title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: A film project remained inactive until the release of Stern's first book, the part memoir and part commentary "Private Parts", in October 1993. It became the fastest selling book in publisher Simon & Schuster's history after five days of release. In the following month, Stern's agent had started to contact film studios with the aim of adapting the book into a feature film. In the following months, Stern entered an agreement with film and television content management company Rysher Entertainment, who wished to provide funding for a film. This led to Stern working with Rysher founder Keith Samples, Paramount producer David Kirkpatrick, director John G. Avildsen in September 1994 and, in August 1994, screenwriter Peter Torokvei, who was hired to complete a "production rewrite" of a script already prepared. Torokvei claimed a set of line producers, production secretary, and film coordinators had "seemed to be in place" upon his arrival to New York City, but the project underwent the first of several delays over the film's story. Torokvei completed a draft, but it was not signed off. Stern, who had the power of final script approval, went on to reject around 22 subsequent revisions, sometimes from day to day, as he grew dissatisfied with their content. Torokvei estimated he had worked on as many as five redrafts with Stern, adding: "On any given scene we did the day before, [Stern] would say, 'That's old,' or 'That's boring.' He wanted to freshen the scenes every day. I'd have to remind him that it had worked the day before". In one abandoned version, Stern recalled a scene that had former radio show regular Richard Simmons "in a tutu in my house chasing my children and saying he can't baby-sit them. How fucking ridiculous." Around this time, Kirkpatrick had mentioned a film with as many as 75 cameo appearances, including Arnold Schwarzenegger and radio show regular Jessica Hahn. In addition to Torokvei, assistance over the scripts were developed by Michael Kalesniko, co-author of "Private Parts" Larry "Ratso" Sloman, Laurice Elehwany, and Rick Copp. Kalesniko recalled a note that detailed Stern riding down Fifth Avenue on an elephant. He said that Kirkpatrick saw the film as an ""Annie Hall" for the nineties". Following several script rejections, Avildsen ceased his involvement with the film by November 1994. Kirkpatrick claimed Avildsen wished for a "story of an underdog taking on the issue of free speech—a man against the system", whereas Kirkpatrick had the idea of a film "in the tradition of "Help!" (1965) and "A Hard Day's Night" (1964)".


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: By February 1995, Stern had yet to approve a final script. The studio executives believed Stern rejected so many drafts because he was too afraid to be in a feature film, and so suggested Jeff Goldblum to play as himself. Stern insisted he was not afraid, and felt the idea of someone other than himself playing the role would lead to "the biggest box office bomb in history". Following Avildsen's departure, Stern turned to producer and director Ivan Reitman for his thoughts on the rejected scripts as he thought Reitman "could see if I was being unreasonable". A long time fan of Stern's, Reitman had suggested to Stern that he make a film about his life as early as 1991 and pitched his vision, a biographical film with Stern starring as himself, "almost documentary in feel", as he believed one based on real events from his life, rather than "a fantasy life for him that was silly and salacious", were strong and funny enough for a film. Stern agreed, and subsequently asked Reitman to come on board as producer and help develop a script. Reitman focused on a script that centered more on what Stern was like off the air, and brought in writer Len Blum to help with the task and brought Kalesniko back into the fold; Blum was sceptical about working on the film because he did not understand Stern's appeal, but his opinion changed after Reitman brought him to New York City to sit in on Stern's radio show for two days. Blum said, "On the flight home I asked myself, 'Should I do this?' And I realized I had laughed harder in the last two days than I had in the past 20 years." In the following months, Blum and Kalesniko collaborated on a script with Stern that he finally approved, which then underwent further revisions for Blum to incorporate Stern's improvisations and speech patterns. During his visit to the show, Blum talked to Quivers, Norris, Dell'Abate, and Melendez about how they first met Stern and recorded the conversations. In a November 1995, interview during promotion of his second book "Miss America", Stern announced: "It's bizarre and funny. We're green-lighted to go into production".


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Stern wished for Reitman to direct and produce the film, but Reitman suggested Betty Thomas for the role having worked together on "The Late Shift". Thomas was not a fan of Stern's, but her boyfriend was an avid listener and Reitman pushed her to read the script. She thought it was "very interesting", and travelled to New York City to observe Stern doing his radio show. "After a while, Howard came out. When he took my hand, he was shaking. He was so vulnerable and scared. I couldn't believe it. I saw something in his eyes that I loved. Right then, I wanted to do the movie." Stern found Thomas particularly enjoyable to work with, and praised the calming effect she had on him during shooting.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Auditions for roles began before Stern had accepted a final script. On October 8, 1994, auditions for actors to play a pre-teen, mid-teen, and late-teen Stern were held at the Palladium in New York City. The sessions were organised by casting director Avy Kaufman. Auditions were also planned in Burbank, California, Chicago, and Cleveland. Four scenes for the actors were set up: Stern preparing for a date while reciting a soliloquy on the human condition, a talk with his father on current events, making a prank call, and attempting to hide the evidence after smoking in his bedroom. Subsequent casting was overseen by Phyllis Huffman.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Stern formally announced the film and the start of pre-production on his radio show on February 13, 1996, when Reitman and Thomas appeared as guests. Reitman estimated the process would last for ten weeks. Casting was done in the subsequent three months. In April 1996, McCormack was cast as the role of Stern's wife Allison. Stern had initial doubts about her, describing her as perhaps "too fancy", but Thomas insisted she was the right choice after their initial try out scene. Julia Louis-Dreyfus was an early choice, but she backed out because she wanted to spend time with her family. Thomas had a choice between Giamatti or Philip Seymour Hoffman as the role of Pig Vomit, and remembered both were "kind of good" but "a little nervous". It was when Giamatti did something she described as "so out of character, weird and interesting" in an audition that convinced her that he was the one for the part.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: In June 1996, television host David Letterman makes a cameo appearance for a scene that recreated one of Stern's early appearances on his show "Late Night with David Letterman" in the 1980s. Paramount wanted to use the real footage in the film but was unable to obtain permission, so Letterman agreed to take part. The show's stage and set was reproduced, but Letterman refused to wear a hairpiece that matched his hairstyle at the time. Model Carol Alt stars as Gloria. Initially, Alt had little interest in appearing in the film because she wanted "to stay uncontroversial and classy" and avoid being associated with Stern's "crazy image", but she changed her mind after reading the script and later praised Reitman for its quality. In June 1996, auditions were held in New York City for the role of Mandy, a part that had seven lines of dialogue with full frontal nudity. As many as 25 women tried out for the role, including some who worked as topless dancers, but producers rejected all of them on the basis of their appearance or quality of acting. The role was given to porn star Jenna Jameson.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Actor Richard Portnow secured the role as Stern's father Ben. Portnow met Ben in person, and picked up various idiosyncrasies from him which he incorporated into his acting, such as gesticulating his finger whenever he speaks. The film features actor Luke Reilly portraying Don Imus, a longtime rival of Stern's who hosted mornings at WNBC. The woman who played Irene the Leather Weather Lady was the same person who called into Stern's radio show while he worked at WWWW in 1980, and is considered to be the earliest member of Stern's Wack Pack. During his preparation in acting as his younger self, Stern listened to tapes of his radio shows from his twenties, noticing his voice "locked in this very high register". At one point, Stern asked Thomas if he should take acting lessons before filming, and watched a "how-to" video by Michael Caine that Thomas had given him. Stern donned several customised wigs throughout the film and never displayed his real hair.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Principal photography began on May 2, 1996, with Northern Lights Productions in charge of filming. Shooting took place in several locations–Westchester, New York, Washington, D.C., New Jersey, and the Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, and Brooklyn areas of New York City. Interior shots were filmed at Silvercup Studios in Long Island City. Stern would do his radio show from 6:00 a.m. until around 10:30 a.m. and travel to the set straight after to resume shooting. Make up would last three to four hours, followed by filming until as late as 9:00 pm. At one point, filming only took place from Thursday to Monday and lasted until 11:00 pm. A temporary apartment was built on the Silvercup lot for Stern to live in while shooting took place in order to remove the need for him to commute to and from his family home in Long Island. Interior scenes, including the reconstruction of seven replica radio studios where Stern worked in his career, were reconstructed at the Silvercup. Stern requested that he operate real and working radio equipment in the replica studios so he could hear himself talk. The scenes at WRNW were filmed in the same building that housed the real radio station in Briarcliff Manor, New York.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: The scene with Stern working at WWWW as Hopalong Howie was the first to be filmed. He recalled he had "no confidence" in his ability at that point, and struggled with the concept of shooting a film to a set script. It took three days for Stern to settle down; Thomas noticed Stern during this time was "a little tight, trying too hard". Reitman noticed a considerable improvement in Stern's acting after several weeks of filming as he became more comfortable in front of the camera. Portnow noticed Stern enjoyed the process as filming went along, picking up "mechanics of doing take after take very quickly" and the ease of altering his delivery of lines in different ways. Thomas recalled Quivers being "really, really" nervous on set. The scenes inside the plane with Alt were shot inside a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar parked at Newark Liberty International Airport. For the scenes that featured a young Stern in high school, filming was done at Union High School, which comedian Artie Lange, who was part of the radio show from 2001 to 2009, graduated from. Several scenes during Stern's college years were filmed at Lehman College in the Bronx. A metal stunt penis was placed in Stern's trousers to create the illusion of an erection during the film premiere screening scene. The night when Stern meets Alison for the first time in Boston was shot at the Park Slope neighborhood of Brooklyn. Northern Lights offered nearby residents three-day parking vouchers in nearby lots to encourage them to move their cars.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Stern recalled that Jameson was so comfortable being naked on the set, she stayed without clothes when the crew were at the craft service table. The scene where Stern apologizes to McCormack at his hotel, actress Teri Hatcher had visited the set and was standing several feet away from the camera. Stern had difficulty in achieving a satisfactory reaction for the scene where he finds out that Alison is pregnant. Thomas assisted by approaching Stern and telling him that she had been diagnosed with ovarian cancer, which was in fact a lie. Stern's genuine response and shock to the news produced what Thomas was looking for, and Stern used that as a guide for his subsequent on-screen reactions. During one particular break in filming McCormack smoked a cigarette while wearing a pregnant costume, which attracted several concerned looks from members of the public. The AC/DC concert scene was filmed at New York's Bryant Park in July 1996.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Filming was set to finish on July 30, 1996, but it was extended until mid-August. Following a wrap-up party held to commemorate the end of filming, Stern had booked a consultation for rhinoplasty in early September 1996 before he was to start promoting the film. Shortly before it, however, Thomas informed him that several scenes had to be re-shot and a change in his appearance would affect the film's continuity. Reitman asked Stern to avoid surgery until production was complete as Paramount owned his face. Stern asked Thomas to cut one shot that was filmed on his "bad side" which he thought made his nose look bad, but Thomas had not filmed it from an alternate angle and kept it in. In October 1996, Stern flew to Los Angeles to view a rough cut of the film that was around 2-and-a-half hours in length, among a small audience in Reitman's personal theater. Around 45 minutes of footage was to be cut. Among the scenes that were filmed but not used included one filmed at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, where Stern and John Stamos were on stage dressed in just a towel covering their lower half, with women in the crowd of 800 people urging them to drop their towels. A man found a collection of video tapes containing several dailies of the film in a recycling bin, and returned them to Stern. The final reshoots took place in New York City and Washington, D.C. over a three-day period from November 22, 1996. Stern kept the trip a secret to prevent fans from disrupting filming. As he had undergone surgery by this time, so Thomas had to film him at a distance to make it harder to spot differences in his appearance. On November 25, Stern announced on his radio show that filming was complete.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Thomas said the film was difficult to edit as Stern "never used the same words twice" for each take. During the Christmas period in 1996, the film was subject to a test screening in California. In January 1997, test screenings were held in San Jose, California and Seattle, Washington, the latter of which Stern's radio show was not syndicated to at the time. Stern was told the audience gave the film the highest positive response since "Forrest Gump" (1994) and one "Indiana Jones" film.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Stern recorded his parts to "Tortured Man" in December 1996 with writing assistance from Martling and Norris.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: Stern underwent an extensive media tour to promote the film, appearing on several television shows and granting magazine and newspaper interviews. He was a cover feature of "Rolling Stone" magazine for the second time in his career. Stern also appeared on the front covers of "Movieline", "Vanity Fair", "MAD", "Penthouse", "Entertainment Weekly", and "TV Guide". The tour included a visit to Los Angeles. Stern appeared at the end of an episode of "Wheel of Fortune" that aired on the same day as the premiere, giving host Vanna White flowers and a gift while plugging the film.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: "Private Parts" premiered in New York City at The Theater at Madison Square Garden on February 27, 1997. The star-studded event, attended by 4,200 people, included a live performance of "The Great American Nightmare" by Stern and Zombie, and Porno for Pyros on a stage built outside the venue. The film's theatrical wide release in the United States followed on March 7 to 2,138 theaters. In its opening weekend, it ranked first place in the North American box office with a gross of $14,616,333, averaging a gross of $6,836 per theater. "Jungle 2 Jungle" came in second place. In its second week, the film dropped to third place. The number of theaters screening the film rose in its third week to a peak of 2,217 before the number decreased to its low of 1,848 a week later. At the end of its theatrical run in the United States, the film grossed a total of $41,230,799, coming in as the 56th highest-grossing film of 1997 in the country.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: To promote the film in the European markets, Stern attended the 1997 Cannes Film Festival in Cannes, France, on May 12. He appeared at the festival with two topless women and a 40-foot inflatable picture of himself placed on the shore by the event provided by Rysher. The balloon attracted French security who threatened to shoot it down before Rysher associates agreed to take it down. It was reinflated after French president Jacques Chirac left the event as he visited on the same day.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: In 2006, a poor-quality rough cut of the film was leaked on the Internet containing alternate dialogue and music, deleted scenes, and a different ending. Some of the deleted scenes, such as Stern being escorted out of the WNBC building, appeared in the film's original trailer and publicity materials before they were cut.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: "Private Parts" received mostly positive reviews from critics. In a review for the "Chicago Tribune", critic Gene Siskel gave the film three and a half stars out of five. He pointed out the "predictable" scenes of "lesbian jokes and toilet humor", but the "wonderful love story" between Stern and Alison is the most surprising aspect and preferred Stern's character off the air than the one on the radio. Siskel concluded his review by singling out the scenes of Stern courting Alison, his eagerness to have a baby, and his apology to Alison as "signature moments" of the film. Roger Ebert reviewed the film for the "Chicago Sun-Times", giving it three stars out of four. He said that the film has enough to satisfy the diehard Stern fans and appeal to the general audience at the same time, and he praised Stern and Quivers for playing "convincing, engaging versions of themselves" in their feature film debut, something he claims even "seasoned actors" claim is difficult. Ebert noted Thomas's directing skills made the film play out like a film and not a series of filmed radio broadcasts. Todd McCarthy of "Variety" gave a positive review, calling the film "a lean, crisp and very entertaining picture".


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 73% "Certified Fresh" rating, based on 52 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "A surprisingly endearing biopic about the controversial shock-jock Howard Stern that is equally funny and raunchy." Metacritic reports a score of 67 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: For his performance, Stern won the Blockbuster Entertainment Award for "Favorite Male Newcomer". The awards are given by the result of write-in votes from fans and Stern won by a wide margin. Stern was nominated for a Golden Satellite Award for "Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Comedy". He was also nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for "Worst New Star".


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: For her directing work, Thomas won the audience award at Karlovy Vary International Film Festival (1997). She was also nominated for Crystal Globe in Karlovy Vary which went, at the end, to "Ma Vie en Rose" by Alain Berliner.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: In April 1997, the USA Network agreed to pay $7 million for the rights to air the film for nine years, from 1999. The editing featured on-air explanations from Stern for the pixelization and bleep censors required to air the R-rated film. Stern appeared in new taped segments in which he occasionally pauses the film to comment on it. USA premiered the film even though no alternate scenes had been filmed to replace the nudity nor had any alternate dialogue been recorded to replace the profanity for television broadcasts. The nudity was simply pixelized and the profanity bleeped. In 2007, VH-1 began airing this version.


title: Private Parts (1997 film)

text: When the film was released on video, some store customers objected to the original cover featuring Stern with no clothes on. An alternative version of the cover was produced featuring Stern fully clothed.


title: Fish sauce

text: Fish sauce is a liquid condiment made from fish or krill that have been coated in salt and fermented for up to two years. It is used as a staple seasoning in East Asian cuisine and Southeast Asian cuisine, particularly Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. Some garum-related fish sauces have been used in the West since the Roman times.


title: Fish sauce

text: Due to its ability to add a savory umami flavor to dishes, it has been embraced globally by chefs and home cooks. The umami flavor in fish sauce is due to its glutamate content.


title: Fish sauce

text: Fish sauce is used as a seasoning during or after cooking, and as a base in dipping sauces. Soy sauce is regarded by some in the West as a vegetarian alternative to fish sauce though they are very different in flavor.


title: Fish sauce

text: Sauces that included fermented fish parts with other ingredients such as meat and soy bean were recorded in China, 2300 years ago. During the Zhou dynasty of ancient China, fish fermented with soybeans and salt was used as a condiment. By the time of the Han dynasty, soy beans were fermented without the fish into soy paste and its by-product soy sauce, with fermented fish-based sauces developing separately into fish sauce. A fish sauce, called "kôechiap" in Hokkien Chinese, might be the precursor of ketchup.


title: Fish sauce

text: By 50-100 BC, demand for fish sauces and fish pastes in China had fallen drastically, with fermented bean products becoming a major trade commodity. Fish sauce, however, developed massive popularity in Southeast Asia. Food scholars traditionally divide East Asia into two distinct condiment regions, separated by a bean-fish divide: Southeast Asia, mainly using fermented fish (Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia), and Northeast Asia, using mainly fermented beans (China, Korea, Japan). Fish sauce re-entered China in the 17th and 18th centuries, brought from Vietnam and Cambodia by Chinese traders up the coast of the southern provinces Guangdong and Fujian.


title: Fish sauce

text: Fish sauces were widely used in ancient Mediterranean cuisine. The earliest recorded production was between 4th–3rd century BC by the Ancient Greeks, who fermented scraps of fish called "garos" into one. It is believed to have been made with a lower salt content than modern fish sauces.


title: Fish sauce

text: The Romans made a similar condiment called either garum or liquamen. According to Pliny the Elder, "garum consists of the guts of fish and other parts that would otherwise be considered refuse so that garum is really the liquor from putrefaction." Garum was made in the Roman outposts of Spain almost exclusively from mackerel by salting the scrap fish innards, and then sun fermenting the flesh until it fell apart, usually for several months. The brown liquid would then be strained, bottled, and sold as a condiment. Remains of Roman fish salting facilities can still be seen, including in Algeciras in Spain and near Setúbal in Portugal. The process lasted until the 16th century when garum makers switched to anchovy and removed the innards.


title: Fish sauce

text: Garum was ubiquitous in Classical Roman cooking. Mixed with wine it was known as "oenogarum", or with vinegar, "oxygarum", or mixed with honey, "meligarum". "Garum" was one of the trade specialties in Hispania Baetica. "Garum" was frequently maligned as smelling bad or rotten, being called, for example, "evil-smelling fish sauce" and is said to be similar to modern "colatura di alici", a fish sauce used in Neapolitan cuisine.


title: Fish sauce

text: In English "garum" was formerly translated as "fish pickle". The original Worcestershire sauce is a related product because it is fermented and contains anchovies.


title: Fish sauce

text: While fish sauce and oyster sauce are both briny and may have related histories, they are different products. Fish sauce is watery, clear, and salty, whereas oyster sauce is made by reducing oyster extracts and therefore sweeter with a hint of salt and not as strong an aroma as fish sauce.


title: Fish sauce

text: Fish sauces historically have been prepared from different species of fish and shellfish, and from using the whole fish, or by using just fish blood or viscera. Most modern fish sauces contain only fish and salt, usually made from anchovy, shrimp, mackerel, or other strong-flavored, high oil fish. Some variants add herbs and spices. For modern fish sauces, fish or shellfish are mixed with salt at a concentration of 10% to 30%. It is then sealed in a closed container for up to two years.


title: Fish sauce

text: Once the original draft has been made, some fish sauces will be produced through a re-extraction of the fish mass via boiling. To improve the visual appearance and add taste, second-pass fish sauces often have added caramel, molasses, or roasted rice. They are thinner, and less costly. Some volume manufacturers of fish sauce will also water down a first-press to manufacture more products.


title: Fish sauce

text: Fish sauce that has been only briefly fermented has a pronounced fishy taste. Extended fermentation reduces this and gives the product a nuttier, richer and more savory flavor. An anonymous article, "Neuc-num", in Diderot and d'Alembert's 18th-century Encyclopédie, states: "It is said that Europeans become accustomed enough to this type of sauce".


title: Fish sauce

text: Southeast Asian fish sauce is often made from anchovies, salt, and water, and is intensely flavoured. Anchovies and salt are arranged in wooden barrels to ferment and are slowly pressed, yielding the salty, fishy liquid. The salt extracts the liquid via osmosis.


title: Fish sauce

text: Southeast Asians generally use fish sauce as a cooking sauce. However, there is a sweet and sour version of this sauce which is used more commonly as a dipping sauce.


title: Fish sauce

text: In Cambodia, fish sauce is called "tik trei" (, ). Just like "prahok", it is believed to date back to the pre-Angkorean era. Industrially fish sauce is produced by mixing "trei aing keuy" or anchovies with coarse salt and fermenting it in large wooden vats. Over the period of six to eight months, it is distilled five times, before being transferred into jars and sun-fermented for the final 2–3 months. The most famous fish sauce is produced in the Kampot Province. Food Production Company of Kampot produces a speciality fish sauce containing roe. Fish sauce is mixed with sugar, lime juice, chili peppers and crushed roasted peanuts to create sweet fish sauce, which is the most popular dipping sauce in Cambodia.


title: Fish sauce

text: In Lao/Isan, it is called "nam pa" (). A chunkier, more aromatic version known as "padaek" is also used.


title: Fish sauce

text: The Philippine fish sauce is known as "patis". It is one of the most important ingredients in Filipino cuisine. "Patis" is a by-product of "bagoong" production, which include "bagoong isda" (fermented fish) and "bagoong alamang" (fermented krill), as well as the rarer "bagoong macabebe" (fermented oysters) and "bagoong sisi" (fermented clams). The fish used are typically small like sardines, anchovies, ambassids, and the fry of larger fish. Unlike other fish sauce variants, the fermented solids are not discarded but are sold as separate products. The "patis" is skimmed from the upper layers of fermenting "bagoong" and is not pressed. As such, "patis" usually takes longer to produce than other types of fish sauce as it is reliant on the readiness of "bagoong".


title: Fish sauce

text: "Patis" is nearly always cooked prior to consumption, even when used as an accent to salads or other raw dishes. "Patis" is also used as an ingredient in cooked dishes, including a rice porridge called "arroz caldo", and as a condiment for fried fish. "Patis" is also used in place of table salt in meals to enhance the flavor of the food, where it can either be dashed from a dispensing bottle onto the food, or poured into a saucer and mixed with calamansi and labuyo chilis and used as a dipping sauce.


title: Fish sauce

text: Fish sauce in Thailand is called "nam pla" (). In Isan, it is called "nam pa". Similar to the Laotian "padaek" is "pla ra" (), also used in Thai cuisine. In Thailand, fish sauce is used both in cooking and also served at the table as a condiment, for instance in noodle soups. Nearly every Thai meal is served with "phrik nam pla" as a condiment: a mixture of fish sauce, lime juice, and chopped bird's eye chilies. Sliced garlic is often added to this sauce.


title: Fish sauce

text: Historically, there were two types of fish sauce made in Thailand: that made with a fresh-water fish, "pla soi", and sauce made from a salt-water fish, "pla kratak". Either fish is fermented for at least eight months, three parts fish to two parts salt. The resulting mash is filtered. This yields the best fish sauce called the "base". The dregs are then mixed with water and salt and again fermented for three to four months. This yields a second-grade fish sauce, mostly used in cooking.


title: Fish sauce

text: In 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the import of Thai fish sauces due to a lack of information about tests for botulinum toxin. The toxin can cause death if more than 0.5 micrograms are consumed. The Thai Office of Food Safety and Quality then tested 48 brands of fish sauce to determine the content of botulinum toxin in the products. Of 48 brands tested, 28 were genuine fish sauces from 18 production sites in 12 provinces. Twenty samples from production sites in eight provinces were adulterated fish sauce. Tests showed that none were contaminated with botulinum toxin types A, B, E, and F and were free of "Clostridium botulinum" bacteria. In 2018, rumours again surfaced concerning banned Thai fish sauce.


title: Fish sauce

text: The variety from Vietnam is called "nước mắm". There are two areas in Vietnam that are most famous for producing fish sauce: Phú Quốc and Phan Thiết.


title: Fish sauce

text: Fish sauce has a 300 year history dating back to the Champa kingdom of the Cham people. The birthplace of fish sauce is believed to be from Phan Thiết. Phan Thiết can be identified with Vietnamese fish sauce. Before 1693, Phan Thiết was a territory of Champa. The Vietnamese arrived in the area and commercialized the fish sauce by keeping it in barrels and selling throughout the country. This business was popularized by Trần Gia Hòa who was born in 1872. There is a fish sauce museum in Phan Thiết. Popular brands in the US include Mega Chef, Red Boat, 3 Crabs, Golden Boy, and Hòn Phan Thiết.


title: Fish sauce

text: Vietnamese fish sauces are made with anchovies, mackerel, scabbard fish, and salt. High mercury concentration can be found in larger fish, especially in predator fish like scabbard fish. They do not have any additives like sugar, hydrolyzed protein, or preservatives. Vietnamese prefer sauces without a strong smell, and transparent with a deep golden amber color. "First press" fish sauce, meaning the sauce is bottled from the first time the fermenting barrels are drained, also indicates quality. Lastly, when measuring the nitrogen level of fish sauces (N), most fish sauce on the market falls within the mid 20N range. Anything over 30N is considered high-grade, and 40N is optimal.


title: Fish sauce

text: "Nước chấm" is a Vietnamese prepared fish-based condiment (also referred to as a "sauce") that is savory, lightly sweet and salty tasting, and can be sour and spicy if lime and chili peppers are added. The main components are fish sauce, water, and sugar.


title: Fish sauce

text: "Mắm" is made much like fish sauce, except that it is not fermented as long, and the fish is kept along with its liquid extract, not just the extract. "Mắm" can be used as a base condiment in dipping sauces with additional ingredients or used in soups or stir-fries.


title: Fish sauce

text: In January 2016, the Institute of Food Technologists published a study asserting that using Vietnamese fish sauce as a substitute for sodium chloride (salt) in chicken broth, tomato sauce, and coconut curry reduced the amount of sodium chloride by 10 to 25 percent while still maintaining the perceived deliciousness, saltiness, and overall flavor intensity.


title: Fish sauce

text: In China, fish sauce is called "yúlù" (, literally "fish dew") and is native to the provinces of Guangdong and Fujian. In Chaoshan cuisine, fish sauce is made with Reeve's shad ("Tenualosa reevesii"), which is unsuitable for direct eating due to being fatty, bony, and odorous.


title: Fish sauce

text: In Japan, fish sauce is called "gyoshō" (魚醤); another name is "uoshōyu" (魚醤油). There are several variations used in regional cuisines. "Ishiru" in the Noto Peninsula is made from sardine and squid. Shottsuru, the best-known type of Japanese fish sauce and often used as a synonym for all "gyoshō", is from Akita Prefecture and is mainly made from sailfin sandfish. "Ikanago shoyu" of Kagawa Prefecture is made from sand lance. They are used in "nabemono", in salad dressings, and as a flavoring ingredient in ramen soups.


title: Fish sauce

text: Across the Korean Peninsula, "aekjeot" (, literally "liquid "jeotgal""), a type of fish sauce usually made from fermented anchovies or sand lances, is used as a crucial ingredient in many types of kimchi, both for taste and fermentation.


title: Fish sauce

text: In Jeju island, "eoganjang" (), made of fermented "godori" (young chub mackerel) or horse mackerel, is used in place of soy sauce.


title: Fish sauce

text: Worcestershire sauce contains fermented anchovies among other ingredients, which is common in the Anglosphere countries.


title: Fish sauce

text: Common commercial brands of fish sauce generally contain about 50% to 60% of the FDA's daily recommended amount of sodium per tablespoon serving. Most commercial brands of reasonable quality contain one or two grams of protein per serving; however, higher-quality brands may have four grams of protein or more, while lower-quality brands may have less than one gram of protein per serving. Fish sauce has an insignificant amount of carbohydrates and fats. Vitamin B12, vitamin B-6, and magnesium are present in small amounts.


title: A Thousand Years (Christina Perri song)

text: "A Thousand Years" is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Christina Perri, and written by Perri and David Hodges, for "". The song was released as a digital download on October 18, 2011, worldwide, and serves as the second single for the movie. Perri re-recorded the song with vocals from Steve Kazee for "".


title: A Thousand Years (Christina Perri song)

text: The song was written about the love affair between Edward and Bella in the novel and subsequent film series Twilight.


title: A Thousand Years (Christina Perri song)

text: An official lyric video of the song was premiered on October 17, 2011, via Perri's official Facebook and Twitter pages as well as her official website. On October 26, 2011, she released an official video for the song on her YouTube channel. The video begins with Perri holding a candle. It features a few clips from "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1" interspersed between scenes with Perri singing in a room with a floor full of candles. Perri ends the video singing into a sunset.


title: A Thousand Years (Christina Perri song)

text: On the week of October 23, 2011, the song debuted at number 63 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, and number 70 on Canadian Hot 100. It eventually reached a peak at number 31 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, giving Perri her second top 40 hit. By July 2013, the song has sold over three million digital downloads in the US. As of June 2014, the song has sold 3,657,000 copies in the US. On March 3, 2022, the single was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling ten million units in the United States.


title: A Thousand Years (Christina Perri song)

text: In the United Kingdom, the song reached number 32 on its original release in 2011. The following year, after the release of "", it peaked at number 13. In 2013, it reached a new peak of 11.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Abilene ( ) is a city in Taylor and Jones Counties in Texas, United States. Its population was 125,182 at the 2020 census, making it the 27th-most populous city in the state of Texas. It is the principal city of the Abilene metropolitan statistical area, which had an estimated population of 169,893, as of 2016. It is the county seat of Taylor County. Dyess Air Force Base is located on the west side of the city.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Abilene is located off Interstate 20, between exits 279 on its western edge and 292 on the east. It is west of Fort Worth. The city is looped by I-20 to the north, US 83/84 on the west, and Loop 322 to the east. A railroad divides the city down the center into north and south. The historic downtown area is on the north side of the railroad.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Established by cattlemen as a stock shipping point on the Texas and Pacific Railway in 1881, the city was named after Abilene, Kansas, the original endpoint for the Chisholm Trail. The T&P had bypassed the town of Buffalo Gap, the county seat at the time. Eventually, a landowner north of Buffalo Gap, Clabe Merchant, known as the father of Abilene, chose the name for the new town. According to a Dallas newspaper, about 800 people had already begun camping at the townsite before the lots were sold. The town was laid out by Colonel J. Stoddard Johnson, and the auction of lots began early on March 15, 1881. By the end of the first day, 139 lots were sold for a total of $23,810, and another 178 lots were sold the next day for $27,550.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Abilene was incorporated soon after being founded in 1881, and residents began to set their sights on bringing the county seat to Abilene. In a three-to-one vote, they won the county election to do so. In 1888, the Progressive Committee was formed to attract businesses to the area, and in 1890 renamed itself as the Board of Trade. By 1900, 3,411 people lived in Abilene. In that decade, the Board of Trade changed its name to the 25,000 Club, in the hope of reaching a population of 25,000 by the next census. By 1910, though, the population had increased only to 9,204. Another group was formed, the Young Men's Booster Club, which became the Abilene Chamber of Commerce in 1914.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: The cornerstone was laid in 1891 for Simmons College, the first of three universities in Abilene. It later developed as Hardin–Simmons University. Childers Classical Institute was founded in 1906, and developed as Abilene Christian University, the largest of the three. In 1923, McMurry College was founded; it later expanded its offerings as McMurry University.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: In the late 20th century, Abilene succeeded in gaining branches of Texas State Technical College and Cisco College. Headquarters of the latter institution are located in the city.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: In 1940, Abilene raised the money to purchase land to attract establishment of a U.S. Army base, southwest of town. It was named Camp Barkeley. When fully operational, it was twice the size of Abilene, with 60,000 men. When the base closed after World War II, many worried that Abilene could become a ghost town, but as the national economy boomed, many veterans returned to start businesses in Abilene.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: In the early-1950s, to advocate for an Air Force base, residents raised to purchase of land. The Southern block of Congressmen gained approval for such a base here. For decades, Dyess Air Force Base has been the city's largest employer, with 6076 employees in 2007.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: From 1950 to 1960, Abilene's population nearly doubled, from 45,570 to 90,638. In 1960, a second high school was added to the city's school system, Cooper High School.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: In 1966, the Abilene Zoo was established near Abilene Regional Airport. The following year, one of the most important bond elections in the city's history passed for the funding of the construction of the Abilene Civic Center and the Taylor County Coliseum, as well as major improvements to Abilene Regional Airport. In 1969, the Woodson elementary and high school for black students closed as the city integrated its school system, more than 10 years after the US Supreme Court's ruling in "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: In 1982, Abilene became the first city in Texas to create a downtown reinvestment zone. Texas State Technical College opened an Abilene branch three years later. The 2,250-bed French Robertson Prison Unit was built in 1989. A half-cent sales tax earmarked for economic development was created after the decline in the petroleum business in the 1980s. A branch of Cisco College was located in the city in 1990.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Several major projects of restoration and new construction: The Grace Museum and Paramount Theatre, and development of Artwalk in 1992, sparked a decade of downtown revitalization. In 2004, Frontier Texas!, a multimedia museum highlighting the history of the area from 1780 to 1880, was constructed. That year an $8 million, Cisco Junior College campus was built at Loop 322 and Industrial Boulevard. Simultaneously, subdivisions and businesses started locating along the freeway, on the same side as the CC campus. This area attracted Abilene growth on the Loop.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Abilene has become the commercial, retail, medical, and transportation hub of a 19-county area more commonly known as "The Big Country", but also known as the "Texas Midwest". It is part of the Central Great Plains ecoregion. By the end of 2005, commercial and residential development had reached record levels in and around the city.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Abilene is located in northeastern Taylor County. The city limits extend north into Jones County. Interstate 20 leads east to Fort Worth and west to Midland. Three U.S. highways pass through the city. US 83 runs west of the city center, leading north to Anson and south to Ballinger. US 84 runs with US 83 through the southwest part of the city but leads southeast to Coleman and west with I-20 to Sweetwater. US 277 follows US 83 around the northwest side of the city and north to Anson, but heads southwest from Abilene to San Angelo.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, Abilene has a total area of , of which are land and are covered by water (4.82%). The water area is mainly from three reservoirs in the city: Lytle Lake southeast of downtown on the western edge of Abilene Regional Airport, Kirby Lake on the southeast corner of the US 83/84 and Loop 322 interchange, and Lake Fort Phantom Hill in Jones County in northern Abilene. Clear Creek runs through the city just east of downtown, flowing north to Elm Creek and ultimately part of the Brazos River watershed.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: The fastest-growing sections of the city are in the southwest, along Southwest Drive, the Winters Freeway, and the Buffalo Gap Road corridor; the southeast, along Loop 322, Oldham Lane, Industrial Drive, and Maple Street; and in the northeast near the intersection of SH 351 and I-20. Many developments have begun in these three areas within the last few years with a citywide focus on the reinvigoration of downtown Abilene.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: According to the Köppen climate classification, Abilene lies at the edge of a humid subtropical climate, with areas to the west being semiarid.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: As of the census of 2000, 115,930 people, 41,570 households, and 28,101 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,102.7 people per square mile (425.8/km). The 45,618 housing units averaged 433.9 per square mile (167.5/km). As of the 2010 census, Abilene had a population of 117,063. In 2020, its population was 125,182, with 43,607 households and 28,118 families residing in the city.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: In 2000, the racial makeup of the city was 78.07% white, 8.81% African American, 0.55% Native American, 1.33% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 8.73% from other races, and 2.44% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 19.45% of the population. The racial and ethnic makeup of the population in 2010 was 62.4% non-Hispanic White, 9.6% Black or African American, 0.7% Native American, 1.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.1% non-Hispanic reporting some other race, 3.3% of two or more races, and 24.5% Hispanic or Latino. By 2020, its racial and ethnic composition was 56.23% non-Hispanic white, 9.78% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 2.14% Asian, 0.11% Pacific Islander, 0.31% some other race, 4.16% multiracial, and 26.87% Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: At the 2000 census, the median income for a household in the city was $33,007, and for a family was $40,028. Males had a median income of $28,078 versus $20,918 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,577. About 10.9% of families and 15.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.6% of those under age 18 and 9.2% of those age 65 or over. At the 2020 American Community Survey, the median household income in the city was $52,518. The mean household income was $70,807.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: The economy in Abilene was originally based on the livestock and agricultural sectors, but is now based strongly on government, education, healthcare, and manufacturing. The petroleum industry is prevalent in the surrounding area, also. The city has established incentives to bring new businesses to the area, including job training grants, relocation grants, and more.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: The Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) operates the Abilene District Parole Office in the city. The Robertson Unit prison and the Middleton Unit transfer unit are in Abilene and in Jones County.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: The United States Postal Service operates the Abilene Post Office and the Abilene Southern Hills Post Office.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Abilene has two school districts within the city limits: Abilene Independent School District (AISD) and Wylie Independent School District (WISD). High schools include Abilene High School and Cooper High School of AISD, and Wylie High School of WISD.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Abilene is home to six colleges, three of which are religiously affiliated. Hardin–Simmons University is the oldest, founded in 1891. Abilene Christian University is the largest with 2012 undergraduate enrollment at 4,371.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: Hendrick Medical Center includes two large hospital campuses on the north and south sides of Abilene, and is one of the city's largest employers. It is one of seven healthcare institutions affiliated with the Baptist General Convention of Texas.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: The Presbyterian Medical Care Mission was founded in 1983 as a medical and dental clinic. Its services are focused to low-income individuals and families without insurance.


title: Abilene, Texas

text: The cultural aspects of Abilene revolve around a mix of the local college and university campuses, the agriculture community of the surrounding area, and a growing nightlife scene in the downtown area. Abilene is also home to the restored Paramount Theatre, the Abilene Philharmonic Orchestra, the Grace Museum, the Center for Contemporary Arts, the National Center for Children's Illustrated Literature, The Abilene Zoo, Frontier Texas!, the 12th Armored Division Museum, the Taylor County Expo Center, the Abilene Convention Center, six libraries (three private, three public), 26 public parks, six television stations, a daily newspaper, and several radio stations, including one NPR station (89.5 KACU).


title: Abilene, Texas

text: The "Abilene Reporter-News" is the primary daily newspaper of the city of Abilene and the surrounding Big Country area.


title: Indochina Wars

text: The Indochina Wars () was a series of wars which were waged in Southeast Asia from 1946 to 1991, by communist Indochinese forces (mainly the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) against anti-communist forces (mainly French, the State of Vietnam, American, Cambodian, Laotian Royal, and Chinese forces). The term "Indochina" originally referred to French Indochina, which included the current states of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. , it applies largely to a geographic region, rather than to a political area. The wars included:


title: Indochina Wars

text: French colonization and occupation of the region was a consequence of missionary work of the 16th century, which had resulted in Catholics forming a converted minority. While Gia Long tolerated Catholicism, his successors Minh Mạng and were orthodox Confucians, admiring ancient Chinese culture. They forbade Catholic proselytism, as it was usually the religious arm of colonization and they resisted European and American attempts to establish colonial trade posts, which France tried to impose against the laws of the country. This was seen by colonial powers as "provocative".


title: Indochina Wars

text: Confucian isolationist policy led the Vietnamese to refuse industrial modernization, so that they were not able to resist military power of a French invasion. In August 1858, Napoleon III ordered the landing of French forces at Tourane, (present-day Da Nang), beginning a colonial occupation that was to last almost a century. By 1884, the French had complete control over the country, which now formed the largest part of French Indochina. It took the Vietnamese people almost a century to expel the last colonial influence in their country.


title: Indochina Wars

text: A continuous thread of local resistance began with Hàm Nghi, then to Phan Đình Phùng, Phan Bội Châu and lastly to Ho Chi Minh, who returned to Vietnam from France and helped to create the Viet Minh national independence coalition in 1941. A founding member of the French Communist Party, Ho Chi Minh had de-emphasised his communist ties and dissolved the Indochinese Communist Party, in order to unite the country. When the Vietnamese famine broke out in 1945 causing 2 million deaths, after French and Japanese colonial administration continued to export food to France in a post war economy, the Viet Minh arranged a massive relief effort, consolidating popular support for their nationalist cause. Ho Chi Minh was elected Prime Minister of the Viet Minh in 1945.


title: Indochina Wars

text: When World War II ended, the August Revolution expelled the Japanese colonial army and gave control of the country to Viet Minh. The Japanese surrendered to the Chinese Nationalists in North Vietnam. Emperor Bảo Đại abdicated power to the Viet Minh, on August 25, 1945. In a popular move, Ho Chi Minh made Bảo Đại "supreme adviser" to the Viet Minh-led government in Hanoi, which asserted its independence on September 2 as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and issued a Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In 1946, Vietnam had its first constitution.


title: Indochina Wars

text: In 1948, France tried to regain its colonial control over Vietnam. In South Vietnam, the Japanese had surrendered to British forces, who had supported the Free French in fighting the Viet Minh, along with the armed religious Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo sects and the Bình Xuyên organized crime group. The French re-installed Bảo Đại as the head of state of Vietnam, which now comprised central and southern Vietnam. The ensuing war, between the French-controlled South and the independent communist-allied North, is known as the First Indochina War. It ended in a resounding defeat of the French Colonial Troops (Troupes coloniales) by the People's Army of Vietnam at Dien Bien Phu.


title: Indochina Wars

text: In the First Indochina War, the Viet Minh, supported by the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, fought to gain their independence from the French, supported initially by the remaining troops of the Japanese Army after its surrender to Britain, also by the State of Vietnam, and later by the United States in the frame of the Cold War. This war of independence lasted from December 1946 until July 1954, with most of the fighting taking place in areas surrounding Hanoi. It ended with the French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and French withdrawal from Vietnam after the Geneva Accords.


title: Indochina Wars

text: The Second Indochina War, commonly known as the Vietnam War, pitted the recently successful Communist Vietnam People's Army (VPA or PAVN, but also known as the North Vietnamese Army or NVA) and the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam (Vietnamese NLF guerrilla fighters allied with the PAVN, known in America as the Viet Cong, meaning 'Communists Traitor to Vietnam') against United States troops and the United States-backed by South Vietnamese Government ARVN (Republic of Vietnam soldiers).


title: Indochina Wars

text: During the War, the North Vietnamese transported most of their supplies via the Ho Chi Minh Trail (known to the Vietnamese as the Truong Son Trail, after the Truong Son mountains), which ran through Laos and Cambodia. As a result, the areas of these nations bordering Vietnam would see heavy combat during the war.


title: Indochina Wars

text: For the United States, the political and combat goals were ambiguous: success and progress were ill-defined and, along with the large numbers of casualties, the Vietnam War raised moral issues that made the war increasingly unpopular at home. U.S. news reports of the 1968 Tet offensive, especially from CBS, were unfavorable in regard to the lack of progress in ending the war. Although the 1968 Tet offensive resulted in a military victory for South Vietnam and the United States, with virtually complete destruction of the NLF forces combat capability, it was, by the intensity of the combats, the contradiction it implied with recent reports of withdrawals of US troops and status of the war, also a turning point in American voter opposition to U.S. support for their Cold War Vietnamese allies.


title: Indochina Wars

text: The United States began withdrawing troops from Vietnam in 1970, with the last troops returning in January, 1973. The Paris Peace Accords called for a cease-fire, and prohibited the North Vietnamese from sending more troops into South Vietnam - although the North Vietnamese were permitted to continue to occupy those regions of South Vietnam they had conquered in the 1972 Easter Offensive.


title: Indochina Wars

text: The North Vietnamese never intended to abide by the agreement. Fighting continued sporadically through 1973 and 1974, while the North Vietnamese planned a major offensive, tentatively scheduled for 1976. The North Vietnamese Army in South Vietnam had been ravaged during the Easter offensive in 1973, and it was projected that it would take until 1976 to rebuild their logistical capabilities.


title: Indochina Wars

text: The withdrawal had catastrophic effects on the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN). Shortly after the Paris Peace Accords, the United States Congress made major budget cuts in military aid to the South Vietnamese. The ARVN, which had been trained by American troops to use American tactics, quickly fell into disarray. Although it remained an effective fighting force throughout 1973 and 1974, by January 1975 it had disintegrated. The North Vietnamese hurriedly attacked the much weakened South, and were met with little resistance.


title: Indochina Wars

text: Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, was taken by the PAVN on April 30, 1975, and the Second Indochina War ended.


title: Indochina Wars

text: The fighting that took place between North and South Vietnam following United States withdrawal is sometimes called the Third Indochina War; this term usually refers to a later 1979 conflict, however (see below).


title: Indochina Wars

text: The Third Indochina War, commonly known as the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, started on 1 May 1975 when the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army invaded the Vietnamese island of Phu Quoc. Vietnamese forces quickly counter-attacked, regaining their territory and invading the Kampuchean island of Koh Wai.


title: Indochina Wars

text: In August 1975, Vietnam returned the island of Koh Wai to Kampuchea and both governments started making peaceful noises, but behind the scenes tensions were mounting. On 30 April 1977, Kampuchea started attacking Vietnamese villages. In September, six divisions crossed the border, advancing 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) into Tay Ninh Province. Angered by the scale of the attacks, the Vietnam People’s Army assembled eight divisions to launch a retaliatory strike against Kampuchea.


title: Indochina Wars

text: In December, in an effort to force the Kampuchean government to negotiate, the Vietnamese forces invaded Kampuchea, easily defeating the Kampuchean army. On 6 January 1978, Vietnamese forces were only 38 kilometers (24 mi) from Phnom Penh; however, the Kampuchean government remained defiant and the Vietnamese leadership realised they would not secure their political objective and decided to withdraw their troops.


title: Indochina Wars

text: As Kampuchean forces soon resumed their attacks across the border, the Vietnamese launched another limited counter-attack in June, forcing the Kampucheans to retreat. Again the Vietnamese withdrew and the Kampucheans resumed their attacks. The Vietnamese had had enough; in December 1978, Vietnam launched a full-scale invasion. Phnom Penh was captured in January 1979, the ruling Khmer Rouge were driven from power and a pro-Vietnamese government was installed.


title: Indochina Wars

text: In 1984, Vietnam unveiled a plan for the disengagement of its army from Kampuchea. In 1988, the Vietnamese Government began withdrawing forces in earnest; the last men left in September 1989.


title: Indochina Wars

text: The Third Indochina War also refers to the Sino-Vietnamese War, was fought in February–March 1979 between the People's Republic of China and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Shortly after the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, the People's Republic of China, who were the Khmer Rouge's political ally, launched a punitive invasion of Vietnam. Fighting was short but intense. The Chinese advanced about forty kilometers into Vietnam, occupying the city of Lang Son on 6 March. There, they claimed the gate to Hanoi was open, declared their punitive mission achieved, and withdrew.


title: Indochina Wars

text: On 23 October 1991, the Cambodian-Vietnamese War was officially declared over as a result of negotiations and the signing of 1991 Paris Peace Agreements.


title: Byblos

text: Byblos ( ; ), also known as Jbeil or Jubayl (, ; , , ), is a city in the Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate of Lebanon. It is believed to have been first occupied between 8800 and 7000BC and continuously inhabited since 5000BC, making it one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. During its history, Byblos was part of numerous civilizations, including Egyptian, Phoenician, Assyrian, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Fatimid, Genoese, Mamluk and Ottoman. The city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Byblos

text: It was in ancient Byblos that the Phoenician alphabet, likely the ancestor of the Greek, Latin and all other Western alphabets, was developed.


title: Byblos

text: Byblos appears as "Kebny" in Egyptian hieroglyphic records going back to the 4th-dynasty pharaoh Sneferu (BC) and as () in the Akkadian cuneiform Amarna letters to the 18th-dynasty pharaohs and IV. In the 1stmillenniumBC, its name appeared in Phoenician and Punic inscriptions as (, ); in the Hebrew Bible as "Geval" (); and in Syriac as (). The name seems to derive from (, "well") and (, "god"), the latter a word that could variously refer to any of the Canaanite gods or to their leader in particular. The name thus seems to have meant the "Well of the God" or "Source of the God".


title: Byblos

text: Its present Arabic name () or "J"("e")"beil" is a direct descendant of these earlier names, although apparently modified by a misunderstanding of the name as the triliteral root or , meaning "mountain". All of these, along with Byblos, are etymologically related. During the Crusades, this name appeared in European records as "Gibelet" or . This name was used for Byblos Castle and its associated lordship.


title: Byblos

text: The Phoenician city, known to the Greeks as () and to the Romans as , was important for their import of papyrus from Egypt – to the extent that ""byblos"" came to mean "papyrus" in Greek. The English word "Bible", therefore, ultimately derives from the Greek name of the city.


title: Byblos

text: Located about north of Beirut, Byblos is attractive to archaeologists because of the successive layers of debris resulting from centuries of human habitation. It was first excavated by Ernest Renan in 1860, as published in his "Mission de Phénicie (1865–1874)", then by Pierre Montet from 1921 until 1924, followed by Maurice Dunand from 1925 over a period of forty years. Renan's expedition was to "provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos".


title: Byblos

text: The site first appears to have been settled during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period, approximately 8800 to 7000 BC. Neolithic remains of some buildings can be observed at the site. According to the writer Philo of Byblos (quoting Sanchuniathon, and quoted in Eusebius), Byblos was founded by the Phoenician shrine god El, (whom the Greeks identified with their god Cronus). During the 3rd millennium BC, the first signs of a town can be observed, with the remains of well-built houses of uniform size. This was the period when the Canaanite civilization began to develop.


title: Byblos

text: Jacques Cauvin published studies of flint tools from the stratified Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in 1962. Remains of humans found in Chalcolithic burials have been published by Henri Victor Vallois in 1937. Tombs from this era were discussed by Emir Maurice Chehab in 1950. Early pottery found at the tell was published by E.S. Boynton in 1960 with further studies by R. Erich in 1954 and Van Liere and Henri de Contenson in 1964.


title: Byblos

text: Prehistoric settlements at Byblos were divided up by Dunand into the following five periods, which were recently expanded and re-calibrated by Yosef Garfinkel to correlate with Tell es-Sultan (Jericho):


title: Byblos

text: The Early Neolithic was a later settlement than others in the Beqaa Valley such as Labweh and Ard Tlaili. It was located on the seaward slope of the larger of the two hills that used to compose ancient Byblos, with a watered valley in between.


title: Byblos

text: The original site spread down into the valley and covered an area of providing fertile soils and a protected landing place for boats. Dunand discovered around twenty houses although some of the settlement was suggested to have been lost to the sea, robbed or destroyed. Dwellings were rectangular with plastered floors, pottery was usually Dark faced burnished ware with some shell impressions.


title: Byblos

text: The Middle Neolithic was a smaller settlement of no more than adjacent to the older site. The pottery was more developed with red washes and more varied forms and elaborate decorations, buildings were poorer with unplastered floors.


title: Byblos

text: The Late Neolithic period showed development from the middle in building design, a wider range of more developed flint tools and a far larger variety of pottery with fabrication including silica. The Late Chalcolithic featured developments of "Canaanean blades" and fan scrapers. Adult burials in jars started to appear along with metal in the form of one copper hook, found in a jar. Some jars were lined with white plaster that was applied and self-hardened after firing. Copper appeared more frequently in the Late Chalcolithic period along with multiple burials in tombs and jar handles with impressed signs. Early Bronze Age remains were characterized by the development of Byblos combed ware and a lithic assemblage studied by Jacques Cauvin.


title: Byblos

text: According to Lorenzo Nigro, Byblos moved from being a fishermen's village to its earlier urban form at the beginning of the third millennium BC. Fragments attributed to the semi-legendary pre-Homeric Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon say Byblos was the first city erected in Phoenicia and was established by the god Cronus. (Cronus was considered the nearest equivalent to the Canaanite Baal or Baal Hammon in the syncretizing system used by the ancient Greeks and Romans.)


title: Byblos

text: Watson Mills and Roger Bullard suggest that during the Old Kingdom of Egypt and Middle Kingdom of Egypt Byblos was virtually an Egyptian colony. The growing city was evidently a wealthy one and seems to have been an ally (among "those who are on his waters") of Egypt for many centuries. First Dynasty tombs used timbers from Byblos. One of the oldest Egyptian words for an oceangoing boat was "Byblos ship". Archaeologists have recovered Egyptian-made artifacts as old as a vessel fragment bearing the name of the Second dynasty ruler Khasekhemwy, although this "may easily have reached Byblos through trade and/or at a later period". Objects have been found at Byblos naming the 13th Dynasty Egyptian king Neferhotep I, and the rulers of Byblos maintained close relationships with the New Kingdom pharaohs of Ancient Egypt.


title: Byblos

text: Around 1350 BC, the Amarna letters include 60 letters from Rib-Hadda and his successor Ili-Rapih who were rulers of Byblos, writing to the Egyptian government. This is mainly due to Rib-Hadda's constant pleas for military assistance from Akhenaten. They also deal with the conquest of neighboring city-states by the Habiru.


title: Byblos

text: It appears Egyptian contact peaked during the 19th dynasty, only to decline during the 20th and 21st dynasties. In addition, when the New Kingdom collapsed in the 11th century BC, Byblos ceased being a colony and became the foremost city of Phoenicia. Although the archaeological evidence seems to indicate a brief resurgence during the 22nd and 23rd dynasties, it is clear after the Third Intermediate Period the Egyptians started favoring Tyre and Sidon instead of Byblos.


title: Byblos

text: Archaeological evidence at Byblos, particularly the five Byblian royal inscriptions dating back to around 1200–1000 BC, shows existence of a Phoenician alphabet of twenty-two characters; an important example is the Ahiram sarcophagus. The use of the alphabet was spread by Phoenician merchants through their maritime trade into parts of North Africa and Europe. One of the most important monuments of this period is the Temple of the Obelisks, dedicated to the Canaanite war god Resheph, but this had fallen into ruins by the time of Alexander the Great.


title: Byblos

text: In the Assyrian period, Sibittibaal of Byblos became tributary to Tiglath-Pileser III in 738 BC, and in 701 BC, when Sennacherib conquered all Phoenicia, the king of Byblos was Urumilki. Byblos was also subject to Assyrian kings Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (r. 668–627 BC), under its own kings Milkiasaph and Yehawmelek.


title: Byblos

text: In the Achaemenid Empire (538–332 BC), Byblos was the fourth of four Phoenician vassal kingdoms established by the Persians; the first three being Sidon, Tyre, and Arwad.


title: Byblos

text: Hellenistic rule came with the arrival of Alexander the Great in the area in 332 BC. Coinage was in use, and there is abundant evidence of continued trade with other Mediterranean countries.


title: Byblos

text: During the Greco-Roman period, the temple of Resheph was elaborately rebuilt, and the city, though smaller than its neighbours such as Tyre and Sidon, was a center for the cult of Adonis. In the 3rd century, a small but impressive theater was constructed. With the rise of Christianity, a bishopric was established in Byblos, and the town grew rapidly. Although a Sasanian colony is known to have been established in the region following the early Muslim conquests of 636, there is little archaeological evidence for it. Trade with Europe effectively dried up, and it was not until the coming of the First Crusade in 1098 that prosperity returned to Byblos, known then as Gibelet or Giblet.


title: Byblos

text: In the 12th and 13th century Byblos became part of the County of Tripoli, a Crusader state connected to, but largely independent from, the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.


title: Byblos

text: As Gibelet or Giblet, it came under the rule of the Genoese Embriaco family, who created for themselves the Lordship of Gibelet, first as administrators of the city in the name of the Republic of Genoa, and then as a hereditary fief, undertaking to pay an annual fee to Genoa and to the church of San Lorenzo (Genoa's Cathedral).


title: Byblos

text: The Embriaco family's residence, the Crusader castle of Gibelet, along with the fortified town, served as an important military base for the Crusaders. The remains of the castle are among the most impressive architectural structures now visible in the town centre. The town was taken by Saladin in 1187, re-taken by the Crusaders, conquered by Baibars in 1266, but it remained in the possession of the Embriacos until around 1300.


title: Byblos

text: Having voluntarily surrendered to the Mamluks, the city was relatively spared from looting following its capture. Its fortifications were subsequently restored. From 1516 until 1918, the town and the whole region became part of the Ottoman Empire.


title: Byblos

text: Byblos and all of Lebanon were placed under French Mandate from 1920 until 1943 when Lebanon achieved independence.


title: Byblos

text: The 2006 Lebanon War negatively affected the ancient city by covering its harbor and town walls with an oil slick that was the result of an oil spill from a nearby power-plant. This however has been cleared and the coastal area has since then become a destination for beach goers, especially in the late spring and throughout the summer season.


title: Byblos

text: Byblos's inhabitants are predominantly Christian, mostly Maronite, with minorities of Armenian Apostolic, Greek Orthodox, and Greek Catholics. There is also a minority of Shia Muslims. It is said that the city of Bint Jbeil ("Daughter of Byblos") in southern Lebanon was founded by those Shia Muslims. Byblos has three representatives in the Parliament of Lebanon: two Maronites and one Shia.


title: Byblos

text: Byblos is home to the professional schools of the Lebanese American University (LAU). The LAU Byblos Campus houses the Medical School, the Engineering School, the School of Architecture and Design, the Pharmacy School, which offers the only Pharm.D. Program outside the United States accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE), the School of Business, and the School of Arts and Sciences. The Campus is situated on a hill overlooking the city and the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Byblos

text: Byblos is re-emerging as an upscale touristic hub. With its ancient port, Phoenician, Roman, and Crusader ruins, sandy beaches and the picturesque mountains that surround it make it an ideal tourist destination. The city is known for its fish restaurants, open-air bars, and outdoor cafes. Yachts cruise into its harbor today as they did in the 1960s and 1970s when Marlon Brando and Frank Sinatra were regular visitors to the city.


title: Byblos

text: Byblos was crowned as the "Arab Tour Capital" for the year 2016 by the Lebanese minister of tourism in the Grand Serail in Beirut.


title: Byblos

text: Byblos was chosen by Condé Nast Traveler as the second best city in the Middle East for 2012, beating Tel Aviv and Dubai, and by the World Tourism Organization as the best Arab tourist city for 2013.


title: Byblos

text: The Byblos Wax Museum displays wax statues of characters whose dates of origin range from Phoenician times to current days.


title: Byblos

text: The Byblos Fossil Museum has a collection of fossilized fish, sharks, eel, flying fish, and other marine life, some of which are millions of years old.


title: Byblos

text: The old medieval part of Byblos is surrounded by walls running about 270m from east to west and 200m from north to south.


title: Byblos

text: Byblos Castle was built by the Crusaders in the 12th century. It is located in the archaeological site near the port.


title: Byblos

text: Work on the church started during the Crusades in 1115. It was considered a cathedral and was partially destroyed during an earthquake in 1170 AD. It was later given to the Maronite bishop as a gift by Prince Yusuf Shihab.


title: Byblos

text: The old mosque by the Castle dates back to the Mamluk period, and adopted the name of Sultan Abdulmejid I after he renovated it.


title: Byblos

text: In the southeast section of the historic city, near the entrance of the archaeological site, is an old market where tourists can shop for souvenirs and antiques, or simply stroll along the old cobblestone streets and enjoy the architecture.


title: Audi 100

text: The Audi 100 and Audi 200 (and sometimes called Audi 5000 in North America) are primarily mid-size/executive cars manufactured and marketed by the Audi division of the Volkswagen Group. The car was made from 1968 to 1997 across four generations (C1–C4), with a two-door model available in the first and second generation (C1-C2), and a five-door model available in the last three generations (C2–C4).


title: Audi 100

text: In 1982, the third generation Audi 100 achieved a remarkably low (for its time) drag coefficient of 0.30, featuring flush greenhouse sides with unique sliding window mountings.


title: Audi 100

text: The C2 and C3 models of the Audi 100 were marketed in North America as the Audi 5000 from 1978 to 1988, and in South Africa as the Audi 500.


title: Audi 100

text: In 1993, the models were mildly restyled, and renamed the Audi A6 series in conjunction with a general new Audi naming scheme, until they were relieved by a new generation of A6, internally code-named C5, in 1997.


title: Audi 100

text: The first Audi 100, developed by Auto Union (Volkswagen's subsidiary) in Ingolstadt, was unveiled as a four-door sedan on November 26, 1968. Its name originally denoting a power output of , the Audi 100 was the company's largest car since the revival of the Audi brand by Volkswagen in 1965. The C1 platform spawned several variants: the Audi 100 two- and four-door saloons, and the Audi 100 Coupé S, a fastback coupé, which bore a resemblance to the Aston Martin DBS released a year earlier with similar details such as the louvres behind the rear side windows and the shape of the rear light clusters.


title: Audi 100

text: Audi followed the introduction of the four-door saloon in November 1968 with a two-door saloon in October 1969 and the 100 Coupé S in autumn 1970. The cars' 1.8 litre four cylinder engines originally came in base 100 (), 100 S (), and 100 LS () versions, while the coupé was powered by a bored-out 1.9 litre developing . From April 1970 the 100 LS could be ordered with a three-speed automatic transmission sourced from Volkswagen.


title: Audi 100

text: Although the Audi 100's engines were considered 'rough', critics stated that buyers whose first car had been a Beetle and aspired to upgrade to a contemporary diesel-powered Mercedes-Benz were unlikely to be discouraged. The Ingolstadt production line was at full capacity, yet fell short of demand during the summer of 1970 and an additional line was set up in Volkswagen's own Wolfsburg plant, which made it the first water cooled car produced there. For the Swiss market, the 100 LS was equipped with a version of the 1.8 liter engine bored out by , producing . This placed the engine above 9 horsepower tax thresholds in the 19 cantons where this system was in use; why this was desired is unknown.


title: Audi 100

text: Starting with the 1972 model year, the 80 and 90 PS versions were replaced by a new regular petrol variant of the 1.8 liter engine developing 85 PS (84 hp/63 kW); at the same time, the 100 GL was introduced featuring the 1.9 liter engine formerly used only in the Coupé S.


title: Audi 100

text: In March 1971, the 500,000th Audi was produced. By now the Audi 100 had become the most commercially successful model in the company's history. In 1976 the two millionth Audi was built, of which the 100 represented 800,000 cars.


title: Audi 100

text: In September 1973 (for the 1974 model year) the 100 received a facelift with a somewhat smaller squared-off grille, correspondingly more angular front fenders, and changed taillight lens patterns. The rear torsion beam suspension was replaced by coil springs. For the model year 1975, the base 100 was renamed the 100 L and received a 1.6 liter four cylinder engine (coming out of the Audi 80). A four-wheel drive prototype of the Audi 100 C1 was built in 1976, long before the appearance of quattro.


title: Audi 100

text: In South Africa, where the 100 was also assembled, the 100 was available as the L, LS, GL, and S Coupé. Local production began towards the end of 1972; by October 1976 33,000 units had been built in South Africa. The GL received a vinyl roof and "GL" lettering on the C-pillar. The LS was dropped for 1976, but returned for 1977 along with the new GLS saloon. The Coupé was discontinued. The LS and GLS were special versions of the L and GL, with silver paintjobs, automatic transmissions, and special red interiors. L and LS have a 1760 cc engine with DIN, while the GL and GLS have the larger 1871 cc engine producing .


title: Audi 100

text: In the United States the Audi 100 appeared in 1970 in LS guise, with a SAE 1.8 liter engine and with either two or four doors. For 1972 the engine was enlarged to 1.9 liters, but the SAE net claimed power was down to . A base and a GL model were added, as was an automatic transmission. For 1974 the lineup was again restricted to the 100 LS, while the larger safety bumpers were now fitted. Power increased to for 1975, by changing to fuel injection. Standard equipment was improved accompanied by an increase in prices. In August 1977 the new Audi 5000 replaced the 100, although 537 leftover cars were sold in 1978. The coupé was not available in the United States.


title: Audi 100

text: The restyled C2 Audi 100 was launched in 1976, with an inline five-cylinder engine. It was initially a engine offering "six-cylinder power and four-cylinder economy", later supplemented by less powerful versions.


title: Audi 100

text: The Coupé was discontinued, but a five-door hatchback model, the 100 Avant, was launched in August 1977 as part of this generation. These Avant new models bore a liftback design similar to Volkswagen Passats from the era.The mainstay of the range remained the four-door sedan model. A two-door sedan version was offered, primarily on the domestic market, from February 1977, but by now there was little demand for large two-door sedans and thus only a few of these two-door Audi 100 C2s were sold. At the top of the line, the Audi 200 made its appearance at the 1979 Frankfurt Show, with fuel injected five cylinder engines in either naturally aspirated or turbocharged forms.


title: Audi 100

text: At the end of September 1977, the Audi 100 became the manufacturer's first model to reach a production level of 1,000,000 units. The millionth Audi 100 was a hatchback Audi 100 Avant assembled not at the company's main Ingolstadt plant but to the west, at the Neckarsulm factory which, since the demise of the mainstream volume models from the NSU range, had been concentrating on providing additional production capacity for the fast selling Audi range. The 100 C2 effectively became a de facto successor to the similarly sized NSU Ro80 which ceased production in 1977, and the NSU name gradually disappeared from the public consciousness - eventually being erased from the company name completely in 1985 when Audi NSU Auto Union AG renamed itself Audi AG.


title: Audi 100

text: The RHD Audi 200 5E and 5T were introduced into the UK in 1979, only 500 were imported. The 5T (170 PS) was a higher spec Turbo version of the 5E (136 PS injection) and came with many optional extras as standard. The UK version of the 5T had opening quarter lights, electric door mirrors, a sunroof, cruise control and heated seats. All Type 43 200's came with automatic gearboxes, with a five-speed manual available by special order.


title: Audi 100

text: The C2 was sold as the Audi 5E in Australia. It was part of a very restricted Audi lineup, being the only model on offer for several years. The only engine on offer was the fuel injected (Bosch K-jetronic) 2144-cc inline-five with , coupled to a four-speed manual or 3 speed automatic in the GL and the 100kw Version with rare 5 speed manual or a three-speed automatic in the CD.


title: Audi 100

text: In North America, where 133,512 of the Audi 5000 C2s were sold, only five cylinder engines were available. The 5000 had twin round headlamps for the first two model years, after which they were replaced by rectangular units. The diesel was originally not available in California, as Porsche-Audi of North America was unable to meet that state's strict emissions standards. The naturally aspirated diesel was also only available with a five-speed manual, a handicap in the American market. It was not until the 1983 introduction of the turbo diesel that these concerns were met. The 50-state Turbo diesel arrived for the 1983 model year, at about the same time that the Audi 100 C3 was presented in Europe, and was only ever sold in the United States.


title: Audi 100

text: In 1980 the 5000 Turbo arrived in the US. This model only delivered , more than twenty percent less than the European spec model. Aside from meeting the strict US emissions, this model also had lower boost pressure to be able to run on the lower octane unleaded fuel available in America. While the Turbo also received a harder, sportier suspension, bigger aluminium wheels, and other performance upgrades, it was also only available with a three-speed automatic transmission. "Road & Track" were able to reach a top speed of in the federalized car, slower than a naturally aspirated European market 2.1 E. In the US, reflecting the Audi's luxury connotations, 90 percent of 5000s were delivered with the costlier "S" equipment package.


title: Audi 100

text: The 5000 Turbo diesel received a useful increase in power and torque, offset somewhat by only being available in conjunction with Audi's "3+E" automatic transmission. This was a three-speed automatic in which the "E" mode engaged a freewheel effect, lowering fuel consumption by 3-5 percent. The Turbo diesel received the same body and interior specifications as the gasoline-powered turbo; the only difference was the use of 14-inch alloy wheels rather than the wider 15-inch items mounted on the 5000 Turbo.


title: Audi 100

text: The third generation Audi 100 launched in September 1982 with aerodynamic styling, contrasting the boxy styling of its predecessor, and offering a much improved drag coefficient, 0.30 on base model. The aerodynamic C3 bodywork featured pin-mounted flush windows, offering a key reduction in aerodynamic drag. Altogether, the aerodynamic body increased the fuel efficiency and top speed versus other cars of similar engine size. The C3 introduced Audi's proprietary restraint system, marketed as procon-ten.


title: Audi 100

text: Two-door models were no longer offered, and the Audi 100 Avant was now positioned as a station wagon rather than a hatchback - the "Avant" designation would be used for all Audi station wagons from that point forward. The Avant featured an available extra folding third row seat — not available in conjunction with ABS-brakes as the brake control unit sat in the same space. The 200, launched in 1983 continued as the upmarket variant with several versions of the 2.2 L turbo 5-cylinder available in different markets over its life ranging in power outputs from MC engine, through the versions to the final 20-valve 3B engine available from 1991. The 1983 Audi 200 Turbo had a top speed of . The MC turbo engine was available in the 100 as well for some markets.


title: Audi 100

text: In January 1988 the Audi 100 received a minor facelift, including flush fitting door handles. The 1991 200 20V featured flared (vs. flat) front and rounded rear wheel arches to accommodate wider wheel and tire combinations to be fitted to 20V models. U.S. magazine articles of the period reported 0-60 times of the 20-valve Audi 200 under 7 seconds, with 1/4 mile times in the mid to upper 15 second mark.


title: Audi 100

text: The Audi 100 also featured a 2.5 L straight-five direct injection turbo-diesel (TDI) model with introduced in January 1990 (engine code 1T). This was the first model to wear the TDI label. It had a brief career in the C3, being replaced in December of that year when the C4 arrived.


title: Audi 100

text: During model years 1983–1987, Audi's U.S. sales fell after several recalls of Audi 5000 models, which were associated with reported incidents of sudden unintended acceleration linked to six deaths and 700 accidents. At the time, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) was investigating 50 car models from 20 manufacturers for sudden surges of power.


title: Audi 100

text: In North America, the CBS television broadcast network "60 Minutes" news program aired a report titled "Out of Control" on November 23, 1986. It featured interviews with six people who had sued Audi after reporting unintended acceleration, including footage of an Audi 5000 ostensibly displaying a surge of acceleration while the brake pedal was depressed. Subsequent investigation revealed that "60 Minutes" had not disclosed they had engineered the vehicle's behavior – fitting a canister of compressed air on the passenger-side floor, to pump fluid via a hose to a hole drilled into the transmission — the arrangement executed by one of the experts who had testified on behalf of a plaintiff in a then-pending lawsuit against Audi's parent company.


title: Audi 100

text: Audi initially responded by suggesting that the drivers of the cars involved in the incidents were at fault, because they had depressed the accelerator pedal rather than the brake. Subsequently, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) concluded that the majority of unintended acceleration cases, including all the ones that prompted the "60 Minutes" report, were caused mainly by factors such as confusion of pedals. CBS acknowledged the report and stressed its findings that "the problem could be aggravated by vehicle design, the shape, location and feel of gas and brake pedals." Audi's research demonstrated that many of the drivers who encountered "unintended acceleration" were "below average in height", indicating their knowledge of a relationship between design and the incidents.


title: Audi 100

text: In a review study published in 2012, NHTSA summarized its past findings about the Audi unintended acceleration problems: "Once an unintended acceleration had begun, in the Audi 5000, due to a failure in the idle-stabilizer system (producing an initial acceleration of 0.3g), pedal misapplication resulting from panic, confusion, or unfamiliarity with the Audi 5000 contributed to the severity of the incident."


title: Audi 100

text: This summary is consistent with the conclusions of NHTSA's most technical analysis at the time: "Audi idle-stabilization systems were prone to defects which resulted in excessive idle speeds and brief unanticipated accelerations of up to 0.3g [which is similar in magnitude to an emergency stop in a subway car]. These accelerations could not be the sole cause of [(long-duration) sudden acceleration incidents (SAI)], but might have triggered some SAIs by startling the driver. The defective idle-stabilization system performed a type of electronic throttle control. Significantly: multiple "intermittent malfunctions of the electronic control unit were observed and recorded ... and [were also observed and] reported by Transport Canada."


title: Audi 100

text: With the series of recall campaigns, Audi made several modifications; the first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal on automatic-transmission models. Later repairs of 250,000 cars dating back to 1978 added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of park. It is unclear what was done regarding the defects in the idle-stabilization system. Subsequent to the recall campaigns, vehicles now include gear shift patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent deliberate gear selection.


title: Audi 100

text: Audi's U.S. sales, which had reached 74,061 in 1985, dropped to 12,283 in 1991 and remained level for three years. – with resale values falling dramatically. Audi subsequently offered increased warranty protection and renamed the affected models — with the "5000" becoming the "100" and "200" in 1989. The company only reached the same level of U.S. sales again by model year 2000.


title: Audi 100

text: As of early 2010, a class-action lawsuit — dealing with a charge that on account of the sudden acceleration controversy, Audi models had lost resale value — filed in 1987 by about 7,500 Audi 5000-model owners remains unsettled and is currently contested in county court in Chicago after appeals at the Illinois state and U.S. federal levels. The NHTSA's findings have been "small solace for Audi in defense of product liability actions, as more and more successful cases used Audi's human factor design errors and failure to warn or recall as a basis for liability."


title: Audi 100

text: The 5000 "S/Turbo" was on "Car and Driver's" Ten Best list for 1984 and 1985. The "CS Turbo quattro" was on that list for 1986 through 1988.


title: Audi 100

text: Note : figures given for calendar years, might include late C2 production; figures for 200 do not include 1991.


title: Audi 100

text: In 1988, Audi entered the Trans-Am Series with the 200 turbo quattro by contracting Bob Tullius Group 44 Racing. The car was equipped with the Quattro system. The car was piloted by Hurley Haywood and with both Walter Röhrl and Hans-Joachim Stuck won eight out of thirteen events. Audi moved to IMSA by the end of the season, the SCCA would change the regulation to a two-wheel drive only and banning cars with non-American engines. The Historic Trans-am & IMSA Group is dedicated to the preservation of the cars that ran in the SCCA Trans-am series and the similar IMSA GTO class from 1980 until 1991.


title: Audi 100

text: Audi also used the 200 Turbo Quattro 20v as their Group A rally car replacement for the aging Audi Quattro after the FIA elimination of Group B in 1986. The 1987 Group A 200 was driven by former World Rally Champions drivers drivers Hannu Mikkola and Walter Röhrl. The Audi 200 became the first four-wheel-drive car to win the Safari Rally, with Hannu Mikkola driving. The 200 Quattro became the last car Audi campaigned in rallying as a manufacturing team.


title: Audi 100

text: Audi released the C4 (a heavily revised C3) in late 1990 in Continental Europe and during 1991 in other markets, including the right-hand drive British market. The C3-platform Audi V8 continued to be sold as a separate line. The major change for the C4 was the introduction of a 2.8 L, 90-degree, SOHC 12v, V6 engine. It was later joined by a 2.6 L variant, of the same configuration as the 2.8 L unit. They are essentially the same engines offered in the 1992, B4 Audi 80. The option of quattro permanent four-wheel drive was an option across the range, except the smallest engines. The Audi 100 quattro was available with a ZF four-speed automatic and a 5 speed manual gearbox.


title: Audi 100

text: This generation was also available with the 2.5 litre, 5-cylinder TDI engine, introduced late in the C3 production, which provided outstanding performance, economy and refinement.


title: Audi 100

text: During 1994, in conjunction with some styling revisions, Audi dropped the Audi 100 tag, renaming it the A6 instead. In addition, the existing 100-derived Audi S4 became the S6. The S4 name was later reused for the high-performance derivative of the Audi A4 (replacement for the Audi 80). The Audi V8 had been replaced by the A8 in 1994.


title: Audi 100

text: The C3-platform Audi 100 was also produced in Changchun, China, by FAW (First Automobile Works, a Chinese automotive manufacturer) starting in August 1988. Since most products in China are designed for government use, all 100s manufactured as FAWs were front-wheel drive sedans with a 2.0 L inline-four motor or a 2.2 L inline-five motor. The Mingshi replaced the Hongqi CA770 and its derivatives which were based on the Chrysler Imperial.


title: Audi 100

text: In 1990, Politburo of the CCP approved a resolution to circumscribe car import and the engine displacement of cars equipped to officials. Furthermore, the resolution also prescribed that all cars of central departments of both Party and government must be domestically built. As the most luxurious and advanced cars made in China in early-1990s, FAW-Audi 100 and 200 had a high percentage of the Chinese high-class market of executive cars for nearly a decade, until the C3-platform cars was replaced by C4 based Audi A6 in 1999.


title: Audi 100

text: During the negotiation between FAW and Volkswagen in late-1980s, Volkswagen acceded to FAW's suggestion of combining the C3 platform with previously introduced Chrysler engines in the new generation Hongqi (Red Flag). Hongqi CA7200 series with the technology of C3 were launched in mid-1990s, while most of C3 Audi 100 parts could be made in China. CA7200 were initially equipped with a 2.0 L or 2.2 L Chrysler four-cylinder engine, whose product line was introduced into China in 1987. In 2005, new Nissan VQ20 engines replaced the original Chrysler unit.


title: Audi 100

text: A small number of C3 200s (originally with 2.6-liter V6 engine, later also with a turbocharged 1.8) were also built. The 200 entered production in 1996. The 1.8 litre Hongqi engine was known as the "QG18" while the 1.8 turbo was Volkswagen's EA827 engine. All Chinese spec Audi 100s, 200s and Hongqis were front wheel drive and had a 5-speed manual gearbox as standard. The early C4 Audi 100 was also assembled in Changchun in small numbers. The C4 was largely in European style but had American style tail lights.


title: Audi 100

text: Hongqi production commenced in 1989 with the CA7225LH and ended in 2005 where the Toyota Crown Majesta S180 replaced the Audi 100-based Hongqis as the successor under the name HQ3 and HQ430.


title: Audi 100

text: At the Geneva Motor Show in March 1990 Audi presented its first iteration of the Audi Duo (or Audi 100 Avant Duo) experimental vehicle, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. This car had a Siemens electric motor which drove the rear wheels. A trunk-mounted nickel-cadmium battery supplied energy to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front wheels were powered by a 2.3-litre five-cylinder engine with an output of . The intent was to produce a vehicle which could operate on the engine in the country and electric mode in the city. Mode of operation could be selected by the driver. Ten vehicles are believed to have been made; one drawback was the extra weight of the electric drive, making vehicles less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard Audi 100s with the same engine.


title: Audi 100

text: In late 1991, Audi unveiled the second Duo generation – likewise based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. Once again this featured an electric motor, a three-phase machine, driving the rear wheels. This time, however, the rear wheels were additionally powered via the Torsen differential from the main engine compartment, which housed a 2.0-litre four-cylinder engine.


title: Adobe InDesign

text: Adobe InDesign is a desktop publishing and page layout designing software application produced by Adobe Inc. and first released in 1999. It can be used to create works such as posters, flyers, brochures, magazines, newspapers, presentations, books and ebooks. InDesign can also publish content suitable for tablet devices in conjunction with Adobe Digital Publishing Suite. Graphic designers and production artists are the principal users.


title: Adobe InDesign

text: InDesign is the successor to Adobe PageMaker, which Adobe acquired by buying Aldus Corporation in late 1994. (Freehand, Aldus's competitor to Adobe Illustrator, was licensed from Altsys, the maker of Fontographer.) By 1998 PageMaker had lost much of professional market to the comparatively feature-rich QuarkXPress version 3.3, released in 1992, and version 4.0, released in 1996. In 1999, Quark announced its offer to buy Adobe and to divest the combined company of PageMaker to avoid problems under United States antitrust law. Adobe rebuffed Quark's offer and continued to develop a new desktop publishing application. Aldus had begun developing a successor to PageMaker, which was code-named "Shuksan". Later, Adobe code-named the project "K2", and Adobe released InDesign 1.0 in 1999.


title: Adobe InDesign

text: Adobe launched InDesign in the United Kingdom through a series of promotional presentations in hotels. The marketing concentrated on new software architecture—a small central software kernel (about 2Mb) to which add-ons would be bolted as the program's functionality expanded in later versions. However, the Postscript printer driver for InDesign 1.0 was an external app that tended to acquire frequent corruption problems, requiring periodic reinstallation.