments:


title: Greek tragedy

text: According to Aristophanes of Byzantium, Sophocles wrote 130 plays, 17 of which are spurious; the Suda lexicon counted 123. Of all Sophocles's tragedies, only seven remain intact:


title: Greek tragedy

text: Apart from the plays that have survived in their entirety, we also possess a large part of the satyr play or "Trackers", which was found at the beginning of the 20th century on a papyrus containing three-quarters of this work.


title: Greek tragedy

text: According to the Suda, Euripides wrote either 75 or 92 plays, of which survive eighteen tragedies and the only complete surviving satyr play, the "Cyclops".


title: Greek tragedy

text: The role of the audience in a Greek Tragedy is to become part of that theatrical illusion, to partake in the act as if they were part of it. "The Demos in Greek Tragedy", frequently addresses the works of Euripides. The way he addresses the audience through his plays is usually implied and never made obvious, as that would not only break the narrative that is being constructed, it would also fail to subject the disbelief of the audience. The article notes how often the audience is incorporated as being representative of the expected demos, usually by having silent actors, or individuals who are part of the Tragedy, be seated with the audience, to ensure that the actor is engaging with the audience.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Through further exploration into the role of the chorus, the author looks at what impact that may have had from the perspective of the demos. The author notes that it was often the case for tragic choruses to be of one type of social position (in both age, gender, nationality, and class). With regard to gender distinctions, the author finds that despite the fact that females choruses existed within Greek plays in general, they, like other enslaved and foreign individuals lacked the same kind of status as male Greeks. Those not considered citizens were not representative of the demos. The author gives an example of how a female chorus in Aeschylus' "Seven against Thebes", is criticized for being bad for citizen morale.


title: Greek tragedy

text: The author further notes how male based choruses were designated by name based on their "factions within the citizenry" (p. 66). For example, if the chorus were composed of boys from Argive, then one would refer to them as "Argive boys" (p. 66). However, a much clearer distinction is made with adult males, such as "jury-service-loving old men (Wasps)" (p. 66), which indicates that the chorus is composed entirely of older men who are part of a jury service, further indicating their role within the citizenry. The citizen chorus was not only distinguished by status but was also seen as a subset of the demos.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Greek Tragedy can often become confusing when trying to assess it as a drama, a detailed event, a performance, or even as something conveying an underlying theme. An article by Mario Frendo, looks at the latter as a phenomenon of performance, a separation in the meaning of the play from what it is actually being conveyed, and not an attempt to approach Greek tragedy through context (e.g., conventions of performance, historical facts, etc.). Approaching antiquity from a contemporary outlook, especially with regard to the construction and form of the plays, hinders any understanding of classical Greek society.


title: Greek tragedy

text: The origins of Greek tragedy were mostly based on song or speech rather than written script. In this way, Frendo states that Tragedy by its nature, was performative. Frendo furthers his argument by drawing on previous research into Greek Tragedy. He elaborates on the musical, often sing-song nature of the plays, and looks at oral tradition as the backdrop to the construction of these plays (e.g., oral tradition may play a role in the processes that lead to the creation of Greek Tragedy). Frendo draws on the notion that the experience of tragedy requires a theatrical performance and is in that sense, a separation of tragedy from literature. Further stating that it is essential to look at tragedy as pre-drama, that it does not fit with a more contemporary envisioning of "drama" as we would've seen under the Renaissance.


title: Greek tragedy

text: After dialogue based interactions were eventually brought into development, the percentage of scripts read by the chorus tended to decrease in regards to their involvement in the play. Therefore, the author concludes that this not only demonstrates the performative nature of Greek tragedy but also brings forth the possibility that dialogic based strategies may have been employed.


title: Greek tragedy

text: An article by Thomas Duncan discusses the impact of dramatic technique on the influence of Tragic plays and conveying important or essential outcomes, particularly through the use of "Deus Ex Machina". This is a technique in which an action is halted by the appearance of an unforeseen character or through the intervention of a god, that essentially brings about a conclusion to a play. One such example can be seen with Euripides' play, "Hippolytus". In the play, Hippolytus is cursed with an untimely death by his father, Theseus, for the supposed rape and subsequent suicide of Queen Phaedra, his step-mother. However, Queen Phaedra commits suicide due to unwanted desire for Hippolytus (instigated by the goddess, Aphrodite) and thus, blames her death on Hippolytus.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Hippolytus' demise is brought forth by a god, Aphrodite, whose hatred of Hippolytus' and his unending devotion to Artemis stems from his subsequent disparagement or denial of Aphrodite. In other words, because Hippolytus chooses to devote himself to the goddess, Artemis, whose themai, or divine domain, is chastity, for some reason, he decides to then deny the existence of another goddesses divine domain, Aphrodite's' themai, lust, the polar opposite to chastity. The play demonstrates how divine intervention sets in motion the main theme of the play, revenge, and how that leads to the downfall of a royal family. However, it is not until the end of the play, when Artemis intervenes to tell King Theseus that he has killed his son by cursing him, that he has fallen prey to the workings of Aphrodite.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Without this kind of divine intervention, Theseus would not have realized his mistakes and Hippolytus would not have been cursed. Without divine intervention, the events that transpired would not have been as effective in revealing certain truths to the audience if they were to have come from a fellow human. In this way, such a technique is essential to the mechanisms of Greek Tragedy and the capabilities of the tragedian in conveying their play as more than just a story or detailed event.


title: Greek tragedy

text: Character identification can be seen in many of Aeschylus' plays, such as "Prometheus Bound". In this play, Prometheus, the Titan god of forethought and the inventing fire, stole the inventing flame from Hephaestus and gave it to humanity. Thereby, bestowing upon humanity knowledge of the arts, angering the gods. The idea behind this Greek tragedy is that Prometheus is punished by Zeus not only for the crime of giving humanity divine knowledge, but also for believing that by doing so, humanity would, in some way, praise Prometheus as a champion for justice and see Zeus as nothing more than a tyrant. Through this the author notes how Aeschylus' play relates to this notion of character identification, as it depicts a being who is not necessarily acting out of selfish intention but in many ways was willing to be punished for the betterment of Humanity.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: An anime television series adaptation of the manga, produced by Zexcs, aired in Japan between April and June 2013. It was simulcast outside Japan by Crunchyroll. The anime was animated using rotoscoping techniques, causing some controversy among fans of the manga. A live-action film adaptation was released in September 2019.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: In North America, the manga has been licensed for English language release by Vertical and the anime series has been licensed by Sentai Filmworks.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: The story starts in a small town in Gunma Prefecture and follows Takao Kasuga, a middle school bookworm whose favorite book is Charles Baudelaire's "Les Fleurs du mal". One day after school, he impulsively steals the gym clothes of Nanako Saeki, the classmate he idolizes. However, a girl named Sawa Nakamura sees him and blackmails Kasuga into a "contract". At the same time, Kasuga grows closer to Saeki and manages to become her boyfriend.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: As Kasuga spends more time with both girls, he finds the guilt of his theft weighing down on him. He attempts to confess by vandalizing his classroom with Nakamura, but Saeki refuses to break up with him. When his mother finds out he was responsible for the vandalism, he runs from home and attempts to bike with Nakamura past the mountain adjacent to the town. Saeki catches up to the pair as they rest and tries to make Kasuga come back. Unable to choose between them, he estranges both girls and the police collect them.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: A month later, Kasuga breaks up with Saeki and resolves to help Nakamura. He writes a composition to convey his feelings to her. When she runs from him, Kasuga goes to her house and reads in her diary about her disappointment in not being able to reach "the other side". He steals the panties of all the girls in his class except Saeki's and uses them to decorate a makeshift hideout, winning Nakamura's approval.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: At the start of summer vacation, they create a plan to nail the panties to a piece of plywood to display at the upcoming festival. Saeki discovers the plan and lures Kasuga to the hideout, trying to seduce him and make him stay in their town. When he chooses Nakamura over her, she rapes him but Kasuga resists, causing her to burn the hideout down.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: Saeki later turns herself in to the police for setting the fire, prompting her best friend Ai Kinoshita to tell their school about Kasuga's crimes. The school does not involve the police and his parents decide to move over the vacation. The day before the festival, Nakamura breaks into Kasuga's house, attacking his father, and the two escape. At the festival, they don disguises and climb to the top of a float while wielding a knife. They curse their town and pour kerosene on themselves, but before they can use a lighter, Nakamura pushes Kasuga over the float and she gets tackled by her father.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: A few years later, Kasuga is going to high school in Ōmiya-ku, Saitama, and still cannot forget Nakamura. Kasuga finds his classmate Aya Tokiwa looking at "Les Fleurs du mal" in a used bookstore and she starts lending him novels, rekindling his love of literature.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: Kasuga discovers that she is working on a novel and is brought to tears upon reading the manuscript because he can identify with the protagonist. Kasuga encounters Saeki and when they meet up for lunch, she accuses him of using Tokiwa as a replacement for Nakamura. Kasuga visits Tokiwa at her workplace and asks her out, saying that he will save her, and she accepts.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: Kasuga visits his hometown for his dying grandfather and ends up meeting Kinoshita, who regrets being left behind by Saeki and tells Kasuga where Nakamura moved. Tokiwa finishes her novel, but Kasuga tells her about his past and his desire to meet Nakamura again. They take the train to Tokawa Station in Chōshi, Chiba and find her eatery, where her mother warns them that Nakamura is "peaceful now", but Tokiwa insists on speaking to her.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: They talk at a nearby beach and Kasuga questions her, but does not get satisfactory answers. The three roughhouse and Kasuga tells Nakamura that he is happy that she did not disappear. Later, Kasuga is in college and still dating Tokiwa, who is working on another novel. After falling asleep with Tokiwa, Kasuga dreams of the wilting flower of evil, its scar no longer present on his hand. In his dream he envisions the futures of the series' characters; he marries and has a child with Tokiwa, Saeki starts her own family and reunites with Kinoshita, and Nakamura finds contentment, eventually moving away to the city. At the end of the dream Nakamura looks up at her own wilting flower of evil. When he wakes up, Kasuga starts writing in his empty book just as he was in his dream, presumably about the manga's events.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: The final chapter depicts Nakamura's perspective of her first meeting with Kasuga. Through her eyes she sees everyone and everything around her as monochrome and deformed, symbolizing her distaste for normality. When she sees Kasuga steal the gym suit, his features become clear to her. Later on, Nakamura feels herself reverting to the normalcy she despises. Before she does, Kasuga appears on his bike, fully defining her world in both detail and a deep crimson color.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: Oshimi first read Charles Baudelaire's "Les Fleurs du mal" in middle school and found the book to feel "suspicious, indecent, yet nastily noble". He based the eye-flower in the series on an illustration for the book by Odilon Redon, his favorite artist. Oshimi also makes references to other artists such as with the cover of the tenth chapter parodying Francisco Goya's "The Clothed Maja".


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: One influence for the manga that Oshimi cited was "Song of Cherry Blossoms", where he could relate to the feelings of the protagonist and described the manga as "depicting murky self-consciousness and the dark side of youth with astounding intensity..." Other manga that influenced him were "Moonlight Whispers" and Haruko Kashiwagi's "Dog", which he felt had in common that they were coming-of-age stories about "discovering 'a value system of one's own which he hoped his own manga could do. After the publication of the second volume of the manga, Oshimi learned of the French film "Don't Deliver Us from Evil" and in retrospect he felt he could relate to the themes of the film where "the girls worship Baudelaire and Lautrémont, create a kingdom of evil all for themselves, and fall into ruin..."


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: Oshimi drew on many aspects of his life for the manga such as the settings and characters. The settings are based on real locations from Oshimi's hometown including: the school library, the riverbank, and the park where Kasuga is splashed with water. Many of the characters also have real-life models: Nakamura is based on a person who used to call Oshimi things like "shitbug" and other phrases that Nakamura uses. Kasuga's friend Hiruta was based on Oshimi's middle school friend who betrayed him to the class bully.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: Initially, the director Hiroshi Nagahama declined the offer to direct the anime because he felt it would be best presented as live-action, but reconsidered when he figured out how to adapt it and pitched the idea of using rotoscoping. He felt it was the most appropriate choice because to him, the manga felt very realistic and close to daily life. The live-action filming took around three months to complete on location in Kiryū, Gunma. Along with the editing after, it took about twice the amount of time to produce than a regular anime. The end cards at the end of each episode were animated by Nagahama himself in traditional anime style to differentiate them and he made Oshimi's hair wave around to emulate flash animation.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: Before the premiere of the anime, the producer opted to not release any character artwork. When the anime aired, the use of rotoscoping resulted in criticism from fans of the manga. Nagahama knew that the rotoscoping would be controversial, but he felt it was worth it because it would make the anime leave an impact, even if it was viewed as "creepy". When asked at a Q&A panel at Animazement 2013 why he did not make the adaptation a traditional live-action series, he responded that in live-action, the focus is on the actors and not the characters. When further asked about what kind of atmosphere he was trying to create with the pacing and soundtrack of the anime, Nagahama replied that he wanted to make an anime that feels fresh. In an interview with Natalie including both Nagahama and Oshimi, Oshimi said that he was aware of the rotoscoping idea and approved of the direction Nagahama took the adaptation, especially of his intent to "leave the viewer with a scar" which he felt aligned with his goal of figuratively "murdering" the readers. He also felt that Nagahama had deep insight into the story and that the anime along with the manga formed two versions of the story from his original idea. Oshimi was also involved in providing feedback on the adaptation as it went along and when shown anime-style drawings, preferred the different look of rotoscoping.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: One of the issues that Oshimi wanted to tackle with the manga was the concept of "perversion", which he felt was misunderstood and actually a hidden quality of everyone. Another question he wanted to answer was where the process of adolescence ends; the beginning clearly demarcated by the physical characteristics of puberty, but the ending unclear, which he felt has to be discovered by an individual by themselves.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: The manga was launched in the first issue of the Japanese "shōnen" manga magazine "Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine" published by Kodansha on September 9, 2009, and ended on May 9, 2014. Kodansha has compiled the 57 chapters into 11 volumes from March 17, 2010, to June 9, 2014. The series was licensed in North America by Vertical in September 2011, with the first volume published on May 8, 2012, and the last volume on October 14, 2014. Vertical announced at Anime Central 2017 that it will re-release the manga in four omnibus volumes. The Japanese edition of the cover of the first volume originally had a dialogue balloon where Nakamura says "You Shitbug", but the Vertical edition replaced the speech with the title. The manga has also been published in Italy by Panini Comics, in Spain by Norma Editorial, and in Taiwan by Tong Li Publishing.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: The anime adaptation is directed by Hiroshi Nagahama and produced by Zexcs. It was the first anime to use rotoscoping exclusively. It aired in Japan between April 5 and June 29, 2013, and has been licensed by Sentai Filmworks in North America. Crunchyroll has the streaming rights in Australia, North America, UK and other territories. The opening theme is by Uchūjin with guest vocalists Noko, Mariko Gotō and . The ending theme is "〜花〜 A Last Flower" by Asa-Chang & Junray. At Sakura-Con 2014, Nagahama explained the flashforward at the end of the last episode as a declaration of his intention for a second season.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: A live-action film adaptation was released in Japan on September 27, 2019. The film is directed by Noboru Iguchi, with screenplay by Mari Okada, and music by Yasuhiko Fukuda.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: "The Flowers of Evil" was one of the Jury Recommended Works in the Manga Division at the 17th Japan Media Arts Festival in 2013. The manga was nominated for the fifth Manga Taishō (Cartoon Grand Prize) but lost to Hiromu Arakawa's "Silver Spoon". The manga was also 18th on the Top 20 Manga for Male Readers in the guidebook "Kono Manga ga Sugoi!".


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: In Japan, the manga charted several times on the Oricon lists: Volume 5 was the 30th best-selling manga for the week of January 2, 2012, rising to 17th the next week. Volume 7 was the 44th best-selling manga for the week of December 10, 2012. Volume 8 was the 22nd best-selling manga for the week of June 3, 2013, rising to 17th the next week. Volume 9 was the 22nd best-selling manga for the week of August 5, 2013, falling to 29th the next week. Volume 10 was the 17th best-selling manga for the week of January 6, 2014, falling to 25th the next week. Volume 11 was the 5th best-selling manga for the week of June 9, 2014, falling to 42nd the next week. The first 9 volumes of the manga sold over 2million copies in Japan. Vertical's localization of the manga was able to reach "The New York Times" Manga Best Sellers chart on two different occasions: Volume 1 was the 3rd best-selling manga for the week of May 13, 2012, and Volume 3 was the 8th best-selling manga for the week of October 28, 2012.


title: The Flowers of Evil (manga)

text: Anime News Network (ANN) editor Carl Kimlinger gave the series high praise when it was streaming, giving credit to both director Hiroshi Nagahama and composer Hideyuki Fukasawa for doing Oshimi's work justice with direction that is part psychological thriller and darkly romantic with the inclusion of rotoscoping and a score that is atonally sinister, saying that, "[I]t is a series that can be attacked from any direction and not crack. It is, in its delightfully unpleasant way, a masterpiece." Fellow ANN editor Nick Creamer also liked the series, praising the story for conveying themes of human identity and codependence with amoral people and the direction for its slow and methodical pace, concluding that ""The Flowers of Evil" is one of the best shows of recent years, an absurdly confident mood piece with a uniquely effective aesthetic and a true understanding of and sympathy for the emotional trials of youth. It should be watched by anyone interested in the potential of animation for conveying human truth." Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku, on the other hand, heavily panned the series for having an unlikable main cast, lack of any stakes or tension, and horrendous technical aspects in terms of animation and no musical score in places, concluding that, "It's just an utter train wreck of a series. I recommend it to no one." Tim Jones, writing for THEM Anime Reviews, was also put off by the rotoscoping style, saying that from a distance it looks "comical and oft-putting (sic)." But Jones gave praise to the cinematography, the main trio's development and Nagahama's direction on a typical high school setting.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: Matthew Shafer (born June 6, 1974), also known by his stage name Uncle Kracker, is an American singer and musician. He was previously a turntablist for Kid Rock's backing group Twisted Brown Trucker and since 1999 has recorded as a solo artist. His singles "Follow Me" and "Drift Away" were top 10 hits on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: Shafer was born in Mount Clemens, Michigan, on June 6, 1974. With his brother Mike Shafer, he visited a nightclub in Clawson, Michigan, where a turntables competition was occurring. His older brother was competing against a then-unknown musician, Kid Rock. Shafer soon became friends with Kid Rock. In those times, he was mainly rapping. He went to L'Anse Creuse High School. In 1994, Kid Rock asked Shafer to play turntables for his band called Twisted Brown Trucker. Shafer knew nothing of using turntables, but since his brother was an experienced DJ, he agreed. He only performed at live shows at the time, until he began recording for Rock's album, "Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp"; Shafer was a featured vocalist on some of the tracks. He then began working on a solo album, but he continued being the DJ for Kid Rock. Upon the release of Rock's multi-platinum album, "The History of Rock", Shafer decided that it was time to release his first solo album, "Double Wide" in 2000.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: "Double Wide" was Uncle Kracker's first solo album. Released on June 30, 2000, it peaked at Number 7 on the "Billboard" 200 album chart and is Shafer's most successful and highest-selling album. The album was produced by Kid Rock, with mixing additional production by Michael Bradford. The first single taken off the album was "Follow Me", which was co-written with Bradford, and peaked at Number 5 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in June 2001. The album spent the next 10 months on the Billboard 200, and "Follow Me" also had a long chart run. His second single, "Yeah, Yeah, Yeah", failed to hit the Hot 100 chart; however, the song has been released one year earlier in the soundtrack of Shanghai Noon. "Double Wide" was certified 2× Multi-Platinum on November 29, 2001.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: After a great deal of touring to promote the first album, he began to work on a follow-up album. Entitled "No Stranger to Shame", it was released on August 27, 2002. The album reached No. 43 on the Billboard albums chart. A hit single was released, a cover version of Dobie Gray's 1973 Top 5 hit, "Drift Away" – also including Gray as a guest vocalist. Kracker's version of this song peaked at No. 9 on the Hot 100 one week to the day after Gray's 63rd birthday, and it set a record for most weeks at No. 1 on the Adult Contemporary chart, remaining atop this chart for 28 nonconsecutive weeks. Other singles released from "No Stranger to Shame" include "In A Little While", which peaked at No. 59 on the Hot 100 and No. 26 on the Adult Contemporary charts. A third single was released, "Memphis Soul Song", which charted on the Adult Top 40 at No. 35. A special remix of "Memphis Soul Song" was also released, featuring harmonies by legendary singing group The Jordanaires, who had famously sung harmonies with Elvis Presley. The album was certified gold by the RIAA within a year of its release. Soon after this period, Kracker became good friends with country music star Kenny Chesney and the two began a successful touring partnership together, brought on by the success of Kenny's hit single "When the Sun Goes Down", featuring Uncle Kracker both on the single, and prominently in the video.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: After touring, Shafer began working on a third album which he called "Seventy Two and Sunny". It was his first not to feature a parental advisory label as well as the first one to not feature any hip-hop songs, and moved onto a pure country sound. The album featured two singles: "Rescue", which only charted at No. 20 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary singles chart but did not chart on any other charts, and "Writing It Down," which did not chart at all. Shafer did have some success that year though when he was featured on Chesney's track, "When the Sun Goes Down", which peaked at No. 1 on the Hot Country Songs chart, and went on to achieve Gold status. "Seventy Two and Sunny" has sold about 200,000 copies. It peaked at No. 39 on the Billboard 200.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: Uncle Kracker's fourth studio album is entitled "Happy Hour". The album was in the works for five years and was delayed due to Atlantic Records' decision to bring in Rob Cavallo to produce the album right as they were finishing their cut of the album in late 2007. An early promo version of the album contained the tracks "Happy Hour", "Vegas Baby", "I'm Not Leaving", "The One That Got Away", and "That's What's Happenin". "Smile," the first single from the album, was released on July 13, 2009, and has peaked at No. 31 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The album was released on September 15, 2009. "Smile" also became his first solo entry on the Hot Country Songs chart, where it debuted at No. 57 for the week of November 7, 2009, and peaked at No. 6 in September 2010. A music video for the track "My Girlfriend" was released in November 2009, though there has been no official word whether it will be serviced as the album's second single. The album also features country singer Jesse Lee (also on Atlantic Records) in a duet they wrote called "Me Again."


title: Uncle Kracker

text: A six-song EP, "", was released on June 22, 2010. The EP features country remakes of songs off the "Happy Hour" album. The singles released were a remake of "Smile" and "Good to Be Me", featuring Kid Rock.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: On November 16, 2012, Uncle Kracker released his fifth studio album, "Midnight Special", produced by Keith Stegall. Sugar Hill Records and Vanguard Records released the album under parent company Welk Music Group. The album was a full-fledged country record. The first single to come off of the album was "Nobody's Sad on a Saturday Night", followed by "Blue Skies". Shafer performed songs from the album while on the road with Kid Rock for his $20 Best Night Ever Tour during 2013.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: On August 10, 2018, Kracker released his new single entitled "Floatin'", along with an accompanying music video.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: In 2023, Uncle Kracker will tour with Lynyrd Skynyrd and ZZ Top on their Sharp Dressed Simple Man Tour, which is set to commence July 21, 2023 in West Palm Beach and conclude September 17 in Camden.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: Shafer was married to Melanie Haas from 1998 to 2014. They had three children together. Shafer has two children with his fiancée.


title: Uncle Kracker

text: In 2007, Shafer was arrested for a second-degree sex offense charge and released on $75,000 bond. He pleaded guilty to a lesser charge and was sentenced to a year of probation.


title: Diamagnetism

text: Diamagnetic materials are repelled by a magnetic field; an applied magnetic field creates an induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force. In contrast, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are attracted by a magnetic field. Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials; when it is the only contribution to the magnetism, the material is called diamagnetic. In paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the weak diamagnetic force is overcome by the attractive force of magnetic dipoles in the material. The magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than the permeability of vacuum, "μ". In most materials, diamagnetism is a weak effect which can be detected only by sensitive laboratory instruments, but a superconductor acts as a strong diamagnet because it repels a magnetic field entirely from its interior.


title: Diamagnetism

text: Diamagnetism was first discovered when Anton Brugmans observed in 1778 that bismuth was repelled by magnetic fields. In 1845, Michael Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and concluded that every material responded (in either a diamagnetic or paramagnetic way) to an applied magnetic field. On a suggestion by William Whewell, Faraday first referred to the phenomenon as "diamagnetic" (the prefix "dia-" meaning "through" or "across"), then later changed it to "diamagnetism".


title: Diamagnetism

text: A simple rule of thumb is used in chemistry to determine whether a particle (atom, ion, or molecule) is paramagnetic or diamagnetic: If all electrons in the particle are paired, then the substance made of this particle is diamagnetic; If it has unpaired electrons, then the substance is paramagnetic.


title: Diamagnetism

text: Diamagnetism is a property of all materials, and always makes a weak contribution to the material's response to a magnetic field. However, other forms of magnetism (such as ferromagnetism or paramagnetism) are so much stronger that, when multiple different forms of magnetism are present in a material, the diamagnetic contribution is usually negligible. Substances where the diamagnetic behaviour is the strongest effect are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Diamagnetic materials are those that some people generally think of as "non-magnetic", and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth. The magnetic susceptibility values of various molecular fragments are called Pascal's constants.


title: Diamagnetism

text: Diamagnetic materials, like water, or water-based materials, have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than or equal to 1, and therefore a magnetic susceptibility less than or equal to 0, since susceptibility is defined as . This means that diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property, its effects are not observable in everyday life. For example, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is . The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, , although pyrolytic carbon may have a susceptibility of in one plane. Nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitude smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Because "χ" is derived from the ratio of the internal magnetic field to the applied field, it is a dimensionless value.


title: Diamagnetism

text: In rare cases, the diamagnetic contribution can be stronger than paramagnetic contribution. This is the case for gold, which has a magnetic susceptibility less than 0 (and is thus by definition a diamagnetic material), but when measured carefully with X-ray magnetic circular dichroism, has an extremely weak paramagnetic contribution that is overcome by a stronger diamagnetic contribution.


title: Diamagnetism

text: Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets (), because they expel all magnetic fields (except in a thin surface layer) due to the Meissner effect.


title: Diamagnetism

text: If a powerful magnet (such as a supermagnet) is covered with a layer of water (that is thin compared to the diameter of the magnet) then the field of the magnet significantly repels the water. This causes a slight dimple in the water's surface that may be seen by a reflection in its surface.


title: Diamagnetism

text: Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption. Earnshaw's theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaw's theorem applies only to objects with positive susceptibilities, such as ferromagnets (which have a permanent positive moment) and paramagnets (which induce a positive moment). These are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space. Diamagnets (which induce a negative moment) are attracted to field minima, and there can be a field minimum in free space.


title: Diamagnetism

text: A thin slice of pyrolytic graphite, which is an unusually strongly diamagnetic material, can be stably floated in a magnetic field, such as that from rare earth permanent magnets. This can be done with all components at room temperature, making a visually effective and relatively convenient demonstration of diamagnetism.


title: Diamagnetism

text: The Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, has conducted experiments where water and other substances were successfully levitated. Most spectacularly, a live frog (see figure) was levitated.


title: Diamagnetism

text: In September 2009, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California announced it had successfully levitated mice using a superconducting magnet, an important step forward since mice are closer biologically to humans than frogs. JPL said it hopes to perform experiments regarding the effects of microgravity on bone and muscle mass.


title: Diamagnetism

text: Recent experiments studying the growth of protein crystals have led to a technique using powerful magnets to allow growth in ways that counteract Earth's gravity.


title: Diamagnetism

text: A simple homemade device for demonstration can be constructed out of bismuth plates and a few permanent magnets that levitate a permanent magnet.


title: Diamagnetism

text: The electrons in a material generally settle in orbitals, with effectively zero resistance and act like current loops. Thus it might be imagined that diamagnetism effects in general would be common, since any applied magnetic field would generate currents in these loops that would oppose the change, in a similar way to superconductors, which are essentially perfect diamagnets. However, since the electrons are rigidly held in orbitals by the charge of the protons and are further constrained by the Pauli exclusion principle, many materials exhibit diamagnetism, but typically respond very little to the applied field.


title: Diamagnetism

text: The Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem proves that there cannot be any diamagnetism or paramagnetism in a purely classical system. However, the classical theory of Langevin for diamagnetism gives the same prediction as the quantum theory. The classical theory is given below.


title: Diamagnetism

text: Paul Langevin's theory of diamagnetism (1905) applies to materials containing atoms with closed shells (see dielectrics). A field with intensity , applied to an electron with charge and mass , gives rise to Larmor precession with frequency . The number of revolutions per unit time is , so the current for an atom with electrons is (in SI units)


title: Diamagnetism

text: The magnetic moment of a current loop is equal to the current times the area of the loop. Suppose the field is aligned with the axis. The average loop area can be given as formula_2, where formula_3 is the mean square distance of the electrons perpendicular to the axis. The magnetic moment is therefore


title: Diamagnetism

text: If the distribution of charge is spherically symmetric, we can suppose that the distribution of coordinates are independent and identically distributed. Then formula_5, where formula_6 is the mean square distance of the electrons from the nucleus. Therefore, formula_7. If formula_8 is the number of atoms per unit volume, the volume diamagnetic susceptibility in SI units is


title: Diamagnetism

text: In atoms, Langevin susceptibility is of the same order of magnitude as Van Vleck paramagnetic susceptibility.


title: Diamagnetism

text: The Langevin theory is not the full picture for metals because there are also non-localized electrons. The theory that describes diamagnetism in a free electron gas is called Landau diamagnetism, named after Lev Landau, and instead considers the weak counteracting field that forms when the electrons' trajectories are curved due to the Lorentz force. Landau diamagnetism, however, should be contrasted with Pauli paramagnetism, an effect associated with the polarization of delocalized electrons' spins. For the bulk case of a 3D system and low magnetic fields, the (volume) diamagnetic susceptibility can be calculated using Landau quantization, which in SI units is


title: Diamagnetism

text: where formula_11 is the Fermi energy. This is equivalent to formula_12, exactly formula_13 times Pauli paramagnetic susceptibility, where formula_14 is the Bohr magneton and formula_15 is the density of states (number of states per energy per volume). This formula takes into account the spin degeneracy of the carriers (spin ½ electrons).


title: Diamagnetism

text: In doped semiconductors the ratio between Landau and Pauli susceptibilities may change due to the effective mass of the charge carriers differing from the electron mass in vacuum, increasing the diamagnetic contribution. The formula presented here only applies for the bulk; in confined systems like quantum dots, the description is altered due to quantum confinement. Additionally, for strong magnetic fields, the susceptibility of delocalized electrons oscillates as a function of the field strength, a phenomenon known as the De Haas–Van Alphen effect, also first described theoretically by Landau.


title: James Ellroy

text: Lee Earle "James" Ellroy (born March 4, 1948) is an American crime fiction writer and essayist. Ellroy has become known for a telegrammatic prose style in his most recent work, wherein he frequently omits connecting words and uses only short, staccato sentences, and in particular for the novels "The Black Dahlia" (1987), "The Big Nowhere" (1988), "L.A. Confidential" (1990), "White Jazz" (1992), "American Tabloid" (1995), "The Cold Six Thousand" (2001), and "Blood's a Rover" (2009).


title: James Ellroy

text: Lee Earle "James" Ellroy was born in Los Angeles, California. His mother, Geneva Odelia (née Hilliker), was a nurse. His father, Armand, was an accountant and a onetime business manager of Rita Hayworth. His parents divorced in 1954, after which Ellroy and his mother moved to El Monte, California.


title: James Ellroy

text: At the age of 7, Ellroy saw his mother naked and began to sexually fantasize about her. He struggled in youth with this obsession, as he held a psycho-sexual relationship with her, and tried to catch glimpses of her nude. Ellroy stated that "I lived for naked glimpses. I hated her and lusted for her..."


title: James Ellroy

text: On June 22, 1958, when Ellroy was ten years old, his mother was raped and murdered. Ellroy later described his mother as "sharp-tongued [and] bad-tempered", unable to keep a steady job, alcoholic, and sexually promiscuous. His first reaction upon hearing of her death was relief: he could now live with his father, whom he preferred. His father was more permissive and allowed Ellroy to do as he pleased, namely be "left alone to read, to go out and peep through windows, prowl around and sniff the air." The police never found his mother's killer, and the case still remains unsolved. The murder, along with reading "The Badge" by Jack Webb (a book comprising sensational cases from the files of the Los Angeles Police Department, a birthday gift from his father), were important events of Ellroy's youth.


title: James Ellroy

text: Ellroy's inability to come to terms with the emotions surrounding his mother's murder led him to transfer them onto another murder victim, Elizabeth Short. Nicknamed the "Black Dahlia," Short was a young woman murdered in 1947, her body cut in half and discarded in Los Angeles, in a notorious and unsolved crime. Throughout his youth, Ellroy used Short as a surrogate for his conflicting emotions and desires. His confusion and trauma led to a period of intense clinical depression, from which he recovered only gradually.


title: James Ellroy

text: In 1962, Ellroy began to attend Fairfax High School, a predominately Jewish high school. Desperate for attention, he began to engage in a variety of outrageous acts, many anti-Semitic in nature. He joined the American Nazi Party, purchased Nazi paraphernalia, sung the Horst-Wessel-Lied at school, mailed Nazi pamphlets to girls he liked, openly criticized John F. Kennedy, and ironically advocated for the reinstatement of slavery. His "Crazy Man Act", as Elroy describes it, got him beat up and eventually expelled from Fairfax High School in 11th grade, after ranting about Nazism in his English class.


title: James Ellroy

text: Ellroy's father died soon after this, with his father's last words to him being, "Try to pick up every waitress who serves you."


title: James Ellroy

text: After being expelled from high school, Ellroy then joined the U.S. Army for a short period of time. Upon enlisting in the US Army, Ellroy soon decided he did not belong there and convinced an army psychiatrist he was unfit for combat. He was discharged after three months.


title: James Ellroy

text: Ellroy credits the public libraries of Los Angeles County as the basis of his writing. He shelved books at the public library. In a speech at the Library of Congress in 2019 he declared: "I am a product of the L.A. County Public Library System." During his teens and 20s, he drank heavily and abused Benzedrex inhalers. He was engaged in minor crimes (especially shoplifting, house-breaking, and burglary) and was often homeless. After serving some time in jail and suffering from pneumonia, during which he developed an abscess on his lung "the size of a large man's fist," Ellroy stopped drinking and began working as a golf caddie while pursuing writing. He later said, "Caddying was good tax-free cash and allowed me to get home by 2 p.m. and write books... I caddied right up to the sale of my fifth book."


title: James Ellroy

text: On October 4, 1991, Ellroy married his second wife, writer and critic Helen Knode. The couple moved from California to Kansas City in 1995. In 2006, after their divorce, Ellroy returned to Los Angeles.


title: James Ellroy

text: In 1981, Ellroy published his first novel, "Brown's Requiem", a detective story drawing on his experiences as a caddie. He then published "Clandestine" and "Silent Terror" (which was later published under the title "Killer on the Road"). Ellroy followed these three novels with the Lloyd Hopkins Trilogy. The novels are centered on Hopkins, a brilliant but disturbed LAPD robbery-homicide detective, and are set mainly in the 1980s.