title: Ali Campbell

text: In August 2014, Campbell announced that he had reunited with former UB40 bandmates Astro and Mickey Virtue to record a new album, "Silhouette". He said of his brother Duncan's singing, "I sat back for five years and watched my brother Duncan murdering my songs. We're saving the legacy". They initially toured under the name 'UB40 featuring Ali, Astro and Mickey', leading to legal action brought by the other UB40. Their first release was "The Hits of UB40 Live" in 2015. In 2016, their "Unplugged" album reached number 17 on the UK Albums Chart. "A Real Labour of Love" was released in March 2018, an album much in the vein of UB40's "Labour of Love" series. It reached number two on the UK Albums Chart, and entered the "Billboard" Reggae Albums chart at number one. Virtue departed the band in late 2018, following which the band has operated under the name 'UB40 featuring Ali Campbell and Astro'. In July 2021, vocalist Matt Hoy quit the band, while on 6 November 2021, the group's social media announced that Astro had died after a short illness. In 2022, the first single from the band's final album with Astro, "Sufferer" was released, which was joined in the countdown as shown on "The Heritage Chart Show" by Matt Hoy's solo single "We Are One", a fact which was picked up by presenter Mike Read on the programme broadcast on Talking Pictures TV on 10 April 2022. On 17 June 2022, UB40 featuring Ali Campbell and Astro will release the album "Unprecedented" via UMC, with Campbell fulfilling his UB40 tour dates in the run-up to the album's release, with the tour now billed as being 'in memory of Astro'.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Blood on the Tracks is the fifteenth studio album by American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan, released on January 20, 1975, by Columbia Records. The album marked Dylan's return to Columbia Records after a two-album stint with Asylum Records. Dylan began recording the album in New York City in September 1974. In December, shortly before Columbia was due to release the album, Dylan abruptly re-recorded much of the material in a studio in Minneapolis. The final album contains five tracks recorded in New York and five from Minneapolis.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: "Blood on the Tracks" initially received mixed reviews, but has subsequently been acclaimed as one of Dylan's greatest albums by both critics and fans. The songs have been linked to tensions in Dylan's personal life, including his estrangement from his then-wife Sara. One of their children, Jakob Dylan, has described the songs as "my parents talking". In interviews, Dylan has denied that the songs on the album are autobiographical.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: The album reached No. 1 on the "Billboard" 200 charts and No. 4 on the UK Albums Chart, with the single "Tangled Up in Blue" peaking at No. 31 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 singles chart. The album remains one of Dylan's best-selling studio releases, with a double-platinum U.S. certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In 2015, it was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. It was voted number 7 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's book "All Time Top 1000 Albums" (2000), in 2003, the album was ranked No. 16 on "Rolling Stone"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, rising to the No. 9 spot in the 2020 revision of that same list. In 2004, it was placed at No. 5 on "Pitchfork"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s list of the top 100 albums of the 1970s.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: At the conclusion of his 1974 tour with the Band, Dylan began a relationship with a Columbia Records employee, Ellen Bernstein, which Dylan biographer Clinton Heylin has described as the beginning of the end of Dylan's marriage to his wife Sara. In spring 1974, Dylan was in New York for several weeks while he attended art classes with the painter Norman Raeben. Dylan subsequently gave Raeben credit in interviews for transforming his understanding of time, and during the summer of 1974 Dylan began to write a series of songs in a series of three small notebooks which used his new knowledge:


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Dylan subsequently spent time with Bernstein on his farm in Minnesota and there he completed the 17 songs from which "Blood on the Tracks" was formed—songs which Heylin has described as "perhaps the finest collection of love songs of the twentieth century, songs filled with the full spectrum of emotions a marriage on the rocks can engender".


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Before recording the songs that would constitute "Blood on the Tracks", Dylan previewed them for a number of friends in the music world, including David Crosby, Graham Nash, Stephen Stills, Tim Drummond and Peter Rowan. Nash recalled that Stills disliked Dylan's private performance of his new songs; immediately after Dylan left the room, Stills remarked to Nash, "He's a good songwriter ... but he's no musician."


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Initially, Dylan considered recording "Blood on the Tracks" with an electric backing group, and contacted Mike Bloomfield who had played lead guitar on Dylan's "Highway 61 Revisited" album. When the two met, Dylan ran through the songs he was planning to record, but he played them too quickly for Bloomfield to learn. Bloomfield later recalled the experience: "They all began to sound the same to me; they were all in the same key; they were all long. It was one of the strangest experiences of my life. He was sort of pissed off that I didn't pick it up." In the end, Dylan rejected the idea of recording the album with a band, and instead substituted stripped-down acoustic arrangements for all of his songs. On August 2, 1974, Dylan signed a contract with Columbia Records. After releasing his two previous albums, "Planet Waves" and "Before the Flood", on Asylum Records, Dylan decided his new album would benefit from the commercial muscle of the record label that had made him famous, and his new contract gave him increased control over his own masters.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Dylan commenced recording at A & R Recording Studios in New York City on September 16, 1974. Bernstein has stated "the theme of returning ran through the sessions", so "it made a lot of sense to do it at A&R". A & R Studios was the former Columbia Records "Studio A", where Dylan had recorded six albums in the 1960s. The musicians quickly realized that Dylan was taking a "spontaneous" approach to recording. The session engineer, Phil Ramone, later said that Dylan transitioned from one song to another as if they were part of a medley. Ramone noted:


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Eric Weissberg and his band, Deliverance, originally recruited as session men, were rejected after two days of recording because they could not keep up with Dylan's pace. Dylan retained bassist Tony Brown from the band, and soon added organist Paul Griffin (who had also worked on "Highway 61 Revisited" and "Blonde on Blonde") and steel guitarist Buddy Cage. After ten days and four sessions with the current lineup, Dylan had finished recording and mixing, and, by November, had cut a test pressing of the album. Columbia began to prepare to release the album before Christmas.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Dylan played the test pressing for his brother, David Zimmerman, who persuaded Dylan the album would not sell because the overall sound was too stark. Robert Christgau also heard the early version of the album and called it "a sellout to the memory of Dylan's pre-electric period". At his brother's urging, Dylan agreed to re-record five of the album's songs in Sound 80 in Minneapolis, with backing musicians recruited by David. The new takes were accomplished in two days at the end of December 1974. "Blood on the Tracks" was released into stores on January 20, 1975. The version on the original test pressing was given a limited release in 2019 for Record Store Day.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: The songs that constitute "Blood on the Tracks" have been described by many Dylan critics as stemming from his personal turmoil at the time, particularly his estrangement from his then-wife Sara Dylan. One of Bob and Sara Dylan's children, Jakob Dylan, has said, "When I'm listening to "Blood On The Tracks", that's about my parents."


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Dylan has denied this autobiographical interpretation, stating in a 1985 interview with Bill Flanagan, "A lot of people thought that album pertained to me. It didn't pertain to me ... I'm not going to make an album and lean on a marriage relationship." Informed of the album's popularity, Dylan told Mary Travers in a radio interview in April 1975: "A lot of people tell me they enjoy that album. It's hard for me to relate to that. I mean ... people enjoying that type of pain, you know?" Addressing whether the album described his own personal pain, Dylan replied that he didn't write "confessional songs". However, on the live At Budokan album, Dylan seems to acknowledge the autobiographical nature of the song "Simple Twist of Fate" by introducing it as "Here's a simple love story. Happened to me." And in a 1978 interview, he responded to an observation that the album was confessional and that "Tangled Up in Blue" drew on his relationship with Sara by saying, "There might be some little part of me which is confessing something which I've experienced and I know, but is not definitely the total me confessing anything."


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: According to "Rolling Stone", in Dylan's lyric notebook, the working title of "Simple Twist of Fate" was " 4th Street Affair"; Dylan and Suze Rotolo lived at 161 W. 4th St. The narrator of the song memorializes an affair of ten years ago instead of singing about Dylan's marriage. In "Hot Press," writing about the three known lyric notebooks for the songs, Anne Margaret Daniel noted that "Simple Twist of Fate" was first entitled "Snowbound," and set in part, like "Tangled Up In Blue," in a New York City apartment.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: In his 2004 memoir, "Chronicles, Vol. 1", Dylan stated that the songs have nothing to do with his personal life, and that they were inspired by the short stories of Anton Chekhov.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Released in early 1975, "Blood on the Tracks" initially received mixed reviews from critics. "Rolling Stone" published two assessments. The first, by Jonathan Cott, called it "Dylan's magnificent new album". The second reviewer, Jon Landau, wrote that "the record has been made with typical shoddiness." In "NME", Nick Kent described "the accompaniments [as] often so trashy they sound like mere practice takes", while "Crawdaddy" magazine's Jim Cusimano found the instrumentation incompetent.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: An influential review of the album was written by Dylan critic Michael Gray for the magazine "Let It Rock". Gray argued that it transformed the cultural perception of Dylan, and that he was no longer defined as "the major artist of the sixties. Instead, Dylan has legitimized his claim to a creative prowess as vital now as then—a power not bounded by the one decade he so affected." This view was amplified by Clinton Heylin, who wrote: "Ten years after he turned the rock & roll brand of pop into rock ... [Dylan] renewed its legitimacy as a form capable of containing the work of a mature artist." In "The Village Voice", Robert Christgau wrote that although the lyrics occasionally evoke romantic naiveté and bitterness, "Blood on the Tracks" is altogether Dylan's "most mature and assured record".


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Since its initial reception, "Blood on the Tracks" has been viewed by critics as one of Dylan's best albums. In Salon.com, Wyman wrote: ""Blood on the Tracks" is his only flawless album and his best produced; the songs, each of them, are constructed in disciplined fashion. It is his kindest album and most dismayed, and seems in hindsight to have achieved a sublime balance between the logorrhea-plagued excesses of his mid-1960s output and the self-consciously simple compositions of his post-accident years." Bell, in his critical biography of Dylan, wrote that "Blood on the Tracks" was proof that "Dylan had won the argument over his refusal to argue about politics. In this, he began to seem prescient." Bell concluded the album "might well count as one of the best things Dylan ever did". Novelist Rick Moody called it "the truest, most honest account of a love affair from tip to stern ever put down on magnetic tape".


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: A result of the acclaim surrounding the album has been that when critics have praised one of Dylan's subsequent albums, they have often described it as "his best since "Blood on the Tracks"". According to music journalist Rob Sheffield, "Blood on the Tracks" became a benchmark album for Dylan in the years that followed because it was "such a stunning comeback".


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Hip hop group Public Enemy reference it in their 2007 Dylan tribute song "Long and Whining Road": "It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back / You bet there's blood on them Bomb Squad tracks".


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: A film adaptation of the album is currently in pre-production, under the direction of Luca Guadagnino.


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: Until 1991, only one of the five New York acetate recordings that were subsequently replaced on the official album was officially released: "You're a Big Girl Now", released on 1985's "Biograph". The acetate takes of "Tangled Up in Blue", "Idiot Wind", and "If You See Her, Say Hello" were released on "The Bootleg Series, Vol. 1–3". That collection also includes "Call Letter Blues", an outtake/early version of "Meet Me in the Morning" with alternate lyrics. "Up to Me", another outtake from these sessions, was also released on 1985's "Biograph". An alternate take of the song "Shelter from the Storm" is featured in the original soundtrack album for "Jerry Maguire" (1996). An alternate take of "Meet Me in the Morning" was released on the B-side of the Record Store Day 2012 release of "Duquesne Whistle". "Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts" was, until 2018, the only song from the New York sessions that had not been officially released in any form. Now all of these, as well as more than 70 previously unreleased recordings, are available on the 6-disc deluxe edition of "", volume 14 of Dylan's ongoing archival "Bootleg Series".


title: Blood on the Tracks

text: For personnel details, see Heylin, 1996 and Björner, 2014. Track numbers refer to CD and digital releases of the album.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: Triple-A (officially Class AAA) has been the highest level of play in Minor League Baseball in the United States since 1946. Currently, two leagues operate at the Triple-A level, the International League (IL) and the Pacific Coast League (PCL). There are 30 teams, one per each Major League Baseball (MLB) franchise, with 20 in the IL and 10 in the PCL. Triple-A teams are generally located in smaller cities as well as larger metropolitan areas without MLB teams, such as Austin, Jacksonville, Columbus, and Indianapolis. Four Triple-A teams play in the same metro areas as their parent clubs, those being the Gwinnett Stripers, St. Paul Saints, Sugar Land Space Cowboys and Tacoma Rainiers.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: All current Triple-A teams are located in the United States; before 2008, some Triple-A leagues also fielded teams in Canada, and from 1967 to 2020 the Mexican League was classified as Triple-A. Other than the current two Triple-A leagues, only three other leagues have ever held the classification.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: Prior to 1946, the top level of Minor League Baseball was Double-A, which had been established in 1912. The Triple-A classification was created before the 1946 season, and began with all three leagues then in Double-A moving up to the new level:


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: The IL, PCL, and Mexican League continued as Triple-A leagues until Major League Baseball reorganized the minor leagues prior to the 2021 season. At that time, the IL and PCL were temporarily renamed Triple-A East and Triple-A West, respectively. The Mexican League continues to operate, independently. Following MLB's acquisition of the rights to the names of the historical minor leagues, they announced on March 16, 2022, that the leagues would once again be called the International League and the Pacific Coast League, effective with the 2022 season.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: While all current and the majority of past Triple-A teams have been located in the United States, Triple-A teams have also been based in:


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: Most, if not all, of the players on an MLB team's "expanded roster" who are not currently on the team's "active roster" are assigned to the team's Triple-A club. Expanded rosters consist of 40 players, while active rosters generally consist of 26 players as of the 2021 season. Most Triple-A teams are near their MLB parent club, as activating a Triple-A player as an injury replacement is a common occurrence.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: The term "AAAA player," pronounced "four-A" or "quadruple-A," refers to a player who succeeds when playing for Triple-A teams and who is not successful at the major league level. The term is usually used derisively and has itself been criticized as flawed. Major league team executives and managers disagree whether AAAA players exist.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: Teams at this level are divided into two leagues: the International League and the Pacific Coast League. The International League fields teams primarily in the Eastern United States, while the Pacific Coast League fields teams mostly in the Western United States. Each of the 30 major league teams has an affiliation with one Triple-A team in the United States.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: The Triple-A All-Star Game was a single game held between the two affiliated Triple-A leagues—the International League and the Pacific Coast League. Each league fielded a team composed of the top players in their respective leagues as voted on by fans, the media, and each club's field manager and general manager. The event took place every year since 1988 when the first Triple-A All-Star Game was played in Buffalo, New York. Prior to 1998, a team of American League-affiliated Triple-A All-Stars faced off against a team of National League-affiliated Triple-A All-Stars.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: Traditionally, the game was held on the day after the mid-summer Major League Baseball All-Star Game. Such games mark a symbolic halfway-point in the season, despite occurring later than the actual halfway-point of most seasons. Both Triple-A leagues shared a common All-Star break, with no regular-season games scheduled for two days before the All-Star Game itself. Some additional events, such as the All-Star Fan Fest and Triple-A Home Run Derby, were held each year during this break in the regular season.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: While the 2021 schedule originally included a three-day All-Star break of July 12–14, this was removed after Opening Day was pushed back one month. Team schedules for the 2021 season were subsequently issued without an All-Star break.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: Beginning in 2006, the annual Triple-A National Championship Game was held to serve as a single championship game between the champions of the International League and Pacific Coast League to determine an overall champion of Triple-A baseball. It was originally held annually at Chickasaw Bricktown Ballpark in Oklahoma City, and known as the Bricktown Showdown. Starting in 2011, the game was held in a different Triple-A city each year. Previous postseason interleague championships include the Junior World Series (1932–34, 1936–62, 1970–71, 1973–74), Triple-A World Series (1983, 1998–2000), and Triple-A Classic (1988–91).


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: For the 2021 season, in place of the National Championship Game, Minor League Baseball extended the Triple-A regular season to October 3, with league champions determined based on regular-season records through the original end date of the season (September 19 for Triple-A East, and September 21 for Triple-A West). The final 10 games of the season, played after those dates, were deemed the "Final Stretch", with the team posting the best winning percentage during that period (the Durham Bulls, who went 9–1) winning a cash prize. Beginning with the 2022 season, the Triple-A National Championship Game is played once more between the champions of the International League and the Pacific Coast League.


title: Triple-A (baseball)

text: As a part of professional baseball's pace of play initiatives implemented in 2015, 20-second pitch clocks entered use at Triple-A stadiums in 2015. In 2018, the time was shortened to 15 seconds when no runners are on base. Other significant changes implemented in 2018 included beginning extra innings with a runner on second base and limiting teams to six mound visits during a nine-inning game. For the 2019 season, the number of mound visits was reduced to five, and pitchers were required to face a minimum of three consecutive batters unless the side is retired or the pitcher becomes injured and is unable to continue playing.


title: Turkestan

text: Turkestan, also spelled Turkistan (), is a historical region in Central Asia corresponding to the regions of Transoxiana and Xinjiang.


title: Turkestan

text: Known as Turan to the Persians, western Turkestan has also been known historically as Sogdia, "Ma wara'u'n-nahr" (by its Arab conquerors), and Transoxiana by western travelers. The latter two names refer to its position beyond the River Oxus when approached from the south, emphasizing Turkestan's long-standing relationship with Iran, the Persian Empires, and the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates.


title: Turkestan

text: Oghuz Turks (also known as Turkmens), Kyrgyzs, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Khazars, Uyghurs and Hazaras are some of the Turkic inhabitants of the region who, as history progressed, have spread further into Eurasia forming such Turkic nations as Turkey, and subnational regions like Tatarstan in Russia and Crimea in Ukraine. Tajiks and Russians form sizable non-Turkic minorities.


title: Turkestan

text: It is subdivided into Afghan Turkestan and historical Russian Turkestan (the latter of which extended in the south to Persia, in the west to the Aral and Caspian Seas and in the northeast to Lake Balkhash and Lake Zaysan) in the west, and East Turkestan in the east.


title: Turkestan

text: Of Persian origin (see -stan), the term "Turkestan" () has never referred to a single nation state. Iranian geographers first used the word to describe the place of Turkic peoples. "Turkestan" is used to describe any place where Turkic peoples lived.


title: Turkestan

text: In 1969, a Turfanian document was found in Astana, Kazakhstan, which was given the name "Documents on the Sogdian Slave Trade during the Gochang period of the Koji clan (Japanese: 麹氏高昌国時代ソグド文女奴隷売買文書)" shows that in 639 the name Turkistan was used as this name of this land in Sogdian word "twrkstn"


title: Turkestan

text: On their way southward during the conquest of Central Asia in the 19th century, the Russians under took the city of Turkistan (in present-day Kazakhstan) in 1864. Mistaking its name for the entire region, they adopted the name of "Turkestan" () for their new territory.


title: Turkestan

text: The history of Turkestan dates back to at least the third millennium BC. Many artifacts were produced in that period, with much trade being conducted. The region was a focal point for cultural diffusion, as the Silk Road traversed it.


title: Turkestan

text: Turkic sagas, such as the "Ergenekon" legend, and written sources, such as the Orkhon Inscriptions, state that Turkic peoples originated in the nearby Altai Mountains, and, through nomadic settlement, started their long journey westwards. Huns conquered the area after they conquered Kashgaria in the early 2nd century BC. With the dissolution of the Huns' Empire, Chinese rulers took over Eastern Turkestan. Arab forces captured it in the 8th century. The Persian Samanid dynasty subsequently conquered it and the area experienced economic success. The entire territory was held at various times by Turkic forces, such as the Göktürks, until the conquest by Genghis Khan and the Mongols in 1220. Genghis Khan gave the territory to his son Chagatai and the area became the Chagatai Khanate. Timur took over the western portion of Turkestan in 1369, and the area became part of the Timurid Empire. The eastern portion of Turkestan was also called Moghulistan and continued to be ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan.


title: Turkestan

text: In Chinese historiography, the Qara Khitai is most commonly called the "Western Liao" () and is considered to be a legitimate Chinese dynasty, as is the case for the Liao dynasty. The history of the Qara Khitai was included in the "History of Liao" (one of the "Twenty-Four Histories"), which was compiled officially during the Yuan dynasty by Toqto'a et al.


title: Turkestan

text: After the fall of the Tang dynasty, various dynasties of non-Han ethnic origins gained prestige by portraying themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China. Qara Khitai monarchs used the title of "Chinese emperor", and were also called the "Khan of Chīn". The Qara Khitai used the "image of China" to legitimize their rule to the Central Asians. The Chinese emperor, together with the rulers of the Turks, Arabs, India and the Byzantine Romans, were known to Islamic writers as the world's "five great kings". Qara Khitai kept the trappings of a Chinese state, such as Chinese coins, Chinese imperial titles, the Chinese writing system, tablets, seals, and used Chinese products like porcelein, mirrors, jade and other Chinese customs. The adherence to Liao Chinese traditions has been suggested as a reason why the Qara Khitai did not convert to Islam. Despite the Chinese trappings, there were comparatively few Han Chinese among the population of the Qara Khitai. These Han Chinese had lived in Kedun during the Liao dynasty, and in 1124 migrated with the Khitans under Yelü Dashi along with other people of Kedun, such as the Bohai, Jurchen, and Mongol tribes, as well as other Khitans in addition to the Xiao consort clan.


title: Turkestan

text: Qara Khitai's rule over the Muslim-majority Central Asia has the effect of reinforcing the view among some Muslim writers that Central Asia was linked to China even though the Tang dynasty had lost control of the region a few hundred years ago. Marwazī wrote that Transoxiana was a former part of China, while Fakhr al-Dīn Mubārak Shāh defined China as part of "Turkestan", and the cities of Balāsāghūn and Kashghar were considered part of China.


title: Turkestan

text: The association of Khitai with China meant that the most enduring trace of the Khitan's power is names that are derived from it, such as Cathay, which is the medieval Latin appellation for China. Names derived from Khitai are still current in modern usage, such as the Russian, Bulgarian, Uzbek and Mongolian names for China. However, the use of the name Khitai to mean "China" or "Chinese" by Turkic speakers within China, such as the Uyghurs, is considered pejorative by the Chinese authorities, who tried to ban it.


title: Machismo

text: Machismo (; ; ; ) is the sense of being "manly" and self-reliant, a concept associated with "a strong sense of masculine pride: an exaggerated masculinity". Machismo is a term originating in the early 1930s and 1940s best defined as having pride in one’s masculinity. It is associated with "a man's responsibility to provide for, protect, and defend his family". Machismo is strongly and consistently associated with dominance, aggression, exhibition, and nurturance. The correlation to machismo is found to be deeply rooted in family dynamics and culture.


title: Machismo

text: The word has a long history both in Spain and Portugal, including the Spanish and Portuguese languages. in Portuguese and Spanish is a strictly masculine term, derived from from the Latin "mascŭlus", which means "male". It was originally associated with the ideal societal role men were expected to play in their communities, most particularly Iberian language-speaking societies and countries. In addition, due to Mexico's history of conquest, battles and constant bureaucratic struggles, it was expected of men to possess and display bravery, courage, strength, wisdom and leadership. To "ser macho" (literally, "to be a macho") was an aspiration for all boys. As history shows, men were often in powerful and dominating roles thus portrayed the stereotype of a violent macho man. Thus the origin of machismo serves as an illustration of past history, the struggles that colonial Mexico faced and the evolution of gender stereotypes with time.


title: Machismo

text: Machismo is a factor challenged among different groups due to how an ideal man is expected to be portrayed, which builds pressure. Mentally, men may feel the need to take up more opportunities to meet expectations, such as supporting the home, or maintaining employment, leading to increased stress. This may also take a toll as physically well straining to be strong and overexerting the body, or the opposite of putting on weight by not having the desired physique and feeling inferior. Furthermore, researchers suggest that machismo can potray the supremacy or dominance that a man feels he has over a woman due to cultural and societal factors.


title: Machismo

text: "" in Spanish, in Portuguese, or the English mixture of both (but not a proper word in any of the previously mentioned languages), "caballerismo", is the Latin American understanding of manliness that focuses more on honor and chivalry. The meaning of "caballero" is "gentleman". This meaning is derived from the concept of being one who follows a code of honor like knights used to do, or shares certain values and ideals associated with them. These include a particular pride in honor, especially when in context of treating women kindly with especial delicacy and attention.


title: Machismo

text: Latin American scholars have noted that positive descriptors of machismo resemble the characteristics associated with the concept of caballerosidad. Understandings of machismo in Latin American cultures are not all negative; they also involve characteristics of honor, responsibility, perseverance, and courage, related to both individual and group interaction. Studies show that Latin American men understand masculinity to involve considerable childcare responsibilities, politeness, respect for women's autonomy, and non-violent attitudes and behaviors. In this way, machismo comes to relate to both a positive and negative understanding of Latin American male identity within the immigrant context. Therefore, machismo, like all social constructions of identity, should be understood as having multiple layers.


title: Machismo

text: The word originates from the Spanish word , which is Spanish for "knight". refers to a chivalric masculine code of behavior. (Note that the English term also stems from the Latin root caballus, through the French chevalier). Like the English chivalric code, developed out of a medieval socio-historical class system in which people of wealth and status owned horses and other forms of horsepower for transportation, whereas the lower classes did not. It was also associated with the class of knights in the feudal system. In Spanish, referred to a land-owning colonial gentleman of high station who was master of estates and/or ranches.


title: Machismo

text: The depictions of Machismo vary, but not unlike like the gaucho, their characteristics are quite familiar. Machismo is based on biological, historical, cultural, psycho-social, and interpersonal traits or behaviors. Some of the well known traits are;


title: Machismo

text: From a Mexican-Chicano cultural and psychological perspective, the psycho-social traits can be summarized as; emotional invulnerability, patriarchal dominance, aggressive or controlling responses to stimuli, and ambivalence toward women. These traits have been seen as a Mexican masculine response to the Spanish conquistador conquering of the Americas. It has been noted by some scholars that machismo was adopted as a form of control for the male body.


title: Machismo

text: There is controversy surrounding the concept of machismo as being originally from Spanish or Portuguese descent. The use of Spanish and Portuguese produces historical colonial connotations through its promotion of Spanish and Portuguese masculine social construction, when the term should be used to describe specific Latin American historical masculinities. However, the word "machismo" does resemble words in Spanish and Portuguese language which is why it is often associated with Spain and Portugal.


title: Machismo

text: For example, the use of and , to mean only the positive characteristics of machismo, is imbued with feudal and colonial connotations relating to colonial power relations. This is because the origin of the word resides in feudal Spanish/Portuguese descriptions of landlords that reached through and into the colonial era, exalts. European culture in comparison to the so-called Latin American machismo.


title: Machismo

text: Researchers are concerned regarding the unbalanced representation of machismo within Latin American cultures, and are now focused on creating a balanced representation. They have repeatedly pointed out the positive characteristics consistent with machismo, or : nurturance, protection of the family and its honor, dignity, wisdom, hard work, responsibility, spirituality, and emotional connectedness. Latin American scholars propose there are really two different constructs within machismo, one positive and one negative. The negative construct of machismo is based on the traditional Western concept of hyper-masculinity. 's characteristics are exalted, while machismo's characteristics are seen as predominantly negative.


title: Machismo

text: The positive side of machismo (, ), refers to a connection to family and chivalry. However, the focus on the negative aspects and avoidance of the positive aspects of machismo coincides with the concept of marginalization and powerlessness of Iberian and Latin American, and more broadly Romance-speaking European culture-derived, narratives. This is because the focus on the negative aspects and the avoidance or ignorance of the positive creates a power dynamic that legitimizes the mainstream American hegemonic idea of masculinity as the correct or more righteous form of masculinity, and subjugates machismo as a degenerated form of abuse against women and backwardness. As a result, it can create a sense of powerlessness within Latino males in their expression of their masculinity.


title: Machismo

text: Even as some researchers have discussed the distinction between positive and negative aspects of machismo, something interesting to note is that often when positive characteristics are described, those of caballerismo are brought up, which is different from machismo.


title: Machismo

text: The characteristics that are usually captured by society within man often do include aggressiveness, power, dominance and more. However researchers point out that there are positive aspects that are also portrayed in machismo but are often excluded or hidden; these would include  “responsibility, honor”, and bravery which are not always seen. To further analyze this, for example with a man having responsibility, they portray their role to overlook their family and be their protection. They also have to continue the family legacy thus honoring their family through generations. This, however is a trait that could be diminished as could be the case when men seek respect and if they do obtain this respect, it could be that they potentially react with aggressiveness which leads into violence and abuse. This would then turn a positive characteristic to a negative characteristic of machismo since this act of aggression is externalized and men portray the power they seem to have over women. Because of this, it is usually the case that the negative perceptions of machismo outweigh the positives.


title: Machismo

text: The phenomena of gender-based belief systems having negative and positive effects is described as ambivalent sexism, which is made of hostile sexism and benevolent sexism.


title: Machismo

text: Academics have noted that there are consequences of only having a negative definition for Iberian and Latin American masculinity in popular literature. Researchers have suggested that, according to the anti-Catholic and/or Nordicist views dominant in mainstream white American culture, Latin American manifestations of machismo represent "all that is wrong in a man". Latino academics have used this argument to explain why Latino male youth struggle in academic institutions and have high rates of criminality. These are the same discourses that argue that Latino masculinity (machismo) is defined by violence, recklessness, and misogyny. Accordingly, they link these expressions as contributing to a lack of interest in academics as well as behavioral struggles in schools for Latino male youth. Furthermore, disengagement from school is recommended to also be a product of “masculine work” as they often required more dangerous tasks and less skilled work. Thus, there is less priority given to school work (clean work) and rather there is a greater emphasis on work that involves a dangerous environment.


title: Machismo

text: Throughout popular literature, the term has continued to be associated with negative characteristics, such as sexism, misogyny, chauvinism, hyper-masculinity, and hegemonic masculinity. Scholars characterize "macho men" as violent, rude, womanizing, and prone to alcoholism. Authors from various disciplines typified macho men as domineering through intimidation, seducing and controlling women, and controlling children through violence.


title: Machismo

text: For example, in American literature, an example of machismo comes from Tennessee Williams' character Stanley Kowalski, an egotistical brother-in-law, from "A Streetcar Named Desire". In the play (and 1951 film adaptation), Stanley epitomizes the tough, alpha-male (hyper-masculine) archetype, socially and physically dominating and imposing his will upon his wife and her sister, Blanche Dubois. Bound up with Stanley's aggressive and occasionally misogynistic views is a strong sense of pride and honor which leads to his hatred of Blanche.


title: Machismo

text: In the play "A View from the Bridge" by Arthur Miller, one of the main characters, Eddie, is a classic type who displays machismo. He wants to be the best of the men around him and when beaten, becomes very agitated and increasingly irrational. The negative stereotypes depicted in American literature are not representative of all the different layers of machismo. Although machismo can be portrayed as violent and aggressive throughout popular literature, scholars argue that the positive side of machismo, which includes its positive aspects is often not shown.


title: Machismo

text: The revolution of copper mining sets the tone of traditional masculinity. The industrious labor performed by the working class male is accredited by status amongst peers and ability to provide for the family. Men who work in the mines are often away from their families the majority of the time, resulting them to engage in homosociality. The homosocial leisure activities that the workers engage in consist of gambling, soccer, and the consumption of alcohol. The presence of women in social settings is not prominent, allowing dominance and inevitable homosocial interactions between men to create kinship and brotherhood. Exploitation of masculinity through the context of miners is prominent and embodied by Chilean males.


title: Machismo

text: Since 2007, every July the Red Chilena Contra la Violencia hacia las Mujeres (Chilean Network Against Towards Women) implements its campaign "¡Cuidado! El Machismo Mata" (translating to "Beware! Machismo Kills") to raise awareness about violence against women, intrafamilial violence, and femicide.


title: Machismo

text: In terms of the presence of machismo in Puerto Rican society, men were to work outside the home, manage finances, and make decisions. Women were to be subordinate to their husbands and be the homemakers. Women would often have to be dependent on men for everything. Growing up, boys are taught to adhere to the machismo code, and girls are taught the marianismo code. This practice is also followed by Puerto Rican Americans outside of the island. Nonetheless, this isn't the only aspect to Puerto Rican machismo. Machismo can be seen in various ways in Puerto Rico from the island's colonial history to the high cases of gender based violence that occurred in 2021. Because of this, new conversations about machismo are emerging specifically the discussion of how can we handle it and in what ways can the next generation learn about it and the effects it has on society.


title: Machismo

text: When evaluating Puerto Rico’s machismo culture it's important to relate it to Puerto Rico’s colonial status at first to Spain and then to the United States. When becoming a colony of Spain, Puerto Rico gained the machismo principles Spain instilled. When Puerto Rico became a United States colony, the nation wanted to remedy the poverty Puerto Rico was in. This was done by situating poverty as the main effect of overpopulation. Thus, women’s ability to reproduce was one of the ways the United States changed Puerto Rico’s “culture of poverty”.


title: Machismo

text: While Puerto Ricans may be motivated by the progressive movements of the mainland, they base their movements on their unique situation in Puerto Rico. In the 1950s, industrialization caused men's employment rates to decline while women's employment rates began to rise. Additionally, from the 1950s to the 1980s, a field of white-collar women emerged, furthering the rise in women's employment. With their new contribution to the workforce, it was still under the woman's responsibility to continue domestic tasks and now also to contribute to household finances. This caused a shift in what was deemed acceptable in households. Before women would depend greatly on a man to provide for them, but as they acquired roles that required some extent of education and provided financial aid, they were able to become more independent.


title: Machismo

text: In the 1960s when many Puerto Ricans were moving to New York, many women were forced toward single motherhood with values that encouraged traditions like marriage. However, women still emphasized the importance of independence and final success. As an example, a mother would advise her children to marry someone who demonstrated they could be financially stable. This was something that brought a lot of tension and inner conflict with the concept of the machismo culture. In present-day society, this machismo culture is still oppressed- in 2016, Puerto Rico was the only place where women made more than men, at $1.03 for every $1.


title: Machismo

text: Scholars argue that examples like these where women move toward an independent life by being a single mother, prove that machismo and/ or marianismo cannot be concretely defined. Rather, it depends on a person's decision or circumstances in society rather than a belief they were taught and followed.


title: Machismo

text: Rules enforced by Latin families that teach that young women should not be influenced by the dangers of the outside world, portray young women as vulnerable or in danger of being sexualized. Many times these strict rules are emphasized as some women experience pregnancy at a young age where. They are said to not be ready to carry out the task of being a young mother. Young women may even lack support from their own household families and are blamed for not being properly educated. Puerto Rican families influenced by American culture may express or bend these traditional rules whether they educated their children based on the values and morals that they were taught.


title: Machismo

text: In 2021, gender based violence rose. So much so that Governor Pedro Pierluisi declared a state of emergency on the island due to an increase in gender based violence from 6,603 cases in 2020 to 7,876 in 2021. Out of the many cases, the murders of Andrea Ruiz Costas and Keishla Rodriguez caused the public to question how gender based violence was handled within Puerto Rico’s judicial system. Andrea Ruiz Costas filed three court cases before her murder, all of them were denied. The judicial system accepts that, like every institution it lacks in some instances. One of those factors is the judicial system’s difficult process for filling a complaint. Many times this process is difficult for the victim due the lengthy process of filling the complaint and understanding the legal implications this process entails. After the government declared a state of emergency, conversations emerged about the root of gender based violence and the need for gender perspective learning to be included in Puerto Rico's Department of Education Curriculum. On October 26 2022, the Department of Education announced a curriculum called Equity and Respect for All Human Beings which will take place every fourth Wednesday of the month during homeroom period. The program intends to encourage respect and equity but supporters for gender perspective learning clarify that it lacks in acknowledging terms involving gender equity and identity.


title: Machismo

text: In terms of tourism, Puerto Rico was seen as one of the best places to visit for LGBTQ+ tourists. However, the LGBTQ+ community is also a conflicting issue to the machismo culture. Puerto Rico is known for its strong Christian community, specifically Roman Catholic and Pentecostal, along with having smaller Jewish and Muslim communities. Due to changing times and influence from the United States, the LGBTQ+ movement has been a strong force for equality, which in Puerto Rico has not always been accepted, and even harmed in the process due to difference. One of these being the murder of Alexa Negrón Luciano, a transgender woman who in 2020 was mocked an eventually shot. Alexa's murder, classified as a hate crime, provoked a conversation about transphobia on the island. In relation to these conversations and the hope for a more inclusive Puerto Rican society, new gender neutral identifying terms are being used in Puerto Rico like substituting the vowels (a) or (o) in Spanish (many times the (a) in a word signifies a female, the (o) a male) for the letter (e) which is considered gender neutral. Nonetheless, discrimination and segregation exists within the island; where minorities may live in different regions of the island with others of color.


title: Machismo

text: Machismo is a source of pride for men and they must prove their manliness by upholding their dominance in their reputation and their household. Machismo comes from the assertion of male dominance in everyday life. Examples of this would be men dominating their wives, controlling their children, and demanding the utmost respect from others in the household. Machismo has become deeply woven in Cuban society and have created barriers for women to reach full equality. The reason for this is the patriarchy that runs high in Cuban society. Cuba's patriarchal society stems from the fact that Spain has had a history of using brutal war tactics and humiliation as a means to keep and establish their power. Tomas de Torquemada, who ruled as a grand inquisitor under King Ferdinand and Queen Elizabeth of Spain, used degrading and humiliating forms of torture to get information out of prisoners. Men like Torquemada create the domino effect throughout history of repressive and toxic masculinity that has plagued Cuban society.


title: Machismo

text: In Uva de Aragon Clavijo's, novel "El Caiman Ante El Espejo" , Clavijo claims that Cubans feel more power from the genital organs of past male Cuban leaders like Fidel Castro. Even though he represented a revolution, he was still a powerful and dominating man who ruled over the people. In the point of view of Clavijo, militarism and caudillismo, are what is to blame for Cuban machismo, as it established the ideology of the "leadership of the strongman" which proved to be successful in Castro becoming victorious in his revolution. Thus furthering that a male dominated political society is superior. Despite Castro's leading a socialist revolution, it only seems to reinforce macho-control over the Cuban people, specifically for Cuban woman who have yet to occupy any established political positions.


title: Machismo

text: The idea of the male ego, where the male is symbolized as "hyper-masculine, virile, strong, paternalistic, sexually dominant, and the financial provider" is reinforced by the teachings of the Catholic Church, the main religion practiced in Cuba and Latina America in general. According to Catholic Church teachings, the female should be a virgin but it's less important for the male to be one. During colonial times, a female's chastity and demureness were linked to the family's societal standings [new], while the males were expected and sometimes pressured into proving their sexual prowess by having multiple partners"." There was a duality in the expression of love. Men were supposed to express between physical loves, while women were expected to only express spiritual love and romantic love. Even after marriage, carnal love was frowned upon if the woman expressed it too vigorously, instead she was more delighted by the romantic expression of the love.


title: Machismo

text: Because of the objectification of women"," domestic violence often ignored when women decide to seek help from the police"." Domestic abuse victims are given psychological counseling as a way to cope with their trauma, but little is done criminally to solve the problem. Domestic Abuse cases or other violent crimes committed against women, are very rarely reported on by the media, and the government does not release statistics that show the people the extent of the crimes. The Cuban Revolution changed some of the ways the people of Cuba viewed women. Fidel Castro in his own words saw that the women were going through 'a revolution within the revolution, and established the Federation of Cuban Women (FMC). This organization, headed by Vilma Espin, Castro's sister in law, helped women establish themselves better into the working world and in women's right issues. The FMC has continually advocated for women rights and in 1997 created the "Grupo Nacional para la Prevencion y Atencion de la Violencia Familiar", a national group whose purpose is to study and find measures on how to get help for the women who fall victim to domestic violence. With the help of the FMC and the "Grupo Nacional para la Prevencion y Atencion de la Violencia Familiar," women can file claims against their abusers at the Office of Victim Rights. They are also now able to get access to sexual abuse therapies. This by no way solves the issue of domestic abuse, but it is a turning point for the Cuban women who are now no longer feel powerless in the fight.


title: Machismo

text: Because Machismo is so entrenched into the very systems that keep women oppressed, women in Cuba don't hold political or monetary positions of power. The role of women in revolutionary society were as subjects. Although the revolution allowed women control over their personal, professional, and reproductive lives there was a persistent view that Cuba was built by a brotherhood of men. This saw women as "revolutionary mothers" who were subalterns of the state. The idea that gender equality was surface level can be shown in the Codigo de la Familia which called for men to take a more active role in the household, but was rarely enforced. Another example of this surface level equality is shown in Guevara's book, "El hombre Nuevo"(1965). Women are first and foremost depicted as wives of revolutionaries, however they also have the additional roles of militants and volunteer workers. Guevara was connecting traditional Latin American gender concepts of femininity to the socialist revolution by stating that women's commitment to the revolution was not important for the outcome of the revolution but rather for their overall desirability to men. Guevara's book continues to outline the role of women in society by dictating how they should look for men in addition to what to look for in a man. The desirable Cuban man was seen as industrious and willing to serve the state when he was called upon. The Cuban man often had to participate in voluntary agricultural work to help the agricultural production of the state. This was tied to the idea that the Cuban "new man" was essential for the survival of a socialist state. The depiction of women and men in Cuban media influenced gender relations in Cuban society as a whole. The outcomes of the depictions and legislations brought forth by Guevara's "New Man" are shown in the role of women in revolutionary society which saw their role in the domestic sphere mostly unchanged and pre existing notions of masculinity and femininity still being dominant in the political theatre. While there are 48.9% of women in Cuban Congress, the political group that holds the most power is The Cuban Communist Party, which is made up of only 7% of women. In many cases, women who do have professional jobs are often funded by the Cuban state meaning they only receive about $30 a month. This means that women are employed but do not and cannot hold positions of power due to the men in power who benefit from staying in power. Machismo is mostly ingrained in domestic environments, so while 89% of women over 25 have received a secondary education, if a woman is a doctor, or a lawyer even after all the work she has done during the day, at home she is still expected to cook and clean and be the primary caretaker of the children. Many feminist scholars have described this phenomenon, which takes place in other cultures, as the second shift, based on a book by Arlie Russell Hochschild by the same name. Cuban males see no problem in leaving all the housework to their wives while they are allowed to go out for drinks with their friends. Machismo characteristics in men have given them power over women in the home, which leaves certain women more vulnerable to domestic violence committed against them. Cubans are now beginning to leave state employment, to search for jobs in tourism. These jobs produce a great deal of profit because of the wealthy tourists that visit the island and leave good tips. Cubans who were once professors and doctors are now leaving their old jobs to become bartenders and drive cabs


title: Machismo

text: From the inception of machismo from both the Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire, machismo translates to mean macho and refers to male oppression over women. Moreover, machismo is an all-encompassing term for the dominion of the elite man over 'the other'. In this case 'the other' refers to women of all races and economic status, whom the macho sees as an object to protect. in contrast effeminate and gay men aren't seen as worthy of protection but as objects to ridicule and punish sometimes with violence. Men who do not perform their gender in the "normalized" way are referred to as maricon, (a derogatory word meaning queer or fag), because their maleness is being called into question. Many of the anti-LGBT acceptance stems from The Cuban Revolution and Fidel Castro who had strong views over masculinity and how it fit in his idea of militarism. Fidel Castro once said on homosexuality in a 1965 interview with American journalist Lee Lockwood, "A deviation of that nature clashes with the concept we have of what a militant communist should be." That same year gay men in Cuba were being sent to labor camps because their sexuality made them "un-fit" to be involved in military service. Machismo has not only been a tool used to control women but also to punish men who do not adhere to societal norms, should behave as well. However, in the more recent years, the establishment of CENESEX (National Centre for Sexual Education) has been established so that the population of Cuba can more readily accept sexual diversity of all kinds, especially in terms of the LGBT people. CENESEX has grown in part because of the Cuban government and with the help Mariela Castro-Espin, daughter of Raul Castro, 16th president of Cuba, and niece to Fidel Castro. CENESEX has sought to decrease homophobia in Cuba by increasing sexual awareness by holding social gatherings like anti homophobic rallies.


title: Machismo

text: In 1975, a new Cuban Law came onto the island: the "Codigo de la Familia" (Family Law). It was put into effect on March 8, 1975, 15 years after the Cuban Revolution. The new Family Law of 1975 helped a lot of women get jobs on the island and provided children with protection under the law so that child begging and homelessness amongst children was practically eradicated. The law also stated that it was required for both sexes to participated in domestic chores But just because the law was passed, does not mean it was heavily reinforced, particularly in the domestic sphere. One of the aspects of the new family law was not only to create equality outside of the home but inside of it as well. This new family law was not received well by many people in Cuba. And many people backlashed against the law. These grievances reflected in the media that was made in Cuba, particularly, during the "Golden Age of Cuban Cinema". In revolutionary Cuba where public political discourse was limited, films provide a platform for political discourse in Cuba by tackling controversial issues in a complex manner. Films like De Cierta Manera exemplify these shifts in Cuban society through its use of a female director and subversive plot. The film sees a relationship blossom between a low class mulatto and a middle class pale teacher. The plot, "exposes and subverts the traditional notion of spectator identification and thus posits a truly 'revolutionary' and potentially subversive character representation." The revolutionary notions of the film can be seen through a romantic relationship sparking across racial and class lines. Subversive films like De Cierta Manera challenged the Latin American idea of Machismo. The Film Up to a certain point establishes a need for the abandonment of machismo in order for Cuba to be a true socialist state. Although subversive films like these were released to cement the ideal "new man" in Cuban culture, some films like Retrato de Teresa challenge the idea of Machismo, but depict the male view as dominant and instead depict the illusion of change. The abandonment of machismo is present in Cuban film although some scholars argue that it was merely surface level and represent the views of gender roles in Cuban society as a whole. Women's commitment to the revolution directly influenced their desirability to men. This led to hypersexualized depictions of women who abided by the revolution while showing non revolutionary women as undesirable to men in mass media. Cuban cartoons depict desirable Cuban women as revolutionary, sexual, and voluptuous while depicting the undesirable Cuban man as Americanized.


title: Machismo

text: "Hasta Cierto Punto directed by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea" is a movie that follows Oscar, an educated playwright who writes a movie on the effects of machismo in Cuban Society. In the opening scene of this movie, there is an interview with a young black man who is asked about "machismo." The young man laughs and says in the movie, "Oh, they've managed to change my attitudes on that score; I'm certainly changed up to a certain point. I've probably changed up to 80% now. Maybe they can work on me and change me to 87%. But they will never, never get me up to 100%, no way!" These attitudes on-screen reflect that of many men in Cuba and their attitudes towards women having more equality in everyday life. The film that Oscar was meant to write for is directed by his friend Arturo. Both are well-educated men with stable careers in their fields, wives, cars, and other luxuries. However, Arturo believes that the issue of Machismo is most directly a working class problem and that it is up to educated men such as himself and Oscar, to raise consciousness on the issue. Oscar and Arturo use working-class dock-workers to use as research for their film. This is where they meet Lina, a working-class woman who is in charge of the dock workers. At the beginning of the film she is represented to be tough on her workers and is well respected amongst all the men she works with. Oscar, the screenwriter, finds himself enamored with her tough attitudes, which are very different from those of women he has met before. However, as the movie goes on, we see Oscar increasingly find himself frustrated with Lina's free spirit and working-class "down-to-earth" personality. Oscar sees that this is not the kind of woman he is used to. Throughout the movie, although Oscar is having an affair with his wife, he finds himself being more empathetic to working-class struggles in a way that his friend Arturo isn't. Arturo still believes that all working-class men are just "macho "brutes"" The film's dynamic on working class and bourgeois machismo is very telling of Cuban society and how class reflects on the attitudes towards machismo. It also problematizes, bourgeois men who believe they are intellectually above everyone else, including issues on machismo and women's equality.


title: Machismo

text: The aftermath of Guevara's "new man" ideology can be seen in the dynamics of post revolutionary romantic relationships and society. In post revolutionary Cuban society, men were in constant fear of infidelity as the importance of capitalism increased in Cuba. Now that monetary exchange had value in Cuba, daily necessitates were no longer provided for by the government which meant money was needed for day-to-day life. This meant that women would often leave their partner for someone who was wealthy or foreign because migration became an important part of Cuban society. Machismo is still present at this point and is embodied in men's paranoia, women were often controlled by their partners to ensure their faithfulness. The impact of this shift in gender is seen in Cuban society as a whole. New class disparities emerge amongst poor Cuban men, wealthy Cuban men, and tourists. Cuban women are searching for wealthy men which in turn attracts more wealthy tourists to the island, leading to a further dominance of monetary exchange in Cuba which leads to a further class disparity between rich and poor Cubans.


title: Machismo

text: Aside from Latin America, machismo is often thought to be a big part of Russian culture. The macho attitude is widely accepted by Russian society and even considered desirable. Russian men often engage in masculine activities such as sports including bodybuilding, which is elevated to the state of national aspiration among many men.


title: Machismo

text: Researchers argue that machismo in Russia can be seen when an individual exaggerated masculine pride. This is something that is seen on an everyday basis in Russia, which is emphasized through magazines that promote the idealization of what a “real man” is. The characteristics of a masculine man would include being heterosexual, homophobic, and having the ability to accomplish an erection. There is a strong correlation between being sexually potent and masculine as the ability to reach an orgasm is commonly used to claim the right over a woman or power over them.


title: Machismo

text: Some people identify that machismo is perpetuated through the pressure to raise children a certain way and instill social constructions of gender throughout a child's development. This is complemented by the distant father-son relationship in which intimacy and affection are typically avoided. These aspects set up the environment through which the ideology perpetuates itself. It creates a sense of inferiority that drives boys to reach an unattainable level of masculinity, a pursuit often validated by the aggressive and apathetic behavior they observe in the men around them and ultimately leading them to continue the cycle.


title: Machismo

text: There is accumulating evidence that supports the relation between the way men are traditionally socialized to be masculine and its harmful mental and physical health consequences. Respectively, "machismo," is sociocultural term associated with male and female socialization in Latin American cultures; it is a set of values, attitudes and beliefs about masculinity. Although the construct of machismo holds both positive and negative aspects of masculinity, emerging research suggests the gender role conceptualization of machismo has associations with negative cognitive-emotional factors (i.e., depression symptoms; trait anxiety and anger; cynical hostility) among Latin American populations.


title: Machismo

text: Similarly, a well-documented disparity notes Latino adolescents reporting higher levels of depression than other ethnic backgrounds. Research suggests this may be associated to adolescent perceived gender role discrepancies which challenge the traditional perceptions of gender role (i.e., machismo).


title: Machismo

text: Enhanced understanding on associations between the gender role conceptualizations of "machismo" with negative cognitive-emotional factors may prove invaluable to mental health professionals. According to Fragoso and Kashubeck, "if a therapist notes that a client seems to endorse high levels of machismo, that therapist might explore whether the client is experiencing high levels of stress and depression". Therefore, "conducting a gender role assessment would help a therapist assess a client's level of machismo and whether aspects of gender role conflict are present".


title: Machismo

text: Many counseling psychologists are interested in further studies for comprehending the connection between counseling for males and topics such as sex-role conflicts and male socialization. This high demand stems from such psychologists' abilities to make patients aware how some inflexible and pre-established ideals regarding sex-roles may be detrimental to people's way of regarding new changes in societal expectancies, fostering relationships, and physical and mental health. Professionals such as Thomas Skovholt, psychology professor at the University of Minnesota, claim that more research needs to be done in order to have efficient mediation for men through counseling.


title: Machismo

text: Several elements of "machismo" are considered psychologically harmful for men. Competition is a widely talked about subject in this area, as studies show that there are both positive and negative connotations to it. Many benefits arise from healthy competition such as team-building abilities, active engagement, pressure handling, critical thinking, and the strive to excel. As these qualities and traits are highly valued by many, they are widely taught to children from a young age both at school and at home. Scholars also argue that men could be mentally harmed from competition, such as the one experienced by many at their job, as their impetus to rise above their peers and fulfill the breadwinner concept in many societies can cause stress, jealousy, and psychological strain.


title: Machismo

text: "Machismo as a cultural factor is substantially associated with crime, violence, and lawlessness independently of the structural control variables" (26-27). One key aspect of Machismo's association to violence is its influence in a man's behavior towards proving his strength (57). While strength and fortitude are recognized as key components to the stereotype of machismo, demonstrations of violence and aggressive actions have become almost expected of men and have been justified as desirable products of being tough and macho. It can be implied that "if you are violent, you are strong and thus more of a man than those who back down or do not fight".


title: Machismo

text: Violent encounters can stem from the desire to protect his family, friends, and particularly his female relatives that are vulnerable to the machismo actions of other men, (59). However, through jealousy, competitiveness, and pride, violent encounters are also often pursued to demonstrate his strength to others. A man's insecurities can be fueled by a number of pressures. These range from societal pressures to "be a man" to internal pressures of overcoming an inferiority complex, (59). This can translate into actions that devalue feminine characteristics and overemphasize the characteristics of strength and superiority attributed to masculinity, (59).


title: Machismo

text: In many cases, a man's position of superiority over a female partner can lead him to gain control over different aspects of her life. Since women are viewed as subservient to men in many cultures, men often have power to decide whether his wife can work, study, socialize, participate in the community, or even leave the house. With little opportunity for attaining an income, minimal means to get an education, and the few people they have as a support system, many women become dependent on their husbands financially and emotionally. This leaves many women particularly vulnerable to domestic violence both because it is justified through this belief that men are superior and thus are free to express that superiority and because women cannot leave such an abusive relationship since they rely on their husbands to live.


title: Machismo

text: The power difference in the relationship between a man and a woman not only creates the social norm of machismo, but by consequence also creates the social concept of marianismo. which is the idea that women are meant to be pure and wholesome. Marianismo derives its origins from Spanish Colonization, as many social constructs from Latin America do. It emphasizes the perfect femininity of a woman and her virginity. One could argue that in the similar manner of Patriarchy, the man is the head of the household while the "fragile" woman is submissive and tends to remain behind the scenes. This brings to focus the idea that women are inferior and are thus dependent on their husbands. As a result, they not only rely on their husbands for financial support, but in the social realm are put at the same level as "children under age 12, mentally ill persons, and spendthrifts" (265). By way of tradition, not only are women given limited opportunities in what they are able to do and to be, but they are also viewed as people that cannot even take care of themselves. Getting married provides a woman with security under her husband's success, but also entails a lifelong commitment towards serving her husband and her children.


title: Machismo

text: While social pressures and expectations play huge roles in the perpetuation of the marianismo construct, this ideology is also taught to girls as they grow up. They learn the importance of performing domestic labor and household chores, such as cooking and cleaning, because this will be the role they will play in their future families. They are taught that these must be done well so that they can adequately serve their families and avoid punishment and discipline by their authoritative husbands. Men exercise  their authority with their demand for respect and power in the house. Thus, it could culturally be a norm to follow the rules of the man. As generations continue, the idea of machismo may diminish but will still be, to some extent, present. Further, research suggests that still in today’s society, men continue to take roles that often leave women without a voice to express themselves or the power to portray.


title: Machismo

text: Some experts hypothesize, since there is a lack of empirical research on gender-role conflicts, that men might suffer from such conflicts because of their fear of femininity.


title: Machismo

text: Professionals from several universities in the United States developed a model around this hypothesis with six behavioral patterns.


title: Machismo

text: The model was developed around the idea that these six patterns are all influenced by men's fear of femininity. This theory was then partially supported by a study done by five professionals. Some tools already created to measure gender-role attitudes include the Personal Attitudes Questionnaire, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Attitudes Toward Women Scale, and the Attitudes Toward the Male's Role Scale. Evidence suggests that gender-roles conflicts inflicted by "machismo" can lead males who were raised with this mentality and or live in a society in which "machismo" is prevalent to suffer high levels of anxiety and low self-esteem. Additionally, studies found that many males facing such conflicts are subject to experience anger, depression, and substance abuse.


title: Machismo

text: One implication of the Machismo concept is the pressure for a man to be sexually experienced. Male infidelity is of common practice in many cultures, as men are not as expected to hold nearly the same level of chastity as women are. Meanwhile, girls are oftentimes brought up to tolerate an unfaithful partner, since it is a part of the machismo culture. As such, this puts populations at risk for transmitting STIs as men seek out multiple sexual partners with little interference from their wives or from society. The risk is further heightened by the lack of condom use by men who are both miseducated about the effectiveness of a condom's protection against STIs and the belief that this wouldn't happen to them. This mentality also deters men from getting themselves tested to know if they are HIV-positive, which leads them to even spread STIs without even knowing it.


title: Machismo

text: For men in many Latin American countries, their perceived level of masculinity determines the amount of respect they receive in society. Because homosexual men are associated with feminine attributes, they are perceived with lower level of masculinity, and as a result, they receive less respect than heterosexual men in society. This, in turn, can limit their "ability to achieve upward social mobility, to be taken seriously, or to hold positions of power". Also, because homosexuality is seen as taboo or even sinful in many Christian denominations, homosexual men tend to lack a support system, leaving many unable express their true sexuality. To deal with such oppression, they must make the choice either to conform to heteronormativity and repress their homosexual identity, to assimilate towards masculine ideals and practices while maintaining their homosexual identity in private, or to openly express their homosexuality and suffer ostracization from society. This creates a hierarchy of homosexuality corresponding to how much "respect, power, and social standing" a homosexual man can expect to receive. The more a man acts in accordance with the stereotypical heterosexual hegemonic masculinity, the higher on the social hierarchy they are.


title: Machismo

text: On the lower end of the hierarchy are the locas or maricones. These men are those that are deemed as effeminate because they do not live by the social construct of hegemonic masculinity and also publicize their homosexuality. As such, they receive little respect both in society in general and among the LGBT community. Many homosexual men resist being associated with the "loca" stereotype by either demonstrating overt masculinity or by ridiculing and distancing themselves from other "loca" men. A common Puerto Rican saying demonstrates this resistance: "mejor un drogadicto que un pato" (better a drug addict than a faggot).


title: Machismo

text: Homosexuality is perceived as negative or weak within the "machista" ideal. It doesn't fit into the masculine attributes that "machismo" extols. This often leads homosexual or bisexual men living in "machista" communities to be reluctant about being open about their sexuality because of the negative connotation associated with it. "Familismo," which is an idea in Latin cultures that ties an individual with a commitment to his or her family, and homophobia can sometimes cause in homosexual individuals the repression of sexual identity, family separation, and to hide their sexuality. Such situations may hinder personal shame and secret sexual actions that increases HIV and STI risk in Latino homosexuals. Regularly experiencing homophobia and low self-esteem have a connection with sexual risk. A survey conducted by the Virginia Commonwealth University found that men who had high "machismo" values or characteristics were more than five times more probable to participate in activities or behave in a way to put them at risk for contracting HIV or an STI.


title: Machismo

text: Because of the negative connotations that come with identifying as homosexual, the definition of homosexuality has become ambiguous. By genderizing sexual practices, only men who are sexually penetrated during sex, locas are considered homosexual while men who are the sexual penetrators during sex can maintain their heterosexual identity. Also, in many Latin American countries, the media portrayal of homosexual men often play into the stereotype of an effeminate, flamboyant male role. As a result, the idea of a masculine homosexual man remains almost unheard of and privatized by the community and by society, which allows this stereotype of homosexual men as locas to persist.


title: Machismo

text: Machismo can also pressure men to defend the well-being of his loved ones, his community, and his country. It allows him to perform altruistic acts in order to provide protection to others. In the past, and even in many current societies where people rely on subsistence agriculture and economy to survive, machismo helped provide men with the courage to drive off potential threats to protect his land and his crop. Today, this contributes to the substantial gender gap in the makeup of military and armed forces around the world, even considering growing female representation in the military today. Beyond the realm of the armed forces, however, the machismo ideology can also drive men to work towards service because he is in a "superior" position, which enables him to demonstrate his success by offering his own strengths to help others. Their dependence on him can validate his ego and help maintain this difference in power.


title: Machismo

text: Another approach to machismo is that of the "caballerismo" ideology, that because a man is the head of the household, he is responsible for the well-being of the members of his family. This describes the call for a man to be chivalrous, nurturing, and protective of his loved ones. It translates to the belief that a true man would never act violent towards his wife or children, but would instead ensure that no harm come to them. Machismo, seen through this approach, inspires men to create "harmonious interpersonal relationships through respect for self and others". This allows fathers to maintain positive, intimate relationships with his children and share a more egalitarian relationship with his wife.


title: Machismo

text: In many cultures in the world, there is a long-standing tradition that the man is the head of the household and is responsible for providing for the family. In some cases, this may mean he is the only parent working in paid-work while in other conditions this may mean both parents are working but the man is expected to be the primary income contributor. In either case, part of the masculine identity and his self-respect is defined by his ability to provide for his family. If he is unable to do so, or if he brings home less money than that of his wife, his position as head of the family is challenged. In some cultures, this may mean ultimate shame for him if he cannot fulfill this role: "that being unable to find work meant that 'there is no recognition even to [his] humanity ... Those who do not work are like dead people'" (212). Beyond providing economic support for his family, a man engaging in paid-work is seen as honorable because he is sacrificing time and energy that he could be spending with his family. These are costs that cannot be repaid and thus are a priceless investment on his part towards the well-being of his family unit.


title: Machismo

text: Although culture may present homophobia, misogyny and masculinity as innately bundled together, history presents different models of masculinity. Masculinity was part of homosexuality in ancient Greece. Neither was it all misogyny. Goddesses were worshiped in temples, and the female poet Sappho wrote of Lesbian love. In ancient times, women too had their share of machismo-like vices, and virtues. The lore of the Amazons tells of women heroically fighting as defenders in the Trojan War, and according to National Geographic, "Archaeology shows that these fierce women also smoked pot, got tattoos, killed and loved men." Homosexual-machismo helped thwart Sparta's power hold over ancient Greek city-states: In 371BC the Sacred Band of Thebes was an elite fighting unit composed of 150 homosexual male pairs. They were credited with helping remove Sparta's military domination, and their actions were linked to the spread of Western culture: Theban General Epaminondas taught Philip II of Macedon military tactics and diplomacy used to reunify the Greeks under Macedonia. His son Alexander the Great was credited with the Hellenization of Persia, Egypt and Jerusalem in 332BC. The Greeks had the Hebrew scriptures translated into the Septuagint, fostering the spread of Judaism throughout the region.


title: Machismo

text: Alexander & Hephaestion had been heavily influenced by Homer's Iliad, particularly the masculine love between Achilles & Patroclus. They paired themselves as their modern incarnation, nearly a millennium after the Trojan War. Later, the Roman Empire shared a degree of homosexuality alongside the virtues of masculinity. In 19BC, Virgil's epic poem Aeneid contributed to the folklore of Rome, while depicting the love of fellow warriors Nisus & Euryalus. In 128AD the love of Emperor Hadrian & Antinous was celebrated in the public. Back in Hebrew culture, in 1006BC, the covenant between David & Jonathan was recorded in the Books of Samuel. Gradually, the Septuagint would be expanded with new Greek books, eventually forming Christian Bibles, the earliest extant versions being the Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus from 300AD-360AD.


title: Machismo

text: Machismo changes some dynamics of life in a way have both positive and negative effects. For example, machismo grants women authority in the home but at the expense of a man's relationship to his children and work related stress having worked long hours.


title: Machismo

text: In the traditional household, the man is expected to work and provide for his family while his wife stays home to care for the children. As such, fathers are seen as a distant authority figure to his children while mothers assume the majority of responsibility in this domestic realm and thus gain agency and the ultimate respect of her children. With the rise of female power, decisions in the household can take on a more egalitarian approach, where mothers can have equal say in the household. Meanwhile, the machismo mentality in men as a provider and protector of the family can inspire him to persevere through challenges introduced by work.


title: Machismo

text: "Within each of our memories there Is the Image of a father who worked long hours, suffered to keep his family alive, united, and who struggled to maintain his dignity. Such a man had little time for concern over his "masculinity". Certainly he did not have ten children because of his machismo, but because he was a human being, poor, and without "access" to birth control."


title: Machismo

text: "Machismo ideology is as beneficial to women in that it encourages their husbands to provide for and protect them and their children. Further, by subordinating their needs to those of their family, women earn a lifetime of support from their husbands and children and in this way gain some control in the family" (90). Because fathers are typically more invested in paid labor, mothers typically spend more time with the children and thus gain credibility in important decisions such as a child's schooling or a child's health care. Nevertheless, in these machist households the fathers will have the last word whenever they choose to, as they are the breadwinners, and all the family ultimately depends on them for survival. In case of a separation or divorce, it is typically the mothers who suffer the most, since they did not invest their time in their career, and will probably still have to provide and care for the children.


title: Machismo

text: Despite machismo's documented history in Iberian and Latin American communities, research throughout the years has shown a shift in prevalence among younger generations. In Brazil, researchers found that while the majority of young men interviewed held traditional attitudes on gender roles and machismo, there was a small sample of men that did not agree with these views. Macho attitudes still prevail, the values place women into a lower standard.


title: Machismo

text: Acculturation and education have been proposed to be a factor in how machismo is passed down through Iberian and Latin American generations in the United States. According to researchers who measured self-reported levels of machismo among 72 university students, 37 whom identified as Latino, the "somewhat unique population of college-educated students who have been heavily influence[d] by egalitarian attitudes, values, and norms" may explain why ethnicity did not directly predict machismo attitudes in two studies. Because education and acculturation of American values in Latino individuals may result in the development of attitudes supporting gender-equality, this demonstrates how machismo may gradually decline over time in the United States.


title: Machismo

text: Moreover, researchers analyzed a large cross-sectional survey among 36 countries, including 6 Latin American countries, from 2009 and discovered countries with less gender inequality had adolescents that supported attitudes of gender-equality, though females were more likely to support LGBT and non-traditional genders than males. While the mean score of gender-equality attitudes was 49.83, with lower scores indicating less gender equality attitudes, Latin American countries scored the following: Chile (51.554), Colombia (49.416), Dominican Republic (43.586), Guatemala (48.890), Mexico (45.596), Paraguay (48.370). Machismo is associated with gender inequality. Therefore, this study suggests that Latino individuals living in their native countries may support more machismo attitudes than Latino immigrants adopting U.S. values of gender equality.


title: Machismo

text: Masuda also studied self-reported measures of sexual relationship power among 40 recently immigrated Latino couples found data against machismo attitudes since women perceived themselves to have greater control and decision-making roles in their relationships. This serves as a stark contrast because machismo traditionally creates a relationship dynamic that relegates women to submissive roles and men to dominant roles. Again, acculturation may play a role in this dynamic shift because the couples averaged about 8 years since immigrating to the United States.


title: Machismo

text: Acculturation has not only been associated with a decline in machismo, it has appeared to affect how it manifests and how it is transferred through generations. Recently, Mexican American adolescents in romantic relationships demonstrated "adaptive machismo", which consist of the positive qualities of machismo, such as "emotional availability, demonstrations of affection, desire to financially care for a female partner, responsibility in child-rearing, and/or to the community or friends", during conflict resolution scenarios. Furthermore, while Mexican American adolescent males were found to have certain values and attitudes, such as caballerismo, passed down by their families, machismo was not one of them. Because families are not teaching machismo, this implies that it may be learned from sources separate from the family unit, such as peers and the media. Ultimately, these findings suggest that machismo is changing in terms of its prevalence, manifestation, and socialization.


title: Machismo

text: Founded in 1969, the Young Lords were an organization of Puerto Rican revolutionary nationalists in Chicago and New York City. Working toward the liberation of all oppressed people, the Young Lords opposed racism, capitalism, and assimilationist ideologies. Seeking self-determination and community control of institutions and land, the organization's leaders made a distinct choice to denounce machismo in their revised 13-Point Program and Platform. Previously reading, "We want equality for women. Machismo must be revolutionary... Not oppressive.", the organization moved toward a more radical position, stating "We want equality for women. Down with machismo and male chauvinism". This revised version of the organization's ideological platform was published in their newspaper, "Palante" in November 1970 - thirteen months following the original platform's publication in October 1969.


title: Machismo

text: The Young Lords opposed machismo because, as member Gloria González articulated in her 1971 "Palante" editorial, it serves to divide members of their movement. Further, the organization believed machismo serves as an extension of capitalism, a system they opposed. They understood the division of labor, including both reproductive labor and productive labor, to perpetuate the marginalization of women. They also understood the sexual objectification of women to be problematic and damaging to potentially revolutionary leaders. Moving toward this platform, however, would not have been possible without the Women of the Young Lords who pressured the organization's leadership to reject machismo during their East Coast Regional Central Committee retreat in May 1970. At this retreat the group studied and theorized, formally denouncing machismo because if power was to be transferred to the people, it would have to be the hands of all the people; and if this were to be possible, the Young Lords must reject "attitudes of superiority that brothers had towards sisters" and the "passivity of sisters toward brothers (allowing brothers to come out of a macho or chauvinist, superior bag)".


title: Malacañang Palace

text: Malacañang Palace (, ; ), officially known as Malacañan Palace, is the official residence and principal workplace of the president of the Philippines. It is located in the Manila district of San Miguel, and is commonly associated with Mendiola Street. The term "Malacañang" is often used as a metonym for the president, their advisers, and the Office of the President of the Philippines. The sprawling Malacañang Palace complex includes numerous mansions and office buildings designed and built largely in the bahay na bato and neoclassical styles. Among the presidents of the present Fifth Republic, only Gloria Macapagal Arroyo actually lived in the main palace as both her office and her residence, with all others residing in nearby properties that form part of the larger palace complex. The palace has been seized several times as a result of protests starting with the People Power Revolution of 1986, the 1989 coup attempt (when the palace was buzzed by T-28 Trojans), the 2001 Manila riots, and the EDSA III riots.


title: Malacañang Palace

text: The original structure was built in 1750 by Don Luis Rocha, a Spaniard in the galleon trade, who built it as a summer house located in San Miguel, Paco, and Santa Ana along the Pasig River. The Rocha property was built of stone, described as being a relatively modest country house (although modern day Rochas say it was not small and in fact had a ballroom) with a bath house on the river and gardens, all enclosed by a stone fence. The latter was probably a nipa-roofed and bamboo-enclosed structure built on the water, away from the gaze of passing boats. It was easily accessible from Intramuros and Binondo by boat or carriage or on horseback. Malacañan was purchased by the state in 1825 as the summer residence for the Spanish governor-general upon Colonel José Miguel Formento's death.


title: Malacañang Palace

text: Following an earthquake on June 3, 1863, which destroyed the governor-general's official residence the "Palacio del Gobernador" in the walled city of Intramuros, Malacañan became the official seat of power of Spanish colonial rule. Use of the palace as the official state residence of colonial rulers was continued after sovereignty over the islands was ceded to the United States in 1898. General Wesley Merritt was the first American governor to make use of the estate as his residence.


title: Malacañang Palace

text: Since 1863, the palace has been occupied by eighteen Spanish governors-general, fourteen American military and civil governors, and later the presidents of the Philippines. The palace had been enlarged and refurbished several times since 1750; the grounds were expanded to include neighboring estates, and many buildings were demolished and constructed during the Spanish and American periods. Its posts were strengthened, roof tiles replaced with corrugated iron sheets, balconies repaired and both exterior and interior beautified. More recently, between 1978 and 1979 the palace building was drastically remodeled and extensively rebuilt by First Lady Imelda Marcos during the tenure of Ferdinand Marcos. Malacañang was the only major government building in Manila to survive heavy artillery bombing during the Second World War. The palace continues to be the centerpiece of the upscale district of San Miguel, spared by the war.


title: Malacañang Palace

text: The earliest document to address the building's roots was the "Compendio de la Historia de Filipinas" written in 1877 by Spanish historian Felipe de Govantes, in which he stated that the term Malacañán meant "place of the fisherman". This was again referenced in the 1895 "Historia general de Filipinas" by José Montero y Vidal and the "Historia de Filipinas" by Manuel Artigas y Cuerva in 1916. In 1972, Ileana Maramag in her work on Malacañan history supplied the Tagalog word: "mamalakáya", which means fisherman. The original denomination for the location is believed to be "Mamalakáya-han", with the Tagalog suffix "-han" meaning "place of", later simplified by the Spanish colonial authorities as "Malacañán" and adapted according to the Spanish orthography. Traditionally attributed to the phrase of "may lakan diyan" meaning "the king [or head] is [resides] there" might be used for the term Malacañan, according to a wealthy Spanish businessman.


title: Malacañang Palace

text: During the Spanish colonial era, Spanish language books that were published at the time spelled the word as "Malacañang". The name was changed to ""Malacañan"" during the American occupation of the Philippines from 1898 until 1946, supposedly for ease of pronunciation despite the fact that "-ng" as a final sound is very familiar in the English language. However, after the inauguration of President Ramon Magsaysay on December 30, 1953, the Philippine government reverted the name to "Malacañang" in honor of the palace's historical roots. During the administration of Corazon Aquino, for historical reasons, government policy was introduced to distinguish between both terms; while "Malacañan Palace" refers to the official residence of the president, "Malacañang" is addressed as the office of the president. Currently, the heading "Malacañan Palace" is reserved for official documents personally signed by the president, while those delegated to and signed by subordinates use the heading "Malacañang".


title: Malacañang Palace

text: The Spanish captains-general (before the independence of New Spain, from which the Philippines was directly governed) and the later governors-general originally resided at the "Palacio del Gobernador" (Governor's Palace) fronting the city square in the walled city of Intramuros in Manila. Malacañang Palace was originally built as a "casita" (or country house) in 1750 – made of adobe, wood, with interiors panelled with finest narra and molave. It sits in a 16 hectare land owned by Spanish aristocrat Don Antonio V. Rocha. It was subsequently sold to Col. José Miguel Formento on November 16, 1802, for a sum of a thousand pesos. Later it was sold to the government upon his death in January 1825. With its expansive gardens and lazy verandah overlooking the placid Pasig River, Malacañan became the temporary summer home of governors-general escaping the hectic bustle and unbearable heat of Intramuros.


title: Malacañang Palace

text: An earthquake on June 3, 1863, destroyed the "Palacio del Gobernador", and thereafter, Malacañang became the governor-general's official residence. Rafaél de Echagüe y Bermingham, previously governor of Puerto Rico, became the first Spanish governor-general to reside in the palace. Finding the place too small, he expanded the estate with a wooden two-story addition to the back of the original structure. He also added stables, carriage sheds, a boat landing for river-borne visitors, as well as smaller buildings for aides, guards and porters.


title: Malacañang Palace

text: An 1869 earthquake necessitated speedy repairs with more extensive reconstruction and expansion, further undertaken between 1875 and 1879 after subsequent earthquakes, typhoons and a fire caused graver structural damage. Posts and supports were repaired or replaced. Balconies were reinforced. Roofing was replaced with galvanized iron to lighten structural load and cornices were added for additional flair. The interior was also refurbished.


title: Malacañang Palace

text: In 1880, an earthquake occurred, necessitating more repairs. This time, porticos were added to the façade to shelter waiting carriages. In 1885, a flagpole was installed in front of the palace. Decaying woodwork, stuck shell windows, leaking roofs, loose kitchen tiles, and drooped stables were some of the remaining deterioration due to numerous natural phenomena. An additional 22,000 pesos was spent for renovation and reconstruction.


title: Malacañang Palace

text: By the end of Spanish rule in 1898, Malacañang Palace was a rambling complex of mostly wooden buildings that had sliding capiz windows, patios and azoteas.