title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: To improve the performance of the Bf 109E, the last two real prototypes (V16 and V17) were constructed. These received some structural improvements and more powerful armament. Both were the basis of the Bf 109 E-3 version. The E-3 was armed with the two MG 17s above the engine and one MG FF cannon in each wing. A total of 1,276 E-3 were built, including 83 E-3a export versions.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The E-3 was replaced by the E-4 (with many airframes being upgraded to E-4 standards starting at the beginning of the Battle of Britain), which was different in some small details, most notably by using the modified 20 mm MG-FF/M wing cannon and having improved head armour for the pilot. With the MG FF/M, it was possible to fire a new and improved type of explosive shell, called "Minengeschoß" (or 'mine-shell'), which was made using drawn steel (the same way brass cartridges are made) instead of being cast as was the usual practice. This resulted in a shell with a thin but strong wall, which had a larger cavity in which to pack a much larger explosive charge than was otherwise possible. The new shell required modifications to the MG FF's mechanism due to the different recoil characteristics, hence the MG FF/M designation.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The cockpit canopy was also revised to an easier-to-produce, "squared-off" design, which also helped improve the pilot's field of view. This canopy, which was also retrofitted to many E-1s and E-3s, was largely unchanged until the introduction of a welded, heavy-framed canopy on the G series in the autumn of 1942. The E-4 would be the basis for all further Bf 109E developments. Some E-4 and later models received a further improved 1,175 PS (1,159 hp, 864 kW) DB601N high-altitude engine; known as the E-4/N; owing to priority being given to equipping Bf 110s with this engine, one fighter "gruppe" was converted to this version, starting in July 1940. The E-4 was also available as a fighter-bomber with equipment very similar to the previous E-1/B. It was known as E-4/B (DB 601Aa engine) and E-4/BN (DB 601N engine). A total of 561 of all E-4 versions were built, including 496 E-4s built as such: 250 E-4, 211 E-4/B, 15 E-4/N and 20 E-4/BN.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The E-5 and E-6 were both reconnaissance variants with a camera installation behind the cockpit. The E-5 was a reconnaissance variant of the E-3, the E-6 was a reconnaissance variant of the E-4/N. Twenty-nine E-5s were built and nine E-6s were ordered.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The E-7 was the next major production variant, entering service and seeing combat at the end of August 1940. One of the limitations of the earlier Bf 109Es was their short range of 660 km (410 mi) and limited endurance, as the design was originally conceived as a short-range interceptor. The E-7 rectified this problem as it was the first Bf 109 subtype to be able to carry a drop tank, usually the standardized Luftwaffe 300 L (80 US gal) capacity unit mounted on a centre-line rack under the fuselage, which increased its range to 1,325 km (820 mi). Fuel from the drop tank was pumped to the internal fuel tank via a large fuel line that ran up and along the inside starboard wall of the cockpit, with a clear sight glass located in the fuel line's main span so the pilot could easily see the flow of fuel and know when the tank was empty. Alternatively, a bomb could be fitted and the E-7 could be used as a "Jabo" fighter-bomber. Previous Emil subtypes were progressively retrofitted with the necessary fittings for carrying a drop tank from October 1940. Early E-7s were fitted with the 1,100 PS DB 601A or 1,175 PS DB 601Aa engine, while late-production ones received 1,175 PS DB 601N engines with improved altitude performance – the latter was designated as E-7/N. A total of 438 E-7s of all variants were built.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Prior to the war, the "Kriegsmarine" had become fascinated with the idea of the aircraft carrier. Borrowing ideas from the British and Japanese (mainly ), they started the construction of as part of the rebuilding of the navy. The air group for the carrier was settled on Messerschmitt Bf 109T fighters and Ju 87C dive bombers. The suffix 'T' denotes "Träger" (carrier) in German use.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Despite references to a Bf 109 T-0 version, this version never existed. Seven earlier versions (Bf 109 B, Bf 109 C, Bf 109 E) were converted to test carrier equipment. This included adding a tail-hook, catapult fittings and increasing the wingspan to 11.08 m (36.35 ft). The ailerons were increased in span, as were the slats, and flap travel was increased. The wings were not modified to be folding since the ship "Graf Zeppelin" was designed around the intended aircraft, so the lifts could accommodate the Bf 109T with its 11 m (36 ft) wingspan. The wings could, however, be detached from the fuselage for transport purposes, as in every version of the Bf 109.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Following flight tests, especially the catapult tests, 70 T-1 with DB601Ns were to be produced at Fieseler in Kassel, but after seven T-1s were built, the carrier project was cancelled. The remaining 63 of 70 T-1s were built as T-2s without carrier equipment and some of the T-1s may have been "upgraded" to T-2 standard. It was found that the performance of the T-2 was closely comparable to the E-4/N and, because of its ability to take off and land in shorter distances, these fighters were assigned to I/JG.77, deployed in Norway on landing strips which were both short and subject to frequent, powerful cross-winds. At the end of 1941 the unit was ordered to return their aircraft to Germany and received E-3s as replacements. The armament of the Bf 109T consisted of two 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17s above the engine and one 20 mm MG FF/M cannon in each wing.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Interest in "Graf Zeppelin" revived when the value of aircraft carriers became obvious, and in 1942 the ship was back in the yards for completion. By this time, the Bf 109T was hopelessly outdated and a new fighter would be needed. Messerschmitt responded with the updated Me 155A series, but work on the ship was again canceled and the Me 155 was later re-purposed as a high-altitude interceptor. Design work was transferred to Blohm & Voss and the aircraft was then known as the BV 155.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The Bf 109Ts were issued to several training units in 1943. Then, in April 1943, the Jagdstaffel Helgoland was formed and operated from Düne until late 1943, when the unit transferred to Lista in south Norway. The unit was renamed as 11./JG 11 as of 30 November 1943 and the Bf 109Ts remained in operation until the summer of 1944, after which some were used in training units in Germany.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Development of the new Bf 109 F airframe had begun in 1939. After February 1940, an improved engine, the Daimler-Benz DB 601E, was developed for use with the Bf 109. The engineers at the Messerschmitt facilities took two Bf 109 E-1 airframes and installed this new powerplant. The first two prototypes, V21 ("Werknummer" (Works number) or W.Nr 5602) and V22 (W.Nr 1800) kept the trapeziform wing shape from the E-1, but the span was reduced by 61 cm (2 ft) by "clipping" the tips. Otherwise the wings incorporated the cooling system modifications described below. V22 also became the testbed for the pre-production DB 601E. The smaller wings had a detrimental effect on the handling so V23, "Stammkennzeichen" (factory Code) "CE+BP", W.Nr 5603, was fitted with new, semi-elliptical wingtips, becoming the standard wing planform for all future Bf 109 combat versions. The fourth prototype, V24 "VK+AB", W.Nr 5604, flew with the clipped wings but featured a modified, "elbow"-shaped supercharger air-intake, which was eventually adopted for production, and a deeper oil cooler bath beneath the cowling. On all of these prototypes, the fuselage was cleaned up and the engine cowling modified to improve aerodynamics.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Compared to the earlier Bf 109 E, the Bf 109 F was much improved aerodynamically. The engine cowling was redesigned to be smoother and more rounded. The enlarged propeller spinner, adapted from that of the new Messerschmitt Me 210, now blended smoothly into the new engine cowling. Underneath the cowling was a revised, more streamlined oil cooler radiator and fairing. A new ejector exhaust arrangement was incorporated, and on later aircraft a metal shield was fitted over the left hand banks to deflect exhaust fumes away from the supercharger air-intake. The supercharger air-intake was, from the F-1 -series onwards, a rounded, "elbow"-shaped design that protruded further out into the airstream. A new three-blade, light-alloy VDM propeller unit with a reduced diameter of 3 m (9 ft 8.5 in) was used. Propeller pitch was changed electrically, and was regulated by a constant-speed unit, though a manual override was still provided. Thanks to the improved aerodynamics, more fuel-efficient engines and the introduction of light-alloy versions of the standard Luftwaffe 300-litre drop tank, the Bf 109 F offered a much increased maximum range of 1,700 km (1,060 mi) compared to the Bf 109 E's maximum range figure of 660 km (410 miles) on internal fuel and with the E-7 with a 300-litre drop tank, double the range, to 1,325 km (820 mi).


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The canopy stayed much the same as that of the E-4, although the handbook for the 'F' stipulated that the forward, lower triangular panel to starboard was to be replaced by a metal panel with a port for firing signal flares. Many F-1s and F-2s kept this section glazed. A two-piece, all-metal armour plate head shield was added, as on the E-4, to the hinged portion of the canopy, although some lacked the curved top section. A bullet-resistant windscreen could be fitted as an option. The fuel tank was self-sealing and around 1942 Bf 109 Fs were retrofitted with additional armour made from layered light-alloy plate just aft of the pilot and fuel tank. The fuselage aft of the canopy barely changed in its externals.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The rudder was slightly reduced in area and the symmetrical fin section changed to an airfoil shape, producing a sideways lift force that swung the tail slightly to the left. This helped increase the effectiveness of the rudder and reduced the need for right rudder on takeoff to counteract torque effects from the engine and propeller. The conspicuous bracing struts were removed from the horizontal tailplanes which were moved to slightly below and forward of their original positions. A semi-retractable tailwheel was fitted and the main undercarriage legs were raked forward by six degrees to improve the ground handling. An unexpected structural flaw of the wing and tail section was revealed when the first F-1s were rushed into service; some aircraft crashed or nearly crashed, with either the wing surface wrinkling or fracturing or by the tail structure failing. In one accident, the commander of JG 2 "Richthofen", Wilhelm Balthasar, lost his life when he was attacked by a Spitfire during a test flight. While making an evasive manoeuvre, the wings broke away and Balthasar was killed in the crash. Slightly thicker wing skins and reinforced spars dealt with the wing problems. Tests were also carried out to find out why the tails had failed and it was found that at certain engine settings a high-frequency oscillation in the tailplane spar was overlapped by harmonic vibrations from the engine; the combined effect being enough to cause structural failure at the rear fuselage–fin attachment point. Initially, two external stiffening plates were screwed onto the outer fuselage on each side, and later the structure was reinforced.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The wing was redesigned, the most obvious change being the new quasi-elliptical wingtips, and the slight reduction of the aerodynamic area to 16.05 m (172.76 ft²). Other features of the redesigned wings included new leading edge slats, which were slightly shorter but had a slightly increased chord; and new rounded, removable wingtips which changed the planview of the wings and increased the span slightly over that of the E-series. Frise-type ailerons replaced the plain ailerons of the previous models. The 2R profile was used with a thickness-to-chord ratio of 14.2% at the root reducing to 11.35% at the last rib. As before, dihedral was 6.53°.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The wing radiators were shallower and set farther back on the wing. A new cooling system was automatically regulated by a thermostat with interconnected variable position inlet and outlet flaps that would balance the lowest drag possible with the most efficient cooling. A new radiator, shallower but wider than that fitted to the E was developed. A boundary layer duct allowed continual airflow to pass through the airfoil above the radiator ducting and exit from the trailing edge of the upper split flap. The lower split flap was mechanically linked to the central "main" flap, while the upper split flap and forward bath lip position were regulated via a thermostatic valve which automatically positioned the flaps for maximum cooling effectiveness. In 1941 "cutoff" valves were introduced which allowed the pilot to shut down either wing radiator in the event of one being damaged; this allowed the remaining coolant to be preserved and the damaged aircraft returned to base. The valves were delivered to frontline units as kits, the number of which, for unknown reasons, was limited. The cutoff valves were later factory standard fitting for the Bf 109 G and K series.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The armament of the Bf 109 F was revised and consisted of the two synchronized 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17s with 500 rpg above the engine plus a "Motorkanone" firing through the propeller hub. The pilots' opinion on the new armament was mixed: "Oberst" Adolf Galland criticised the light armament as inadequate for the average pilot, while "Major" Walter Oesau preferred to fly a Bf 109 E and "Oberst" Werner Mölders saw the single centreline "Motorkanone" gun as an improvement. With the early tail unit problems out of the way, pilots generally agreed that the F series was the best-handling of all the Bf 109 series. Mölders flew one of the first operational Bf 109 F-1s over England from early October 1940; he may well have been credited with shooting down eight Hurricanes and four Spitfires while flying "W.No 5628", "Stammkennzeichen" "SG+GW" between 11 and 29 October 1940.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: As the DB 601 E was not yet available in numbers, the pre-production F-0 (the only F variant to have a rectangular supercharger intake) and the first production series F-1/F-2 received the 1,175 PS (1,159 hp, 864 kW) DB 601N engine driving a VDM 9-11207 propeller. The F-0/F-1 and F-2 only differed in their armament; the F-1 being fitted with one 20 mm MG FF/M "Motorkanone" firing through the propeller hub, with 60 rounds. The F-1 first saw action in the Battle of Britain in October 1940 with JG 51. The most experienced fighter aces like Werner Mölders were the first ones to fly Bf 109 F-1s in combat in October 1940. A total of 208 F-1s were built between August 1940 and February 1941 by Messerschmitt Regensburg and the "Wiener Neustädter Flugzeugwerke" (WNF).


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The F-2 introduced the 15 mm Mauser MG 151 cannon with 200 rounds. As the harder-hitting 20 mm Mauser MG 151/20 version became available, a number of F-2s were retrofitted with it in the field. About 1,230 F-2s were built between October 1940 and August 1941 by AGO, Arado, Erla, Messerschmitt Regensburg and WNF(Wiener Neustädter Flugzeugwerke). No tropical version was built, although F-2s were fitted with sand filters in the field. The maximum speed of the F-1 and F-2 was 615 km/h (382 mph) at rated altitude.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The 1,350 PS (1,332 hp, 993 kW) DB 601 E was used in the F-3 and F-4 model together with a VDM 9-12010 propeller with broader blades for improved altitude performance. The DB 601 E was initially restricted to 1,200 PS (1,184 hp, 883 kW) at 2,500 rpm; however, the full rating of 1,350 PS at 2,500 rpm was cleared for service use by February 1942. The DB 601 E ran on standard 87 octane "B-4" aviation fuel, despite its increased performance; while the earlier DB 601 N required 100 octane "C-3" fuel.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Only 15 examples of the F-3 are believed to have been produced by Messerschmitt Regensburg between October 1940 and January 1941. Like the F-1, the F-3 was armed with the 20 mm MG-FF/M and two 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17s.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: From the F-4 onward, the new 20 mm Mauser MG 151/20 with 200 rounds was used as the "Motorkanone". The first F-4s reached frontline units in June 1941. Production lasted exactly a year between May 1941 and May 1942, with 1,841 of all F-4 variants produced. Some of the later models were capable of mounting two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons under the wing in faired gondolas with 135 rpg. These were designated F-4/R1 and 240 of them were produced by WNF in the first quarter of 1942. This optional additional armament was standardized as field kit for later G and K series. A special high-altitude variant, the F-4/Z featuring GM-1 boost, was also built with a production run of 544 in the first quarter of 1942 and saw extensive use. Finally, the Erla factory produced 576 tropicalized F-4 trop in the first half of 1942.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: With its initial engine rating of 1,200 PS, the maximum speed of the F-4 (and F-3) was 635 km/h (394 mph) at rated altitude; and with the clearance of the full rating of 1,350 PS, maximum speed increased to 659 km/h (410 mph) at 6,200 m (20,341 ft).


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The Bf 109 G-series was developed from the largely identical F-series airframe, although there were detail differences. Modifications included a reinforced wing structure, an internal bullet-proof windscreen, the use of heavier, welded framing for the cockpit transparencies, and additional light-alloy armour for the fuel tank. It was originally intended that the wheel wells would incorporate small doors to cover the outer portion of the wheels when retracted. To incorporate these the outer wheel bays were squared off. Two small inlet scoops for additional cooling of the spark plugs were added on both sides of the forward engine cowlings. A less obvious difference was the omission of the boundary layer bypass outlets, which had been a feature of the F-series, on the upper radiator flaps.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Like most German aircraft produced in World War II, the Bf 109 G-series was designed to adapt to different operational tasks with greater versatility; larger modifications to fulfil a specific mission task, such as long-range reconnaissance or long-range fighter-bomber, were with "Rüststand" and given a "/R" suffix, smaller modifications on the production line or during overhaul, such as equipment changes, were made with kits of pre-packaged parts known as "Umrüst-Bausätze", usually contracted to "Umbau" and given a "/U" suffix. Field kits known as "Rüstsätze" were also available but those did not change the aircraft designation. Special high-altitude interceptors with GM-1 nitrous oxide injection high-altitude boost and pressurized cockpits were also produced.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The newly fitted Daimler-Benz DB 605A engine was a development of the DB 601E engine utilised by the preceding Bf 109 F-4; displacement and compression ratio were increased as well as other detail improvements to ease large-scale mass production. Takeoff and emergency power of 1,475 PS (1,455 hp, 1,085 kW) was achieved with 1.42 atm (42.5 inches/6.17 lbs) of boost at 2,800 rpm. The DB 605 suffered from reliability problems during the first year of operation, and this output was initially banned by VT-Anw.Nr.2206, forcing "Luftwaffe" units to limit maximum power output to 1,310 PS (1,292 hp, 964 kW) at 2,600 rpm and 1.3 atm manifold pressure (38.9 inches/4.4 lbs). The full output was not reinstated until 8 June 1943 when Daimler-Benz issued a technical directive. Up to 1944, the G-series was powered by the 1,475 PS Daimler-Benz DB 605 driving a three-blade VDM 9-12087A variable-pitch propeller with a diameter of with even broader blades than used on the F-series. Pitch control, as on the 109F, was either electro-mechanical (automatic) or manual-electric using a thumb-switch on the throttle lever. From 1944 a new high-altitude propeller with broader blades was introduced, designated VDM 9-12159, and was fitted to high-altitude variants with the DB 605AS or D-series engines.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The early versions of the Bf 109G closely resembled the Bf 109 F-4 and carried the same basic armament; however, as the basic airframe was modified to keep pace with different operational requirements, the basically clean design began to change. From the spring of 1943, the G-series saw the appearance of bulges in the cowling when the 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 were replaced with 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine guns (G-5 onwards) due to the latter's much larger breechblock, and on the wings (due to larger tyres), leading to the Bf 109 G-6's nickname "Die Beule" ("The Bulge"). The Bf 109G continued to be improved: new clear-view cockpits, greater firepower in the form of the 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannon were introduced in late 1943; and a new, enlarged supercharger in the high-altitude DB 605AS engine, a larger vertical stabilizer (G-5 onwards), and MW 50 power boost in 1944.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Erich Hartmann, the world's top scoring fighter ace, claiming 352 victories, flew only the Bf 109G, of which he said:


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: From the Bf 109 G-5 on an enlarged wooden tail unit (identifiable by a taller vertical stabilizer and rudder with a morticed balance tab, rather than the angled shape) was often fitted. This tail unit was standardised on G-10s and K-4s. Although the enlarged tail unit improved handling, especially on the ground, it weighed more than the standard metal tail unit and required that a counterweight was fitted in the nose, increasing the variant's overall weight.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: With the Bf 109G, a number of special versions were introduced to cope with special mission profiles. Here, long-range fighter-reconnaissance and high-altitude interceptors can be mentioned. The former were capable of carrying two 300 L (80 US gal) drop tanks, one under each wing; and the latter received pressurized cockpits for pilot comfort and GM-1 nitrous oxide "boost" for high altitudes. The latter system, when engaged, was capable of increasing engine output by above the rated altitude to increase high-altitude performance.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The G-1, produced from February 1942, was the first production version of the G-series and the first production Bf 109 with a pressurized cockpit. It could be identified by the small, horn-shaped air intake for the cockpit compressor just above the supercharger intake, on the left upper cowling. In addition, the angled armour plate for the pilot's head was replaced by a vertical piece which sealed-off the rear of the side-hinged cockpit canopy. Small, triangular armour-glass panels were fitted into the upper corners of this armour, although there were aircraft in which the plate was solid steel. Silica gel capsules were placed in each pane of the windscreen and opening canopy to absorb any moisture which may have been trapped in the double glazing. The last 80 G-1s built were lightweight G-1/R2. In these GM-1 nitrous oxide 'boost' was used, and the pilot's back armour was removed, as were all fittings for the long-range drop tank. A few G-1 flown by I./JG 1 are known to have carried the underwing 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon gondolas.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The G-2, which started production in May 1942, lacked the cabin pressurization and GM-1 installation. Performance-wise it was identical to the G-1. The canopy reverted to one layer of glazing and incorporated the angled head armour used on the F-4, although several G-2 had the vertical type as fitted to the G-1. Several "Rüstsätze" could be fitted, although installing these "did not change the designation of the aircraft". Instead the "/R" suffix referred to the G-2's "Rüstzustand" or equipment condition of the airframe, which was assigned at the factory rather than in the field. There were two "Rüstzustand" planned for G-2s:


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The rack and internal fuel lines for carrying a 300 L (80 US gal) under-fuselage drop-tank were widely used on G-2s, as were the underwing 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon gondolas. Several G-2s were fitted with the "ETC 500" bomb rack, capable of carrying one 250 kg (550 lb) bomb. The final G-2 production batches built by "Erla" and "Messerschmitt Regensburg" were equipped as tropical aircraft (often referred to as G-2 trop), equipped with a sand-filter on the front of the supercharger intake and two small, teardrop-shaped metal brackets on the left side of the fuselage, below the cockpit sill. These were used as mounts for specially designed sun umbrellas (called "Sonderwerkzeug" or "Special tool"), which were used to shade the cockpit.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: A total of 167 G-1s were built between February and June 1942, 1,586 G-2s between May 1942 and February 1943, and one further G-2 was built in Győr, Hungary, in 1943. Maximum speed of the G-2 was 537 km/h (334 mph) at sea level and 660 km/h (410 mph) at 7,000 m (22,970 ft) rated altitude with the initial reduced 1.3 atm rating. Performance of the G-1 was similar, but above rated altitude the GM-1 system it was equipped with could be used to provide an additional 350 horsepower. With his G-1/R2, pilot R. Klein achieved 660 km/h (420 mph) at 12,000 m (39,370 ft), and a ceiling of 13,800 m (45,275 ft).


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: In September 1942, the G-4 appeared; this version was identical to the G-2 in all aspects, including performance, except for being fitted with the FuG 16 VHF radio set, which provided much clearer radio transmissions and had three-times the range of the earlier HF sets. Externally this could be recognised by the position of the fuselage antenna lead-in which was moved further aft to between frames seven and eight on the fuselage spine. Due to the steady weight increases of the 109, from the spring of 1943 larger 660 × 160 mm (26 × 6.3 in) mainwheels were introduced, replacing the previously used 650 × 150 mm (25.6 × 6 in) type. The undercarriage legs were altered so that the wheel's vertical axis was nearly upright rather than being parallel with the oleo leg.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: These changes resulted in the fitting of teardrop-shaped fairings to the upper wing surface above the wheel-wells to accommodate the upper part of the mainwheels. The larger wheels and fairings were often retrofitted to G-2s. In addition, a larger 350 × 135 mm (14 × 5 in) tailwheel replaced the original 290 × 110 mm (11 × 4 in) one; the larger tailwheel no longer fitted the recess, so the retraction mechanism was disconnected and the tailwheel fixed down. Up to July 1943, 1,242 G-4s were produced, with an additional four in Győr and WNF factories in the second half of 1943. Between January and February 1943, 50 examples of a pressurized version, the G-3 were also produced; similar to the G-1 although it was equipped with the same FuG 16 VHF radio set as the G-4.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: In February 1943, the G-6 was introduced with the 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131s, replacing the smaller 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 – externally this resulted in two sizeable "Beule" blisters over the gun breeches, reducing speed by 9 km/h (6 mph). Over 12,000 examples were built well into 1944 although contradictory factory and RLM records do not allow an exact tally. The G-5 with a pressurized cockpit was identical to the G-6. A total of 475 examples were built between May 1943 and August 1944. The G-5/AS was equipped with a DB 605AS engine for high-altitude missions. GM-1-boosted G-5 and G-6 variants received the additional designation of "/U2". and were clearly identifiable as they use a modified, aerodynamically cleaner, engine cowl without the usual blisters. The G-6/U4 variant was armed with a 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannon mounted as a "Motorkanone" firing through the propeller hub instead of the 20 mm MG 151/20. The G-6 was very often seen during 1943 fitted with assembly sets, used to carry bombs or a drop tank, for use as a night fighter, or to increase firepower by adding rockets or extra gondola-style, underwing gun pod mount ordnance.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: One offensive weapons upgrade in 1943 for the Bf 109G – and also used for the Fw 190A – was one that mounted the "Werfer-Granate 21" heavy calibre rocket weapon system with one launching tube under each wing panel. The rockets, fitted with a massive 40.8 kg (90 lbs) warhead, were aimed via the standard Revi reflector sights, and were spin-stabilized in flight. In emergency, the tubes could be jettisoned via a small explosive charge. Intended as a "stand-off" weapon, fired from a distance of 1,200 meters and outside the effective range of the formations defensive guns, it was employed against Allied bomber formations, the Wfr. Gr. 21 rocket was unofficially known as the BR 21 (Bordrakete 21 cm) for the Bf 109G-5, G-6 and G-14. The weapons system received the designation of "Rüstsatz" VII on the G-10.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: During the course of 1943, a number of improvements were gradually introduced. In an attempt to increase the pilot's field of view an armoured glass head-rest, the so-called "Galland Panzer" was developed, and subsequently began replacing the bulky armour plate in the spring of 1943. Towards the end of the year the clear-view, three-panel "Erla Haube" canopy appeared, named after the Erla Maschinenwerk sub-contractor involved in building new examples, and upgrading older examples of the Bf 109. Often misnamed the "Galland Hood" in postwar Western aviation books and periodicals, it eventually replaced the older heavily framed two-piece canopy – comprising the starboard side-hinged six-panel main canopy, and the three-panel fixed rear unit fastened to the fuselage – on the Bf 109G. The canopy structure was completely redesigned to incorporate a greater area of clear perspex; the welded framing for the three-panel "Erla Haube" design was reduced to a minimum and there was no longer a fixed rear portion, with the entire structure aft of the windscreen being hinged to swing to starboard when opened.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The Bf 109 G-10, AS-engined G-5s, G-6s and G-14s as well as the K-4 saw a refinement of the engine cowlings. The formerly separate, added-on "Beule" blisters which had earlier covered the spent shell-casing chutes of the synchronized fuselage-mount MG 131s were completely integrated into the upper cowling panels, vastly improving their streamlining and allowing them to be lengthened and enlarged to cover both the weapons and the engine bearers. Initial prototype versions were symmetrical, but as larger superchargers were fitted, the engines required modified upper engine bearers to clear the supercharger housing, and as a result the final shape of the new cowling was asymmetrical, being enlarged on the port side where the supercharger was mounted on the DB engine. There were also special streamlined panels fitted to the forward fuselage. These so-called "agglomerations" could be seen in several different patterns. Because of their aerodynamically more efficient form in a side-view of DB 605AS and D -powered Bf 109 Gs and Ks, the agglomerations were barely discernible compared with the conspicuous fairings they replaced.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Some versions of the G-6 and later Gs had a taller, wood-structure tail unit and redesigned rudder with an inset rudder balance protruding forward into the fin which improved stability at high speeds. The introduction of the WGr. 21 cm (8 in) under-wing mortar/rockets and the 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannon increased firepower. Certain production batches of the Bf 109G were fitted with aileron Flettner tabs to decrease stick forces at high speeds. A radio-navigational method, the Y-Verfahren (Y-Guidance) was introduced with the FuG 16ZY.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Subsequent Bf 109G versions were essentially modified versions of the basic G-6 airframe. Early in 1944, new engines with larger superchargers for improved high-altitude performance (DB 605AS), or with MW-50 water injection for improved low/medium-altitude performance (DB 605AM), or these two features combined (DB 605ASM) were introduced into the Bf 109 G-6. Maximum speed of the G-5/G-6 was 530 km/h (320 mph) at sea level, 640 km/h (391 mph) at 6,600 m (21,650 ft)-rated altitude at 1.42 atm boost.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The G-14 arrived in July 1944 at the invasion front over France. It represented an attempt to create a standard type, incorporating many changes which had been introduced during production of the G-6, and which led to a plethora of variants, plaguing decentralized mass production. The standardization attempt proved to be a failure, but overall the type offered improved combat performance, as MW 50 power boosting water injection (increasing output to 1,800 PS (1,775 hp, 1,324 kW), the clear-view Erla Haube was now standard installation. Top speed was 573 km/h (353 mph) at sea level, and 665 km/h (413 mph) at 5 km (16,400 ft) altitude. A high-altitude fighter, designated G-14/AS was also produced with the DB 605ASM high-altitude engine. The ASM engine was built with a larger capacity supercharger, and had a higher rated altitude, and correspondingly the top speed of the G-14/AS was 590 km/h (348 mph) at sea level, and 680 km/h (422 mph) at 7.5 km (24,600 ft) altitude.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: There was increasing tendency to use plywood on some less vital parts e.g. on a taller fin/rudder unit, pilot seat or instrument panel. A cautious estimate based on the available records suggest that about 5,500 G-14s and G-14/AS were built.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Referred to as the "bastard aircraft of the Erla factory" in the "Luftwaffe"s Aircraft Variants Book of December 1944, the G-10 was a Bf 109 G airframe combined with the new DB 605 D-2 engine, created to maintain production levels with minimal disruption of the assembly lines until production of K-series airframes would reach sufficient levels. Despite what the designation would suggest, it appeared in service after the G-14 in November 1944, largely replacing previous G-series aircraft on the production lines of Erla, WNF and Messerschmitt Regensburg factories. Contrary to popular belief the G-10 were not rebuilt older airframes but new production. Early production G-10 may have had two data plates (one stamped G-14) as these airframes were originally intended for G-14 assembly but were diverted to G-10 assembly.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The most recognizable external change was the use of the three-panel "Erla-Haube" clear-view canopy, which filled the entire canopy length behind the four-panel windscreen unit, which eliminated the older, rear fixed canopy section. Internal changes included inheriting the new 2,000 W generator and the DB 605 D-2 engine of the 109K. Apart from the standardised streamlined engine cowlings, G-10s with the DB605 D-2 were equipped as standard with the MW-50 booster system (DB 605DM, later 605DB) and had a larger Fo 987 oil cooler housed in a deeper fairing. Also, because of the engine's enlarged crankcase and the oil return lines which ran in front of it, these G-10s had small blister fairings incorporated into the lower engine cowlings, forward of and below the exhaust stacks, except for Erla-built aircraft, which had modified cowlings without the little bulges in front of the exhaust stacks. This became a distinguishing feature between Erla-built G-10s and those of other factories. The radio antenna mast was also removed from atop the rear fuselage turtledeck, and replaced with a standard late-war Luftwaffe ventral whip aerial antenna under the wing.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The G-8 was a dedicated reconnaissance version based on the G-6. The G-8 often had only the "Motorkanone" engine cannon or the cowling machine guns installed, and there were several subversions for short- or long-range reconnaissance missions with a wide variety of cameras and radios available for use.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The Bf 109 G-12 was a two-seat trainer version of the Bf 109. This was a conversion of "war-weary" or rebuilt G-4 and G-6 airframes; the space needed for the second cockpit was gained by reducing the internal fuel capacity to only 240 L (60 US gal) meaning that the 300 L (80 US gal) drop tank was employed as standard equipment. This version was rarely armed with anything more than one or two cowling machine guns. The rear cockpit canopy was bowed out to give the instructor, who sat behind the student pilot in an armoured seat, a clearer view. The rear cockpit was also equipped with a basic instrument panel and all flight controls.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The base subtypes could be equipped with "Rüstsatz" add-on standard field kits; in practice this meant hanging on some sort of additional equipment like droptanks, bombs or cannons to standard attachment points, present on all production aircraft. Aircraft could be modified in the factory with "Umrüst-bausatz" ("Umbau") conversion kits or by adding extra equipment, called "Rüstzustand", to convert standard airframes for special roles, a reconnaissance or bad-weather fighter, for example. Unlike the "Rüstsatz" field-kits, these modifications were permanent.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The "Rüstsatz" kits were labelled with the letter "R" and a Roman numeral. "Rüstsatz" kits did not alter the aircraft type so a Bf 109 G-6 with "Rüstsatz" II (50 kg/110 lb bombs) remained a Bf 109 G-6 and not G-6/R2, which was a reconnaissance fighter with MW 50, as suggested by most publications. The "Umrüst-Bausatz", "Umbau" or "Rüstzustand" were identified with either an "/R" or "/U" suffix and an Arabic number, e.g. Bf 109 G-10/U4.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The Bf 109H was intended to be a high-altitude fighter, developed from the F-series. The wingspan was increased through the addition of new, constant-chord inner wing panels to 11.92 m (39.11 ft), and the widened stabilizer again received a supporting strut leading from the fuselage, like the B through E models. Maximum speed was 750 km/h (470 mph) at 10,100 m (33,140 ft). A small number of Bf 109 H-1s were built, flying several sorties over Britain and France. Bf 109H-2 and H-5 developments were also planned, but the entire H-series was scrapped because of wing flutter problems.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: A record exists of one particular Bf 109H-1, "Werknummer" 110073, was recorded as having been converted to a photo-recon aircraft by a Luftwaffe long-range reconnaissance group, "Fernaufklärungsgruppe 123", in May 1944, and flown on dates immediately following the Invasion of Normandy with one mission meant to scan the entire French coastline from Cherbourg to Ouistreham, from an altitude of some 15 km (49,200 ft), which proved to be just beyond the achievable ceiling of the selected aircraft.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The Bf 109K was the last of the series to see operational duty and the last in the Bf 109 evolutionary line. The K series was a response to the bewildering array of series, models, modification kits and factory conversions for the Bf 109, which made production and maintenance complicated and costly – something Germany could not afford late in the war. The RLM ordered Messerschmitt to rationalise production of the Bf 109, consolidating parts and types to produce a standard model with more interchangeable parts and equipment; flaws in the design of the airframe were also to be remedied. Work on the new version began in the spring of 1943 and the prototype was ready by autumn. Series production started in August 1944 with the K-4 model, due to changes in the design and delays with the new DB 605D powerplant. The K-4 was the only version to be mass-produced.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Externally the K series could be identified by changes in the locations of the radio equipment hatch, which was moved forward and to a higher position between frames four and five and the filler point for the fuselage fuel tank, which was moved forward to a location between frames two and three. The D/F loop was moved aft to sit between frames three and four on the fuselage spine and a small circular plate above the footstep on the port side of the fuselage was deleted. The rudder was fitted as standard with a Flettner tab and two fixed tabs although some rare examples were not fitted with the fixed tabs. All K-4s were to be fitted with a long retractable tail wheel () with two small clamshell doors covering the recess when the tail-wheel was retracted.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The wings featured the large rectangular fairings for the large main wheels. Small wheel well doors, originally planned for the G series, were fitted to the outer ends of the wheel bays, covering the outer wheels when retracted. These doors were often removed by front-line units. The radio equipment was the FuG 16ZY with the relocated main swept-forward radio antenna under the port wing from the G-10 being carried through as the standard for the K-series airframes. The FuG 25a "Erstling" IFF system, as well as the FuG 125 "Hermine" D/F equipment were also fitted. Internally, the oxygen bottles were relocated from the rear fuselage to the right wing. Flettner tabs for the ailerons were also to be fitted to serial production aircraft to reduce control forces but were extremely rare, with the majority of the K-4s using the same aileron system as the G series.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Armament of the K-4 consisted of a MK 108 engine-mounted cannon ("Motorkanone") with 65 rounds and two MG 131s in the nose with 300 rpg, although some K-4s were fitted with the MG 151/20 as the "Motorkanone". Additional "Rüstsätze" (equipment kits) such as a 300 L (80 US gal) drop tank (R III), bombs up to the size of (R I), underwing 20 mm Mauser MG 151/20 cannon gondola pods (R IV) or "Wfr.Gr." 21 rockets (as on the Gustav models) could be carried after minimal preparation; the latter two were rarely used by Bf 109 units at this stage of the war, although III./JG 26 were almost completely equipped with K-4s which were fitted with R IV:


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: There were problems with the MK 108 "Motorkanone", which often jammed while the aircraft was manoeuvring in battle, leaving the pilot to fight on with the two MG 131 heavy machine guns. The standard Revi 16C reflector sight was fitted, which was slated to be replaced by the EZ 42 Gyro gunsight, although this never happened.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Power in production K-4s was supplied by the Daimler-Benz DB 605 DB/DC engine (very early K-4s used the earlier DM). The DB/DC engine had an adjusting screw allowing the engine to use either B4 + MW 50 Methanol Water injection equipment or C3 fuel (DB 605 DB) or C3 fuel with or without MW 50 (DB 605 DC). The DB when using B4 fuel with MW 50 had an emergency power rating of 1,600 PS at 6,000 m (1,160 PS maximum continual at 6,600 m) and generated take-off power of 1,850 PS at 0 m at a maximum supercharger boost of 1.8 ata. The DB could also be run on higher octane C3 fuel, but the use of MW 50 was forbidden. The DC ran on C3 fuel and had a potential to generate 2,000 PS when using C3 fuel with MW 50, and a boost of 1.98 ata, but otherwise the power ratings were similar to that of the DB. A wide-chord, three-bladed VDM 9-12159A propeller of diameter was used, as on the G-6/AS, G-14/AS and G-10.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Deliveries began in mid-October 1944 and 534 examples had been delivered by the Messerschmitt A.G., Regensburg by the end of November and 856 by the end of the year. Regensburg delivered a total of 1,593 by the end of March 1945, after which production figures are missing. With such a high rate of production, despite continuous heavy fighting, by the end of January 1945, 314 K-4s – about every fourth 109 – were listed on hand with the first line "Luftwaffe" units. Ultimately it was intended to equip all Bf 109 units with the 109K, which marked the final stage of 109 development before the jet age.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Using MW 50 and maximum boost the Bf 109 K-4 was the fastest 109 of World War II, reaching a maximum speed of 710 km/h (440 mph) at altitude. Without MW 50 and using 1.80 ata the K-4 reached 670 km/h (416 mph) at . The Initial Rate of climb was /min, without MW 50 and /min, using MW 50.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The Bf 109 remained comparable to opposing fighters until the end of the war but the deteriorating quality of the thousands of novice "Luftwaffe" pilots pressed into service by this stage of the war meant the 109's strengths were of little value against the numerous and well-trained Allied fighter pilots.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Several other versions were projected based on the 109K airframe – K-6, K-8, K-10 and K-14. In the proposed K-6 the armament would have been two 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 above the engine, along with a 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 "Motorkanone" and an internally mounted MK 108 in each wing, with 45 rpg. Alternatively, the wing MK 108s could be substituted by 20 mm MG 151/20s, with 100 rpg. Armour weight was increased to . Takeoff weight was . Some K-6 prototypes were built and tested at the "Erprobungstelle" Tarnewitz weapons-testing centre on the Baltic coast.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Project drawings of the K-8 show a K-series airframe powered by the two-stage DB 605L high altitude engine, a high-velocity 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 103 "Motorkanone", and two 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons in the wings; the cowl 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131s were dispensed with.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Some sources point to limited use of the K-14, intended as high-altitude heavy fighter. Two airframes are listed as delivered to II./JG52 under Major Wilhelm Batz in late spring of 1945, these being armed with only one 30 mm (1.18 in) cannon, but the type's existence cannot be positively confirmed. The K-14 was to be powered by the two-stage supercharged DB 605L engine, using a four-bladed propeller. , and an operational altitude of was projected. Armour and armament were otherwise similar to the K-6.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: After the success of the demonstration at the meeting of Zürich in 1937, Udet was receptive to the idea of developing an export version of the Bf 109 but with a different engine than the DB 601. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 of 1200 hp. The Messerschmitt company received a contract from RLM/LC on 13 June 1938 to fit the P&W Twin Wasp on the Bf 109 V21 (21st prototype) Werknummer 1770 (D-IFKQ). Even the maiden flight date is not known; it is established that Hermann Wurster flew it at Augsburg on 17 August 1939. In September 1940 it was part of the DVL (Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt) at Brauschweig-Völkenrode with the "Stammkennzeichen" code KB+II. Its end is not known.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: As the BMW 801 radial engine became available, a Bf 109F, Werknummer 5608, callsign D-ITXP was converted with a BMW 801 A-0. This aircraft became a prototype for the Bf 109X. The fuselage had a wider cross-section, and a new canopy was fitted. The wing tips were akin to that of the Bf 109E. The prototype was first flown by Flugkapitän Fritz Wendel on 2 September 1940, and the test flights continued despite troubles with the BMW 801A powerplant. Development was stopped in early 1942.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: This experimental aircraft was essentially two Bf 109F airframes joined by means of a new wing centre section and new tailplane, both of constant chord, in a manner paralleled by the F-82 Twin Mustang. In the preproduction model, the right fuselage cockpit was faired over and the pilot flew the aircraft from the left side fuselage. Additional modifications included setting the main undercarriage hinges further inboard, with associated strengthening of the fuselage and modifications to the wing forward structure. Four variants of this aircraft were proposed. One was an interceptor armed with five 30 mm (1.18 in) cannon and up to a 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) bomb load, another a fighter-bomber armed with two MK 108 cannon and up to two 2,200 lb. bombs. Both airframes were to be powered by the DB605 engine. A third and fourth were designed on paper and would be similar to the first two airframes but powered by Jumo 213 engines. Only one Bf 109Z was built, and it was never flown, having been damaged in its hangar during an Allied bombing raid in 1943. The project was permanently abandoned in 1944.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The Bf 109TL was first proposed on 22 January 1943 at an RLM conference; at the time only three prototypes of the Me 262 had been completed. The Bf 109TL would be a backup if the Me 262 did not come to production or as a second fighter to operate alongside the Me 262.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: In order to reduce development time, various components from previous aircraft were to be used. The fuselage was to come from the Bf 109H/BV 155B high-altitude fighter (with a new nose and tail section), the wing was from the Me 409 project and the tricycle undercarriage came from the Me 309. The powerplant would be the same Junkers Jumo 004B-1 turbojet (900 kgf thrust) or BMW 003A (800 kgf).


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The basic armament was to be two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons (with 120 rpg) and two MK 103 cannons mounted in the nose. An additional proposal was two 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons to be installed in the wing roots. The pilot cockpit used in the prototypes was the same as utilized in the Bf 109E/G types.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: The performance was estimated to be possibly better than the Me 262 due to the Bf 109TL's narrower fuselage, a product of the design for a high-speed high-altitude fighter. The Bf 109TL received intensive research. By March 1943, it was decided that many other modifications to components would be needed and the project was abandoned in order to concentrate on the Me 262 project.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: Experimental version of Bf 109G-2/R1 with extra landing gear, one ventral 250 kg bomb and two drop tanks under wings.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: After the war, some Bf 109s were produced in Czechoslovakia as the Avia S-99 and Avia S-199. These were modified Bf 109G-14s, the latter with the inferior Junkers Jumo 211F engine, which resulted in an aircraft with remarkably poor handling characteristics and a tendency to crash during landings. As noted above, Czech pilots who had previously flown Spitfires for the RAF nicknamed the aircraft "Mezek" ("Mule"). They were replaced in frontline service by Soviet jets in 1952, but flew on as trainers for another five years.


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants

text: In Spain, two versions of the Bf 109G-2, the Hispano Aviación HA-1112 "Tripala" and "Buchón", were built under license, the former with the Hispano-Suiza engine, and the latter with the same Rolls-Royce Merlin engines that had powered Spitfires. Many of these aircraft have been used for theatrical purposes, posing (rather obviously, given their very distinctive undernose air intakes, mandated by the R-R Merlin engines they used) as "Emils" and "Gustavs" in "Battle of Britain" and "The Tuskegee Airmen", respectively. These modifications were carried out in the Hispano Aviación factory in Seville. Germany had agreed to let Spain have 25 un-assembled Bf 109G-2s to help familiarize the Spanish with the type. The wings and airframes arrived but not the engines, so the Spanish installed the French Hispano-Suiza engine, and then fitted Rolls-Royce Merlins as late as 1956. A few were still in active service until the late 1960s. The Ha 1112 was produced until 1958.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: The White Terror () was the political repression of Taiwanese civilians under the Kuomintang (KMT)-ruled government. The period of White Terror is generally considered to have begun when martial law was declared in Taiwan on 19 May 1949, which was enabled by the 1948 Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion, and ended on 21 September 1992 with the repeal of Article 100 of the Criminal Code, allowing for the prosecution of "anti-state" activities. The Temporary Provisions were repealed a year earlier on 22 April 1991 and martial law was lifted on 15 July 1987.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: The period of White Terror generally does not include the 228 Incident of 1947, in which the KMT killed at least 18,000 Taiwanese civilians in response to a popular uprising, and also summarily executed many local political and intellectual elites. The two are frequently discussed in tandem as it was the catalyst that motivated the KMT to begin the White Terror. Martial law was declared and lifted twice during the 228 Incident.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: Following the 228 Incident, the KMT retreated from mainland China to Taiwan during the closing stages of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Wanting to consolidate its rule on its remaining territories, the KMT imposed harsh political suppression measures, which included enacting martial law, executing suspected leftists or those they suspected to be sympathetic toward the communists. Others targeted included Taiwanese locals and indigenous peoples who participated in the 228 Incident, such as Uyongʉ Yata'uyungana, and those accused of dissidence for criticizing the government.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: The KMT carried out persecutions against those who criticized or opposed the government, accusing them of attempting to subvert the regime, while excessively expanding the scope of punishment throughout this period. It made use of the Taiwan Garrison Command (TGC), a secret police, as well as other intelligence units by enacting special criminal laws as tools for the government to purge dissidents. Basic human rights and the right to privacy were disregarded, with mass pervasive monitoring of the people, filings of sham criminal cases against anyone who were suspected as being a dissident, as well as labelling any individuals who were not conforming a pro-regime stance as being communist spies, often without merit. It is estimated that about 3,000 to 4,000 civilians were executed by the government during the White Terror. The government was also suspected of carrying out extrajudicial killings against exiles in other countries.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: Pro-democracy demonstrations attempted during this period, such as the Kaohsiung Incident, were harshly suppressed. The KMT ruled as a one-party state, with the existence of any other political parties strictly outlawed, resulting in non-existent competitive elections; unapproved "tangwai" candidates that won elections such as Hsu Hsin-liang would be spuriously impeached and often forced into exile. Even so, such restricted elections were marred by overt voter fraud, most notably during the Zhongli incident.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: The ideology, theory and repression ruling pattern of Chiang Kai-shek's KMT's regime in mainland China and subsequently in Taiwan has been compared by some academics and scholars to fascist regimes elsewhere, such as Nazi Germany, with the National Revolutionary Army heavily dependent and inspired by the German military mission during the Sino-German cooperation (1926–1941) until Adolf Hitler decided to withdraw in 1938 to align with Imperial Japan. When Chiang retreated to Taiwan in 1949, his regime refused to establish a parliamentary democracy, but continued a variation of the fascist state in Taiwan. The legacy of authoritarianism and fascism during the White Terror in Taiwan has persisted until today, and political discussions about this topic continues to be highly controversial on the island.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: The White Terror is generally considered to have begun with the declaration of martial law on 19 May 1949. For its ending date, some sources cite the lifting of martial law on 15 July 1987, while others cite the repeal of Article 100 of the Criminal Code on 21 September 1992, which allowed for the persecution of people for "anti-state" activities. Martial law officially lasted for almost four decades, which had been the longest period of martial law in the world at the time it was lifted. It is now the second longest, after Syria's 48-year period of martial law which lasted from 1963 to 2011.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: Most prosecutions took place between the first two decades as the KMT wanted to consolidate its rule on the island. Most of those prosecuted were labeled by the Kuomintang (KMT) as "bandit spies" (), meaning communist spies, and punished as such, often with execution. A Wang Jingwei quote, often misattributed to Chiang Kai-shek, once famously said that he would rather "mistakenly kill 1,000 innocent people than allow one communist to escape".


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: The KMT mostly imprisoned Taiwan's intellectual and social elite out of fear that they might resist KMT rule or sympathize with communism. For example, the Formosan League for Reemancipation was a Taiwanese independence group established in 1947, which the KMT believed to be under communist control, leading to its members being arrested in 1950. The World United Formosans for Independence was persecuted for similar reasons. However, other prosecutions did not have such clear reasoning, such as in 1968, when Bo Yang was imprisoned for his choice of words in translating a Popeye comic strip. A large number of the White Terror's other victims were mainland Chinese, many of whom owed their evacuation to Taiwan to the KMT.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: Many mainlander victims of White Terror, such as Bo Yang and Li Ao, moved on to promote Taiwan's democratization and the reform of the Kuomintang. In 1969, future president Lee Teng-hui was detained and interrogated for more than a week by the Taiwan Garrison Command, which demanded to know about his "communist activities" and told him "killing you at this moment is as easy as crushing an ant to death." Three years later he was invited to join the cabinet of Chiang Ching-kuo.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: Fear of discussing the White Terror and the February 28 Incident gradually decreased with the lifting of martial law after the 1987 Lieyu massacre, culminating in the establishment of an official public memorial and an apology by President Lee Teng-hui in 1995. In 2008, President Ma Ying-jeou addressed a memorial service for the White Terror in Taipei. Ma apologized to the victims and their family members on behalf of the government and expressed the hope that Taiwan would never again experience a similar tragedy.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: Around 140,000 Taiwanese were imprisoned under harsh treatment during this period, with many either indirectly dying or suffering various health problems in the process. About 3,000 to 4,000 were directly executed for their real or perceived opposition to the KMT's Chiang Kai-shek government. Most of the victims of the White Terror were men, however, a number of women were tortured and/or executed.


title: White Terror (Taiwan)

text: Since the lifting of martial law in 1987, the government has set up the 228 Incident Memorial Foundation, a civilian reparations fund supported by public donations for the victims and their families. However, there was never a proper truth and reconciliation commission. Many descendants of victims remain unaware that their family members were victims, while many of the families of victims, especially from Mainland China, did not know the details of their relatives' mistreatment during the riot.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: Square Enix, Ichijinsha, Kadokawa Shoten, and ASCII Media Works all published various manga adaptations of the series. It was adapted into an anime television series, which aired from July to December 2009. A series of novels written by Ryukishi07 are published by Kodansha Box. A fighting game based on the franchise, "", was released by 07th Expansion on December 31, 2010.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: "Umineko When They Cry" is a murder mystery visual novel, and as such conveys its story primarily through text-based narration and dialogue supplemented by visual and audio elements such as character sprites, background music, and sound effects. It is described as a "sound novel" by 07th Expansion, due to the game's greater focus on creating atmosphere through audio elements rather than visual aspects. The original releases contain no voice acting for the characters.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: "Umineko" is almost entirely linear and contains no interactive gameplay elements, with the exception of small portions of its final entry, "Twilight of the Golden Witch". Besides advancing text, players may also access the Tips Mode, allowing them to read various supplementary information regarding the characters and story. Each episode also contains two epilogues which are successively unlocked, which are continuations of the main story that often contain important plot points.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: Despite the lack of interactive gameplay elements, "Umineko" is framed as a game between the author and the reader, with difficulty ratings given in the descriptions for each episode. This refers to the difficulty of the mysteries in each episode, which the reader is intended to actively try to solve. Several story elements are introduced through the course of the story to aid readers in solving the mystery along with the story's protagonist.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: The story begins on October 4, 1986 at , a private island where the wealthy Ushiromiya family have gathered to discuss the division of assets belonging to the ailing family head, Kinzo. Returning after a six-year absence, Kinzo's grandson Battler becomes reacquainted with the legend of the "Golden Witch" Beatrice, who supposedly gave Kinzo ten tons of gold to restore his financially crippled family in the past. Beside her portrait is a riddle-like epitaph, which is believed to grant the rumored gold and the succession of the headship to the solver. A typhoon traps the eighteen people on the island, and occult-like murders occur in accordance with the epitaph, often in ways that seem impossible for a human.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: At the end of the first game, the witch Beatrice seemingly kills and revives everyone. Refusing to acknowledge the existence of magic, Battler is seemingly sent to a parallel dimension, from which events on Rokkenjima can be seen. In subsequent episodes he faces Beatrice in games of logic, with the murders repeating themselves in different ways each time, and is tasked to explain them all with human tricks. Over the course of the story, Battler gradually comes to understand magic as an adornment of reality with fantasy, used by several individuals as a coping mechanism for their harsh life situations, and how this is related to Beatrice.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: In the original visual novel, the solution is never made completely clear, with the need for the reader to solve it personally and the importance of the truth being contained within the cat box maintained by the narrative. However, in the manga adaption of the final two episodes, the true identity of Beatrice is revealed as Kinzo's illegitimate child Sayo Yasuda, who plays the role of two of the family's servants, Shannon and Kanon. Having begun work for the Ushiromiya family at age nine, Sayo was ostracized by the older servants and found comfort in the creation of imaginary friends through "magic". They also experienced severe gender dysphoria due to their failure to develop standard female sexual characteristics during puberty. Sayo developed a close friendship and childhood crush on Battler, but suppressed their feelings for him during his absence and eventually entered a relationship with his cousin George as Shannon. Another cousin, Jessica, also developed a crush on Kanon, which Sayo partially wanted to reciprocate.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: With the aid of Genji, the head servant, Sayo solves the epitaph and gains possession of the legendary gold and a massive number of explosives under the island, both remnants of an old World War II military base that made contact with the Italians. They also discover their relation to Kinzo, Compounded by the realization that a relationship with any of the cousins would be incest, and disgusted by the Ushiromiya family's sins, Sayo is driven to despair and begins planning a mass murder-suicide using the resources at their disposal. Several possible scenarios are thrown into the sea as message bottles with the hope that someone in the future would come to understand the truth, which forms the basis of the first two games. Sayo's plan ends with the detonation of the explosives, which would destroy all evidence and leave only their fictitious tales standing. At the same time, Sayo is unable to fully accept this course of action and makes it possible for another person, ideally Battler, to solve the epitaph and stop them.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: However, on the actual family conference of 1986, the epitaph is solved by the adults of the family, and as such, Sayo's plan does not take place. An argument breaks out over the possession of the gold, and Battler's parents, Rudolf and Kyrie, carry out a massacre of the family. Battler's aunt Eva survives the massacre after killing Rudolf and Kyrie in self-defense; Sayo and Battler also survive, but Sayo commits suicide by drowning at sea. Battler, who attempted to rescue Sayo, suffers brain damage and loses his identity as Battler, but retains his fragmented memories. He takes on a new identity under the name Toya Hachijo, and his attempts to piece together the truth of the incident lead him to pen the tales of subsequent games. In the meantime, Battler's identity which 'died' in 1986 finds himself awake in Purgatory, where he meets Sayo as Beatrice, beginning his experiences in the parallel dimension.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: consists of the first four arcs of the series. They are referred to as the Question Arcs and introduce the world of the story and its mysteries. Each arc contains all the previous ones.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: tells the second half of the story, delving deeper into the core of the mystery while providing more clues towards the truth of Rokkenjima. Each arc in this series contains all of the previous "Chiru" arcs.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: (2010) is a compilation of short stories written by Ryukishi07 outside of the games, released on December 31, 2010 alongside "Twilight of the Golden Witch". Several of the stories are humorous in tone, but the more serious ones are considered canon.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: (2011) consists of two additional short stories written by Ryukishi07: "Jessica and the Killer Electric Fan" and "Forgery no.XXX". It was released on December 31, 2011 alongside "Golden Fantasia Cross".


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: (2019) is a collection of all previous official visual novel content for the series along with two additional scenarios. It was released on October 4, 2019.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: "Umineko When They Cry" is the second visual novel series produced by 07th Expansion, the first being "Higurashi no Naku Koro ni". The scenario writer for the series is Ryukishi07, who also drew all of the character illustrations. Game direction was handled by Ryukishi07's younger brother Yatazakura, and the overall management of the series was handled by BT until his death in July 2009. Image and text processing was headed by Jika, who took over BT's position of overall management. Background images and photography were provided by Yatazakura, Zekozakura, Mali., and All Season Kisetsu no Irodori. The games were designed using the game engine NScripter. The music of "Umineko" was provided by various music artists including both professionals and "dōjin" artists, and Dai, the composer of most of the music found in the answer arcs of "Higurashi", also had a hand in the project as the music director. The word "umineko" is the name of a kind of seagull known as a Black-tailed gull. "Naku" means , specifically referring to those sounds made by non-human organisms. According to the original creator, Ryukishi07, the red character Na (な) in the logo is an official part of the title.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: The first game of the "Umineko When They Cry" visual novel series, titled "Legend of the Golden Witch", was first released on August 17, 2007 at Comiket 72. The second game "Turn of the Golden Witch" was released on December 31, 2007 at Comiket 73, and the third game "Banquet of the Golden Witch" was released on August 16, 2008 at Comiket 74. The fourth game "Alliance of the Golden Witch" was released on December 29, 2008 at Comiket 75. The first game in the "Umineko no Naku Koro ni Chiru" series, entitled "End of the Golden Witch", was first released on August 15, 2009 at Comiket 76. The sixth game "Dawn of the Golden Witch" was released on December 30, 2009 at Comiket 77. The seventh game "Requiem of the Golden Witch" was released at Comiket 78 on August 14, 2010. The eighth game "Twilight of the Golden Witch" was released at Comiket 79 on December 31, 2010. A fan disc titled "Umineko no Naku Koro ni Tsubasa" was released the same day as "Twilight". A second fan disc titled "Umineko no Naku Koro ni Hane" was released at Comiket 81 on December 31, 2011. MangaGamer released the Windows games on Steam and GOG.com in two parts, Question and Answer arcs, respectively. The release features original Ryūkishi07 sprites as well as new sprites by Kei Natsumi.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: Taito released a version of "Legend of the Golden Witch" playable on certain mobile phones on March 31, 2009. The game is playable on FOMA 900 and i703 phones, using BREW as a runtime environment. A remake for the PlayStation 3, subtitled , was released by Alchemist on December 16, 2010. The release covers the original four games, and its features include a full HD rendition, all of the original soundtracks from the PC games, and full voice acting. "Umineko no Naku Koro ni Chiru" was similarly remade for the PlayStation 3, subtitled and released by Alchemist on December 15, 2011. Both remakes were to be ported to the PlayStation Portable under the title , each to be released as two separate games. "Rondo" was split into "Portable 1" (which covers "Legend" and "Turn") and "Portable 2" (which covers "Banquet" and "Alliance"), released on October 20 and November 17, 2011, respectively. "Nocturne" was to be split into "Portable 3" (which was to cover "End" and "Dawn"), and "Portable 4" (which was to cover "Requiem" and "Twilight"), but both games never came out.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: A dōjin 2D fighting game produced by 07th Expansion titled "" was released on December 31, 2010 at Comiket 79. An append disc, titled "Golden Fantasia Cross", was released at Comiket 81 in December 2011. In addition, an Xbox 360 port of the original game developed by Alchemist was released on October 6, 2011 under the title "Golden Fantasia X".


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: On November 3, 2018, developer Catbox Creative announced they would be launching a Kickstarter campaign for an updated version called "Umineko When They Cry: Gold Edition", with an English dub. In the following weeks, they announced delays to launching the campaign.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: A compilation of all previous official visual novel content for the series along with two additional scenarios titled "Umineko no Naku Koro ni Saku" (lit. "When the Seagulls Cry Bloom") was released on October 4, 2019 for Windows. A port of "Saku" for the PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch, subtitled was released on January 28, 2021.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: A manga version of "Legend of the Golden Witch" drawn by Kei Natsumi began serialization in the January 2008 issue of Square Enix's "Gangan Powered", which was later transferred to the debut May 2009 issue of "Gangan Joker" after "Gangan Powered" was discontinued, and continued until the September 2009 issue. An adaptation of "Turn of the Golden Witch" drawn by Jirō Suzuki began serialization in the August 2008 issue of Square Enix's "GFantasy". The manga adaptation of "Banquet of the Golden Witch" began serialization in the October 2009 issue of "Gangan Joker" and is illustrated by Kei Natsumi. Sōichirō draws the adaptation of "Alliance of the Golden Witch", which began serialization in Square Enix's Internet-based magazine "Gangan Online" on October 1, 2009. The first bound volume for "Legend of the Golden Witch" was released in Japan on June 21, 2008 under Square Enix's Gangan Comics imprint. Yen Press licensed the various "Umineko" manga published by Square Enix for release in North America. A four-panel comic strip entitled and illustrated by Makoto Fugetsu was serialized in Ichijinsha's "Manga Palette Lite" magazine between March 1, 2008 and March 2, 2009. A single bound volume for "Umineko Biyori" was released on June 22, 2009.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: Another manga, , is illustrated by Satoshi Shinkyo and was serialized between the November 2008 and May 2009 issues of Kadokawa Shoten's "Comp Ace" magazine. A cross-over manga drawn by Yuki Hiiro and featuring characters from "Higurashi no Naku Koro ni" titled "Umineko no Naku Koro ni EpisodeX Rokkenjima of Higurashi crying" was serialized in ASCII Media Works's "Dengeki G's Festival! Comic" magazine between January 26, 2009 and February 23, 2011. Two volumes of "EpisodeX" were released, the first on February 26, 2010 and the second on April 27, 2011 under ASCII Media Works' Dengeki Comics imprint. The manga's story takes place roughly during the start of Episode 4's game.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: Frontier Works began to produce a set of drama CDs for "Umineko" starting with the first volume released on June 24, 2009. The second volume, followed on July 23, 2009. The voice cast is the same as the anime.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: Kodansha Box released novelizations of the visual novel arcs, written by Ryukishi07 himself and illustrated by Tomohi, in two volume sets, beginning with "Legend of the Golden Witch" released on July 1, 2009 for volume one and August 4, 2009 for volume two. Fifteen volumes were released in total, with the last released on September 30, 2018, novelizing the last arc in one volume.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: A 26-episode anime adaptation based on the visual novel series aired in Japan between July 2 and December 24, 2009 on Chiba TV, and aired on additional stations at later times. The anime is produced by the animation studio Studio Deen and directed by Chiaki Kon, with Toshifumi Kawase handling series scripts and Yoko Kikuchi designing the characters based on Ryūkishi07's original concepts. The opening theme of the anime is by Akiko Shikata, and the ending theme is by Jimang from Sound Horizon. The singles for both songs were released on August 19 and September 16, 2009, respectively. The anime is licensed by NIS America for release in North America and was released in two Blu-ray Disc compilation volumes in December 2012.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: An Internet radio show titled "Umineko no Naku Koro ni Episode R: Radio of the Golden Witch" aired ten episodes between August 26, 2009 and January 13, 2010. Produced by Animate TV, the show was hosted by Sayaka Ohara (the voice of Beatrice in the anime adaptation) and featured numerous guests who were also voice actors from the anime such as Daisuke Ono (Battler) and Marina Inoue (Jessica). A special episode was later aired on April 28, 2010 featuring Rina Satō (Ange) and Ryukishi07 as guests. Two CD compilation volumes containing two CDs each were released on December 23, 2009 and January 27, 2010 compiling the ten main episodes.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: The visual novels have three opening theme songs. The four games of "Umineko When They Cry" use the opening theme , composed and performed by Akiko Shikata, which was released at Comiket 74 on August 15, 2008, and for public release on August 29, 2008 by Frontier Works. The first two games of "Umineko no Naku Koro ni Chiru" ("End" and "Dawn") use the opening theme sung by Ayumu from Zwei. The single for "Occultics no Majo" was released on November 26, 2009 by Geneon. The last two "Chiru" games ("Requiem" and "Twilight") use the opening theme sung by Nei Kino. The PlayStation 3 versions use different opening themes. "Majo to Suiri no Rondo" uses , sung by Kokomi. "Shinjitsu to Gensō no Nocturne" uses , sung by Ayumu from Zwei.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: At the end of each game, there are two ending themes: one played after the completion of the main game (or, in some episodes, after the Tea Party) when the cast of characters is shown and another played after finishing the "????" epilogue when the staff credits are shown. In "Legend of the Golden Witch", "Bring the Fate" composed by Hironori Doi is the first ending theme and composed by -45 is used for the staff credits. "Turn" uses composed by U2 Akiyama for the first ending theme and sung by Kazumi Kimura for the staff credits. The first ending theme of "Banquet" is "Dread of the Grave (Rhythm ver.)" composed by SB Yune and the staff credits theme is "Active Pain" performed by Zakuro Motoki. The first ending theme for "Alliance" is "Discode" sung by Kanae Sakura and "Rōgoku Strip" is again used for the staff credits.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: "End"'s first ending theme is composed by -45 and the staff credits theme is performed by Rekka Katakiri. "Dawn" uses "Birth of New Witch" sung by Zakuro Motoki as the first ending theme and sung by Nei Kino for the staff credits. The first ending theme for "Requiem" is "The Executioner" composed by Zts and the staff credits theme is sung by Kanae Sakura. "Twilight" has three ending themes, and differs depending on the ending chosen. For the trick ending, the theme used is "Umineko no Naku Koro ni" by Akiko Shikata. For the magic ending, the first ending theme is , also composed and performed by Akiko Shikata. The staff credits theme is "Engage of Marionette" composed by Dai.


title: Umineko When They Cry

text: An original soundtrack for "Legend of the Golden Witch" titled "Essence" was released on August 26, 2009.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: SAE 304 stainless steel is the most common stainless steel. The steel contains both chromium (between 18% and 20%) and nickel (between 8% and 10.5%) metals as the main non-iron constituents. It is an austenitic stainless steel. It is less electrically and thermally conductive than carbon steel. It is magnetic, but less magnetic than steel. It has a higher corrosion resistance than regular steel and is widely used because of the ease in which it is formed into various shapes.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: The composition was developed by W. H. Hatfield at Firth-Vickers in 1924 and was marketed under the trade name "Staybrite 18/8".


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: It is specified by SAE International as part of its SAE steel grades. Outside the US it is commonly known as A2 stainless steel, in accordance with ISO 3506 for fasteners. In the commercial cookware industry it is known as 18/8 stainless steel. In the unified numbering system it is UNS S30400 The Japanese equivalent grade of this material is SUS304. It is also specified in European norm 1.4301.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: 304 stainless steel has excellent resistance to a wide range of atmospheric environments and many corrosive media. It is subject to pitting and crevice corrosion in warm chloride environments and to stress corrosion cracking above about 60°C. It is considered resistant to pitting corrosion in water with up to about 400 mg/L chlorides at ambient temperatures, reducing to about 150 mg/L at 60°C.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: 304 stainless steel is also very sensitive at room temperature to the thiosulfate anions released by the oxidation of pyrite (as encountered in acid mine drainage) and can undergo severe pitting corrosion problems when in close contact with pyrite- or sulfide-rich clay materials exposed to oxidation.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: For more severe corrosion conditions, when 304 stainless steel is too sensitive to pitting or crevice corrosion by chlorides or general corrosion in acidic applications, it is commonly replaced by 316 stainless steel.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: 304 and 302 Stainless Steels are subject to chloride stress fracture failure when used in tropical salt water conditions such as oil or gas rigs. 316SS is the preferred alloy for these conditions.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: 304 stainless steel is used for a variety of household and industrial applications such as food handling and processing equipment, screws, machinery parts, utensils, and exhaust manifolds. 304 stainless steel is also used in the architectural field for exterior accents such as water and fire features. It is also a common coil material for vaporizers.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: Early SpaceX Starships used SAE 301 Stainless Steel in their construction, before moving over to SAE 304L for the SN7 test tank and Starship SN8 in 2020.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: 304, 304H and 304L all possess the same nominal chromium and nickel content and thus possess the same corrosion resistance, ease of fabrication and weldability. The difference between 304, 304H and 304L is the carbon content which is >0.03, >0.05 and <0.03 respectively.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: The carbon content of 304H (UNS S30409) is restricted to 0.04–0.10%, which provides optimal high temperature strength.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: The carbon content of 304L (UNS 30403) is restricted to a maximum of 0.03%, which prevents sensitization during welding. Sensitization is the formation of chromium carbides along grain boundaries when a stainless steel is exposed to temperatures in the approximate range of . The subsequent formation of chromium carbide results in reduced corrosion resistance along the grain boundary leaving the stainless steel susceptible to unanticipated corrosion in an environment where 304 would be expected to be corrosion resistant. This grain boundary corrosive attack is known as intergranular corrosion.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: The carbon content of 304 (UNS 30400) is restricted to a maximum of 0.08%. Thus 304 is not useful for corrosive applications where welding is required such as tanks and pipes where corrosive solutions are involved, thus, 304L is preferred. And its lack of a minimum carbon content is not ideal for high temperature applications where optimal strength is required, thus, 304H is preferred. Thus 304 is typically restricted to bars that will be machined into components where welding is not required or thin sheets that are formed in articles such as kitchen sinks or cookware that are also not welded.


title: SAE 304 stainless steel

text: Carbon content has a strong influence on room temperature strength and thus the specified minimum tensile properties of 304L are lower than for 304. However, nitrogen also has a strong influence on room temperature strength and a tiny addition of nitrogen produces 304L with the same tensile strength as 304. Thus, practically all 304L is produced as dual certified 304/304L, meaning it meets the minimum carbon content of 304L and also meets the minimum tensile strength of 304.


title: Stearic acid

text: Stearic acid ( , ) is a saturated fatty acid with an 18-carbon chain. The IUPAC name is octadecanoic acid. It is a waxy solid and its chemical formula is CHCOH. Its name comes from the Greek word στέαρ ""stéar"", which means tallow. The salts and esters of stearic acid are called stearates. As its ester, stearic acid is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in nature following palmitic acid. The triglyceride derived from three molecules of stearic acid is called stearin.


title: Stearic acid

text: Stearic acid is more abundant in animal fat (up to 30%) than in vegetable fat (typically <5%). The important exceptions are the foods cocoa butter (34%) and shea butter, where the stearic acid content (as a triglyceride) is 28–45%.


title: Stearic acid

text: In terms of its biosynthesis, stearic acid is produced from carbohydrates via the fatty acid synthesis machinery wherein acetyl-CoA contributes two-carbon building blocks.


title: Stearic acid

text: Stearic acid is obtained from fats and oils by the saponification of the triglycerides using hot water (about 100 °C). The resulting mixture is then distilled. Commercial stearic acid is often a mixture of stearic and palmitic acids, although purified stearic acid is available. Commercially, fats high in oleic acid such as palm and soy may be hydrogenated to convert oleic into stearic acid.


title: Stearic acid

text: In general, the applications of stearic acid exploit its bifunctional character, with a polar head group that can be attached to metal cations and a nonpolar chain that confers solubility in organic solvents. The combination leads to uses as a surfactant and softening agent. Stearic acid undergoes the typical reactions of saturated carboxylic acids, a notable one being reduction to stearyl alcohol, and esterification with a range of alcohols. This is used in a large range of manufactures, from simple to complex electronic devices.


title: Stearic acid

text: Stearic acid is mainly used in the production of detergents, soaps, and cosmetics such as shampoos and shaving cream products. Soaps are not made directly from stearic acid, but indirectly by saponification of triglycerides consisting of stearic acid esters. Esters of stearic acid with ethylene glycol (glycol stearate and glycol distearate) are used to produce a pearly effect in shampoos, soaps, and other cosmetic products. They are added to the product in molten form and allowed to crystallize under controlled conditions. Detergents are obtained from amides and quaternary alkylammonium derivatives of stearic acid.


title: Stearic acid

text: In view of the soft texture of the sodium salt, which is the main component of soap, other salts are also useful for their lubricating properties. Lithium stearate is an important component of grease. The stearate salts of zinc, calcium, cadmium, and lead are used as heat stabilisers PVC. Stearic acid is used along with castor oil for preparing softeners in textile sizing. They are heated and mixed with caustic potash or caustic soda. Related salts are also commonly used as release agents, e.g. in the production of automobile tires. As an example, it can be used to make castings from a plaster "piece mold" or "waste mold", and to make a mold from a shellacked clay original. In this use, powdered stearic acid is mixed in water and the suspension is brushed onto the surface to be parted after casting. This reacts with the calcium in the plaster to form a thin layer of calcium stearate, which functions as a release agent.


title: Stearic acid

text: When reacted with zinc it forms zinc stearate, which is used as a lubricant for playing cards (fanning powder) to ensure a smooth motion when fanning. Stearic acid is a common lubricant during injection molding and pressing of ceramic powders. It is also used as a mold release for foam latex that is baked in stone molds.


title: Stearic acid

text: Being inexpensive, nontoxic, and fairly inert, stearic acid finds many niche applications. Stearic acid is used as a negative plate additive in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries. It is added at the rate of 0.6 g per kg of the oxide while preparing the paste. It is believed to enhance the hydrophobicity of the negative plate, particularly during dry-charging process. It also reduces the extension of oxidation of the freshly formed lead (negative active material) when the plates are kept for drying in the open atmosphere after the process of tank formation. As a consequence, the charging time of a dry uncharged battery during initial filling and charging (IFC) is comparatively lower, as compared to a battery assembled with plates which do not contain stearic acid additive. Fatty acids are classic components of candle-making. Stearic acid is used along with simple sugar or corn syrup as a hardener in candies. In fireworks, stearic acid is often used to coat metal powders such as aluminium and iron. This prevents oxidation, allowing compositions to be stored for a longer period of time.


title: Stearic acid

text: An isotope labeling study in humans concluded that the fraction of dietary stearic acid that oxidatively desaturates to oleic acid is 2.4 times higher than the fraction of palmitic acid analogously converted to palmitoleic acid.


title: Stearic acid

text: In epidemiologic and clinical studies, stearic acid was found to be associated with lowered LDL cholesterol in comparison with other saturated fatty acids.


title: Stearic acid

text: are the salts or esters of stearic acid. The conjugate base of stearic acid, CHCOO, is also known as the stearate anion.


title: Anadolu Efes S.K.

text: Anadolu Efes Spor Kulübü (), formerly known as Efes Pilsen, is a Turkish professional basketball team based in Istanbul, Turkey. Efes is the most recent Euroleague champion and on the first place of European Club Ranking after the Final Four 2020-21. Efes is also the most successful club in the history of the Turkish Super League (BSL), having won the league's championship 15 times. Efes has won a total of 40 domestic trophies, more than any other Turkish basketball club.


title: Anadolu Efes S.K.

text: The home arena of Anadolu Efes S.K. is the Sinan Erdem Dome in Istanbul, which has a seating capacity of 16,000 for basketball games. The club has its own practice facility in the district of Bahçelievler, which was built in 1982. The team competes in the Turkish Super League and the EuroLeague. The team is owned by the Efes Beverage Group.


title: Anadolu Efes S.K.

text: Anadolu Efes has developed a fierce rivalry with Fenerbahçe in recent years. The two clubs often meet in playoff series and cup finals.


title: Anadolu Efes S.K.

text: The club was established in 1976 as Efes Pilsen S.K., by taking over the Turkish second-division club Kadıköyspor, which had failed due to financial problems. Its initial sponsor was its former longtime namesake, Efes Pilsen, a subsidiary of the Anadolu Group. It won the 1978 Turkish second division national championship undefeated, earning promotion to the Turkish first division, where it has continuously competed ever since. In its first top-flight season (1978–79), Efes Pilsen S.K. won the Turkish national league title, immediately establishing itself as one of the country's top clubs.


title: Anadolu Efes S.K.

text: After finishing 2nd in the 1992–93 FIBA European Cup, Efes Pilsen S.K. won the 1995–96 FIBA Korać Cup, which marked the first-ever European-wide title won by a Turkish club in any team sport. Efes Pilsen S.K. (later renamed Anadolu Efes S.K.) has also become a fixture in the European-wide top-tier level EuroLeague, making it to the competition's EuroLeague Final Four in 2000, and also to the FIBA SuproLeague's 2001 Final Four, and finishing 3rd on both occasions.


title: Anadolu Efes S.K.

text: In 2011, the club changed its name to Anadolu Efes S.K., after the TAPDK (Tobacco and Alcohol Market Regulatory Authority) in Turkey prohibited the advertisement of tobacco and alcohol products in sports organizations.


title: Anadolu Efes S.K.

text: In the 2018–19 season, Efes had success in the EuroLeague as it managed to clinch the fourth-seed in the regular season. In the play-offs, the team beat FC Barcelona to advance to its first EuroLeague Final Four in 19 years. In the semi-final, Efes beat Fenerbahçe 92–73 to reach its first EuroLeague Final in history. In the championship game, Efes was defeated by CSKA Moscow, eventually finishing as the runner-up. In the same season, Efes won its first BSL championship since 2009. In Game 7 of the Finals against Fenerbahçe, Efes won 89–74 after Shane Larkin scored 38 points. Larkin was later named BSL Finals MVP.


title: Anadolu Efes S.K.

text: For many years, Efes has used the Abdi İpekçi Arena, with a seating capacity of 12,270, to host its home games. Currently, Efes uses the 16,000 seat Sinan Erdem Dome for its home games.


title: Anadolu Efes S.K.

text: In 2006, Efes Pilsen became the first Turkish basketball club to be invited to play with NBA teams. They competed against the Denver Nuggets in Denver, Colorado on October 11, and against the Golden State Warriors in Oakland, California on October 12. In 2007, Efes Pilsen hosted the Minnesota Timberwolves at the Abdi İpekçi Arena.


title: Finding Your Roots

text: Finding Your Roots with Henry Louis Gates, Jr. is a documentary television series hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr. that premiered on March 25, 2012, on PBS. In each episode, celebrities are presented with a "book of life" that is compiled with information researched by professional genealogists that allows them to view their ancestral histories, learn about familial connections and discover secrets about their lineage.


title: Finding Your Roots

text: The series uses traditional genealogical research (written records) and genetics (DNA testing) to discover the family history of well-known Americans. Genetic techniques include Y-chromosome DNA, mitochondrial DNA, and autosomal DNA analyses to infer both ancient and recent genetic relationships. The show's professionals typically spend hundreds of hours researching each guest. The series has examined the family histories of celebrity guests with African American, Asian American, British American, Chinese American, Dutch American, Greek American, Indian American, Irish American, Italian American, Jewish American and Latin American heritage.


title: Finding Your Roots

text: Each celebrity guest is given a "book of life" which contains all the information discovered about the guest's genealogy by researchers. Included in or within the book are comprehensive genetic results, a family tree that is as complete as paper research allows, copies of historical records used to assemble each tree and photos of newly found family members. In some episodes, particularly ones in which original DNA profiling research must be used to establish a past ancestor's parental link, guests are reunited with long lost relatives. However, in most episodes, each guest is predominantly shown seated opposite Gates as he guides them through their "book of life". To show correlations between the guests' family stories, each episode cuts back and forth between two or three guest stories. To draw further correlations, Gates uses examples from his own genealogy quite frequently. Examples of this would be a grandmother of his having multiple children with a white man whose name she had never revealed, as well as Gates' membership into the Sons of the American Revolution.


title: Finding Your Roots

text: In addition to celebrity guests, everyday people are sometimes featured in an episode to create a third or fourth story line. The non-celebrity guests are usually a group of peers. One example of this would be the episode in which Gates has his friends at his local barbershop take a DNA test to determine their ethnic makeup, each friend betting on their percentages of African, European, and Native American genetic heritage. Another episode uses a similar guessing game with students at a local school. Singular secondary guests include Robert Downey Sr. and Margarett Cooper, the latter being a friend of Gates'.


title: Finding Your Roots

text: The series has seen two past incarnations on PBS, both of which were hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr. In 2006 and 2008, the series "African American Lives" aired. Both seasons of the series consisted of a season-long storyline as well as an all African American cast. In 2010, "Faces of America" aired. Though it continued to use the season-long plot from the prior installment, it was the first installment to be hosted by Gates which included Americans of all ethnic and racial backgrounds. Starting with "Finding Your Roots" in 2012, the series changed from a season-long plot to having plots extending only within a single episode. In doing so, it has allowed the series to extend its number of episodes each season to ten, as opposed to the prior four episodes a season.


title: Finding Your Roots

text: The show's third season was postponed by WNET after it was discovered that actor Ben Affleck had persuaded Gates to omit information about his slave-owning ancestors. The series returned on January 5, 2016, although "Roots of Freedom", the second-season episode featuring Affleck, was pulled from all forms of distribution by PBS. PBS America, a U.K. TV channel featuring content from PBS in the U.S., continues to feature three clips from the withdrawn episode on its YouTube channel.


title: Finding Your Roots

text: In 2016, Cal Thomas of "The Baltimore Sun" wrote that the show was "The most compelling television you will ever see." In 2015, it was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding News/Information – Series or Special. Lauren Sarner of "New York Post" wrote, ""Finding Your Roots" has become a phenomenon."