title: Suebi

text: In 561 king Ariamir called the catholic First Council of Braga, which dealt with the old problem of the Priscillianism heresy. Eight years after, in 569, king Theodemir called the First Council of Lugo, in order to increase the number of dioceses within his kingdom. Its acts have been preserved through a medieval resume known as "Parrochiale Suevorum" or "Divisio Theodemiri".


title: Suebi

text: In 570 the Arian king of the Visigoths, Leovigild, made his first attack on the Suebi. Between 572 and 574, Leovigild invaded the valley of the Douro, pushing the Suebi west and northwards. In 575 the Suebic king, Miro, made a peace treaty with Leovigild in what seemed to be the beginning of a new period of stability. Yet, in 583 Miro supported the rebellion of the Catholic Gothic prince Hermenegild, engaging in military action against king Leovigild, although Miro was defeated in Seville when trying to break on through the blockade on the Catholic prince. As a result, he was forced to recognize Leovigild as friend and protector, for him and for his successors, dying back home just some months later. His son, king Eboric, confirmed the friendship with Leovigild, but he was deposed just a year later by his brother-in-law Audeca, giving Leovigild an excuse to attack the kingdom. In 585 AD, first Audeca and later Malaric, were defeated and the Suebic kingdom was incorporated into the Visigothic one as its sixth province. The Suebi were respected in their properties and freedom, and continued to dwell in Gallaecia, finally merging with the rest of the local population during the early Middle Ages.


title: Suebi

text: The Suebi remained mostly pagan, and their subjects Priscillianist until an Arian missionary named Ajax, sent by the Visigothic king Theodoric II at the request of the Suebic unifier Remismund, in 466 converted them and established a lasting Arian church which dominated the people until the conversion to Trinitarian Catholicism the 560s.


title: Suebi

text: Mutually incompatible accounts of the conversion of the Suebi to Orthodox Catholic Trinitarian Christianity of the First and Second Ecumenical Councils are presented in the primary records:


title: Suebi

text: Most scholars have attempted to meld these stories. It has been alleged that Chararic and Theodemir must have been successors of Ariamir, since Ariamir was the first Suebic monarch to lift the ban on Catholic synods; Isidore therefore gets the chronology wrong. Reinhart suggested that Chararic was converted first through the relics of Saint Martin and that Theodemir was converted later through the preaching of Martin of Dumio. Dahn equated Chararic with Theodemir, even saying that the latter was the name he took upon baptism. It has also been suggested that Theodemir and Ariamir were the same person and the son of Chararic. In the opinion of some historians, Chararic is nothing more than an error on the part of Gregory of Tours and never existed. If, as Gregory relates, Martin of Dumio died about the year 580 and had been bishop for about thirty years, then the conversion of Chararic must have occurred around 550 at the latest. Finally, Ferreiro believes the conversion of the Suebi was progressive and stepwise and that Chararic's public conversion was only followed by the lifting of a ban on Catholic synods in the reign of his successor, which would have been Ariamir; Thoedemir was responsible for beginning a persecution of the Arians in his kingdom to root out their heresy.


title: Suebi

text: The name of the Suebi also appears in Norse mythology and in early Scandinavian sources. The earliest attestation is the Proto-Norse name "Swabaharjaz" ("Suebian warrior") on the Rö runestone and in the place name Svogerslev. Sváfa, whose name means "Suebian", was a Valkyrie who appears in the eddic poem "Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar". The kingdom "Sváfaland" also appears in this poem and in the "Þiðrekssaga".


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The Second Sudanese Civil War was a conflict from 1983 to 2005 between the central Sudanese government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army. It was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil War of 1955 to 1972. Although it originated in southern Sudan, the civil war spread to the Nuba mountains and the Blue Nile. It lasted for 22 years and is one of the longest civil wars on record. The war resulted in the independence of South Sudan six years after the war ended.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Roughly two million people died as a result of war, famine and disease caused by the conflict. Four million people in southern Sudan were displaced at least once (and normally repeatedly) during the war. The civilian death toll is one of the highest of any war since World War II and was marked by numerous human rights violations, including slavery and mass killings.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The Sudanese war is often characterized as a fight between the central government expanding and dominating peoples of the periphery, raising allegations of marginalization. Kingdoms and great powers based along the Nile River have fought against the people of inland Sudan for centuries. Since at least the 18th century, central governments have attempted to regulate and exploit the undeveloped southern and inland Sudan.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Some sources describe the conflict as an ethnoreligious one where the Muslim central government's pursuits to impose sharia law on non-Muslim southerners led to violence, and eventually to the civil war. Douglas Johnson has pointed to an exploitative governance as the root cause.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: When the British governed Sudan as a colony they administered the northern and southern provinces separately. The south was held to be more similar to the other east-African colonies – Kenya, Tanganyika, and Uganda – while northern Sudan was more similar to Arabic-speaking Egypt. Northern Arabs were prevented from holding positions of power in the south with its African traditions, and trade was discouraged between the two areas. However, in 1946, the British gave in to northern pressure to integrate the two areas. Arabic was made the language of administration in the south, and northerners began to hold positions there. The southern elite, trained in English, resented the change as they were kept out of their own government. After decolonization most power was given to the northern elites based in Khartoum, causing unrest in the south. The British moved towards granting Sudan independence, but they failed to give enough power to Southern leaders. Southern Sudanese leaders weren't even invited to negotiations during the transitional period in the 1950s. In the post-colonial government of 1953, the Sudanization Committee only included 6 southern leaders, though there were some 800 available senior administrative positions.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The second war was partially about natural resources. Between the north and the south lie significant oil fields and thus significant foreign interests (the oil revenue is privatized to Western interests as in Nigeria). The north wanted to control these resources because they are situated on the edge of the Sahara desert, which is unsuitable for agricultural development. Oil revenues make up about 70% of Sudan's export earnings, and contribute to the development of the country which, unlike the south, does not depend on international aid. Due to numerous tributaries of the Nile river and heavier precipitation in the south of Sudan they have superior water access and fertile land.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: There has also been a significant amount of death from warring tribes in the south. Most of the conflict has been between Nuer and Dinka but other ethnic groups have also been involved. These tribal conflicts have remained after independence. For example, in January 2012, 3,000 Murle people were massacred by the Nuer.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The first civil war ended in 1972, with the Addis Ababa Agreement. Part of this agreement gave religious and cultural autonomy to the south.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The Addis Ababa Accords incorporated in the Constitution of Sudan; the violation of the agreement led to the second civil war. A number of mutinies by former Anyanya took place in 1974, 1975, and February 1976, the March 1975 mutiny at Akobo seeing 200 killed, 150 soldiers executed, and 48 more sentenced to imprisonment for up to 15 years.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The first violations occurred when President Jaafar Nimeiry attempted to take control of oil fields straddling the north–south border. Oil had been discovered in Bentiu in 1978, in southern Kurdufan and Upper Blue Nile in 1979, the Unity oilfields in 1980 and Adar oilfields in 1981, and in Heglig in 1982. Access to the oil fields meant significant economic benefit to whoever controlled them.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Islamic fundamentalists in the north had been discontented with the Addis Ababa Agreement, which gave relative autonomy to the non-Islamic majority Southern Sudan Autonomous Region. The fundamentalists continued to grow in power, and in 1983 President Nimeiry declared all Sudan an Islamic state, terminating the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) was founded in 1983 as a rebel group, to reestablish an autonomous Southern Sudan by fighting against the central government. While based in Southern Sudan, it identified itself as a movement for all oppressed Sudanese citizens, and was led by John Garang. Initially, the SPLA campaigned for a United Sudan, criticizing the central government for policies that were leading to national "disintegration".


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In September 1985 announced the end of the state of emergency and dismantled the emergency courts but soon promulgated a new judiciary act, which continued many of the practices of the emergency courts. Despite Nimeiry's public assurances that the rights of non-Muslims would be respected, southerners and other non-Muslims remained deeply suspicious.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: On 6 April 1985, senior military officers led by Gen. Abdul Rahman Suwar ad-Dahhab mounted a coup. Among the first acts of the new government was to suspend the 1983 constitution, rescind the decree declaring Sudan's intent to become an Islamic state, and disband Nimeiry's Sudan Socialist Union. However, the "September laws" instituting Islamic Sharia law were not suspended.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: A 15-member transitional military council was named, chaired by Gen. Suwar ad-Dahhab, in 1985. In consultation with an informal conference of political parties, unions, and professional organizations—known as the "Gathering"—the military council appointed an interim civilian cabinet, headed by Prime Minister Dr. Al-Jazuli Daf'allah. Elections were held in April 1986, and a transitional military council turned over power to a civilian government as promised. The government was headed by Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi of the Umma Party. It consisted of a coalition of the Umma Party, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) (formerly the NUP-National Unionist Party), the National Islamic Front (NIF) of Hassan al-Turabi, and several southern region parties. This coalition dissolved and reformed several times over the next few years, with Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi and his Umma Party always in a central role.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In May 1986, the Sadiq al-Mahdi government coalition began peace negotiations with the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) led by Col. John Garang. In that year the SPLA and a number of Sudanese political parties met in Ethiopia and agreed to the "Koka Dam" declaration, which called for abolishing Islamic Sharia law and convening a constitutional conference. In 1988, the SPLA and the DUP agreed on a peace plan calling for the abolition of military pacts with Egypt and Libya, freezing of Sharia law, an end to the state of emergency, and a cease-fire. However, during this period the second civil war intensified in lethality, and the national economy continued to deteriorate. When prices of basic goods were increased in 1988, riots ensued, and the price increases were cancelled. When Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi refused to approve a peace plan reached by the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) in November 1988, the DUP left the government. The new government consisted essentially of the Umma Party and the fundamentalist National Islamic Front (NIF).


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In February 1989, the army presented Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi with an ultimatum: he could move toward peace or be removed. He chose to form a new government with the DUP, and approved the SPLA/DUP peace plan. A constitutional conference was tentatively planned for September 1989.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: On 30 June 1989, however, military officers under then Col. Omar Hassan al-Bashir, with National Islamic Front (NIF) instigation and support, replaced the Sadiq al-Mahdi government with the Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation (RCC), a military junta of 15 military officers (reduced to 12 in 1991) assisted by a civilian cabinet. As General al-Bashir he became: president; chief of state; prime minister; and chief of the armed forces.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The RCC al-Bashir military government banned trade unions, political parties, and other "non-religious" institutions. About 78,000 members of the army, police, and civil administration were purged in order to reshape the government.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In March 1991, a new penal code, the Criminal Act of 1991, instituted harsh punishments nationwide, including amputations and stoning. Although the southern states were officially exempt from these Islamic prohibitions and penalties, the 1991 act provided for a possible future application of Islamic Shari’a law in the south. In 1993, the government transferred most non-Muslim judges from the south to the north, replacing them with Muslim judges in the south. The introduction of Public Order Police to enforce Shari’a law resulted in the arrest, and treatment under Shari’a penalties, of southerners and other non-Muslims living in the north.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) was in control of large areas of Equatoria, Bahr al Ghazal, and Upper Nile provinces and also operated in the southern portions of Darfur, Kordofan, and Blue Nile provinces. The government controlled a number of the major southern towns and cities, including Juba, Wau, and Malakal. An informal cease-fire in May broke down in October 1989.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In July 1992, a government offensive seized southern Sudan, and captured the SPLA headquarters in Torit.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Both the government regular armed forces and notorious militia (known as the People's Defense Forces, PDF) were used to attack and raid villages in the South and the Nuba Mountains. Sudan's governments have a long history of using proxies in Southern Sudan, and the North–South border areas, to fight their wars and preserve their regular forces. These militias were recruited locally, and with covert ties to the national government. Many of the Khartoum-aligned groups were created and then armed by the NIF in a deliberate 'divide and rule' strategy. The widespread activity of insurgent and pro-government militants and increasing lawlessness in southern Sudan resulted in the militarization of many communities. Ethnic violence became widespread, and all sides targeted civilians to destroy the power bases and recruitment centers of their rivals. Those who could formed self-defense groups, and these were often based on familial and tribal links as these were the only ones most southern people could still rely on. In this way, groups like the Nuer White Army and Dinka "Titweng" ("cattle guard") militias came into existence. Even though they were originally intended to just defend civilian communities, they often became brutal gangs which targeted civilians of other ethnicities. The government and rebel groups exploited these tensions and self-defense groups, using them to destabilize their enemies.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The Sudanese Armed Forces became infamous for brutally suppressing all civil dissidents. People suspected of disloyalty or rebel sympathies were arrested and taken to prisons and barracks, where they were tortured and executed. Hundreds, perhaps even thousands of people were murdered at the infamous "White House", the "Giada" barracks in Juba alone. At the same time, the SPLA ruthlessly crushed all internal and external opposition as far as possible, including other rebel factions such as the Anyanya II insurgents and critics in its own ranks. Garang became infamous for his authoritarian leadership style, and ordered the torture and execution of several dissenting SPLA commanders. Over time, a growing number of SPLA members became wary of his rule, and began to conspire against him.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In August 1991, internal dissent among the rebels led opponents of Garang's leadership, most importantly Riek Machar and Lam Akol, to attempt a coup against him. It failed, and the dissidents split off to form their own SPLA faction, the SPLA-Nasir. On 15 November 1991, Machar's SPLA-Nasir alongside the Nuer White Army carried out the Bor massacre, killing an estimated 2000 Dinka civilians. In September 1992, William Nyuon Bany formed a second rebel faction, and in February 1993, Kerubino Kwanyin Bol formed a third rebel faction. On 5 April 1993, the three dissident rebel factions announced a coalition of their groups called SPLA United at a press conference in Nairobi, Kenya.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In 1990–91, the Sudanese government supported Saddam Hussein in the Gulf War. This changed American attitudes toward the country. Bill Clinton's administration prohibited American investment in the country and supplied money to neighbouring countries to repel Sudanese incursions. The US also began attempts to "isolate" Sudan and began referring to it as a rogue state.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Since 1993, the leaders of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya have pursued a peace initiative for Sudan under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), but results have been mixed. Despite that record, the IGAD initiative promulgated the 1994 Declaration of Principles (DOP) that aimed to identify the essential elements necessary to a just and comprehensive peace settlement; i.e., the relationship between religion and the state, power-sharing, wealth-sharing, and the right of self-determination for the south. The Sudanese Government did not sign the DOP until 1997 after major battlefield losses to the SPLA.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In 1995, the opposition in the north united with parties from the south to create a coalition of opposition parties called the National Democratic Alliance. This development opened a northeastern front to the civil war, making it more than before a center-periphery rather than simply a north–south conflict. The SPLA, DUP, and Umma Parties were the key groups forming the NDA, along with several smaller parties and northern ethnic groups.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In 1995, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Uganda stepped up their military assistance to the SPLA to the point of sending active troops into Sudan. Eritrean and Ethiopian military involvement weakened when the two countries entered a border conflict in 1998. Uganda's support weakened when it shifted its attention to the conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: By 1997, seven groups in the government camp, led by former Garang lieutenant Riek Machar, signed the Khartoum Peace Agreement with the NIF, thereby forming the largely symbolic South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF) umbrella. Furthermore, the government signed the Nuba Mountains, and Fashoda agreements with rebel factions. These included the Khartoum agreements that ended military conflict between the government and significant rebel factions. Many of those leaders then moved to Khartoum where they assumed marginal roles in the central government, or collaborated with the government in military engagements against the SPLA. These three agreements paralleled the terms and conditions of the IGAD agreement, calling for a degree of autonomy for the south and the right of self-determination. Nevertheless, the SPLA made major advances in 1997 due to the success of Operation Thunderbolt, an offensive during which the South Sudanese separatists seized most of Central and Western Equatoria from the government.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In July 2000, the Libyan/Egyptian Joint Initiative on the Sudan was made moot, calling for the establishment of an interim government, power-sharing, constitutional reform, and new elections. Southern critics objected to the joint initiative because it neglected to address issues of the relationship between religion and the state and failed to mention the right of self-determination. It is unclear to what extent this initiative will have a significant impact on the search for peace, as some critics view it as more aimed at a resolution among northern political parties and protecting the perceived security interests of Egypt in favour of the unity of the Sudan.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early 2004, although skirmishes in parts of the south continued. A Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed on 9 January 2005 in Nairobi. The terms of the peace treaty were:


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The Second Sudanese Civil War destroyed many sectors of economic activity. The sector with the most damage is the agriculture sector. The conflict forced many farmers to escape the violence and abandon their farmland. Agriculture projects that were meant to improve cultivation methods, some that were funded by the United Nations, were terminated because they were destroyed or people stopped working; such projects include a pump-irrigation system. Additionally, the "animal wealth" of the farmers significantly decreased. Over six million cows, two million sheep, and one million goats were killed during the Second Sudanese Civil War.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: A different sector that was affected by the conflict was the industrialized sector, which consists of manufacturing and processing. Manufacturing facilities were unable to produce essential materials, including soap, textiles, sugar, and processed foods. Processed-foods facilities include the preservation of foods, such as canning fruits and vegetables, and vegetable oil production.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Poverty continued to climb and significantly impacted people in rural areas. The destroyed agriculture sector was the primary source of income for about 8 out of 10 households. Living in a rural region is also associated with a lower quality of life because residents lack access to basic services and enough economic opportunities and job opportunities.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Before the war, Sudan did not have a comprehensive infrastructure system. It lacked roads, bridges, and communications, and led to the existing infrastructure being destroyed. Critical infrastructure, like waterways and canals, were destroyed by airstrikes.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Any conflict is a detriment to education. When Sudan entered war, funding was reduced and reallocated to military and security forces. Sudan's military spending increased from 10 percent to 20 percent, while reducing education spending and other areas. In the post-war era, education was less likely to be funded, less educators are available because of death or injury, and education facilities were destroyed. The result of reduced spending, is the lack of investment in the people and future generations. 42 percent of the Sudanese budget is allocated to military and security expenditures. Furthermore, about 35 percent of the teachers have a primary-level of education. An additional obstacles students face is the forced recruitment into armed militias and state military. According to a United Nations report, 50 percent of Sudanese children do not attend school. Boys and girls, who are in schools, are abducted by soldiers and forced to join the military or armed rebel groups. When they are taken, most girls are raped by their captors and those who resist are killed. Boys are "castrated and sexually mutilated". According to a United Nations report, an estmiated 430 children were victims of sexual violence through military recruitment.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: USAID continues to work on educational initiatives, including granting 9,000 scholarships to boys and girls. Currently, USAID has over a dozen educational projects and has constructed 140 primary-level schools and four secondary schools. Over 1.4 million students attend or are involved in USAID educational programs in the region.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Historically, people have disputed the claim of fertile land and water. The recent discovery of oil is now also a resource that is disputed over. However, despite the availability of oil, Sudan experiences a notion called paradox of the plenty, a phenomenon that occurs when a country has plentiful natural resources—in this case, oil—but struggles to fully compete economically.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Because of displacement, refugees who fled their destroyed homes cut down forests to survive. They used the wood for fuel, building materials, and to find food.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The war destroyed towns that were once centers of culture and economic activity. The locations where towns were are now empty desert. In conjunction with empty deserts, the culture that was cultivated by the people was lost because the refugees fled north. However, remaining tribes and groups fortified their claim on territory and introduced conflict with one another. In a 2019 article in "Ethnopolitics", Jana Krouse goes over how violence and instability leads to the outward flow of displaced people. Specifically, Krouse's article explains how communal violence in South Sudan is intensified and prolonged by the broader instability and regional crises.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Refugee flow continues well past 2012, when “South Sudan–Sudan: State of Emergency” was published. Tensions between the North Sudanese government and the SPLA continued decades after the first wave of displaced peoples fled from South Sudan. Refugees who relocated to other parts of South Sudan soon after faced threats of violence and oftentimes became displaced again.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The continuity of violence across South Sudan has defined the attitudes of South Sudanese living in Khartoum. A University of Khartoum article describes these displaced people as “angry, sad, and disappointed” with the status of South Sudan. The author describes the South Sudanese people as “transnational” and “diasporic”; referring to how widespread displaced people moved as a result of the Second Sudanese Civil War.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: During the war, women were heavily supporting the communities and people impacted by the war. Women organized food drives, cooked meals, delivered supplies, cared for the wounded, parented orphans, and assisted the elderly. While male-leaders limited the type of work women to traditional societal roles, the male-leaders promised to change the gender relations during peacetime and after the war.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: When the war ended, women engaged in their own organizing, coalition-building, and advocacy—just like in the civil war. Women advocated for social change and issues directly impacting women, such as "sexual and gender-based abuse", education, healthcare, and "access to law and justice". The increased political involvement enabled leaders to implement an affirmative action policy, in which 25 percent of representation in all levels of government must be allocated to women. Women involved in state affairs led to the founding of multiple advocacy organizations, including the South Sudanese Women Empowerment Network and South Sudanese Women United. These groups have projects around the world, including the United States.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In 1999, Egypt and Libya initiated the Egypt-Libya Initiative (ELI). By this time the peace process of the Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) had reached a stalemate. ELI's main purpose had been to bring members of the non-Southern opposition (especially opposition in the north) aboard the talks. However, as ELI avoided contentious issues, such as secession, it lacked support from the SPLA, but the NDA leadership accepted it. By 2001, ELI had been unable to bring about any agreement between the parties.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In September 2001, former U.S. Senator John Danforth was designated Presidential Envoy for Peace in the Sudan. His role was to explore the prospects that the US could play a useful catalytic role in the search for a just end to the civil war, and enhance humanitarian services delivery that can help reduce the suffering of the Sudanese people stemming from war related effects.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Following an internal outcry, the Sadiq al-Mahdi government in March 1989 agreed with the United Nations and donor nations (including the US) on a plan called Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), under which some 100,000 tons of food was moved into both government and SPLA-held areas of the Sudan, and widespread starvation was averted. Phase II of OLS to cover 1990 was approved by both the government and the SPLA Sudan faced a 2-year drought and food shortage across the entire country. The US, UN, and other donors attempted to mount a coordinated international relief effort in both north and south Sudan to prevent a catastrophe. However, due to Sudan's human rights abuses and its pro-Iraqi stance during the Gulf War, many donors cut much of their aid to the Sudan. In a similar drought in 2000–01, the international community again responded to avert mass starvation in the Sudan. International donors continue to provide large amounts of humanitarian aid to all parts of the Sudan.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The US government's Sudan Peace Act of 21 October 2002 accused Sudan of genocide for killing more than 2 million civilians in the south during the civil war since 1983.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Sudan relied on a variety of countries for its arms supplies. Following independence, the army was trained and supplied by the British. However, after the 1967 Six-Day War, relations were cut off, as were relations with the United States and West Germany.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: From 1968 to 1972, the Soviet Union and COMECON nations sold large numbers of weapons and provided technical assistance and training to Sudan. At this time the army grew from a strength of 18,000 to roughly 50,000 men. Large numbers of tanks, aircraft, and artillery were acquired, and they dominated the army until the late 1980s.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Relations cooled between the two sides after the 1971 Sudanese coup d'état attempt by Hashem al Atta, and the Khartoum government sought to diversify its suppliers. The Soviet Union continued to supply weapons until 1977, when their arms aid to the Marxist military junta in Ethiopia during the Ogaden War angered the Sudanese sufficiently to cancel their deals and expel Soviet military advisors. The People's Republic of China was the main supplier in the late 1970s.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Egypt was the most important military partner in the 1970s, providing missiles, personnel carriers, and other military hardware. At the same time military cooperation between the two countries was important.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: U.S.-aligned countries resumed supplying Sudan in the mid-1970s. The United States began selling Sudan a great deal of equipment around 1976, hoping to counteract Soviet support of Marxist Ethiopian government, Libyans and Somalia (before 1977). Military sales peaked in 1982 at US$101 million. West Germany established an ammunitions factory in Khartoum and introduced vast quantities of automatic small arms to Sudan. After the start of the second civil war, American assistance dropped, and was eventually cancelled in 1987.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In November 1993, Iran was reported to have financed Sudan's purchase of some 20 Chinese ground-attack aircraft. Iran pledged $17 million in financial aid to the Sudanese government, and arranged for $300 million in Chinese arms to be delivered to the Sudanese army.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Meanwhile, the rebel SPLA was supplied weapons through or by Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Uganda. The Israeli embassy in Kenya also supplied anti-tank missiles to the rebels.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Armies from all sides enlisted children in their ranks. The 2005 agreement required that child soldiers be demobilized and sent home. The SPLA claimed to have let go 16,000 of its child soldiers between 2001 and 2004. However, international observers (UN and Global Report 2004) have found demobilized children have often been re-recruited by the SPLA. As of 2004, there were between 2,500 and 5,000 children serving in the SPLA. Rebels have promised to demobilize all children by the end of 2010. The goal was met.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: The Nuer White Army, a minor participant in the war in the Greater Upper Nile region, consisted largely of armed Nuer youths, but it was principally self-organised and often operated autonomously of both elders' authority and the dictates of the major factions.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In the late 1980s, the Second Sudanese Civil War uprooted around 20,000 South Sudanese boys. They walked thousands of miles through Ethiopia to the Kakuma refugee camp in Kenya. Some estimates claim that nearly half of the refugees died along the way due to starvation, dehydration and disease. Once in Kenya, the South Sudanese refugees were accepted into various foreign countries, roughly 4,000 of whom came to the United States. These 4,000 young men pursued higher education and eventually became scholars and authors in their own rights. In 2004, James Disco and Susan Clark created the graphic novel “Echoes of the Lost Boys”, which tells the story of four South Sudanese young men as they integrate into American society.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: In 2006, Dave Eggers published “What is the What”, a fictional autobiography written from the perspective of Valentino Achak Deng. Valentino Achak Deng is a fictionalized South Sudanese refugee that came to the United States under the Lost Boys of Sudan Program. The book was a finalist for National Book of the Year.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: These works highlight the continued struggles of people affected by the Second Sudanese Civil War as they attempt to integrate themselves in foreign societies. The main characters in both works struggled against racism, poverty and trauma as they attempted to construct new lives in the United States.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: During the Sudanese civil war, from 1983 to 2005, the Sudanese army revived the use of enslavement as a weapon against the South, and particularly black Christian prisoners of war, on the purported basis that Islamic law allowed it.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Janjaweed militias often destroyed black Christian villages, executed all their males and then took away the women and children as slaves. The first slave raid on the Dinka took place in February 1986. Two thousand women and children were taken. In a second raid, in February 1987, one thousand women and children were taken. Once the raiders acquired enough booty they would distribute the captives between their selves and their families. The raids continued every year after.


title: Second Sudanese Civil War

text: Dinka girls kept in Northern Sudanese households were used as sex slaves. Some of them were sold in Libya. Western visitors noted that at slave markets, five or even more slaves could be bought for one rifle. Near the peak of the civil war in 1989, female black slaves were sold for 90 dollars at the slave markets. Several years later, the price of an average female black slave had dropped to $15. Many Western organisations traveled to Sudan with funds to purchase and emancipate these enslaved captives.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: The Mothers of Invention (also known as The Mothers) was an American rock band from California. Formed in 1964, their work is marked by the use of sonic experimentation, innovative album art, and elaborate live shows.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Originally an R&B band called the Soul Giants, the band's first lineup included Ray Collins, David Coronado, Ray Hunt, Roy Estrada, and Jimmy Carl Black. Frank Zappa was asked to take over as the guitarist following a fight between Collins and Coronado, the band's original saxophonist/leader. Zappa insisted that they perform his original material, and on Mother's Day in 1965, changed their name to the Mothers. Record executives demanded that the name be changed, and so "out of necessity," Zappa later said, "we became the Mothers of Invention."


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: After early struggles, the Mothers earned substantial popular commercial success. The band first became popular playing in California's underground music scene in the late 1960s. With Zappa at the helm, it was signed to jazz label Verve Records as part of the label's diversification plans. Verve released the Mothers of Invention's début double album "Freak Out!" in 1966, featuring a lineup including Zappa, Collins, Black, Estrada and Elliot Ingber. Don Preston joined the band soon after. Under Zappa's leadership and a changing lineup, the band released a series of critically acclaimed albums, including "Absolutely Free," "We're Only in It for the Money" and "Uncle Meat," before being disbanded by Zappa in 1969. In 1970, he formed a new version of the Mothers that included Ian Underwood, Jeff Simmons, George Duke, Aynsley Dunbar and singers Mark Volman and Howard Kaylan (formerly of the Turtles, but who for contractual reasons were credited in this band as the Phlorescent Leech & Eddie). Later adding another ex-Turtle, bassist Jim Pons, this lineup endured through 1971, when Zappa was injured by an audience member during a concert appearance.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Zappa focused on big-band and orchestral music while recovering from his injuries, and in 1973 formed the Mothers' final lineup, which included drummer Ralph Humphrey, trumpeter Sal Marquez, keyboardist/vocalist George Duke, trombonist Bruce Fowler, bassist Tom Fowler, percussionist Ruth Underwood and keyboardist/saxophonist Ian Underwood. The final album using the Mothers as a backing band, "Bongo Fury" (1975), featured guitarist Denny Walley and drummer Terry Bozzio, who continued to play for Zappa on non-Mothers releases.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: The Soul Giants were formed in 1964. In 1964, Frank Zappa was approached by Ray Collins who asked him to take over as the guitarist following a fight between Collins and the group's original guitarist. Zappa accepted, and convinced the other members that they should play his music to increase the chances of getting a record contract. Original leader David Coronado did not think that the band would be employable if they played original material, and left the band. Zappa soon assumed leadership and the role as co-lead singer, even though he never considered himself a singer.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: The band was renamed the Mothers, coincidentally on Mother's Day. The group increased their bookings after beginning an association with manager Herb Cohen, while they gradually gained attention on the burgeoning Los Angeles underground music scene. In early 1966, they were spotted by leading record producer, Tom Wilson, when playing Zappa's "Trouble Every Day," a song about the Watts Riots. Wilson had earned acclaim as the producer for singer-songwriter Bob Dylan and the folk-rock act Simon & Garfunkel, and was notable as one of the few African Americans working as a major label pop music producer at this time.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Wilson signed the Mothers to the Verve Records division of MGM Records, which had built up a strong reputation in the music industry for its releases of modern jazz recordings in the 1940s and 1950s, but was attempting to diversify into pop and rock audiences. Verve insisted that the band officially rename themselves because "Mother" in slang terminology was short for "motherfucker"—a term that apart from its profanity, in a jazz context connotes a very skilled musical instrumentalist. The label suggested the name "The Mothers Auxiliary", which prompted Zappa to come up with the name "The Mothers of Invention".


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: With Wilson credited as producer, the Mothers of Invention, augmented by a studio orchestra, recorded the groundbreaking "Freak Out!" (1966) which, preceded by Bob Dylan's "Blonde on Blonde", was the second rock double album ever released. It mixed R&B, doo-wop, musique concrète, and experimental sound collages that captured the "freak" subculture of Los Angeles at that time. Although he was dissatisfied with the final product—in a late '60s radio interview (included in the posthumous "MOFO Project/Object" compilation) Zappa recounted that the side-long closing track "Return of the Son of Monster Magnet" was intended to be the basic track for a much more complex work which Verve did not allow him to complete—"Freak Out" immediately established Zappa as a radical new voice in rock music, providing an antidote to the "relentless consumer culture of America". The sound was raw, but the arrangements were sophisticated. While recording in the studio, some of the additional session musicians were shocked that they were expected to read the notes on sheet music from charts with Zappa conducting them, since it was not standard when recording rock music. The lyrics praised non-conformity, disparaged authorities, and had dadaist elements. Yet, there was a place for seemingly conventional love songs. Most compositions are Zappa's, which set a precedent for the rest of his recording career. He had full control over the arrangements and musical decisions and did most overdubs. Wilson provided the industry clout and connections to get the group the financial resources needed.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Wilson nominally produced the Mothers' second album "Absolutely Free" (1967), which was recorded in November 1966, and later mixed in New York, although by this time Zappa was in "de facto" control of most facets of the production. It featured extended playing by the Mothers of Invention and focused on songs that defined Zappa's compositional style of introducing abrupt, rhythmical changes into songs that were built from diverse elements. Examples are "Plastic People" and "Brown Shoes Don't Make It", which contained lyrics critical of the hypocrisy and conformity of American society, but also of the counterculture of the 1960s. As Zappa put it, "[W]e're satirists, and we are out to satirize everything."


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: The Mothers of Invention played in New York in late 1966 and were offered a contract at the Garrick Theater during Easter 1967. This proved successful and Herb Cohen extended the booking, which eventually lasted half a year. As a result, Zappa and his wife, along with the Mothers of Invention, moved to New York. Their shows became a combination of improvised acts showcasing individual talents of the band as well as tight performances of Zappa's music. Everything was directed by Zappa's famous hand signals. Guest performers and audience participation became a regular part of the Garrick Theater shows. One evening, Zappa managed to entice some U.S. Marines from the audience onto the stage, where they proceeded to dismember a big baby doll, having been told by Zappa to pretend that it was a "gook baby".


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Situated in New York, and only interrupted by the band's first European tour, the Mothers of Invention recorded the album widely regarded as the peak of the group's late 1960s work, "We're Only in It for the Money" (released 1968). It was produced by Zappa, with Wilson credited as executive producer. From then on, Zappa produced all albums released by the Mothers of Invention and as a solo artist. "We're Only in It for the Money" featured some of the most creative audio editing and production yet heard in pop music, and the songs ruthlessly satirized the hippie and flower power phenomena. The cover photo parodied that of the Beatles' "Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", its art provided by Cal Schenkel whom Zappa had met in New York. This initiated a lifelong collaboration in which Schenkel designed covers for numerous Zappa and Mothers albums.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Reflecting Zappa's eclectic approach to music, the next album, "Cruising with Ruben & the Jets" (1968), was very different. It represented a collection of doo-wop songs; listeners and critics were not sure whether the album was a satire or a tribute. Zappa has noted that the album was conceived in the way Stravinsky's compositions were in his neo-classical period: "If he could take the forms and clichés of the classical era and pervert them, why not do the same ... to doo-wop in the fifties?" A theme from Stravinsky's "The Rite of Spring" is heard during one song. The album and a single consisting the songs "Deseri" and "Jelly Roll Gum Drop" were released under the alias Ruben and the Jets.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Zappa and the Mothers of Invention returned to Los Angeles in the summer of 1968. Despite being a success with fans in Europe, the Mothers of Invention were not faring well financially. Their first records were vocally oriented, but Zappa wrote more instrumental jazz and classical oriented music for the band's concerts, which confused audiences. Zappa felt that audiences failed to appreciate his "electrical chamber music". Recorded from September 1967 to September 1968 and released in early 1969, "Uncle Meat", the final release by the original Mothers, was a double album of varied music, intended as a soundtrack for a proposed film of the same name.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: In November 1968, after Collins had left for the final time, Zappa recruited future Little Feat guitarist Lowell George to replace him.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: In 1969, there were nine band members and Zappa was supporting the group himself from his publishing royalties, whether they played or not. 1969 was also the year Zappa, fed up with the label's interference, left MGM Records for Warner Bros.' Reprise subsidiary, where Zappa/Mothers recordings would bear the Bizarre Records imprint.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: In late 1969, Zappa broke up the band. He often cited the financial strain as the main reason, but also commented on the band members' lack of sufficient effort. Many band members were bitter about Zappa's decision, and some took it as a sign of Zappa's concern for perfection at the expense of human feeling. Others were irritated by 'his autocratic ways', exemplified by Zappa's never staying at the same hotel as the band members. Several members would, however, play for Zappa in years to come. He did, however, start recruiting new band members at this time, even asking Micky Dolenz from The Monkees to join. Zappa had appeared on the series and in the movie "Head". Remaining recordings with the band from this period were collected on "Weasels Ripped My Flesh" and "Burnt Weeny Sandwich" (both released in 1970).


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: George and Estrada formed Little Feat with Richie Hayward and Bill Payne after The Mothers disbanded.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Later in 1970, Zappa formed a new version of the Mothers (from then on, he mostly dropped the "of Invention"). It included British drummer Aynsley Dunbar, jazz keyboardist George Duke, Ian Underwood, Jeff Simmons (bass, rhythm guitar), and three members of the Turtles: bass player Jim Pons, and singers Mark Volman and Howard Kaylan, who, due to persistent legal and contractual problems, adopted the stage name "The Phlorescent Leech and Eddie", or "Flo & Eddie".


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: This version of the Mothers debuted on Zappa's next solo album "Chunga's Revenge" (1970), which was followed by the double-album soundtrack to the movie "200 Motels" (1971), featuring the Mothers, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Ringo Starr, Theodore Bikel, and Keith Moon. Co-directed by Zappa and Tony Palmer, it was filmed in a week at Pinewood Studios outside London. Tensions between Zappa and several cast and crew members arose before and during shooting. The film deals loosely with life on the road as a rock musician. It was the first feature film photographed on videotape and transferred to 35 mm film, a process which allowed for novel visual effects. It was released to mixed reviews. The score relied extensively on orchestral music, and Zappa's dissatisfaction with the classical music world intensified when a concert, scheduled at the Royal Albert Hall after filming, was canceled because a representative of the venue found some of the lyrics obscene. In 1975, he lost a lawsuit against the Royal Albert Hall for breach of contract.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: After "200 Motels", the band went on tour, which resulted in two live albums, "Fillmore East - June 1971" and "Just Another Band From L.A."; the latter included the 20-minute track "Billy the Mountain", Zappa's satire on rock opera set in Southern California. This track was representative of the band's theatrical performances in which songs were used to build up sketches based on "200 Motels" scenes as well as new situations often portraying the band members' sexual encounters on the road.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: In December 1971, there were two serious setbacks. While performing at Casino de Montreux in Switzerland, the Mothers' equipment was destroyed when a flare set off by an audience member started a fire that burned down the casino. Immortalized in Deep Purple's song "Smoke on the Water", the event and immediate aftermath can be heard on the bootleg album "Swiss Cheese/Fire", released legally as part of Zappa's "Beat the Boots II" compilation. After a week's break, the Mothers played at the Rainbow Theatre, London, with rented gear. During the encore, an audience member pushed Zappa off the stage and into the concrete-floored orchestra pit. The band thought Zappa had been killed—he had suffered serious fractures, head trauma and injuries to his back, leg, and neck, as well as a crushed larynx, which ultimately caused his voice to drop a third after healing. This accident resulted in him using a wheelchair for an extended period, forcing him off the road for over half a year. Upon his return to the stage in September 1972, he was still wearing a leg brace, had a noticeable limp and could not stand for very long while on stage. Zappa noted that one leg healed "shorter than the other" (a reference later found in the lyrics of songs "Zomby Woof" and "Dancin' Fool"), resulting in chronic back pain. Meanwhile, the Mothers were left in limbo and eventually formed the core of Flo and Eddie's band as they set out on their own.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: After releasing a solo jazz-oriented album "Waka/Jawaka", and following it up with a Mothers album, "The Grand Wazoo", with large bands, Zappa formed and toured with smaller groups that variously included Ian Underwood (reeds, keyboards), Ruth Underwood (vibes, marimba), Sal Marquez (trumpet, vocals), Napoleon Murphy Brock (sax, flute and vocals), Bruce Fowler (trombone), Tom Fowler (bass), Chester Thompson (drums), Ralph Humphrey (drums), George Duke (keyboards, vocals), and Jean-Luc Ponty (violin).


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Zappa continued a high rate of production through the first half of the 1970s, including the solo album "Apostrophe (')" (1974), which reached a career-high No. 10 on the Billboard pop album charts helped by the chart single "Don't Eat The Yellow Snow". Other albums from the period are "Over-Nite Sensation" (1973), which contained several future concert favorites, such as "Dinah-Moe Humm" and "Montana", and the albums "Roxy & Elsewhere" (1974) and "One Size Fits All" (1975) which feature ever-changing versions of a band still called the Mothers, and are notable for the tight renditions of highly difficult jazz fusion songs in such pieces as "Inca Roads", "Echidna's Arf (Of You)" and "Be-Bop Tango (Of the Old Jazzmen's Church)". A live recording from 1974, "You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 2" (1988), captures "the full spirit and excellence of the 1973–75 band".


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: Zappa released "Bongo Fury" in 1975, which featured live recordings from a tour the same year that had reunited him with Captain Beefheart for a brief period. They later became estranged for a period of years, but were in contact at the end of Zappa's life. "Bongo Fury" was the last new album to be credited to the Mothers.


title: The Mothers of Invention

text: In 1993, Zappa released "Ahead of Their Time", an album of a 1968 live performance by the original Mothers of Invention lineup.


title: Robbery

text: Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take anything of value by force, threat of force, or by use of fear. According to common law, robbery is defined as taking the property of another, with the intent to permanently deprive the person of that property, by means of force or fear; that is, it is a larceny or theft accomplished by an assault. Precise definitions of the offence may vary between jurisdictions. Robbery is differentiated from other forms of theft (such as burglary, shoplifting, pickpocketing, or car theft) by its inherently violent nature (a violent crime); whereas many lesser forms of theft are punished as misdemeanors, robbery is always a felony in jurisdictions that distinguish between the two. Under English law, most forms of theft are triable either way, whereas robbery is triable only on indictment. The word "rob" came via French from Late Latin words (e.g., "deraubare") of Germanic origin, from Common Germanic "raub" "theft".


title: Robbery

text: Among the types of robbery are armed robbery, which involves the use of a weapon, and aggravated robbery, when someone brings with them a deadly weapon or something that appears to be a deadly weapon. Highway robbery or mugging takes place outside or in a public place such as a sidewalk, street, or parking lot. Carjacking is the act of stealing a car from a victim by force. Extortion is the threat to do something illegal, or the offer to not do something illegal, in the event that goods are not given, primarily using words instead of actions.


title: Robbery

text: Criminal slang for robbery includes "blagging" (armed robbery, usually of a bank) or "stick-up" (derived from the verbal command to robbery targets to raise their hands in the air), and "steaming" (organized robbery on underground train systems).


title: Robbery

text: In Canada, the Criminal Code makes robbery an indictable offence, subject to a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. If the accused uses a restricted or prohibited firearm to commit robbery, there is a mandatory minimum sentence of five years for the first offence, and seven years for subsequent offences.


title: Robbery

text: Robbery is a statutory offence in the Republic of Ireland. It is created by section 14(1) of the Criminal Justice (Theft and Fraud Offences) Act 2001, which provides:


title: Robbery

text: This requires evidence to show a theft as set out in section 1(1) of the Theft Act 1968. In "R v Robinson" the defendant threatened the victim with a knife in order to recover money which he was actually owed. His conviction for robbery was quashed on the basis that Robinson had an honest, although unreasonable, belief (under Section 2(1)(a) of the Act) in his legal right to the money. See also "R v Skivington" [1968] 1 QB 166, [1967] 2 WLR 655, 131 JP 265, 111 SJ 72, [1967] 1 All ER 483, 51 Cr App R 167, CA.


title: Robbery

text: In "R v Hale" (1978) the application of force and the stealing took place in many different locations, and it was not possible to establish the timing; it was held that the appropriation necessary to prove theft was a continuing act, and the jury could correctly convict of robbery. This approach was followed in "R v Lockley" (1995) when the force was applied to a shopkeeper after property had been taken. It was argued that the theft should be regarded as complete by this time, and "R v Gomez" (1993), should apply; the court disagreed, preferring to follow "R v Hale".


title: Robbery

text: The threat or use of force must take place immediately before or at the time of the theft. Force used after the theft is complete will not turn the theft into a robbery.


title: Robbery

text: The words "or immediately after" that appeared in section 23(1)(b) of the Larceny Act 1916 were deliberately omitted from section 8(1).


title: Robbery

text: The book "Archbold" said that the facts in "R v Harman", which did not amount to robbery in 1620, would not amount to robbery now.


title: Robbery

text: It was held in "R v Dawson and James" (1978) that "force" is an ordinary English word and its meaning should be left to the jury. This approach was confirmed in "R v Clouden" (1985) and "Corcoran v Anderton" (1980), both handbag-snatching cases. Stealing may involve a young child who is not aware that taking other persons' property is not in order.


title: Robbery

text: The victim must be placed in apprehension or fear that force would be used immediately before or at the time of the taking of the property. A threat is not immediate if the wrongdoer threatens to use force of violence some future time.


title: Robbery

text: Robbery occurs if an aggressor forcibly snatched a mobile phone or if they used a knife to make an implied threat of violence to the holder and then took the phone. The person being threatened does not need to be the owner of the property. It is not necessary that the victim was actually frightened, but the defendant must have put or sought to put the victim or some other person in fear of immediate force.


title: Robbery

text: The force or threat may be directed against a third party, for example a customer in a jeweller's shop. Theft accompanied by a threat to damage property will not constitute robbery, but it may disclose an offence of blackmail.


title: Robbery

text: Under current sentencing guidelines, the punishment for robbery is affected by a variety of aggravating and mitigating factors. Particularly important is how much harm was caused to the victim and how much culpability the offender had (e.g. carrying a weapon or leading a group effort implies high culpability). Robbery is divided into three categories which are, in increasing order of seriousness: street or less sophisticated commercial; dwelling; and professionally planned commercial.


title: Robbery

text: Robbery generally results in a custodial sentence. Only a low-harm, low-culpability robbery with other mitigating factors would result in an alternative punishment, in the form of a high level community order. The maximum legal punishment is imprisonment for life. It is also subject to the mandatory sentencing regime under the Criminal Justice Act 2003. Current sentencing guidelines advise that the sentence should be no longer than 20 years, for a high-harm, high-culpability robbery with other aggravating factors.


title: Robbery

text: An offender may also serve a longer sentence if they are convicted of other offences alongside the robbery, such as assault and grievous bodily harm.


title: Robbery

text: Robbery was an offence under the common law of England. Matthew Hale provided the following definition:


title: Robbery

text: The common law offence of robbery was abolished for all purposes not relating to offences committed before 1 January 1969 by section 32(1)(a) of the Theft Act 1968.


title: Robbery

text: If a robbery is foiled before it can be completed, an alternative offence (with the same penalty, given by section 8(2) of the 1968 Act) is assault; any act which intentionally or recklessly causes another to fear the immediate and unlawful use of force, with an intent to rob, will suffice.


title: Robbery

text: Assault with intent to rob is an indictable-only offence. It is punishable with imprisonment for life or for any shorter term.


title: Robbery

text: Assault with intent to rob is also subject to the mandatory sentencing regime under the Criminal Justice Act 2003.


title: Robbery

text: Robbery is a statutory offence in Northern Ireland. It is created by section 8 of the Theft Act (Northern Ireland) 1969.


title: Robbery

text: In the United States, robbery is generally treated as an aggravated form of common law larceny. Specific elements and definitions differ from state to state. The common elements of robbery are:


title: Robbery

text: The first six elements are the same as common law larceny. It is the last two elements that aggravate the crime to common law robbery.


title: Robbery

text: from the person or presence of the victim – robbery requires that the property be taken directly from the person of the victim or from their presence. This is different from larceny which simply requires that property be taken from the victim's possession, actual or constructive. Property is "on the victim's person" if the victim is actually holding the property, or the property is contained within clothing the victim is wearing or is attached to a victim's body such as a watch or earrings. Property is in a person's presence when it is within the area of their immediate control. The property has to be close enough to the victim's person that the victim could have prevented its taking if he/she had not been placed in fear or intimidation.


title: Robbery

text: by force or threat of force – the use of force or threat of force is the defining element of robbery. For there to be robbery there must be "force or fear" in perpetrating the theft. Questions concerning the degree of force necessary for robbery have been the subject of much litigation. Merely snatching the property from the victim's person is not sufficient force unless the victim resists or one of the items is attached or carried in such a way that a significant amount of force must be used to free the item from the victim's person.


title: Robbery

text: For robbery the victim must be placed in "fear" of immediate harm by threat or intimidation. The threat need not be directed at the victim personally. Threats to third parties are sufficient. The threat must be one of present rather than future personal harm. Fear does not mean "fright", it means apprehension – an awareness of the danger of immediate bodily harm.


title: Robbery

text: The maximum sentence for robbery in California is 9 years, according to Penal Code section 213(a)(1)(A).


title: Robbery

text: The threat or use of force does not have to take place immediately before or at the time of the theft. Force used after the theft will turn the theft into a robbery unless the theft is complete. The theft is considered completed when the perpetrator reaches a place of temporary safety with the property.


title: Robbery

text: The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime notes "that when using the figures, any cross-national comparisons should be conducted with caution because of the differences that exist between the legal definitions of offences in countries, or the different methods of offence counting and recording". Also not every single crime is reported, meaning two things; (1) robbery rates are going to appear lower than they actually are and; (2) the percentage of crime that is not reported is going to be higher in some countries then others, for example – in one country 86% of the robberies were reported, whereas in another country only 67% of the robberies were reported. The last thing to note is that crime will vary by certain neighborhoods or areas in each country, so, just because a nationwide rate is a specified rate, does not mean that everywhere in that country retains the same amount of danger or safety. A 1983 study by the Department of Justice estimated that the amount of robberies in the US at schools alone may reach one million a year, exceeding the National Crime Survey reported estimate.


title: Robbery

text: Robberies have been depicted, sometimes graphically, in various forms of media, and several robbers have become pop icons, such as Bonnie and Clyde and John Dillinger. Examples of media works focused on robberies include:


title: Robbery

text: Video games "" and "Payday 2" are both games by Overkill Software where one of the main objectives is to steal items of monetary value at places such as banks, art galleries, armored trucks, and more.


title: Darkstalkers

text: Darkstalkers, known in Japan as , is a fighting game series and media franchise created by Capcom. The first game, "," was released in arcades in 1994. The series is set in a pastiche gothic horror universe with characters based on monsters from international folklore, and features a stylized 2D graphic style. "Darkstalkers" introduced gameplay concepts used in later Capcom fighting games, including the "Street Fighter Alpha" and "Marvel vs. Capcom" series.


title: Darkstalkers

text: Besides video games, the "Darkstalkers" media franchise also includes an , an American cartoon TV series, a Canadian comic book series, and many books of various kinds and other media released only in Japan. Some individual characters, such as Morrigan and Felicia, appeared in later Capcom games, as well as in a few crossover games released by other companies.


title: Darkstalkers

text: The "Darkstalkers" series is composed of five arcade games from which all subsequent games are based on.


title: Darkstalkers

text: Capcom producer Yoshinori Ono said in 2007: "Personally, I'd love to make a new "Marvel vs. Capcom", and I'd also like to see the triumphant return of "Darkstalkers" to a new generation of technology. It would be an interesting challenge with "Darkstalkers", because in the old games you'd see a lot of really interesting animations as characters would morph into different forms. That would be tricky to do with this 3D engine, but not impossible. In two or three years, if I got the chance to resurrect that series, I'd like to shock Hollywood with how good the graphics would look". In August 2010, Ono stated during an interview about "Street Fighter X Tekken" that a new installment to the series would be his "ultimate dream", but only fan demand would cause it to happen. He went on to say that it would take one million requests before Keiji Inafune, then head of research and development at Capcom, would comply. At that point, Capcom had received 5,000 requests. By March 2011, Ono reported that Capcom had received over 100,000 requests. He later expressed during an interview at a Nintendo 3DS launch in London that "one day, if it goes half a million, Capcom may raise its eyebrow a little bit and I could do what I did in London in 2007 when I announced the comeback of "Street Fighter". In the near future, with your help, it may become true. It's on its way, because we're pretty much where we were with "Street Fighter" a few years back. So keep it up".


title: Darkstalkers

text: At 2011 San Diego Comic-Con in July, Ono revealed during the "Street Fighter X Tekken" panel that while a new "Darkstalkers" title had not been approved, he reassured the series' fans that ""Darkstalkers" is not dead". He then proceeded to take a photo of the attendees at the panel holding up their money to send to decision makers at Capcom to show support for the game. Later the following year in June, a message "Darkstalkers are not dead" appeared in a trailer for the PlayStation Vita version of "Street Fighter X Tekken"; when asked about it, Ono wrote on his Twitter: "I can't announce about "Darkstalkers" yet". Ono later teased the presence of "Darkstalkers" at a panel for "Street Fighter"'s 25th Anniversary Celebration at San Diego Comic-Con in July. Instead of taking a photo to send proof of demand to Capcom's upper management like he had done in the past, he stated: "This year, you don't have to do that, and it's not necessarily bad news!", but refrained himself from saying anything else.


title: Darkstalkers

text: Following the announcement of "Darkstalkers Resurrection" at 2012 New York Comic-Con in October, a concept trailer was shown during Capcom's "Street Fighter" 25th Anniversary panel. "Darkstalkers Resurrection" producer Derek Neal and Yoshinori Ono told interviewers that the re-release bundle was the first step towards revitalizing the franchise. Neal also claimed that Capcom is using "Darkstalkers Resurrection" as a test to gauge audience interest in a new "Darkstalkers" installment. In April 2013, Capcom senior vice president Christian Svensson wrote: "We've not given up. But I'm disappointed in the opening sales response relative to any other fighting title we've put out on the same platforms given the frequency and urgency of requests we've had here over the last several years and the quality of the execution. It is the most fully featured and probably best project of this type we've done. And before people jump to the wrong conclusions, I'm not blaming fans who did buy it and supported the brand. I'm very thankful for those guys (thank you, to all of you). I'm more disappointed by my misread of the information in this particular case". There was no "Darkstalkers are not dead" line at San Diego Comic-Con 2013. Matt Dahlgren, Capcom's new fighting game manager, said that because ""Darkstalkers Resurrection" did not perform as well as we would have liked. You never know what the future may hold, but "Street Fighter" is definitely not dead. There is nothing "Darkstalkers" on the immediate horizon for sure".


title: Darkstalkers

text: The "Darkstalkers" games take place on the planet Earth that is in the process of merging with a realm known as Makai. The reason for this merger varies depending on the continuity, but a continuing theme is that the union of realms brings the arrival of the Darkstalkers to the human world, the term being a catch-all for the various creatures of legend. The greatest of these supernatural creatures, and the greatest among those who hunt them, meet in battle to determine who will rule the night.


title: Darkstalkers

text: In the original game and the sequel, "Vampire Hunter" ("Night Warriors: Darkstalkers' Revenge"), an alien overlord named Pyron returns to Earth after being away for many years. His quest to conquer the world using an army of robots brings the Darkstalkers out of hiding to oppose his rule over humanity and the supernatural. A second sequel, "Vampire Savior" ("Darkstalkers 3"), saw the debut of Jedah, previously one of the nobles of Makai, who decides that the only way to save the realm is to take control of it by force. Accordingly, he lures the Darkstalkers into a trap to use their collective souls to remake the realm and control both humanity and the supernatural.


title: Darkstalkers

text: "Darkstalkers" characters are either based on various iconic literary and cinematic monsters, or inspired by international mythology and fairy tales. The 1997 anime miniseries "", which was based on the first two titles, was faithful to the characters' in-game personalities. The 1995 American-produced cartoon series, simply titled "Darkstalkers", dropped the backstory of the games altogether in favor of a standard good-versus-evil plot, altering certain characters' storylines in the process.


title: Darkstalkers

text: "Night Warriors: Darkstalkers' Revenge" (originally titled in Japan) is a four-episode OVA anime series by Madhouse Studios under license from Capcom, directed by Masashi Ikeda and originally released in 1997–1998.


title: Darkstalkers

text: "Darkstalkers" (also known as "Darkstalkers: The Animated Series") is an American children's animated TV series produced by Graz Entertainment and aired in syndication from September to December 1995. It was only loosely based on the games and ran for one season of thirteen episodes.


title: Darkstalkers

text: "Darkstalkers" is a Canadian comic book series created by UDON Comics and originally published through Devil's Due Publishing.


title: Darkstalkers

text: There are many "Darkstalkers" manga books and series (including yonkoma parodies). A few of them were also published in North America:


title: Darkstalkers

text: Multiple other books (guide books, art books, illustrated books, and novels) were published as well, mostly in Japan only. However, some of them were also published in North America:


title: Darkstalkers

text: Soundtrack CDs for "Darkstalkers" games were released in Japan under different record labels including Sony Records, Suleputer and Victor Entertainment. A collection of original tracks from the games, previously included as a part of "Vampire Sound Box" in Japan, was released digitally by Sumthing Else Music Works in 2014.


title: Darkstalkers

text: "Vampire" (ヴァンパイア) is a pachislo game using the license of Capcom's fighting game "Darkstalkers" annouced on May 12, 2009 and released on July 6, 2009. The game was released by the Capcom subsidiary, Enterrise (エンターライズ, Entarāizu) utilizing a slot machine style featuring the cast of the original "Darkstalkers game, Darkstalkers: The Night Warriors", although the game's website utilized artwork from "Darkstalkers 3" along with new secondary characters exclusive to only this title.


title: Darkstalkers

text: Despite its limited commercial success, "Darkstalkers" was very well received by critics and acquired a sizable cult following. Destructoid's Kyle Mac Gregor described it as "beloved", and IGN's Richard George described it as both "obscure and beloved". According to MTV, although "Darkstalkers" "has developed a loyal fanbase over the years, it was never enough for the developer/publisher to give the series much attention". Including "Darkstalkers" in their list of video game franchises "founded on boobs", GamesRadar US called it "second only to "Final Fantasy" as an object of Japanophilic cosplaying figurine collector worship. While the character design in immensely cool, some of the fan art is downright disturbing". Keith Stuart of "The Guardian" ranked the series fourth in his 2012 top list of vampiric video games, citing its "beautiful visuals and superb animation".


title: Darkstalkers

text: GamesRadar's Lucas Sullivan ranked "Darkstalkers" first on his 2012 list of "obscure" fighting games deserving an HD remake, opining it "offers just as much 2D fighting goodness as the venerable "Street Fighter" series, but it's never gotten the same kind of respect ... and that just ain't right". UGO.com included "Darkstalkers" on their 2010 list of the games that need sequels. "Complex" writers put "Darkstalkers" at number 40 in their 2012 ranking of best video game franchises, adding that they would "love to see a modern incarnation", and listed a hypothetical "Darkstalkers 4" among the 15 games they wished would be announced at E3 2011. The magazine's Andrew Hayward ranked "Darkstalkers" first on his 2011 list of most missed fighting franchises, stating that "every time Capcom announces a new fighting game, the hardcore community gets whipped up about "Darkstalkers" continual absence, and demands a modern iteration. The supernatural 2D franchise wasn't a big hit, but fervent fans have kept its name alive and seem unwilling to let it fade away".


title: Panini (sandwich)

text: A panini (, meaning "small bread, bread rolls") or panino (meaning "bread roll") is a sandwich made with Italian bread (such as ciabatta, rosetta, and michetta). They are sometimes served warm after grilling or toasting.


title: Panini (sandwich)

text: In many English-speaking countries, the name "panini" is given to a grilled sandwich made from any type of bread. Examples of bread types used for modern panini include baguette, ciabatta, focaccia and michetta. The bread is cut horizontally and filled with deli ingredients such as cheese, ham, mortadella, salami, or other food, and often served warm after having been pressed by a warming grill.


title: Panini (sandwich)

text: "Panini" is a word of Italian origin. In Italian the noun "panino" (; plural "panini") is a diminutive of "pane" ("bread") and refers to a bread roll. "Panino imbottito" ("stuffed panino") refers to a sandwich, but the word "panino" is also often used alone to indicate a sandwich in general. Similar to panino is "tramezzino", a triangular or square sandwich made up of two slices of soft white bread with the crusts removed.


title: Panini (sandwich)

text: In English-speaking countries, "panini" is widely used as the singular form, with the plural form "panini" or "paninis", though some speakers use singular "panino" and plural "panini" as in Italian.


title: Panini (sandwich)

text: Although the first U.S. reference to "panini" dates to 1956, and a precursor appeared in a 16th-century Italian cookbook, the sandwiches became trendy in Milanese bars, called "paninoteche", in the 1970s and 1980s. Trendy U.S. restaurants began selling panini, with distinctive variations appearing in various cities.


title: Panini (sandwich)

text: During the 1980s, the term "paninaro" arose in Italy to denote a member of a youth culture represented by patrons of sandwich bars such as Milan's "Al Panino" and Italy's first US-style fast food restaurants. "Paninari" were depicted as right-leaning, fashion-fixated individuals, delighting in showcasing early-1980s consumer goods as status symbols.


title: Panini (sandwich)

text: A panini press or panini grill is a contact grill for heating sandwiches, meat products, vegetables, and specialty menu items, nearly always with electric elements, comprising a heated bottom plate that is fixed, and a heated top plate that closes towards the bottom plate and comes in contact with the food. The function of the panini grill is to heat food to an appropriate internal temperature with desirable external characteristics (i.e., melted cheese, crisp finish, grill marks).


title: Austin S. Miller

text: Austin Scott Miller (born May 15, 1961) is a retired four-star general in the United States Army and former Delta Force commander who served as the final commander of NATO's Resolute Support Mission and United States Forces - Afghanistan from September 2, 2018 to July 12, 2021. He previously served as the commander of Joint Special Operations Command from March 30, 2016 to August 2018. He participated in numerous combat operations, such as the Battle of Mogadishu in 1993, and, since 2001, the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. He retired from the Army in December after relinquishing command in July 2021. Miller currently serves on the board of advisors for Striveworks.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: Miller was born in Honolulu, Hawaii on May 15, 1961. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1983 and was commissioned as an infantry officer in the United States Army.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: Miller was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1983 after graduation from United States Military Academy at West Point. After completing Ranger School, he was assigned a platoon in 3rd Battalion, 325th Infantry (Airborne), 82nd Airborne Division. Afterward, he was a platoon leader with A Company, 2nd Ranger Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment from January 1986 to May 1987. He completed Infantry Officer Advanced Course in June 1989. He was assigned to South Korea as a Company Commander with 5th Battalion, 20th Infantry (Mechanized), 2nd Infantry Division, Eighth United States Army. Later, he was an instructor at the Special Operations Division School of the Americas at Fort Benning, Georgia from April 1991 to April 1992.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: In 1992, Miller completed a specialized selection course and operator training course for assignment to 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment – Delta (1st SFOD-D), or Delta Force at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, where he held numerous leadership positions including squadron operations officer, troop commander, operational support troop commander, selection and training commander, A Squadron commander, as well as deputy commander and unit commanding officer from 2005 to 2007.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: He participated in numerous combat operations during Operation Gothic Serpent in Somalia, Operation Joint Endeavor in Bosnia, Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. In October 1993, Miller was the ground force commander during the Battle of Mogadishu while Lieutenant Colonel Gary L. Harrell held operational command of C Squadron, 1st SFOD-D. Miller graduated from United States Army Command and General Staff College in June 1997. He is a graduate of the United States Marine Corps War College, 2003 and Joint and Combined Warfighting School.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: As a Colonel, Miller received an assignment as Director of the Interagency Task Force, United States Special Operations Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida from August 2007 to June 2008. He was assigned Deputy Director for Special Operations, J-37, The Joint Staff, Washington, D.C. till 2009. From September 2011 through August 2012, Miller was special assistant to the Director of the Joint Improvised Explosive Device Defeat Organization in Arlington, Virginia.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: He was a special assistant to the deputy commanding general, United States Special Operations Command in Washington D.C. from August 2012 through June 2013. From June 2013 to June 2014, Miller was commanding general of the Combined Forces Special Operations Component Command in Afghanistan, or CFSOCC-A, responsible for employment and coordination of special operations forces and assets to achieve NATO and US military objectives. In 2014, he became commanding general of the United States Army Maneuver Center of Excellence at Fort Benning. From 2016 to 2018, Miller served as the commanding general of the Joint Special Operations Command.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: In 2018, he assumed command of United States Forces — Afghanistan and NATO's Resolute Support mission, after a successful June 2018 visit to the Senate Armed Services Committee.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: On October 18, 2018, Miller was in the room at the governor's compound in southern Kandahar when a Taliban gunman shot provincial police chief Abdul Raziq. Miller was not harmed, but drew his sidearm during the shooting, waited until the wounded were attended, and flew out with the casualties afterwards which included Brigadier General Jeffrey Smiley, who was wounded in the attack.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: On July 1, 2021, Miller gave an exclusive on-camera interview to ABC, with a helicopter flyover of the Bagram Air Base to emphasize its emptiness.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: Miller officially furled the mission flag and marked the symbolic end to Operation Resolute Support on July 12, 2021. After Bagram, the largest U.S. base in Afghanistan, was vacated, parts of the base were looted as the Americans did not inform the Afghani district administrator Darwaish Raufi of their departure. Miller was quoted as saying, "A civil war is certainly a path that can be visualized if this continues on the trajectory it's on right now, that should be of concern to the world." In a short farewell ceremony attended by many senior Afghan officials, Miller pledged that “the people of Afghanistan will be in my heart, and on my mind, for the rest of my life.” On July 14, 2021, he met with President Joe Biden who thanked him for his service and his “extraordinary service in Afghanistan.”


title: Austin S. Miller

text: Miller testified before the Senate Armed Services Committee on September 15, 2021 on the Biden administration's decision to withdraw from Afghanistan, asserting that he had recommended that not all U.S. forces be immediately withdrawn.


title: Austin S. Miller

text: Miller's name and image are frequently used to set up fake social media accounts to defraud people, especially elderly women in so-called "romance scams." U.S. Forces-Afghanistan has reported almost 900 fake accounts posing as Miller on sites like Twitter, Facebook and Instagram just during the first few months of 2021. The accounts are largely used to trick people out of money and items like gift cards and cellphones, USFOR-A warned. “Gen. Miller does NOT use public accounts on social media. Scammers are using his likeness & photos,” USFOR-A spokesman Col. Sonny Leggett said in a tweet. Anyone wishing to report a fake Miller account should contact USFOR-A.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Jeep Wrangler (JK) is the third generation of the Jeep Wrangler off-road vehicle. The Wrangler was unveiled at the 2006 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, the JK series 2007 Wrangler Unlimited at the 2006 New York Auto Show.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The car's body and chassis were completely redesigned during the era when Jeep was part of DaimlerChrysler. Just like the Willys MB, the CJ Jeeps and the Wranglers before it, the JK continues to have a separate body and frame, rigid live axles both front and rear, a fold-flat windshield, and can be driven without doors. Also, with the exception of optional 4x2 models, the Wrangler JK continues to have part-time four-wheel drive systems, with the choice of high and low gearing.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: In addition to the traditional 2-door Jeep, the JK introduced for the first time a factory standard four-door model, called the Wrangler Unlimited. Contrary to the first, TJ-based Unlimited, and the CJ-8 "Scrambler", its wheelbase is stretched by 20 instead of 10 inches. The Wrangler Unlimited became a big sales success — by mid 2017 three quarters of all new Wranglers listed for sale were four-door models.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: In 2001, DaimlerChrysler commissioned development of a TJ successor under the "JK" program code for the third generation Jeep Wrangler. Design work began almost immediately in 2001, with Mark Moushegian winning an internal design competition against Dan Zimmerman (later responsible for 2005 Jeep Hurricane Concept) by the second quarter of 2003. In January 2004, the JK design was frozen at 31 months ahead of production and work began on a conceptual preview.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: On November 16, 2004, Jeep released 2 CAD renderings of a Jeep pickup. On December 5, 2004, the 2005 Jeep Gladiator Concept was unveiled ahead of its January 2005 Detroit Auto Show debut, previewing many of the design elements on the incoming JK. The Wrangler JK was introduced at the 2006 North American International Auto Show with past Chrysler group CEO Tom LaSorda driving one up some steps and through a plate glass window, just as Robert Lutz had done at the show in January 1992 with the Grand Cherokee.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The JK was first available for purchase with the 2007 model year, beginning in August 2006. The 2007 model year brought a complete redesign of the Jeep Wrangler, and also a four-door model. The TJ chassis was replaced by an all new JK platform.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: This next-generation Wrangler was noticeably wider than the previous model, with a wider track; and though the two-door model has a longer wheelbase, it is actually shorter in overall length than the TJ, allowing for a 44.3° approach angle and a 40.4° departure angle. With a larger factory available tire size of 32 inches, the breakover angle on the Rubicon is increased from 22.6° to 25.4°. The four-door "Unlimited" model has an over longer wheelbase at 116 in (2,950 mm) to offer much improved rear seating room, but is nevertheless only longer than the 2006 TJ Unlimited.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The JK runs almost all vehicle functions, other than steering, under computer software control. Engine, transmission, and to some extent braking are computer controlled, as are lights and auxiliary systems. This is a first for the Wrangler. As of mid-2007, there have been three safety recalls for software fixes.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: Stability control was a new safety feature for the JK Wrangler. All versions offer off-road tuned Anti-lock braking system and traction control system with electronic limited slip differential. Standard on the Rubicon trim is a new electronic sway bar disconnect system.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: A "Sunrider" convertible soft top is standard equipment. Also available on the JK model is an optional 3-piece modular hardtop. Although the doors can still be removed in traditional Wrangler fashion, power windows and remote power door locks were offered for the first time in a Wrangler. Another first is an available navigation system. This is the first generation of the Jeep Wrangler to have a change in the tail lamps.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: New features included power windows, remote power door locks, navigation, as well as electronically detachable sway-bars on some models.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The JK series 2007 Wrangler Unlimited was unveiled at the New York Auto Show on April 12, 2006. It is stretched even more than the TJ model, and featured four doors. This change made it the last-remaining 2-door SUV in North America to gain a four-door option and made it the only four door convertible in production. A full 20.6 inches (523 mm) was added to the JK Wrangler's 95.4-inch (2423 mm) wheelbase. It hit production line in August 2006 and was priced near $21,000.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Unlimited has the same engine and transmission choices as a short-wheelbase JK. X and Sahara trims offer an option of 4x2 rear-wheel drive in the US. Optional 4x2 was discontinued after the 2010 model year for the Unlimited. 4-wheel drive became standard for the 2011 model year. After the Hummer H1 was discontinued in 2006, the JK Wrangler Unlimited was the only four-door convertible available in the US until the new Ford Bronco came out in July 2021.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Unlimited offers more options and equipment than any previous Wrangler model, including standard electronic stability program and optional seat-mounted side airbags, remote keyless entry, navigation system, and Sirius Satellite Radio. The navigation and satellite systems are a part of the MyGig Entertainment system that also has a hard drive allowing for the storage of MP3 music files and pictures.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Wrangler Unlimited became a big sales success — by mid 2017 three quarters of all new Wranglers listed for sale were four-door models.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: Most packages can be ordered with either hard or soft top, full or half doors ("Sport" and "Rubicon" only).


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Sport base model is available in 2-door versions. It is the "bare bones" Wrangler that can be customized to a buyer's specifications by adding such options as air conditioning and other accessories. It was originally called the "Wrangler X" until 2009. Later, stain-resistant YES Essentials cloth seats replaced standard vinyl seats, an AM/FM stereo with single-disc CD/MP3 player and auxiliary audio input jack, and full-sized spare tire and wheel came standard on this model.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The X-S model features 32-inch tires (on 17-inch wheels), air conditioning, fog lights, cruise control, driver’s seat height adjuster, removable doors, and a fold-down windshield. It can be customized to a buyers specifications adding such options as power windows and locks, soft or hard top, rear LSD or locker (2007 only), and other accessories. It was renamed "Sport S" in 2009. Advantages over the Sport included standard air conditioning, alloy wheels, matching spare tire and wheel, YES essentials stain-resistant cloth seats, optional Uconnect touch-screen radios, optional seven-speaker premium sound system with subwoofer, and optional power equipment, such as power door locks and power windows, a first on any Wrangler model.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Sahara model is the "luxury" model offering accessories such as body colored fenders, "Yes Essentials" seats (in late 2007–2008), power windows and locks and a 7 speaker infinity sound system with subwoofer, later, with Uconnect 430 (an AM/FM stereo with single CD-player with MP3 capability, SiriusXM, an aux input, Bluetooth, and USB port), among others. It also offered exterior-color fender flares, a paint matched hard-top, and a gold 'SAHARA' decal on both front fenders.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Rubicon is the "off-road ready" model, offering 32in BF Goodrich Mud-Terrain KM off-road tires with aggressive tread, seventeen-inch alloy wheels, and more. 'RUBICON' decals adorned both sides of the hood.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Rubicon package is the dedicated "Offroad" package. Standard components of the Rubicon package include front and rear next generation Dana 44 axles with electric lockers, Rock-Trac four-wheel drive with 4:1 transfer case, rock rails, 32-spline rear axle with an 8.8-inch ring gear, 4.10 axle gearing, electric releasing sway bar, "Yes Essentials" seats (2007–08), 7-speaker infinity sound system, and any other available option can be added.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: A 3.8 L "EGH" V6 with a displacement of 230.5 cubic inches (3,778 cc) producing and of torque was the base engine in 2007 -2011 models. It replaced the AMC 242 straight-6, and was shared with the first-generation Chrysler Pacifica crossover (CUV), and Chrysler Town and Country, Dodge Grand Caravan, and Volkswagen Routan minivans. Transmission choices included a standard six-speed Chrysler NSG370 as the manual transmission, or an optional Chrysler Ultradrive 42RLE 4-speed automatic transmission.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: For the 2012 model year the 3.8L V6 was replaced by Chrysler 3.6L Pentastar VVT V6 engine previously seen in the Jeep Grand Cherokee (WK2), now producing 285 horsepower, and 260 pound-feet of torque. The NSG370 remained as the manual transmission option, while the 42RLE was replaced by a 5-speed Mercedes-Benz NAG1-family W5A580.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The 2.8 L VM Motori turbodiesel straight-4 producing and of torque used in the Liberty was offered as options outside of U.S., as it did not satisfy U.S. emission control standards for 2007. It was offered with either the NSG370 manual, or the 42RLE automatic transmission.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The lower two levels have the Jeep Command-Trac part-time four-wheel drive system with an optional "Trac-Loc" limited-slip differential, while the "Rubicon" uses Rock-Trac a version of the NV241 with a 4:1 low range. Electronic locking front- and rear-axles called "Tru-lok" are also standard on Rubicon models. (A rear locking differential was optional on X and Sahara models for 2007, then only on select X models for 2008 and 2009. From 2010 onward, the only non-Rubicon Wrangler to have the "Tru-lok" locking differential as an option are the 2015 Wrangler X, based on the Sahara, and the 2016 75th Anniversary Edition Wranglers.)


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Wrangler was available with factory installed right-hand drive, targeted at U.S. Mail carriers. Rural mail boxes in the United States are serviced with the carrier behind the wheel, also useful for carriers who wish to get out of their vehicle without the risk of getting hit by traffic. For the 2007 and 2008 model years, the right-hand drive Jeep was the short-wheelbase Wrangler. For the 2009 model year, the right-hand drive Wrangler was replaced by the right-hand drive Wrangler Unlimited.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The 2009 model added standard Hill Start Assist (HSA) to prevent rollback on graded surfaces. Trailer Sway Control (TSC) also is available to monitor vehicle movement relative to the intended path and activates the Electronic Stability Program (ESP) if the trailer begins to sway outside set parameters. Additionally, ULEV II emissions replace LEV II emissions on manual transmission equipped vehicles.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Rocky Mountain Edition is a special edition of the "X" model that was made for 2009 with 32-inch tires (on 17-inch wheels), black tubular sidestep, a 6-disc in-dash changer and visual enhancements such as body colored fenders were optional.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The 2010 model added a new easier-to-fold/open soft top, standard UConnect infotainment systems on models equipped with the MyGig radio, and new sun visors that offer more coverage than the old models, as well as integrated vanity mirrors.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Islander Edition is a special edition of the "Sport Base" model made in 2010 with "32"ish-inch tires, Islander edition seats, rubber slush mats, black tubular sidestep and visual enhancements such as a blue accented leather steering wheel.


title: Jeep Wrangler (JK)

text: The Mountain Edition is a special edition of the "Sport Base" model made for 2010 with 32-inch tires (on 17-inch wheels), black tubular sidestep, black tail light protectors and special edition seats, as well as visual enhancements like black grid and hood decals, a black fuel filler door and graphite dash enhancements. This edition was also available in 4 doors, based on the more equipped "Sport" trim instead of the "Sport Base" trim.