title: Shyne

text: Shyne was elected to the Belizean House of Representatives in the 2020 general election, as a member of the center-right Belize United Democratic Party. He became the Belize Leader of the Opposition in the House of Representatives and the leader of the Belize United Democratic Party, in both June 2021 (until September 2021) and February 2022.


title: Shyne

text: Shyne was born Jamal Michael Barrow, in Belize City in Belize in Central America, to Frances Imeon Myvette and Dean Barrow, who were not married. Shyne's mother is the sister of Michael Myvett, now going by the surname Finnegan, one of Dean Barrow's long-time political colleagues in Belize. Barrow's middle name comes from his uncle. Shyne's Jewish maternal grandmother had emigrated from Ethiopia to Belize.


title: Shyne

text: As a child, Barrow's time was divided between his mother in Brooklyn, New York City, and his lawyer/politician father, who initially failed to acknowledge his son, and was years later elected in 2008 as the first black Prime Minister of Belize. Barrow's mother moved to the United States when he was three years old, leaving her son with his father who was busy with politics, and left Shyne between the care of his mother's brother Michael and father's sister Denise in Belize City. His father was in a relationship with another woman, and Barrow recalls: “The nigga said his two other kids were made out of love. It was devastating. That shit really fucked me up.”


title: Shyne

text: When he was seven years old, Barrow moved to Brooklyn to live with his mother in Crown Heights and then East Flatbush, in near poverty, while spending summers in Belize with his father. His mother supported them by cleaning homes and taking care of children, and he slept on the sofa in their small apartment on Church Avenue and East 18th Street. After he moved to Brooklyn, he began to develop a strong interest in the hip-hop culture of the 1980s and 1990s. At age 15, while in a fight he was shot in his right shoulder by another kid in Flatbush, Brooklyn, leaving him with a six-inch scar.


title: Shyne

text: After graduating high school three years later, part of the time of which he spent attending high school in Belize at Wesley College, he enrolled in a New York City College of Technology computer program. He paid for his tuition by working as a bike messenger, buying an 18-speed bicycle and riding it from Brooklyn over the Brooklyn Bridge into Manhattan, where he made deliveries around the borough. He left NYC College of Technology to pursue a career in music.


title: Shyne

text: In 1998, while Barrow was freestyling in a barbershop on Church Avenue in Brooklyn, he was discovered by hip hop producer DJ Clark Kent, who was working on the Notorious B.I.G.'s first posthumous album, "Born Again". He quickly took Barrow to Bad Boy Studios, where Sean "Puff Daddy" Combs signed him on the spot to his label. It was reported that Shyne received millions of dollars, 3 cars of his choice and 2 homes just for signing. The contract also included a 5 studio album deal. This caused a small media shockwave. He abruptly had his life shift from sleeping on his mother’s couch, to jetting to Beverly Hills first class to record with top rappers in hip-hop.


title: Shyne

text: Not long after, Shyne began making appearances on recordings made by his Bad Boy Entertainment label-mates. He was notably featured on Mase's second album, "Double Up" (1999), and on a remix of Total's "Sittin At Home" single. In the same year he featured on chief executive Combs' second studio album "Forever".


title: Shyne

text: In the early hours of December 27, 1999, Shyne and his mentor/label boss, Sean Combs, and Combs' then-girlfriend singer/actress Jennifer Lopez, were involved in a shooting incident.


title: Shyne

text: The three of them were at a Manhattan nightclub named Club New York, on West 43rd Street in Times Square. Witnesses said that a felon named Matthew "Scar" Allen started an argument with Combs. Witnesses later testified that Allen also threatened to kill Shyne.


title: Shyne

text: Prosecutors charged that Allen, Combs, and Shyne all drew guns, and that Shyne shot three times in the packed nightclub. The shooting resulted in three bystanders being injured. Shyne was accused by prosecutors as was Combs of drawing a gun in the confrontation; Shyne said he acted in self-defense. One injured witness said she saw both Combs and Shyne shoot guns. Shyne was accused of firing three shots that wounded three people; he maintained that he had fired into the air, and did not believe that it was bullets from his gun that injured the bystanders. At his trial, an eyewitness and a ballistics expert testified that the three injuries may have been caused not by Shyne but by a second gunman, and the ballistics expert said that at least one injury may have been caused by a 40 caliber weapon while Shyne had a 9 millimeter gun; 40-caliber shells were found on the floor.


title: Shyne

text: Shyne was convicted at trial by a jury on two counts of assault and of reckless endangerment, and criminal possession of an illegal weapon, after a seven-week trial alongside Combs. He was acquitted of charges of attempted murder, on a third count of intentional assault in the first degree of a third victim, and one other count. He was sentenced on June 1, 2001, to ten years in prison, without eligibility for parole until 2009; he served almost nine years in New York prisons.


title: Shyne

text: Conrad Tillard, then known as Hip-Hop Minister Conrad Muhammad, said: "Shyne’s mother and grandmother placed this young man in the care and custody of Sean “Puffy” Combs, who they believed was a responsible executive of a company. Puffy has the same responsibility as a teacher, as a coach. This boy, Shyne, was out with his idol on that fateful night. When I put my child in your hands, I don’t expect him to end up dead or in jail."


title: Shyne

text: Combs and his bodyguard, in contrast, were acquitted on all counts. Combs had been arrested and charged with illegally having two 9 millimeter guns and with bribery, but was acquitted of the charges at the trial. Combs' bodyguard, who had been charged with illegal possession of a gun and bribery, was also acquitted at the trial.


title: Shyne

text: Shyne began serving his sentence at the maximum security prison Clinton Correctional Facility in Dannemora, New York. This seemed to spell the end of his rap career; his legal team's appeal for a suspended sentence ultimately failed. Shyne severed all ties with Sean Combs and Bad Boy Records.


title: Shyne

text: In March 2006 he changed his name legally, to Moses Michael Levi Barrow. He had already been studying Judaism at the time of his arrest. In prison, with rabbis he became a practicing Jew, keeping kosher, and celebrating the Jewish Sabbath and Jewish holidays.


title: Shyne

text: Barrow has said that from the age of 13, he began to identify as an Israelite, after learning that his great-grandmother was a descendant of the Beta Israel, ancient Ethiopian Jews. As a teenager, he began to study Judaism and the Old Testament on his own, and to pray daily. He formally converted to Orthodox Judaism in Jerusalem, Israel, in 2010.


title: Shyne

text: In 2006 Shyne went to court to challenge New York's application of the 'Son of Sam' law, which had resulted in his assets being frozen and which limited his ability to make record deals and generate income. He and his lawyers argued that by the court allowing Shyne to make deals with record producers, it would enable him to pay a higher potential settlement to victims of the night club shooting, who were separately pursuing a civil suit against him.


title: Shyne

text: Despite his convictions, his incarceration drew many sympathizers, as well as the admiration of many in the hip hop community. His adherence to the code of silence, which he referred to several times on his eponymous debut album, earned him a hardcore reputation in the prison community and on the streets. Even while incarcerated, he was visited by representatives of record labels who wanted to make deals. At the same time, Shyne was not without detractors. Fellow New York rapper 50 Cent called him a "punk," and made light of his situation and his part in the "night club incident." Shyne retaliated on his 2004 release "Godfather Buried Alive", with a track entitled "For the Record".


title: Shyne

text: The entire process was devastating... ten hours of incarceration is ten hours too much. So, for a human being to be animalized for ten years, there is no quick fix to that... It's like being shot by an assailant, and you are running away for your life. You didn't even realize you got shot in your leg because you are running on adrenaline. It's not until you get to a place of safety that you realize you have a hole in your leg, and you collapse; you can't stand up, and that was that experience was for me. When I came out I didn't even realize how wounded and devastated I was because I numbed myself to the pain and destruction that I suffered.


title: Shyne

text: I remember my mother used to come and see me on the visit floor. My mother couldn't look at me; she would start to shake, and she would go off the floor and go to the bathroom. I couldn't process that because if I cried in front of her then that would make her life go to shambles. If I cried in front of the prison guard, they would think that I was weak. So I go back to the yard and lift some weights, smoke a cigar, and act like nothing happened.


title: Shyne

text: On October 26, 2009, Shyne was released and deported to his place of birth, Belize. Some of the hip hop community rallied to celebrate his release, and the events were followed by mainstream media.


title: Shyne

text: The rapper had been transferred to Rikers Island where he was held for a parole hearing, and then to the Woodbourne Correctional Facility, where he spent the last months of his incarceration. A Manhattan judge signed an order that would schedule Shyne for release on October 6, 2009. He had served more than 9 years of a 10-year sentence, on which no terms for post-release supervision had originally been placed. At the request of the New York State Department of Correctional Services, a mandatory probation period of at least two and half years was added to Shyne's sentence. Shyne and his attorney, Oscar Michelen, had hoped to avoid probation.


title: Shyne

text: On October 6, 2009, Shyne was released from New York State custody; however, he was immediately taken into Federal custody. He was detained by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement at a "detention facility in Western New York State". One source indicated that the facility in question was the Buffalo Federal Detention Facility in Batavia. According to his attorney, Federal officials were reviewing the rapper's immigration status and making a determination on whether or not he would be deported to his native Belize. Shyne had a permanent resident "green card", and his mother was a U.S. citizen, but he himself had never become a naturalized citizen. There was speculation that Shyne might be released on bail in the U.S. while his case was being resolved.


title: Shyne

text: Shyne's uncle, Michael Finnegan, said that the family had prepared for the rapper's potential return to Belize. He also revealed that Shyne and his representatives had been expecting to be intercepted by ICE officials upon his release, and had directed members of his legal team to prepare the necessary documents in an effort to address the situation. Dean Barrow, Belize's Prime Minister and Shyne's father, sent a petition to New York Governor David Paterson asking Patterson to pardon his son. In 2008 Governor Paterson had pardoned rapper Slick Rick who, in a similar situation, also faced deportation. Barrow said he had been assured that the Governor received his letter and that his request was under consideration, but that he did not expect to have any influence in swaying the decision.


title: Shyne

text: His family enlisted the assistance of Charles Ogletree, an attorney and Harvard Law School professor, and part of President Barack Obama's circle, in Shyne's attempt to forestall deportation and later to regain entry into the U.S. In October 2009, Finnegan said that all legal matters regarding Shyne's case had been turned over to Ogletree. Nevertheless, Shyne was deported to Belize on October 28, 2009, though he continued to fight without success for residency in the United States. Given that he was convicted felon, the U.S. would not allow him back into the country.


title: Shyne

text: In February 2010, the rapper was refused entry into the United Kingdom due to his conviction as a felon. He had begun his journey in Cancun, Mexico, but was deported upon arrival in the UK after immigration officials refused to allow him to enter the country.


title: Shyne

text: In 2010 Shyne moved to Jerusalem, Israel. In November 2010, he was living in Jerusalem, having become observant and changing his name officially to Moses Michael Levi. He spent his time learning the Torah, and spent up to 12 hours a day studying it. He said that there was nothing at odds between the hip-hop world and being a Torah-observant Jew, saying: "There’s nothing in the "Chumash" that says I can’t drive a Lamborghini."


title: Shyne

text: In Jerusalem he underwent a formal conversion to Orthodox Judaism. He also prayed wearing Jewish ritual "tefillin" in the mornings, studied Talmud with rigorous strictly Orthodox rabbis at the Or Sameach, Belz, and Mir yeshivas, and grew "payot" (sidecurls; worn by some men in the Orthodox Jewish community based on their interpretation of the requirements of Jewish law). He had studied seriously with rabbis while in prison, and adopted the Jewish laws to create boundaries and order in his life. He officially changed his name to Moses Levi to reflect his commitment to Judaism. He said: "My entire life screams that I have a Jewish "neshama" ["soul", in Hebrew]."


title: Shyne

text: In December 2011, almost 12 years after the initial shooting, back in New York City, Matthew "Scar" Allen was shot and killed outside of Brooklyn's Footprints nightclub.


title: Shyne

text: In April 2012, Shyne traveled to Kyiv, Ukraine, where he was a featured speaker at a conference on inter-religious understanding. The conference – called "Global Winds of Change: Religions' Role in Today's World;The Challenges in Democracies and Secular Societies" – brought together members of the world's many faiths to discuss the role of religion in modern society. Oleksandr Feldman, a member of the Ukrainian parliament and the President of the Ukrainian Jewish Committee, hosted the three-day event.


title: Shyne

text: In 2013, Shyne returned to Belize. In 2017, he married to a businesswoman named Catherine, and a year later they had a daughter, Naomi.


title: Shyne

text: He returned to the U.S. for a visit in August 2021. In March 2022, Shyne received a Doctorate of Humane Letters ("honoris causa") from the University of Liberia for his life’s work "as a Humanitarian, Musician, and Legislator."


title: Shyne

text: Shyne released "Shyne (album)" in September 2000. The album featured guest appearances from Barrington Levy and 112's Slim, as well as production from Bad Boy's in-house producers The Hitmen. Shyne's self-titled debut album was recorded prior to the rapper's arrest. It made "Billboard"s number five spot on the charts, rose to the top of the Urban charts, and sold more than 900,000 copies.


title: Shyne

text: Many labels met with Shyne while he was incarcerated at the Clinton Correctional Facility. The rapper ultimately signed with Def Jam Records for a $3 million contract.


title: Shyne

text: In 2004, Shyne released his second album "Godfather Buried Alive," while imprisoned. The album, partially recorded prior to imprisonment and partially during his imprisonment over the phone in calls from prison, sold 434,000 copies and hit No. 1 on "Billboard"s Top R&B/Hip-Hop chart. Given that he was imprisoned, it did so without the benefit of the standard concert tour, and appearances on radio stations. Furthermore, as he had started to observe the Jewish Sabbath, he was completely unavailable for any publicity contacts on Friday nights and Saturdays.


title: Shyne

text: Upon his early release in 2009 from his 10-year prison sentence, the Belize native was deported to his homeland as a non-citizen felon.


title: Shyne

text: After a trip to Jerusalem, Israel, in 2010, where he formally converted to Orthodox Judaism and underwent a symbolic circumcision, Shyne collaborated with Jewish-American reggae and rock musician Matisyahu on his single "Messiah", released in April 2010. He released "Roller Song" in 2010.


title: Shyne

text: He later announced that he was recording two LPs for release in 2010, and Def Jam Records, the largest hip-hop label, approached him to sign a distribution agreement. "Messiah" was set to be the first of his 2010 release schedule, while "Gangland", was set to be his second.


title: Shyne

text: In October 2010, Shyne criticized Def Jam and announced hopes of signing to Cash Money Records: "I'm definitely trying to get with Cash Money…. I'm not signed to Def Jam anyway, I just need to find another distributor. I might just have Cash Money do everything. Who knows? That's the beauty about being in the business for yourself. You can decide where you want to go and what you want to do."


title: Shyne

text: Although he blamed Def Jam CEO L.A. Reid for his frustration, later that month Shyne issued an apology. In November 2010, Birdman said that Shyne's deportation had stalled his Cash Money deal, as it would prevent him from appearing in the US.


title: Shyne

text: In 2011 he performed in Jerusalem, forming a collaboration with Matisyahu. Shyne made a surprise guest appearance in the Matisyahu and HaDag Nachash concert in Jerusalem's Kikar Safra on June 23, 2011. He rapped into Matisyahu's set for "King Without a Crown". He shouted "Free Jonathan Pollard, Free Gilad Shalit" to thunderous applause before he exited the stage. Matisyahu and Shyne have shared Judaism and have become best friends. They have discussed collaborating more frequently in the future.


title: Shyne

text: In August 2011, Shyne appeared on the track "Outro", from Lil Wayne's platinum-selling ninth studio album "Tha Carter IV" (2011), along with Bun B, Nas and Busta Rhymes. In December 2011, Shyne said signing to Cash Money Records "is still a possibility". In March 2012, Shyne and Diddy finally reconciled. The two were photographed together at Fashion Week in Paris; Diddy tweeted, "Me and Shyne Po front row at Kenzo #ParisIsBurning RT to da world!!!!", and Shyne said: "It’s a new day. "L’chaim"!"


title: Shyne

text: In 2012, Shyne released a mixtape, "Gangland". Shyne called out Rick Ross, due to his blasphemous "Black Bar Mitzvah" mixtape, as well as Jewish-Canadian rapper Drake. He has recorded diss tracks towards Diddy, Swag Blanket's DLSupreme and 50 Cent.


title: Shyne

text: In November 2012, Shyne became involved in a feud with West Coast rapper Game, after Shyne described West Coast rapper Kendrick Lamar's debut album "good kid, m.A.A.d city" as "trash". Shyne dissed Game on tracks such as "Bury Judas" and "Psalms 68 (Guns & Moses)". These tracks reflected his study of Judaism.


title: Shyne

text: "Complex Magazine" in December 2012 noted Shyne on its list of rapper stars who had suffered the "30 worst fall-offs in rap history", ranking him as # 23. But Shyne's "Gangland" mixtape appeared to reflect a revival of his popularity; it was downloaded more than 100,000 times on DatPiff.com, earning him a "Gold" ranking.


title: Shyne

text: In May 2010, Shyne was appointed the Belize Music and Goodwill Ambassador. Over the years, he brought Combs, Kanye West, and J. Prince to Belize, promoted the country, and worked with its youth.


title: Shyne

text: In October 2012, Shyne, critical of the Obama administration, endorsed Republican nominee Mitt Romney for president of the United States, faulting incumbent President Obama for not doing anything to prevent the rapper's deportation to Belize. Asked if black voters should vote based on race alone, Shyne said: "I don't believe in all that, if you black you get a pass."


title: Shyne

text: In 2020, Shyne was nominated by the center-right Belize United Democratic Party to stand as a candidate for the Belize House of Representatives in the Belize City-based Mesopotamia constituency in the 2020 Belizean general election. On November 11, 2020, Barrow won the House of Representatives seat for Mesopotamia. Part of his platform is to strengthen Belizean governance with increased penalties for those who commit crimes, to raise the salaries of its police, to strengthen the judicial system so as to address violent crime, and for the government to provide student loans at low interest rates.


title: Shyne

text: Shyne was subsequently also appointed the Opposition Leader in the House of Representatives and the leader of the Belize United Democratic Party, in both June 2021 (until September 2021) and February 2022. He returned to the US for a state visit in August 2021, meeting with US politicians. The Atlanta City Council dесlаrеd Аuguѕt 20, 2021, Ѕhуnе Ваrrоw Dау "fоr hіѕ dеdісаtіоn, соmmіtmеnt аnd ѕеrvісе tо the grеаt реорlе оf Веlіzе, Сеntrаl Аmеrіса." He hopes to be elected Belize’s next prime minister in 2025.


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" is a song by the American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers and the eleventh track on their fifth studio album, "Blood Sugar Sex Magik" (1991). Vocalist Anthony Kiedis wrote the lyrics while reflecting on loneliness and the struggles of being clean from drugs, and almost didn't share it with the band. Released in March 1992, "Under the Bridge" was praised by critics and fans for its emotional weight. The song was a commercial success and the band's highest-charting single, peaking at number 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and certified platinum. It was also a success in other countries, mostly charting in the Top 10.


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" helped the Red Hot Chili Peppers enter the mainstream. David Fricke of "Rolling Stone" said that the song "unexpectedly drop-kicked the band into the Top 10". The song has become an inspiration to other artists, and remains a seminal component of the alternative rock movement of the early and mid-1990s.


title: Under the Bridge

text: In April 1998, All Saints released a cover of "Under the Bridge", which topped the UK Singles Chart for two weeks in May 1998.


title: Under the Bridge

text: In September of 2022, “Under The Bridge” became one of fewer than twenty songs that is thirty years or older to reach one billion streams on Spotify.


title: Under the Bridge

text: During the production of the Red Hot Chili Peppers' 1991 album "Blood Sugar Sex Magik", producer Rick Rubin regularly visited singer Anthony Kiedis to review his new material. He found a poem titled "Under the Bridge" in Kiedis's notebook and took an interest in the poignant lyrics. Rubin suggested that Kiedis show it to the rest of the band: "I thought it was beautiful. I said, 'We've got to do this.'"


title: Under the Bridge

text: Kiedis was reluctant, as he felt the poem was too emotional and did not fit the Chili Peppers' style. After singing the poem to guitarist John Frusciante and drummer Chad Smith, they "got up and walked over to their instruments and started finding the beat and guitar chords to match it". Frusciante chose the chords to balance the dark lyrics, saying "I thought if the lyrics are really sad like that I should write some chords that are happier".


title: Under the Bridge

text: Frusciante and Kiedis worked on the song for several days. It was one of the few tracks completed prior to the band moving into the Mansion, where they recorded the album. After the song was recorded, Rubin felt the grand ending would benefit from a large group of singers. Frusciante invited his mother, Gail, and her friend, both of whom sang in a choir, to perform.


title: Under the Bridge

text: Kiedis wrote many of the lyrics during a period of depression. After struggling with heroin and cocaine addiction, he had been sober for roughly three years. He felt that this had distanced him from his bandmates, who continued to use marijuana together; Kiedis felt that Frusciante was "no longer in [his] world". Driving home after rehearsal in April 1991, Kiedis thought of his addiction during his relationship with his former girlfriend Ione Skye. He wrote in his 2004 memoir "Scar Tissue": "The loneliness that I was feeling triggered memories of my time with Ione and how I'd had this beautiful angel of a girl who was willing to give me all of her love, and instead of embracing that, I was downtown with fucking gangsters shooting speedballs under a bridge."


title: Under the Bridge

text: Kiedis's alienation led him to feel that the city of Los Angeles was his only companion, and that "there was a nonhuman entity, maybe the spirit of the hills and the city, who had me in her sights and was looking after me". The lines "Sometimes I feel like / My only friend / Is the city I live in / The City of Angels / Lonely as I am / Together we cry" link Kiedis's isolation and sense of susceptibility. However, he believed that his life was better without drugs. His optimism produced the chorus: "I don't ever want to feel / Like I did that day / Take me to the place I love", "the place" meaning his bandmates, friends, and family.


title: Under the Bridge

text: One verse discusses the harsh effects of drugs, their role in destroying Kiedis's relationships, and their impact on his happiness. The verse recounts his experience entering gang territory under a bridge to purchase drugs; to gain access, Kiedis pretended that a sister of one of the gang members was his fiancée. Kiedis wrote that this was one of his lowest moments, as it demonstrated the level to which he was willing to sink for his addiction.


title: Under the Bridge

text: Kiedis has refused to reveal the location of the bridge, saying only that it is in downtown Los Angeles. Using details provided by Kiedis in his autobiography, writer Mark Haskell Smith concluded that the bridge was in MacArthur Park; however, this contradicts Kiedis's assertion that the bridge was under a freeway. Other possible locations include the Belmont Tunnel about half a mile from MacArthur Park, and the overpass where Interstate Highway 10 (the Santa Monica Freeway) crosses Hoover Street close to downtown L.A.


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" is performed in 4/4 time in the key of E major. The intro changes between D and F major chords before the first verse moves into E. The bridge and ending modulate to A minor. The song marked a shift in style for Kiedis, who had spent most of his career singing rapidly due to his limited range. The song begins with Frusciante playing a slow introduction he said drew from the 1967 Jimi Hendrix song "Little Wing".


title: Under the Bridge

text: As Kiedis begins to sing, the guitar playing becomes more rapid until it reaches an E major seventh chord that halts the song; the silence is broken by drummer Chad Smith's closed hi-hat and cross stick struck at a fast tempo. Frusciante borrowed the E major seventh chord technique from British guitarist Marc Bolan of the glam rock band T. Rex, who used it in the song "Rip Off" from the 1971 album "Electric Warrior."


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" continues with another verse and chorus, when the bass enters. After the next verse an E major seven chord again marks a break before the start of the chorus. The second chorus transitions into a different verse, where Smith begins to play the drums, and Kiedis sings "Take me all the way/Yeah/Yeah-e-yeah/Oh no, no." After Kiedis cues "One time," a choir sings "Under the bridge downtown" and Kiedis sings "Is where I drew some blood/I could not get enough/Forgot about my love/I gave my life away" in between. As the choir, Kiedis and drums stop, Frusciante and Flea play the ending.


title: Under the Bridge

text: The first single from "Blood Sugar Sex Magik" was "Give It Away", which reached number one on the "Billboard" Modern Rock Tracks chart in late 1991. The band did not expect "Under the Bridge" to be as successful, but understood its commercial potential. Warner Bros. Records sent representatives to a Chili Peppers concert to determine which song should be the next single. When Frusciante began playing "Under the Bridge", Kiedis missed his cue and the audience began singing the song instead. Kiedis was initially "mortified that I had fucked up in front of Warner's people [...] I apologized for fucking up but they said 'Fucking up? Are you kidding me? When every single kid at the show sings a song, that's our next single'."


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" was released on March 2, 1992. Journalist Jeff Apter noted that it "was the bona fide, across-all-formats radio hit that the band had been working towards for seven years". It spent 26 cumulative weeks on the United States "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. The single has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America.


title: Under the Bridge

text: Tom Moon of "Rolling Stone" felt that the song "revealed new dimensions. The rhythm section displays a growing curiosity about studio texture and nuance." David Fricke of "Rolling Stone" said that it was a "stark and uncommonly pensive ballad" that "drop-kicked the band into the Top 10". Reviewing the album, Ben DiPietro of the "Richmond Times-Dispatch" was impressed by the Chili Peppers' incorporation of slower tracks, especially "Under the Bridge". Nick Griffiths of "Select" dismissed it as "all mellow strumming and thoughtfully shallow vocals, though it's almost exonerated by a shrill unexpectedly choral middle eight".


title: Under the Bridge

text: Philip Booth of "The Tampa Tribune" said it was "undulating [and] omnipresent" not only in alternative rock but pop music generally. According to Amy Hanson of Allmusic, it became "an integral part of the 1990s alterna-landscape, and remains one of the purest diamonds that sparkle amongst the rough-hewn and rich funk chasms that dominate the Peppers' own oeuvre". She praised "Under the Bridge" as a "poignant sentiment that is self evident among the simple guitar which cradles the introductory verse, and the sense of fragility that is only doubled by the still down-tempo choral crescendo".


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" has been included in many publications' "Best of ..." lists. In 2002, "Kerrang!" placed the song at number six on their list of the "100 Greatest Singles of All Time". "Q" ranked the song number 180 on their compilation of the "1001 Best Songs, Ever". "Life" included "Under the Bridge" in the compilation "40 Years of Rock & Roll, 5 Songs Per Year 1952–1991", with the year being 1991. Pause and Play included the song in their unordered list of the "10 Songs of the 90's"; and the song ranked fifteenth in VH1's "100 Greatest Songs of the 90s". "Rolling Stone" and MTV compiled a list of the "100 Greatest Pop Songs Since The Beatles" in 2000, with "Under the Bridge" coming in fifty-fourth. "Under the Bridge" was also ranked #98 in the list of "Rolling Stone" "100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time" and ranked #328 on their "500 Greatest Songs of All Time".


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" helped the Red Hot Chili Peppers enter the mainstream. David Fricke of "Rolling Stone" said that the song "unexpectedly drop-kicked the band into the Top 10", while Philip Booth of "The Tampa Tribune" commented that it was a "pretty, undulating, [and] by-now omnipresent single."


title: Under the Bridge

text: The music video for "Under the Bridge" was directed by Gus Van Sant, who photographed the band during their stay at the Mansion and provided the art direction for "Blood Sugar Sex Magik". Van Sant knew Flea due to his role in Van Sant's 1991 film "My Own Private Idaho". The band members respected Van Sant, and were elated when he agreed to direct the video for "Under the Bridge". Flea credited the video as "the thing that really made us break through the mainstream of American and worldwide pop culture".


title: Under the Bridge

text: The video was shot on the streets of Los Angeles and in a studio soundstage. It begins with Frusciante standing alone on a pedestal wearing a red-and-white-striped collared shirt, brown khaki pants, black and white wingtip shoes, and a purple, green and multicolored chullo, with white stitched wolves. He plays a 1966 Fender Jaguar behind the backdrop of a desert and an inverted cloudy sky. His shadow is projected either side of him. Frusciante's then-girlfriend, Toni Oswald, selected his clothes that day. Frusciante remembered Van Sant's surprise: "When I got [to the studio] Gus Van Sant was just looking at me and going 'God, I'm so glad you wore that hat. I'm so glad you wore that shirt. Oh! Those pants are so great, I'm so glad you wore those.'" The video marked a shift in Frusciante's on-camera behavior; he no longer wished to jump around fervently as in the band's prior videos.


title: Under the Bridge

text: As Kiedis begins to sing, he appears on camera bathed in purple light with blue fluorescent stars as a backdrop, surrounded by clouds. As the camera pans closer, an image of the skyline of Van Sant's home city, Portland, is superimposed from his chin downwards. Flea and Chad Smith are placed into the image while playing. Van Sant made superimposing the theme of the video; the idea came from a project he worked on with novelist William S. Burroughs.


title: Under the Bridge

text: The scenes in the studio are coupled with scenes of Kiedis walking the streets of L.A., wearing a white T-shirt with the words "To Hell And Back"; as he walks, the camera focuses on various people. At various points, Kiedis stands before the Belmont Tunnel before its closure, which he felt was vital; he felt that the studio portion alone would not convey enough emotion: "The first time we shot [the video] it was all in a studio and that didn't seem to capture everything we needed to capture. It needed more; it needed to be combined with an outdoor, streets-of-Los-Angeles thing." Towards the end, Kiedis runs down the Los Angeles River channel in slow motion; the background is a nuclear explosion (the "Baker" shot of Operation Crossroads). The video ends with various superimposed images of the band, followed by Frusciante playing alone on a pedestal—this time with an inverted shot of the ocean as the sky.


title: Under the Bridge

text: MTV placed the "Under the Bridge" video on heavy rotation. At the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards, the Red Hot Chili Peppers led the nominations, which included the categories of "Best Video", "Best Group", and "Best Direction". "Under the Bridge" won the group "Breakthrough Video" and "Viewers Choice Best Video"; the band's video for "Give It Away" won "Best Art Direction". "Chicago Tribune" readers voted it the 8th best video of the year.


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" has been performed over 640 times since 1991, making it the Chili Peppers' second-most performed song behind "Give it Away". Unlike several of the Chili Peppers' other songs, "Under the Bridge" is not interpreted in a different manner than what is on the record—aside from being played acoustically, the track is performed the same as it appears on "Blood Sugar Sex Magik". Kiedis is, however, notorious for being incapable of achieving several high notes in live performances; the vocalist has noted that he sometimes forgets or rearranges song lyrics in the verses. Therefore, the song has sometimes suffered from his limitations as a singer. After its release, the song would be included in virtually all concerts; Frusciante, however, began to resent the song's popularity and would play reflicted intros, purposefully throwing Kiedis off. An example of this was during a televised performance on the highly rated program "Saturday Night Live" on February 22, 1992. Kiedis said that it "felt like I was getting stabbed in the back and hung out to dry in front of all of America while [Frusciante] was off in a corner in the shadow, playing some dissonant out-of-tune experiment." The guitarist used a distortion pedal for the ending verse and screamed incomprehensibly into the microphone when providing backup vocals, neither of which were originally planned or typical of live performances. Nevertheless, sales of "Blood Sugar Sex Magik" skyrocketed following the show.


title: Under the Bridge

text: At times Kiedis has also resented singing the song, especially during instances when he felt distanced from the song's lyrics. In the past few years, however, Kiedis has experienced a revival in interest: "Although there have been times when I was over ['Under the Bridge'], I've rediscovered it and now I feel close to it and it still has power, and life, and purpose as a song." Frusciante believed that the flexibility of "Under the Bridge" has contributed to its success: "A lot of the time that is one of the ingredients of a hit; you can hear it over and over and it will still always mean new things, but you do go through cycles." Flea believes that the reason "Under the Bridge" had a recent revival in relevancy was due to Frusciante's first return to the band from 1998 to 2009 after quitting in 1992. Flea believed that it was vital to have the four members who wrote the track together.


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" was played at the 1999 Woodstock Festival, which the Red Hot Chili Peppers headlined; they were the final act to perform. Attempts at distributing candles that were to be lit during the song backfired when the crowd, which was already disorderly, instead created a bonfire. Lighthearted foul-play escalated into violence when several women who had been crowd surfing and moshing were raped and nearby property was looted and destroyed. Other notable performances were at Slane Castle in August 2003 to 80,000 attendees; and in 2004 at London's Hyde Park, in which, over the course of three days, an estimated 250,000 people were in attendance. Released as the band's first live album, the event became the highest-grossing concert at a single venue in history, with a total revenue of $17.1 million. "Under the Bridge" is also performed on the Chili Peppers' concert video "Off the Map" released in 2001, and on an exclusive performance for iTunes in 2006. During the band's 2006 Stadium Arcadium World Tour, the band for the first time decided to drop the song from some of the setlists in favor of "I Could Have Lied" or "Soul to Squeeze". This continued on the band's 2016–17 The Getaway World Tour and 2022's Global Stadium Tour. On May 18, 2017, before playing "Under the Bridge" at a show in Indianapolis, Indiana, Flea said, "Love to Chris Cornell". Chris Cornell had died after Soundgarden's concert the night before.


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" served as the third single released from English girl group All Saints' debut album, "All Saints" (1997). It became their second number-one single on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" was slightly altered because it contained personal lyrics by Anthony Kiedis, and the All Saints covered it because they liked the overall sound and feeling of the recording. The All Saints version contains samples of the original recording, the most important one being the distinctive guitar playing in the beginning. The Red Hot Chili Peppers were, however, displeased with this version; Kiedis felt the cover was poorly recreated and, because the final verse, which contains the line "Under the bridge downtown / is where I drew some blood", was omitted, it lost all personal significance. He said of All Saints' version: "It was kind of funny, they looked so pretty and clean, it looked like they didn't know what they were singing about". The guitar on "Under the Bridge" was played by Richard Hawley.


title: Under the Bridge

text: Both videos were shot as a set and cost £500,000 to make. The videos took four months of production before release. The girls chose to perform their own stunts in the video, and at one point Natalie Appleton was knocked over by an explosion, although she remained unhurt.


title: Under the Bridge

text: "Under the Bridge" has been covered several times since its release in 1992. The song was first transcribed in 1994 by the a cappella group The Flying Pickets from their album "The Original Flying Pickets: Volume 1". Notable jazz musician Frank Bennett covered the song by fusing elements of big bands and bebop in his 1996 album "Five O'Clock Shadow". Hip hop artist Mos Def included the beginning verse of "Under the Bridge" in the song "Brooklyn," from his 1999 record "Black on Both Sides". He, however, changed the line "the city I live in, the City of Angels", which refers to Los Angeles, to "the city I live in is beautiful Brooklyn," to match his song's premise. Tony Hadley covered the song on his 1995 album "Obsession". Britain's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra has modified "Under the Bridge" at several concerts—they perform various rock pieces combined into a single orchestral ensemble, often including the Chili Peppers' hit.


title: Under the Bridge

text: Mike Patton's band Mr. Bungle performed a mock version of the song in 1999, as part of a halloween concert parodying Red Hot Chili Peppers. Patton had earlier covered snippets of it while in Faith No More during 1992 and 1993.


title: Under the Bridge

text: Alternative hip hop band Gym Class Heroes performed "Under the Bridge" on the 2006 assemblage "Punk Goes '90s", an album that compiled popular rock songs from the 1990s being covered by contemporary artists. Gym Class Heroes continued to play "Under the Bridge" during their tour; lead singer Travis McCoy has said that it is "a timeless song. It's one of those songs you hear and are like 'Damn did this shit just come out?'" The All Saints version of "Under the Bridge", released in 1998, was the most successful cover version, reaching number one in the United Kingdom. The cover removed the final verse of the song that discusses drug use.


title: Under the Bridge

text: The 1993 "Weird Al" Yankovic song "Bedrock Anthem", set in the world of The Flintstones, begins with a brief parody of "Under the Bridge", followed by a more extensive parody of "Give It Away".


title: Under the Bridge

text: In 2009, the Stanley Clarke Trio covered the song on the album "Jazz in the Garden". John Craigie covers the song on his album Leave the Fire Behind.


title: Diet Coke

text: Diet Coke (also branded as Coca-Cola Light, Coca-Cola Diet or Coca-Cola Light Taste) is a sugar-free and low-calorie soft drink produced and distributed by the Coca-Cola Company. It contains artificial sweeteners instead of sugar. Unveiled on July 8, 1982, and introduced in the United States on August 9, 1982, it was the first new brand since 1886 to use the Coca-Cola trademark. The product quickly overtook the company's existing diet cola, Tab (which was discontinued in 2020), in sales.


title: Diet Coke

text: When diet colas first entered the market, beginning with Diet Rite, the Coca-Cola Company had a long-standing policy to use the Coca-Cola name only on its flagship cola, and so its diet cola was named Tab when it was released in 1963. Its rival Pepsi had no such qualms, and after the long-term success of its sugar-free Diet Pepsi (launched in 1964) became clear, Coca-Cola decided to launch a competing sugar-free brand under the Coca-Cola name that could be marketed more easily than Tab. Diet Coke was launched in 1982 and quickly overtook Tab in sales by a wide margin, though the older drink would remain on the market for decades until the COVID-19 pandemic forced Coca-Cola to discontinue Tab along with other slower-selling drinks in 2020.


title: Diet Coke

text: Diet Coke is not based on the Coca-Cola formula, but instead on Tab. The controversial New Coke, introduced in 1985, used a version of the Diet Coke recipe that contained high-fructose corn syrup and had a slightly different balance of ingredients. In 2005, the company introduced Coca-Cola Zero (renamed Coca-Cola Zero Sugar in 2017), a sugar-free formula more closely based on original Coca-Cola.


title: Diet Coke

text: In 2005, under pressure from retailer Walmart (which was impressed with the over-the-counter popularity of Splenda sweetener), the company released a new formulation called "Diet Coke sweetened with Splenda". Sucralose and acesulfame potassium replaced aspartame in this version. As the formulation was done to mollify one retailer, this variety had little advertising and promotion, as the company preferred to market Coca-Cola Zero instead. By late 2009, most distributors had stopped distributing the Splenda-formulated Diet Coke.


title: Diet Coke

text: In 2018, in an effort to be more appealing to millennials, Diet Coke was packaged in a taller, more slender can (of the same volume) and introduced four new flavors. The cans reverted to the conventional shape a year later.


title: Diet Coke

text: Diet Coke and Diet Pepsi have capitalized on the markets of people who require low sugar regimens, such as diabetics and people concerned with calorie intake. In the UK, a 330 ml can of Diet Coke contains around 1.3 kilocalories (5 kilojoules) compared to 142 kilocalories (595 kJ) for a regular can of Coca-Cola.


title: Diet Coke

text: Diet Coke in the US was sweetened with aspartame, an artificial sweetener, after the sweetener became available in the United States in 1983. Early on, to save money, this was also originally in a blend with saccharin. After Diet Rite cola advertised its 100 percent use of aspartame, and the manufacturer of NutraSweet (then G. D. Searle & Company) warned that the NutraSweet trademark would not be made available to a blend of sweeteners, Coca-Cola switched the formula to 100 percent aspartame. Diet Coke from fountain dispensers still contains some saccharin to extend shelf life.


title: Diet Coke

text: According to the Coca-Cola Company, the sweetener blend is "formulated for each country based on consumer preference". In countries in which cyclamates are not banned (as they were in the US in 1970), Diet Coke or Coca-Cola Light may be sweetened with a blend containing aspartame, cyclamates, and acesulfame potassium.


title: Diet Coke

text: The most commonly distributed version of Diet Coke uses aspartame as a sweetener. As one of the most intensively scrutinized food additives, the safety of aspartame has been studied since its discovery. Aspartame has been deemed safe for human consumption by the regulatory agencies of many countries.


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: Fifty Shades is a series of erotic novels by E. L. James, initially a trilogy consisting of "Fifty Shades of Grey" (2011), "Fifty Shades Darker" (2012) and "Fifty Shades Freed" (2012). The series traces the deepening relationship between college graduate Anastasia Steele and young businessman Christian Grey, who introduces Ana to the world of BDSM.


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: The author has spoken of her shock at the success of the book: "The explosion of interest has taken me completely by surprise." James has described the "Fifty Shades" trilogy as "my midlife crisis, writ large. All my fantasies in there, and that's it." She did not start to write until January 2009, as she revealed while still active on FanFiction.Net: "I started writing in January 2009 after I finished reading the Twilight saga, and I haven't stopped since. I discovered Fan Fiction in August 2009. Since then I have written two fics and plan on doing at least one more. After that ... who knows?" In August 2013, sales of the trilogy saw James top the "Forbes" list of the highest-earning authors with earnings of $95 million, which included $5 million for the film rights to "Fifty Shades of Grey". In spite of the success, the books have also been largely panned by critics, with the first entry in particular "being ridiculed by virtually every critic who has read it."


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: Since 2015 the series has been expanded with a parallel set of novels "as told by Christian": "" follows the events of "Fifty Shades of Grey" but from the perspective of Christian Grey, "" (2017) and "" (2021) do the same for "Fifty Shades Darker" and "Fifty Shades Freed", respectively.


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: Salman Rushdie said about the book: "I've never read anything so badly written that got published. It made "Twilight" look like "War and Peace"." Maureen Dowd described the book in "The New York Times" as being written "like a Brontë devoid of talent", and said it was "dull and poorly written". Jesse Kornbluth of "The Huffington Post" said: "As a reading experience, "Fifty Shades" ... is a sad joke, puny of plot".


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: Princeton professor April Alliston wrote, "Though no literary masterpiece, "Fifty Shades" is more than parasitic fan fiction based on the recent "Twilight" vampire series." "Entertainment Weekly" writer Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the book a "B+" rating and praised it for being "in a class by itself". British author Jenny Colgan in "The Guardian" wrote "It is jolly, eminently readable and as sweet and safe as BDSM (bondage, discipline, sadism and masochism) erotica can be without contravening the trade descriptions act" and also praised the book for being "more enjoyable" than other "literary erotic books". However, "The Telegraph" criticized the book as "treacly cliché" but also wrote that the sexual politics in "Fifty Shades of Grey" will have female readers "discussing it for years to come". A reviewer for the "Ledger-Enquirer" described the book as guilty fun and escapism, but that it "also touches on one aspect of female existence [female submission]. And acknowledging that fact – maybe even appreciating it – shouldn't be a cause for guilt." "The New Zealand Herald" stated that the book "will win no prizes for its prose" and that "there are some exceedingly awful descriptions", but it was also an easy read; "(If you only) can suspend your disbelief and your desire to – if you'll pardon the expression – slap the heroine for having so little self respect, you might enjoy it."


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: "The Columbus Dispatch" stated that, "Despite the clunky prose, James does cause one to turn the page." "Metro News Canada" wrote that "suffering through 500 pages of this heroine's inner dialogue was torturous, and not in the intended, sexy kind of way". Jessica Reaves, of the "Chicago Tribune", wrote that the "book's source material isn't great literature", noting that the novel is "sprinkled liberally and repeatedly with asinine phrases", and described it as "depressing". The book garnered some accolades. In December 2012, it won both "Popular Fiction" and "Book of the Year" categories in the UK National Book Awards. In that same month, "Publishers Weekly" named E. L. James the 'Publishing Person of the Year', causing an "outcry from the literary world". For example, "What was "Publishers Weekly" thinking?" asked "Los Angeles Times" writer Carolyn Kellogg, while a "New York Daily News" headline read, "Civilization ends: E.L. James named Publishers Weekly's 'Person of the Year'."


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: The "Fifty Shades" trilogy has also attracted criticism due to its depictions of BDSM, with Katie Roiphe of "Newsweek" asking "But why, for women especially, would free will be a burden? ... It may be that power is not always that comfortable, even for those of us who grew up in it; it may be that equality is something we want only sometimes and in some places and in some arenas; it may be that power and all of its imperatives can be boring." "Zap2it" Andrea Reiher expressed frustration at Roiphe's depiction of the series, stating that "[b]eing submissive sexually is not tantamount to being the victim of abuse" or that they're "giving up their power or their equality with their partner". Other sites such as Jezebel have responded to the article, with Jezebel listing reasons for "Fifty Shades of Grey" popularity, stating that "the vast majority of fans fawn over the emotional relationship Anastasia and Christian have, not about the sex."


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: In an interview with "Salon", several dominatrices have responded that while submission can be an escape from daily stresses, they also frequently have male clients and that trust is a big factor in dominant/submissive relationships. One interviewed former dominatrix and author, Melissa Febos, stated that even if the book's popularity was a result of women's "current anxieties about equality" that it "doesn't mean that it's 'evidence of unhappiness, or an invalidation of feminism,' ...it might actually be a sign of progress that millions of women are so hungrily pursuing sexual fantasies independent of men." Writing in "The Huffington Post", critic Soraya Chemaly argued that interest in the series was not a trend, but squarely within the tradition and success of the romance category which is driven by tales of virgins, damaged men and submission/dominance themes. Instead, she wrote, the books are notable not for transgressive sex but for how women are using technology to subvert gendered shame by exploring explicit sexual content privately using e-readers. Instead of submission fantasies representing a post-feminist discomfort with power and free will, women's open consumption, sharing and discussion of sexual content is a feminist success. At the beginning of the media hype, Dr. Drew and sexologist Logan Levkoff discussed the book on "The Today Show", about whether "Fifty Shades" perpetuated violence against women; Levkoff said that while that is an important subject, this trilogy had nothing to do with it – this was a book about a consensual relationship. Dr. Drew commented that the book was "horribly written" in addition to being "disturbing" but stated that "if the book enhances women's real-life sex lives and intimacy, so be it." Amy Bonomi, a Human Development and Family Studies professor argues that the relationship portrayed is non-consensual: "Unable to bear the thought of being alone, Christian employs strategies to "trap" Anastasia, including keeping his violent tendencies private, limiting Anastasia's availability of help and support from her friends and family through his nondisclosure agreement and through verbal and nonverbal intimidation, and attempts to convince Anastasia that she finds his punishments pleasurable"


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: In March 2012, branches of the public library in Brevard County, Florida, removed copies of "Fifty Shades of Grey" from their shelves, with an official stating that it did not meet the selection criteria for the library and that reviews for the book had been poor. A representative for the library stated that it was due to the book's sexual content and that other libraries had declined to purchase copies for their branches. Deborah Caldwell-Stone of the American Library Association commented that "If the only reason you don't select a book is that you disapprove of its content, but there is demand for it, there's a question of whether you're being fair. In a public library there is usually very little that would prevent a book from being on the shelf if there is a demand for the information." Brevard County public libraries later made their copies available to their patrons due to public demand.


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: In Macaé, Brazil, Judge Raphael Queiroz Campos ruled in January 2013 that bookstores throughout the city must either remove the series entirely from their shelves or ensure that the books are wrapped and placed out of the reach of minors. The judge stated that he was prompted to make such an order after seeing children reading them, basing his decision on a law stating that "magazines and publications whose content is improper or inadequate for children and adolescents can only be sold if sealed and with warnings regarding their content".


title: Fifty Shades (novel series)

text: A film adaptation of the book was produced by Focus Features, Michael De Luca Productions, and Trigger Street Productions, with Universal Pictures and Focus Features securing the rights to the trilogy in March 2012. Universal is also the film's distributor. Charlie Hunnam was originally cast in the role of Christian Grey alongside Dakota Johnson in the role of Anastasia Steele, but Hunnam gave up the part in October 2013, with Jamie Dornan announced for the role on 23 October. The film was released on 13 February 2015, and became an immediate success, making it to #1 at the box office with $558.5 million. However, critical reactions were generally negative. After the first film premiered at a special fan screening in New York City on 6 February 2015, director Sam Taylor-Johnson confirmed two sequels to be succeeded after the first film, with "Fifty Shades Darker" releasing on 10 February 2017 and "Fifty Shades Freed" releasing on 9 February 2018.


title: Creedence Clearwater Revival discography

text: The discography of American rock band Creedence Clearwater Revival, who released their first album and singles in July 1968, includes 7 studio albums, 3 live albums, 41 compilation albums, and 29 singles. The group, although only active for 4 years, has sold more than 30 million albums and singles in the United States alone, and has charted in multiple countries throughout the world.


text: CCR holds the record for the most singles (five) to reach number 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 without ever scoring a number 1 single; as well as the most singles to reach the top 10 (nine) without ever reaching number 1.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: Future planning of the Royal Navy's capabilities is set through periodic Defence Reviews carried out by the British Government. The Royal Navy's role in the 2020s, and beyond, is outlined in the 2021 defence white paper, which was published on 22 March 2021. The white paper is one component of the Integrated Review of Security, Defence, Development and Foreign Policy, titled as Global Britain in a Competitive Age which was published on 16 March 2021.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The National Audit Office (NAO) has, for a considerable period of time, described the Ministry of Defence's equipment plan as "unaffordable". As late as January 2021 the NAO reported that the Royal Navy had the largest shortfall of the three services at £4.3 billion over the 2020 to 2030 period. To address some of these gaps, in November 2020, the Prime Minister announced the first outcome of the defence review by pledging increased funding in the range of £16.5 billion over four years to stabilise the defence budget and to provide new funding for space, cyber and research activities. A plan to construct a new class of frigate, the Type 32 frigate, was also announced with five vessels envisaged and likely entering service starting in the early 2030s, though many other details about the program remain to be decided, even following publication of the March 2021 defence white paper.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: As of November 2022, the following major vessels are under construction: the final two of seven s; the first three of four "Dreadnought"-class ballistic missile submarines, the first three of eight Type 26 frigates; and the first of five Type 31 frigates.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The following is a list of vessels planned, ordered, under construction or undergoing sea trials within the United Kingdom, and destined for the Royal Navy:


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR) a replacement programme was authorised for the Navy's fleet of thirteen Type 23 frigates. In 2012, BAE Systems Naval Ships was awarded a contract to design the replacement, known as the Type 26 Global Combat Ship (GCS). It was planned that two variants of the class would be built: five general purpose frigates and eight anti-submarine warfare frigates. According to estimates as of 2022, the first Type 26 frigate is to commission in late 2026 and the last commissioning in around 2034, whilst the Type 23s are gradually phased out. However, in October 2022, the Secretary of Defence, Ben Wallace, indicated that Initial Operating Capability for the first ship in the class would only be reached in 2028.Eight Type 26 frigates will be built. The five remaining ships will be covered by a new class of lighter, flexible general purpose frigate, known as the Type 31e frigate or General Purpose Frigate (GPFF).


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The slower than planned introduction of both the Type 26 and Type 31, coupled with the pending retirement dates for the Type 23, created a risk that Royal Navy frigate numbers would decline in the 2020s to as few as 8 frigates. Reductions were partly confirmed in the 2021 defence white paper with the announcement that two of the Type 23s would, in fact, be retired early. Nevertheless, the at sea availability of ships (both destroyers and frigates) within this smaller force would actually increase as vessels complete their life extension refits. By the latter 2020s and 2030s it is anticipated that overall numbers may rise again as the replacement vessels enter service. In 2021 in a written answer provided to the House of Commons Select Defence Committee, the First Sea Lord, Admiral Tony Radakin, suggested that older Type 23 frigates would be retained in service longer than anticipated in order to ensure that escort numbers did not fall below 17 ships (6 destroyers and 11 frigates) and start to rise back above 19 escorts starting in the latter 2020s.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The objective of the 2021 white paper is to have 24 frigates and destroyers in service by the "early 2030s", though some argued that a date of 2035 was more likely. This is to be achieved through the construction of yet another class of frigate, the Type 32.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In November 2020, the first decisions of the Integrated Review were announced which included a pledge to construct the Type 32 frigate. No further details were included but the announcement was made in the context of restoring the United Kingdom as "the foremost naval power in Europe" and to "spur a shipbuilding renaissance". Later, the 2021 white paper indicated that the Type 32 was to be "designed to protect territorial waters, provide persistent presence overseas and support our Littoral Response Groups". In November 2020, the Ministry of Defence described the ship as a platform for autonomous systems, such as anti-submarine warfare and mine countermeasures. As of late 2022, the Type 32 frigate project was reported to be facing significant funding pressures. The November 2022 report of the National Audit Office on "The Equipment Plan 2022-2032" stated that in July 2022 "Navy Command withdrew its plans for Type 32 frigates and MRSS because of concerns about unaffordability. The revised costing profile is likely to be significantly higher".


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The March 2021 defence white paper also announced that a new class of air defence destroyer, the Type 83, would be designed to replace the Type 45 destroyer with the aim of achieving initial delivery in the latter 2030s. In the interim, in July 2021 it was announced that the "Type-45" destroyers would be upgraded through the addition of 24 cells for the Sea Ceptor surface-to-air missile system. The "Type-45s" were reported as likely to be incrementally upgraded between 2026 and 2032.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The 2015 SDSR specified that only 12 mine-counter measure vessels were planned to exist in Joint Force 2025. The three oldest "Sandown"-class minehunters were decommissioned. At one point it was anticipated that the UK and France would collaborate on a Maritime Mine Counter Measures project. At DESI 2017, the First Sea Lord mentioned that the Royal Navy aimed to accelerate the incremental delivery of future mine countermeasures and hydrographic capability (MHC) programme.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In May 2015, a contract was signed with Atlas Elektronik UK to supply Unmanned surface vessels (USVs) of their ARCIMS system for autonomous mine clearance. The first boat delivered under this contract was the optionally-manned RNMB "Hazard", which took part in Exercise Unmanned Warrior 16. She was followed by the autonomous RNMB "Hussar" in 2018 and RNMB "Harrier" in August 2020, by which time they came under Project Wilton within the First Mine Counter Measures Squadron at HMNB Clyde. RNMB "Hebe", due in Spring 2021, will be longer - instead of - to accommodate a Portable Operations Centre Afloat that allows her to control "Harrier" and "Hazard" while also co-ordinating autonomous operations.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In 2020 the parliamentary National Audit Office (NAO) noted that no funding had been allocated in the 2019 to 2029 period to replace the Navy's mine countermeasures capability. The 2021 defence white paper subsequently confirmed that all existing MCMV vessels would be phased out in the 2020s and replaced by autonomous systems.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: Following on the Prime Minister's announcement in late 2020 of enhanced funding for the Ministry of Defence, Jeremy Quin, Minister of State for Defence Procurement, indicated on 30 November 2020, in response to a parliamentary question, that the envisaged Type 32 frigate would, in part, replace the current mine countermeasures ships and act as a "mothership" for the Navy's future unmanned mine countermeasures capabilities, as well as serving as a platform for anti-submarine warfare. Specifically, he said "... it is envisioned that Type 32 will be a platform for autonomous systems, adding to the Navy's capabilities for missions such as anti-submarine warfare and mine countermeasures". Type 32, as well as other platforms, could potentially carry a new autonomous system, which itself was announced on 26 November 2020 as being acquired through a joint production contract with France. This system employs three sets of equipment with each set comprising a portable operation centre, an autonomous surface vessel, towed sonar and a mine neutralization system.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The 2015 SDSR confirmed that three new large fleet solid support ships would be acquired for the Royal Fleet Auxiliary under the Fleet Solid Support Ship Programme to replace the single-hulled , which entered service in 1994, and and (both dating from the late 1970s). The ships were originally expected to enter service in the mid-2020s. The 2017 National Shipbuilding Strategy confirm this, noting that the Fleet Solid Support ships would be subjected to an international competition and be delivered by the mid-2020s.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: However, late in 2019 this competition was stopped in the face of criticism that the competition permitted the potential construction of the ships outside the UK. The competition was anticipated as likely to be restarted with revised terms of reference. On 21 October 2020, it was indicated that the competition for the FSS will be restarted in Spring 2021, covering three ships and it will be an international competition but the team must be a led by a British company. The 2021 defence white paper confirmed that three FSSS would be built. In May 2021 the competition to build the ships was relaunched with the aim of taking a decision within two years. In July 2022, Rear-Admiral Paul Marshall, the Senior Responsible Officer for the Fleet Solid Support ship project, told the House of Commons Select Defence Committee that the first ship was envisaged for service entry in 2028 with the third entering service by 2032. In November 2022 it was announced that Team Resolute (BMT, Harland & Wolff and Navantia) had been selected to build the ships with the start of construction anticipated in 2025. Subject to meeting final approvals, the actual manufacturing contract was expected in the first quarter of 2023.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The SDSR did not mention any current plans to replace which at the time was scheduled to go out of service in 2020 but was laid up and advertised for sale in 2016, or which was originally scheduled to go out of service in 2024. A parliamentary reply on 21 March 2016 noted that "The consideration of options to deliver the capabilities provided by RFA "Diligence" and RFA "Argus" remains ongoing". An August 2016 notice stated that "Diligence" was placed up for sale, and that the MOD was considering options for a replacement. The 2021 defence white paper was silent on a specific replacement for either vessel, essentially confirming that the enhanced aviation capabilities eventually envisaged as being provided by the mooted "Multi-Role Support Ships" (MRSS), would be the "de facto" replacement for "Argus" though the first MRSS might not actually enter service until the 2030s. In 2022, it was confirmed that "Argus" would in fact be extended in service "beyond 2030".


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The 2021 defence white paper outlined a proposal related to the composition of the Royal Navy's future amphibious capability. While the white paper was unclear about whether the Royal Navy's Albion-class assault ships would be replaced, it did announce an intent to acquire a new class of up to six "Multi Role Support Ships (MRSS) (almost certaintly as Bay-class landing ship replacements), to provide the platforms to deliver Littoral Strike, including Maritime Special Operations in the 2030s". These vessels superseded an earlier plan, announced by the former Secretary of State for Defence Gavin Williamson in February 2019, that the Royal Navy would purchase two commercial ships and develop them into Littoral Strike Ships.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The new MRSS vessels were envisaged as having the utility to transport and deliver troops, vehicles, equipment and supplies from anywhere in the world in support of amphibious warfare and littoral manoeuvre. They were envisaged as incorporating a "mix of ship-to-shore offloading and logistics capabilities allow support to naval operations through landing craft, boat operations, multi-spot aviation and replenishment at sea". As of late 2022, the Multi-Role Support Ships were reported to be facing significant funding pressures. The November 2022 report of the National Audit Office on "The Equipment Plan 2022-2032" stated that in July 2022 "Navy Command withdrew its plans for Type 32 frigates and MRSS because of concerns about unaffordability. The revised costing profile is likely to be significantly higher".


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The white paper announced that, in the interim, one of the three Bay-class vessels would be converted to a Littoral Strike Ship (LSS) and fitted with permanent hangars as well as incorporating other upgrades. In May 2022, it was indicated that "Lyme Bay" was likely to be selected for the role. However, the planned conversion was subsequently delayed, with, in July 2022, reports appearing that the future Littoral Strike Role would now be assumed by RFA "Argus". This followed an announcement that "Argus" would be retained until at least the early 2030s.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The 2021 defence white paper announced an intent to acquire a Multi-Role Ocean Surveillance ship (MROSS). The ship is planned to enter service in 2024 and was planned to be "fitted with advanced sensors and will carry a number of remotely operated and autonomous undersea drones which will collect data to help protect our people and way of life with operations in UK and international waters". It was envisaged as necessary to protect undersea cable links to the UK and as a likely replacement for the current ocean survey ship, .


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: Maritime Autonomy Surface Testbed (MAST) 13 is a collaboration between DSTL and L3Harris Technologies. In September 2019, Secretary of State for Defence Ben Wallace unveiled the MAST-13 (since renamed Madfox), an autonomous unmanned surface vehicle that would be attached to a BAE Systems PAC24 rigid inflatable boat and protect surface ships. was involved in the demonstration. On 24 June 2020, the Royal Navy announced that the first unmanned Pacific 24 boat has been launched. On 1 June 2021, the Madfox ASV successfully completed remote trials from range in the Solent, with personnel operating the vessel from the nearby coastline.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: On 9 August 2017, Defence Minister Harriett Baldwin announced the winner of Project Vahana, a £48 million contract for up to 38 (including HMS "Magpie") modular glass-reinforced plastic hull workboats of between 11 and 18m long, which will support Royal Navy ships. Tasks to be carried out by the boats will include officer and diver training (8 & 7 boats respectively), hydrographic survey (3 boats), Antarctic exploration, explosive ordinance disposal and passenger transport (3 boats) for HMS "Prince of Wales". In their role as passenger transport, the boats are capable of carrying up to 36 personnel to and from the aircraft carriers, especially where port facilities are too small to allow the carrier alongside, before being winched from the water using on-board lifting equipment and stowed inside. These boats will be built by Atlas Elektronik UK in Dorset and are scheduled to be in service by 2021. Unusually, these workboats are not scheduled to be used as passenger transfer boats with HMS "Queen Elizabeth" as this role was taken by a previously announced contract for 4 such boats with Alnmaritec.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: On 15 December 2015, the Ministry of Defence awarded a £13.5m contract to BAE Systems for the production of 60 new Pacific 24 rigid-hulled inflatable boats for use with Royal Navy & Royal Fleet Auxiliary ships. The contract took 4 years to complete and began in early 2016. Babcock was awarded a maintenance contract at DSEI 2019 for ARCHER-class patrol and training vessels, rigid-inflatable boats (RIB), yachts, static training vessels, small cadet boats and police boats. BAE Systems was awarded the latest contract to support in-service PAC24s and a range of other small craft in service with the Royal Navy and other branches of the UK armed forces in 2019.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In 1997 the MOD signed a contract with GEC-Marconi (now BAE Systems Submarine Solutions) to deliver a new class of seven nuclear powered attack submarines to the Royal Navy. This class was intended to replace the five boats of the ageing , as well as the oldest two boats of the . However delays led to the Astute-class replacing only the Trafalgar-class "de facto". The first-in-class HMS "Astute" was laid down in January 2001 and commissioned into the fleet in August 2010, followed by her sisters HMS "Ambush" (2013), HMS "Artful" (2016), HMS "Audacious" (2020) and HMS "Anson" (2022). As of August 2022, five of the boats have been commissioned and two are under construction. The entry into service of the seventh boat is planned for 2026.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The "Astute"-class are much larger than their predecessors and have greatly improved stealth, endurance and weapons load. Each submarine is capable of carrying up to 38 Tomahawk Land Attack Cruise Missiles and Spearfish heavyweight torpedoes.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In July 2016 it was confirmed that a new class of submarine would be built to replace the current fleet of 4 ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) which carry the United Kingdom's nuclear deterrent. On 18 July 2016 the House of Commons voted 472 for and 117 against to proceed to build the new submarines. On 21 October 2016, the MoD announced that the first of the four planned boats would be named , with the name also attached to the class. Construction of "Dreadnought" had commenced by 2017. On 6 December 2018, the second boat of this class was named as HMS "Valiant". The final two boats of the class have been named HM Submarines "Warspite" and "King George VI".


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: There is also a plan for a Maritime Underwater Future Capability (MUFC), that is, a successor to the "Astute"-class SSN. MUFC is also known as the 'Astute Replacement Nuclear Submarine (SSN (R))'.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In November 2022, MSubs Ltd was awarded a £15.4m contract to build an XLUUV (Extra Large Uncrewed Underwater Vehicle) vessel which is to be delivered to the Royal Navy within two years. The 17-tonne vessel (known as Project CETUS) is described as being "the next step in developing autonomous underwater warfare capability" and is also to feed into the design of SSN(R).


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The "Invincible" class, because of its small size, had only a limited capacity and was only capable of operating STOVL aircraft, the Harrier GR7/GR9. In 2006 the Sea Harrier was withdrawn from service. This saw the front line Sea Harrier squadron of the Fleet Air Arm converting to the Harrier GR9, as part of the evolution of the Joint Force Harrier concept. The Harrier's replacement in both the RAF and the FAA is the F-35 Lightning II Joint Combat Aircraft. The F-35 is a significant improvement over the Harrier, in terms of speed, range and weapon load.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The UK had plans to order 138 F-35Bs for the FAA and RAF. The financial crisis led to the decision taken in the 2010 SDSR to immediately withdraw the Harrier GR9 force in late 2010 along with HMS "Ark Royal", to reduce the total number of F-35s planned for purchase by the UK, and to purchase the F-35C CATOBAR version rather than the STOVL F-35B. By May 2012, the government had decided to purchase the short-take off version, the F-35B instead.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In July 2012, the Secretary of State for Defence stated that an initial 48 F-35Bs will be purchased to equip the carrier fleet. In September 2013, it was announced that the second JSF squadron would be the Fleet Air Arm's 809 NAS. Chancellor George Osborne announced on 22 November 2015 that the UK will have 24 F-35Bs on its two new carriers by 2023. While the 2015 SDSR declared that the United Kingdom would buy 138 F-35s over the life of the programme, the 2021 defence white paper sharply reduced that total to "beyond 48". Subsequently, the First Sea Lord indicated that the new envisaged number was to be 60 aircraft initially and "then maybe more", up to a maximum of around 80 to hopefully equip four "deployable squadrons".


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: On 20 May 2016, it had been reported that the UK would field four frontline squadrons as part of its Lightning Force; in addition to 809 NAS, plus another Fleet Air Arm squadron, four Royal Air Force units (617 Sqn plus another operational squadron, 207 Sqn as the OCU, and 17(R) Squadron as the Operational Evaluation Unit) were also formed. The UK is committed to improving its F-35Bs to Block 4 standard. In 2016 it had been planned that 809 NAS would stand up in April 2023. However, by 2021 it was no longer clear that this objective would be met and a specific date for 809 NAS to stand up had yet to be confirmed. In early 2022, one analysis suggested that 809 Squadron might not stand up before 2026 and that a third frontline F-35 squadron might not be active before 2030. In September 2022, it was reported that 809 Squadron would in fact formally stand up in 2023 but that it would not be considered "deployable" for a further two years thereafter.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In April 2022, the Deputy Chief of Defence Staff, Air Marshal Richard Knighton, told the House of Commons Defence Select Committee that the MoD was in discussions to purchase a second tranche of 26 F-35B fighters. Plans for frontline F-35B squadrons had been modified and now envisaged a total of three squadrons (rather than four) each deploying 12-16 aircraft. In surge conditions 24 F-35s might be embarked on the carrier but a routine deployment would likely involve 12 aircraft.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review saw the Fleet Air Arm transition to operate two types of helicopter – the AW101 Merlin and the AW159 Wildcat. These replaced the aging fleet of Westland Sea Kings and Westland Lynxes. There are 30 Merlin HM.2 helicopters in service.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The future AEW capability of the FAA is the "Crowsnest" programme, is set to replace the Sea King ASaC.7 which retired in September 2018. The Thales Crowsnest radar is a slightly upgraded version of the existing Searchwater 2000 radar. As part of the process of the system reaching initial operating capability, Crowsnest was deployed with the Royal Navy's carrier task group in 2021. However, the system experienced operating challenges. Initial operating capability of the system is now expected in the second quarter of 2023 and full operating capability in 2024/25. It has been reported that initially five Merlins will be equipped with Crowsnest, three of these being normally assigned to the "high readiness" aircraft carrier.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The original six-year capability-gap between the retirement of the Sea King ASaC.7 fleet and the entry service of Crowsnest was the source of much criticism. All 30 of the Royal Navy's HM.2 Merlins will be equipped to carry the Crowsnest system, though a maximum of 10 could be fitted with it at any one time. As of 2020, the out of service date for the HM.2s was envisaged as 2029 while the HC.4s were scheduled to retire by 2030. The 2021 defence white paper did not reference a Merlin replacement. However, it was subsequently indicated that the out of service date for both the HM.2s and the HC.4s had been extended to 2040.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: Following trials with the rail-launched ScanEagle it started operational flights of leased ScanEagles in January 2014 watching for swarm attacks on HMS "Somerset" and RFA "Cardigan Bay" in the Persian Gulf. This was expanded in November 2014, when 700X NAS was formed to serve as both the parent unit for ship based ScanEagle flights, and as the evaluation unit for any future RPAS systems that the Royal Navy elects to try. ScanEagle was withdrawn in 2017 and replaced by the RQ-20A Puma shoulder-launched UAV on board. The optionally-manned PZL-Świdnik SW-4 Solo completed trials with the RN in 2015 as part of the UK's RWUAS (Rotary Wing Unmanned Air System) Capability Concept Demonstrator (CCD) programme. The Royal Navy has also utilised 3-D printed unmanned aircraft in its operations.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The Royal Navy has planned for two future UAS: The Flexible Deployable UAS (FDUAS) and Joint Mini UAS (JMUAS) programs. FDUAS is seen as a "Sea Eagle (Scan Eagle) Plus" while JMUAS is a UAS for the Royal Marines. In November 2019, 700 NAS tested two new UAS, namely, the AeroVironment RQ-20 Puma and the AeroVironment Wasp III.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In 2020 NavyX tested a heavy quadcopter from Malloy Aeronautics, with the head engineer of Malloy stating that the aspiration was to autonomously deploy 180 kg payloads from a Royal Navy vessel over ranges of 20 km with their T400 quadcopter. Payloads could include people, torpedoes and fixed-wing drones. In 2022, a £60 million four-year contract was awarded to Leonardo to design and develop an uncrewed helicopter. A three-tonne demonstrator was envisaged to carry out trials for a UAV with anti-submarine capabilities.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: In March 2021, Project Vixen was revealed to the public as a programme to examine the use of fixed-wing UAVs from the "Queen Elizabeth"-class aircraft carriers in roles such as strike and air-to-air refuelling. During the same month, it was also revealed that the MOD was seeking electromagnetic catapults and arrestor cables capable of launching large fixed-wing UAVs from the aircraft carriers within threefive years.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: The Royal Marines are being restructured for the future, with 200 driver and administrative staff posts set to be reallocated to Royal Navy personnel. 42 Commando was transformed into a specialised "Maritime Operations unit" so that roles from that unit such as heavy weapons specialists, can be reallocated across the Royal Navy as of May 2018 The Royal Marines stood up an office programme titled, Future Commando Force, aiming to give staff and intellectual horsepower to change the Royal Marines to meet the threats of the future. There will be two Littoral Response Groups: One based East of Suez, one based in the High North. On 27 June 2020, the Royal Marines announced the adopting of a new uniform with the MultiCam camouflage.


title: Future of the Royal Navy

text: "The Sunday Times" reported that First Sea Lord Admiral Tony Radakin announced a reduction in the number of Rear-Admirals at Navy Command by five. The fighting arms excluding Commandant General Royal Marines were reduced to 1-star or Commodore rank and the surface flotillas combined. Training is now concentrated under the Fleet Commander. From May 2020, the post of Flag Officer Sea Training was downgraded from a Rear-Admiral's to a Commodore's position and was retitled Commander Fleet Operational Sea Training.


title: SI derived unit

text: seven base units specified by the International System of Units (SI). They can be expressed as a product (or ratio) of one or more of the base units, possibly scaled by an appropriate power of exponentiation (see: Buckingham π theorem). Some are dimensionless, as when the units cancel out in ratios of like quantities.


title: SI derived unit

text: The SI has special names for 22 of these derived units (for example, hertz, the SI unit of measurement of frequency), but the rest merely reflect their derivation: for example, the square metre (m), the SI derived unit of area; and the kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m or kg⋅m), the SI derived unit of density.


title: SI derived unit

text: The names of SI derived units, when written in full, are always in lowercase. However, the symbols for units named after persons are written with an uppercase initial letter. For example, the symbol for hertz is "Hz", while the symbol for metre is "m".


title: SI derived unit

text: The International System of Units assigns special names to 22 derived units, which includes two dimensionless derived units, the radian (rad) and the steradian (sr).


title: SI derived unit

text: Some other units such as the hour, litre, tonne, bar, and electronvolt are not SI units, but are widely used in conjunction with SI units.


title: SI derived unit

text: Until 1995, the SI classified the radian and the steradian as "supplementary units", but this designation was abandoned and the units were grouped as derived units.


title: Arles

text: Arles (, , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and commune in the South of France, a subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, in the former province of Provence.


title: Arles

text: A large part of the Camargue, the largest wetlands in France, is located on the territory of the commune, making it the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of geographic territory. (Maripasoula, French Guiana, is much larger than Arles). The city has a long history, and was of considerable importance in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. The Roman and Romanesque Monuments of Arles were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1981 for their testimony to the history of the region.


title: Arles

text: Many artists have lived and worked in this area because of the southern light, including Pablo Picasso, Paul Gauguin, Jacques Réattu, and Peter Brown. The Dutch post-Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh lived in Arles from 1888 to 1889, and produced over 300 paintings and drawings during his time there. These are in internationally known museums and private collections around the world. An international photography festival has been held annually in the city since 1970.


title: Arles

text: The settlement is attested as "Arelate" in the mid-1st century BC (Caesar), "Areláte" (Ἀρελάτε) in the early 1st c. AD (Strabo), "Arlate civitas" in 954, and "Arle" in the 13th century. The toponym "Arelate" is a Latinized form of the Gaulish *"Arelati", meaning 'by the marsh', or 'in front of the marsh'.


title: Arles

text: The river Rhône forks into two branches just upstream of Arles, forming the Camargue delta. Because the Camargue is for a large part administratively part of Arles, the commune as a whole is the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of territory. But its population numbers only slightly more than 50,000. Its area is , which is more than seven times the area of Paris.


title: Arles

text: The Ligurians were in this area from about 800 BC. Later Celtic influences have also been discovered. The city became an important Phoenician trading port, before it was taken over by the Romans.


title: Arles

text: The Romans took the town in 123 BC and expanded it into an important city. They built a canal link to the Mediterranean Sea in 104 BC. Arles had to compete with Massalia (Marseille) further along the coast.


title: Arles

text: Arles' leaders sided with Julius Caesar against Pompey, providing military support. Massalia backed Pompey; when Caesar emerged victorious, Massalia was stripped of its possessions, which were transferred to Arelate as a reward. The town was formally established as a colony for veterans of the Roman legion Legio VI "Ferrata", which had its base there. Its full title as a colony was "Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum", "the ancestral Julian colony of Arles of the soldiers of the Sixth."


title: Arles

text: Arelate was a city of considerable importance in the province of Gallia Narbonensis. It covered an area of some and possessed a number of monuments, including an amphitheatre, triumphal arch, Roman circus, theatre, and a full circuit of walls. Ancient Arles was closer to the sea than it is now and served as a major port. The river has carried centuries of silt that has filled in the former harbor. The city had (and still has) the southernmost bridge on the Rhône.


title: Arles

text: The recently discovered republican House of the Harpist is an exceptional example of ancient architecture and interior decoration. Dating from 70-50BC, it has yielded elaborate frescoes.


title: Arles

text: The Roman bridge was unique in that it was not fixed but consisted of a pontoon-style bridge of boats, with towers and drawbridges at each end. The boats were secured in place by anchors and were tethered to twin towers built just upstream of the bridge. This unusual design was a way of coping with the river's frequent violent floods, which would have made short work of a conventional bridge. Nothing remains of the Roman bridge, which has been replaced by a more modern bridge near the same spot.


title: Arles

text: The city reached a peak of influence during the 4th and 5th centuries, when Roman Emperors frequently used it as their headquarters during military campaigns in Europe. In 395, it became the seat of the Praetorian Prefecture of the Gauls, governing the western part of the Western Empire: Gaul proper plus Hispania (Spain) and Armorica (Brittany). At that time, the city was home to an estimated 75,000–100,000 people.


title: Arles

text: It became a favorite city of Emperor Constantine I, who built baths there, substantial remains of which are still standing. His son, Constantine II, was born in Arles. Usurper Constantine III declared himself emperor in the West (407–411) and made Arles his capital in 408.


title: Arles

text: Arles became renowned as a cultural and religious centre during the late Roman Empire. It was the birthplace of Favorinus, known as the sceptical philosopher. It was also a key location for Roman Christianity and an important base for the Christianization of Gaul. The city's bishopric was held by a series of outstanding clerics, beginning with Saint Trophimus around 225 and continuing with Saint Honoratus, then Saint Hilarius in the first half of the 5th century. The political tension between the Catholic bishops of Arles and the Visigothic kings is epitomized in the career of the Frankish St. Caesarius, bishop of Arles 503–542. Suspected by the Arian Visigoth Alaric II of conspiring with the Burgundians to turn over the Arelate to Burgundy, he was exiled for a year to Bordeaux in Aquitaine. Political tensions were evident again in 512, when Arles held out against Theodoric the Great. Caesarius was imprisoned and sent to Ravenna to explain his actions before the Ostrogothic king.


title: Arles

text: The friction between the Arian Christianity of the Visigoths and the Catholicism of the bishops sent out from Rome established deep roots for religious heterodoxy, even heresy, in Occitan culture. At Treves in 385, Priscillian achieved the distinction of becoming the first Christian executed for heresy (Manichaean in his case, see also Cathars, Camisards). Despite this tension and the city's decline in the face of barbarian invasions, Arles remained a great religious centre. It hosted church councils (see Council of Arles), the rival of Vienne, for hundreds of years.


title: Arles

text: The Barbegal aqueduct and mill is a Roman watermill complex located on the territory of the commune of Fontvieille, a few kilometres from Arles. The complex has been referred to as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world". The remains of the mill streams and buildings which housed the overshot water wheels are still visible at the site, and it is by far the best-preserved of ancient mills. There are two aqueducts which join just north of the mill complex, and a sluice which enabled the operators to control the water supply to the complex. The mill consisted of 16 waterwheels in two separate rows built into a steep hillside. There are substantial masonry remains of the water channels and foundations of the individual mills, together with a staircase rising up the hill upon which the mills are built. The mills apparently operated from the end of the 1st century until about the end of the 3rd century. The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for 12,000 of the 30,000–40,000 inhabitants of Arelate at that time. A similar mill complex existed also on the Janiculum in Rome. Examination of the mill leat still just visible on one side of the hill shows a substantial accretion of lime in the channel, tending to confirm its long working life.


title: Arles

text: It is thought that the wheels were overshot water wheels with the outflow from the top driving the next one down and so on, to the base of the hill. Vertical water mills were well known to the Romans, being described by Vitruvius in his De Architectura of 25 BC, and mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD. There are also later references to floating water mills from Byzantium and to sawmills on the river Moselle by the poet Ausonius. The use of multiple stacked sequences of reverse overshot water-wheels was widespread in Roman mines.


title: Arles

text: In 735, after raiding the Lower Rhône, Andalusian Saracens led by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri moved into the stronghold summoned by Count Maurontus, who feared Charles Martel's expansionist ambitions, though this may have been an excuse to further Moorish expansion beyond Iberia. The next year, Charles campaigned south to Septimania and Provence, attacking and capturing Arles from the Muslim Arabs after destroying Avignon. In 739. Charles definitely drove Maurontus to exile, and brought Provence to heel. In 855, it was made the capital of a Frankish Kingdom of Burgundy, which included Burgundy and part of Provence, but was frequently terrorised by Saracen and Viking raiders. In 888, Rudolph, Count of Auxerre (now in north-western Burgundy), founded the kingdom of Transjuran Burgundy (literally, beyond the Jura mountains), which included western Switzerland as far as the river Reuss, Valais, Geneva, Chablais and Bugey.


title: Arles

text: In 933, Hugh of Arles ("Hugues de Provence") gave his kingdom up to Rudolph II, who merged the two kingdoms into a new Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles. In 1032, King Rudolph III died, and the kingdom was inherited by Emperor Conrad II the Salic. Though his successors counted themselves kings of Arles, few went to be crowned in the cathedral. Most of the kingdom's territory was progressively incorporated into France. During these troubled times, the amphitheatre was converted into a fortress, with watchtowers built at each of the four quadrants and a minuscule walled town being constructed within. The population was by now only a fraction of what it had been in Roman times, with much of old Arles lying in ruins.


title: Arles

text: The town regained political and economic prominence in the 12th century, with the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa traveling there in 1178 for his coronation. In the 12th century, it became a free city governed by an elected "podestat" (chief magistrate; literally "power"), who appointed the consuls and other magistrates. It retained this status until the French Revolution of 1789.


title: Arles

text: Arles joined the countship of Provence in 1239, but, once more, its prominence was eclipsed by Marseilles. In 1378, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV made the Dauphin of France (later King Charles VI of France) vicar of the moribund Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles for his lifetime. The kingdom ceased to have any political existence soon afterwards.


title: Arles

text: Arles remained economically important for many years as a major port on the Rhône. In the 19th century, the arrival of the railway diminished river trade, leading to the town becoming something of a backwater.