title: P. Chidambaram

text: Chidambaram has served as the Union Minister of Finance four times. Most recently, he held the role for the entirety of the United Progressive Alliance government from 2004 to 2014, except for a three-year period as Minister of Home Affairs, during which he oversaw India's domestic security response to the 26/11 terrorist attack in Mumbai. Chidambaram returned as Finance Minister in July 2012, succeeding Pranab Mukherjee, who resigned to become the President of India.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Chidambaram was born to Kandanur L. Ct. L. Palaniappa Chettiar and Lakshmi Achi in Kanadukathan in the Sivaganga district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. His maternal grandfather was Raja Sir Annamalai Chettiar, a wealthy merchant and banker from Chettinad.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Chidambaram did his schooling at the Madras Christian College Higher Secondary School, Chennai he passed the one-year pre-University course from Loyola College, Chennai. After graduating with a BSc degree in statistics from the Presidency College, Chennai, he completed his Bachelor of Laws from the Madras Law College (now Dr. Ambedkar Government Law College) and his MBA from Harvard Business School in the class of 1968. He also holds a master's degree from Loyola College, Chennai.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: During this time his politics inclined to the left and in 1969 he joined N. Ram, later an editor of "The Hindu", and the women's activist Mythili Sivaraman in starting a journal called the "Radical Review".


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Chidambaram has two brothers and one sister. His father's business interests covered textiles, trading and plantations in India. He chose to concentrate on his legal practice and stayed away from the family business.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: He enrolled as a lawyer in the Madras High Court, becoming a senior advocate in 1984. He had offices in Delhi and Chennai and practiced in the Supreme Court and various high courts of India.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Chidambaram was elected to the Lok Sabha (lower house) of the Indian Parliament from the Sivaganga constituency of Tamil Nadu in general elections held in 1984. He was a union leader for MRF and worked his way up in the Congress party. He was the Tamil Nadu Youth Congress president and then the general secretary of the Tamil Nadu Pradesh Congress Committee unit. He was inducted into the Union (Indian federal) Council of Ministers in the government headed by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi on 21 September 1985 as a Deputy Minister in the Ministry of Commerce and then in the Ministry of Personnel. His main actions during his tenure in this period was to control the price of tea and he has been criticized by the Government of Sri Lanka for destroying the Sri Lankan tea trade by fixing the prices of the commodity in India using state power. He was elevated to the rank of Minister of State in the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions in January 1986. In October of the same year, he was appointed to the Ministry of Home Affairs as Minister of State for Internal Security. He continued to hold both offices until general elections were called in 1989. The Indian National Congress government was defeated in the general elections of 1989.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: In June 1991, Chidambaram was inducted as a Minister of State (Independent Charge) in the Ministry of Commerce, by the then Prime Minister Mr P V Narasimha Rao; a post he held till July 1992. He was later re-appointed Minister of State (Independent Charge) in the Ministry of Commerce in February 1995 and held the post until April 1996. He made some radical changes in India's export-import (EXIM) policy, while at the Ministry of Commerce.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: In 1996, Chidambaram quit the Congress party and joined a breakaway faction of the Tamil Nadu state unit of the Congress party called the Tamil Maanila Congress (TMC). In the general elections held in 1996, TMC along with a few national and regional level opposition parties, formed a coalition government. The coalition government came as a big break for Chidambaram, who was given the key cabinet portfolio of Finance. His 1997 budget is still remembered as the dream budget for the Indian economy. The coalition government was a short-lived one (it fell in 1998), but he was reappointed to the same portfolio in the government formed by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2004.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: In 1998, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) took the reins of the government for the first time and it was not until May 2004 that Chidambaram would be back in government. Chidambaram became Minister of Finance again in the Congress party led United Progressive Alliance government on 24 May 2004. During the intervening period Chidambaram made some experiments in his political career, leaving the TMC in 2001 and forming his own party, the Congress Jananayaka Peravai, largely focused on the regional politics of Tamil Nadu. The party failed to take off into mainstream Tamil Nadu or national politics. Just before the elections of 2004, he merged his party with the mainstream Congress party and when the Congress won the election, he was inducted into the Council of Ministers under the new Prime Minister Manmohan Singh as cabinet Minister of Finance.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: On 30 November 2008, he was appointed the Union Home Minister following the resignation of Shivraj Patil who had come under intense pressure to tender his resignation following a series of terror attacks in India, including the Mumbai attacks on 26 November 2008.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: He has been credited with taking the bold decision of prioritising elections above corporate demands to deploy security for the 2009 Indian Premier League.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: In 2009, Chidambaram was re-elected from the Sivaganga Lok Sabha constituency in the Congress and retained the Home ministry. He was one of the representatives of the central government when a tri-party agreement was signed with the Gorkha Hill Council and the Government of West Bengal, an agreement which was a result of Mamata Banerjee's effort to end a decade long unrest in the hills of Darjeeling.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: The Indian National Congress appointed P. Chidambaram as one of thirteen senior spokespersons on 15 September 2014.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: He ceded his seat to his son Karti in 2014, which resulted in electoral defeat for his son. In 2016, he was elected as an MP of the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Indian parliament from the state of Maharashtra.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Congress Jananayaka Peravai, formerly TMC Janayaka Peravai (Congress Democratic Front) was a political party in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It was founded in 2001 by former union finance minister P. Chidambaram, as a splinter group of the Tamil Maanila Congress, when the TMC allied itself with the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. 2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election P. Chidambaram other side Party DMK-BJP (NDA) Joint Meet to Assembly election.In October 2001, the party renamed itself as Congress Janayaka Peravai by dropping the TMC prefix.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: In the 2004 Lok Sabha elections Chidambaram ran as the Indian National Congress candidate from Sivagangai, and won with 400 393 votes (60,01%).


title: P. Chidambaram

text: On 25 November 2004 CJP merged into the Indian National Congress. Discussions about a merger had taken place during a long time, but the merger was resisted by the Tamil Nadu Congress leadership. In the end the merger was pushed through by the national Congress leadership.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Chidambaram's mother, Lakshmi Acchi, was the daughter of Sir Annamalai Chettiar, a banker and merchant, and was granted the title of "Raja" by British. Annamalai Chettiar was the founder of Annamalai University and United India Insurance Company Limited. His brother, Ramaswami Chettiar, was the founder of the Indian Bank and the co-founder of another major bank, the Indian Overseas Bank.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: He is married to Nalini Chidambaram, daughter of Justice (Retd.) Palapatti Sadaya Goundar Kailasam, of the Supreme Court, and Mrs. Soundra Kailasam, a renowned Tamil poet and author. Nalini Chidambaram is a senior advocate practising in the Madras High Court and the Supreme Court of India. He has a son, Karti P. Chidambaram, who graduated with a BBA degree from the University of Texas, Austin, and a Masters in Law from the University of Cambridge. Karti, a member of the Congress Party's AICC, is active in Tamil Nadu state politics. Karti is married to Dr. Srinidhi Rangarajan, a well-known Bharathanatyam dancer and medical doctor, working with the Apollo Group of Hospitals in Chennai. Karti and Srinidhi have a daughter, Aditi Nalini Chidambaram.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: The Voluntary Disclosure of Income Scheme (VDIS) 1997, which he announced when he was Finance Minister with the United Front government, was condemned by the Controller and Auditor General of India as abusive because of the loopholes that made it possible to fudge data to the financial advantage of the confessor.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Chidambaram was criticised for his ministry's failure to prevent the 2011 Mumbai bombings, despite massive investments in security following the 2008 Mumbai attacks. Three years after the 2008 attacks, security preparations were proven to be inadequate with channel breakdown and failures in modernising, procuring, and installing security equipment. Chidambaram defended the agencies under his ministry against the charge of intelligence failure with the response which was later ridiculed by many people in India and its media:


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Tamil Nadu Chief Minister Jayaram Jayalalithaa wrote to the Chief Election Commissioner in 2011 that data entry operators at Sivaganga had transferred 3,400 votes polled by Kannappan from 11 polling stations in Chidambaram's favour. News reports suggest that on May 16, 2009, the AIADMK candidate Raja Kannappan was declared elected by 3555 votes at 12.30 pm, and the news was also broadcast on television. But in a dramatic reversal a few hours later, P Chidambaram was declared elected by 3354 votes at 4.30 pm, and was confirmed as the winner after a recount at 8.30 pm.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: On 7 April 2009, Chidambaram was assaulted by Sikh journalist Jarnail Singh during a press conference in Delhi on the issue of a "clean chit" to Jagdish Tytler. Singh, who writes for the Hindi daily newspaper "Dainik Jagaran" was dissatisfied with Chidamabaram's answer to a question on the Central Bureau of Investigation's (CBI) "clean chit" regarding Jagdish Tytler's involvement in the 1984 anti-Sikh riots. It was the first shoe throwing incident in India.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Chidambaram was part of Vedanta's legal team and on its board before becoming finance minister in 2004 [42]. In 2002, a year before UK's Financial Services Authority allowed Sterlite to reconstitute itself as Vedanta Resources Plc, the Enforcement Directorate (ED) served a show-cause notice on three of Chairman Anil Agarwal's family. The notice was a demand that Sterlite directors answer allegations about using their holding companies-Volcan and Twinstar-to avoid paying taxes on forex transactions. It was a polite way of saying there was prima facie evidence, dating back to 1993, that the Agarwals were guilty of money laundering. For seven years the case dragged on in courts as Sterlite employed top lawyers to use every possible delaying tactic. P. Chidambaram argued in Sterlite's defence in a 2003 Bombay High Court case related to the ED's allegations. The following year, Chidambaram found himself appointed non-executive director on the board of Vedanta Resources Plc. And very soon, he became finance minister in UPA 1.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: Former Union Minister and Senior Advocate Ram Jethmalani's letter to Chidambaram on 6 December 2013 accused him of acting in collusion with the NDTV and laundering Rs 5000 crores of money through Mauritius route back to India.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: In 2006, political leader Dr. Subramanian Swamy alleged that a company controlled by Karti Chidambaram, the son of Minister of Finance P. Chidambaram, received a five-percent share of Aircel to get part of 40 billion paid by Maxis Communications for the 74-percent share of Aircel. According to Swamy, Chidambaram withheld Foreign Investment Promotion Board clearance of the deal until his son received the five-percent share in Siva's company. The issue was raised a number of times in Parliament by the opposition, which demanded Chidambaram's resignation. Although Chidambaram and the then ruling Congress government denied the allegations, "The Pioneer" and "India Today" reported the existence of documents showing that Chidambaram delayed approval of the foreign direct investment proposal by about seven months. It was alleged that Chidambaram's son, Karti was a direct beneficiary of the 2G spectrum case. His company, Advantage Strategic Consulting had a five per cent stake in Aircel Televentures, even as his father P Chidambaram, as Finance minister, was alleged to have offered FIPB clearance for the Aircel-Maxis deal only if his son's company, Advantage Strategic Consulting, got shares in Aircel Ventures. The Enforcement Directorate is currently investigating his involvement in Aircel deal. In 2012, and, subsequently, in 2016, information of wide-scale corruption by Chidambaram's son Karti Chidambaram and Robert Vadra, with the help of his father's position, including through the Airtel–Maxis deal and the Uttar Pradesh NRHM scam, was unveiled in prominent newspapers and media in India. Simultaneously, Chidambaram and his son Karti have been dogged with allegations of corruption, misuse of position, insider trading and money laundering.


title: P. Chidambaram

text: On 20 August 2019, the Delhi High Court dismissed both anticipatory bail pleas of Chidambaram in connection with corruption charges in the INX Media case during his tenure as Finance minister in UPA Government. On 21 August, he appeared at the Congress HQ and addressed a press conference stating that he was "not accused"; however, he left the place, and, later, he was arrested by the Central Bureau of Investigation and Enforcement Directorate at his home. On 5 September 2019, Supreme Court dismissed his appeal against rejection of anticipatory bail plea by Delhi High Court. The Special Court ordered Chidambaram to stay in judicial custody in Tihar Jail for 14 days. On 4 December he was granted bail by the supreme court.


title: Jenny Han

text: Jenny Han is an American author of young adult fiction and children's fiction. She is best known for writing "The Summer I Turned Pretty" Trilogy which was adapted into a TV series of the same name beginning in 2022 and is still ongoing. She is also best known for writing the"To All the Boys" series that was adapted into a film series of the same name beginning in 2018 and ending in 2021.


title: Jenny Han

text: Han was born and raised in Richmond, Virginia, to Korean-American parents. She graduated from Maggie L. Walker Governor's School for Government and International Studies in 1998, then attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. In 2006, she received her Master of Fine Arts in creative writing at The New School.


title: Jenny Han

text: Han wrote her first book, the children's novel "Shug", while she was in college. "Shug" was published in 2006 and is about Annemarie Wilcox, a twelve-year-old trying to navigate the perils of junior high school.


title: Jenny Han

text: Her next project was a young adult romance trilogy about a girl's coming-of-age during her summer breaks. The three novels, "The Summer I Turned Pretty", "It's Not Summer Without You", and "We'll Always Have Summer", were published from 2009 to 2011 by Simon & Schuster and quickly became "New York Times" Best Sellers. The trilogy is the story of protagonist/narrator, Belly Conklin, who falls in love with two brothers she has known her whole life and works through a messy love triangle.


title: Jenny Han

text: Han's second young adult trilogy was co-written with Siobhan Vivian and began with the 2012 publication of "Burn for Burn". The novel follows three high school girls seeking revenge in their island town and contains paranormal and romance elements. The trilogy includes "Fire with Fire", published in 2013, and "Ashes to Ashes", published in 2014.


title: Jenny Han

text: In 2014, Han released a young adult romance novel, "To All the Boys I've Loved Before", about Lara Jean Song Covey, a high school student whose life turns upside down when the letters she wrote to her five past crushes are mailed without her knowledge. The novel was optioned for a screen adaptation within weeks of its publication. The sequel, "P.S. I Still Love You", was released the following year, and won the Young Adult 2015–2016 Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature. A third novel, "Always and Forever, Lara Jean", was released in 2017. The film adaptation of the first novel, starring Lana Condor in the lead role, began filming in July 2017 and was released by Netflix in August 2018, to positive reviews. Han had a brief cameo in the film. The sequel films "" and "" were released in 2020 and 2021. A spinoff television series XO, Kitty to "To All the Boys" film series created by Han is in production. Han will also write, executive produce, and be a showrunner. The series will follow Lara's sister, Kitty Covey, going on her own journey to find true love.


title: Jenny Han

text: In June 2022, a television series based on Han's book series The Summer I Turned Pretty' was released on Amazon Prime. Han had a cameo in the last episode of the series. The television adaptation was noteworthy in part because there were a number of modifications to make the story more diverse. For example, in the book, Belly appears to be white, as confirmed by the original book cover. However, in the television series, Belly is biracial; her dad is white and her mom is Korean American. In the book, Belly's mom is Laurel Dunne, but in the television series her name is Laurel Park. Additionally, in the television adaptation, there are several openly gay characters, and a major character (Jeremiah) is bisexual. The series was renewed for a second season before the first season was even released.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Judaea ( ; ) was a Roman province which incorporated the regions of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea from 6 CE, extending over parts of the former regions of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of Judea. The name "Judaea", like Judea, was derived from the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah, but the Roman province encompassed a much larger territory.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: With the transition to full Roman province, Judaea became subject to direct Roman rule, replacing a system of semi-autonomous vassalage that had existed since the Roman Republic conquest of the region in 63 BCE. The change was enacted by the Roman emperor Augustus after an appeal by the populace against the ill rule of Herod Archelaus. With the onset of direct rule, the official census instituted by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, the governor of Roman Syria, nevertheless caused tensions and led to an uprising by Judas of Galilee. In other notable events in the period, the crucifixion of Jesus in 30–33 CE led to the emergence of the Jewish Christian groups that later developed into Christianity, while in 37 CE, Emperor Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish temple, an episode known as the "Caligula Crisis".


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Growing discontent at Roman rule led to the First Jewish–Roman War in 66-73 CE and ultimately the Siege of Jerusalem and destruction of the temple in 70 CE, bringing an end to the Second Temple period. Following the war, the "Fiscus Judaicus" was instituted. In 132 AD, the province of Judaea was merged with Galilee into an enlarged province named Syria Palaestina.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: The first intervention of Rome in the region dates from 63 BCE, following the end of the Third Mithridatic War, when Rome established the province of Syria. After the defeat of Mithridates VI of Pontus, Pompey sacked Jerusalem and installed the Hasmonean prince Hyrcanus II as Ethnarch and High Priest, but not as king. Some years later Julius Caesar appointed Antipater the Idumaean, also known as "Antipas", as the first Roman Procurator. Antipater's son Herod was designated "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate in 40 BCE but he did not gain military control until 37 BCE. During his reign the last representatives of the Hasmoneans were eliminated, and the huge port of Caesarea Maritima was built.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Herod died in 4 BCE, and his kingdom was divided among three of his sons, two of whom (Philip and Herod Antipas) became tetrarchs ('rulers of a quarter part'). The third son, Archelaus, became an ethnarch and ruled over half of his father's kingdom. One of these principalities was "Judea", corresponding to the territory of the historic Judea, plus Samaria and Idumea.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Archelaus ruled Judea so badly that he was dismissed in 6 CE by the Roman emperor Augustus, after an appeal from his own population. Herod Antipas, ruler of Galilee and Perea from 4 BCE, was dismissed by Emperor Caligula in 39 CE. Herod's son Philip ruled the northeastern part of his father's kingdom.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Following the death of Herod the Great, the Herodian Kingdom of Judea was divided into the Herodian Tetrarchy, jointly ruled by Herod's sons and sister: Herod Archelaus (who ruled Judea, Samaria and Idumea), Herod Philip (who ruled Batanea, Trachonitis as well as Auranitis), Herod Antipas (who ruled Galilee and Perea) and Salome I (who briefly ruled Jamnia).


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: A messianic revolt erupted in Judea in 4 BCE because of Archelaus's incompetence; the revolt was brutally crushed by the Legate of Syria, Publius Quinctilius Varus, who occupied Jerusalem and crucified 2000 Jewish rebels.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Because of his failure to properly rule Judea, Archelaus was removed from his post by Emperor Augustus in 6 CE, while Judea, Samaria and Idumea came under direct Roman administration.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: The Judean province did not initially include Galilee, Gaulanitis (today's Golan), nor Peraea or the Decapolis. Its revenue was of little importance to the Roman treasury, but it controlled the land and coastal sea routes to the "bread basket" of Egypt and was a buffer against the Parthian Empire. The capital was moved from Jerusalem to Caesarea Maritima.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Augustus appointed Publius Sulpicius Quirinius to the post of Legate of Syria and he conducted the first Roman tax census of Syria and Judea in 6 CE, which triggered the revolt of Judas of Galilee; the revolt was quickly crushed by Quirinius.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Judea was not a senatorial province, nor an imperial province, but instead was a "satellite of Syria" governed by a prefect who was a knight of the Equestrian Order (as was that of Roman Egypt), not a former consul or praetor of senatorial rank. Quirinius appointed Coponius as first prefect of Judea.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Still, Jews living in the province maintained some form of independence and could judge offenders by their own laws, including capital offenses, until "c." 28 CE. Judea in the early Roman period was divided into five administrative districts with centers in Jerusalem, Gadara, Amathus, Jericho, and Sepphoris.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: In 30-33 CE, Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, at the request of the Jewish authorities, had Jesus of Nazareth crucified on the charge of sedition, an act that led to the birth of Christianity. In 36 CE another messianic revolt erupted near Mount Gerizim, under the lead of a Samaritan, and was quickly crushed by Pilate; the Samaritans complained against Pilate's brutality to the Legate of Syria Lucius Vitellius the Elder, who removed Pilate from his post and sent him to Rome to account, replacing him with an acting prefect called Marcellus.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: In 37 CE, Emperor Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem, a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism. The Legate of Syria, Publius Petronius, fearing civil war if the order was carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year. King Herod Agrippa I finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order. Caligula later issued a second order to have his statue erected in the Temple of Jerusalem, but he was murdered before the statue reached Jerusalem and his successor Claudius rescinded the order. The "Crisis under Caligula" has been proposed as the first open break between Rome and the Jews.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Between 41 and 44 CE, Judea regained its nominal autonomy, when Herod Agrippa was made "King of the Jews" by the emperor Claudius, thus in a sense restoring the Herodian dynasty, although there is no indication that Judea ceased to be a Roman province simply because it no longer had a prefect. Claudius had decided to allow, across the empire, procurators, who had been personal agents to the Emperor often serving as provincial tax and finance ministers, to be elevated to governing magistrates with full state authority to keep the peace. He may have elevated Judea's procurator to imperial governing status because the imperial legate of Syria was not sympathetic to the Judeans.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: Following Agrippa's death in 44, the province returned to direct Roman control, incorporating Agrippa's personal territories of Galilee and Peraea, under a row of procurators. Nevertheless, Agrippa's son, Agrippa II was designated "King of the Jews" in 48. He was the seventh and last of the Herodians.


title: Judaea (Roman province)

text: From 70 until 135 Judea's rebelliousness required a governing Roman legate capable of commanding legions. Because Agrippa II maintained loyalty to the Empire, the Kingdom was retained until he died, either in 93/94 or 100, when the area returned to complete, undivided Roman control.


title: Wealth

text: Wealth is the abundance of valuable financial assets or physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for transactions. This includes the core meaning as held in the originating Old English word , which is from an Indo-European word stem. The modern concept of wealth is of significance in all areas of economics, and clearly so for growth economics and development economics, yet the meaning of wealth is context-dependent. An individual possessing a substantial net worth is known as "wealthy". Net worth is defined as the current value of one's assets less liabilities (excluding the principal in trust accounts).


title: Wealth

text: At the most general level, economists may define wealth as "the total of anything of value" that captures both the subjective nature of the idea and the idea that it is not a fixed or static concept. Various definitions and concepts of wealth have been asserted by various individuals and in different contexts. Defining wealth can be a normative process with various ethical implications, since often wealth maximization is seen as a goal or is thought to be a normative principle of its own. A community, region or country that possesses an abundance of such possessions or resources to the benefit of the common good is known as wealthy.


title: Wealth

text: The United Nations definition of "inclusive wealth" is a monetary measure which includes the sum of natural, human, and physical assets. Natural capital includes land, forests, energy resources, and minerals. Human capital is the population's education and skills. Physical (or "manufactured") capital includes such things as machinery, buildings, and infrastructure.


title: Wealth

text: Adam Smith, in his seminal work "The Wealth of Nations", described wealth as "the annual produce of the land and labor of the society". This "produce" is, at its simplest, a good or service which satisfies human needs, and wants of utility.


title: Wealth

text: In popular usage, wealth can be described as an abundance of items of economic value, or the state of controlling or possessing such items, usually in the form of money, real estate and personal property. An individual who is considered wealthy, affluent, or rich is someone who has accumulated substantial wealth relative to others in their society or reference group.


title: Wealth

text: In economics, net worth refers to the value of assets owned minus the value of liabilities owed at a point in time. Wealth can be categorized into three principal categories: personal property, including homes or automobiles; monetary savings, such as the accumulation of past income; and the capital wealth of income producing assets, including real estate, stocks, bonds, and businesses. All these delineations make wealth an especially important part of social stratification. Wealth provides a type of individual safety net of protection against an unforeseen decline in one's living standard in the event of job loss or other emergency and can be transformed into home ownership, business ownership, or even a college education by expending the wealth to complete a purchase of such.


title: Wealth

text: Wealth has been defined as a collection of things limited in supply, transferable, and useful in satisfying human desires. Scarcity is a fundamental factor for wealth. When a desirable or valuable commodity (transferable good or skill) is abundantly available to everyone, the owner of the commodity will possess no potential for wealth. When a valuable or desirable commodity is in scarce supply, the owner of the commodity will possess great potential for wealth.


title: Wealth

text: 'Wealth' refers to some "accumulation" of resources (net asset value), whether abundant or not. 'Richness' refers to an "abundance" of such resources (income or flow). A wealthy individual, community, or nation thus has more accumulated resources (capital) than a poor one. The opposite of wealth is destitution. The opposite of richness is poverty.


title: Wealth

text: The term implies a social contract on establishing and maintaining ownership in relation to such items which can be invoked with little or no effort and expense on the part of the owner. The concept of wealth is relative and not only varies between societies, but varies between different sections or regions in the same society. A personal net worth of US$10,000 in most parts of the United States would certainly not place a person among the wealthiest citizens of that locale. However, such an amount would constitute an extraordinary amount of wealth in impoverished developing countries.


title: Wealth

text: Concepts of wealth also vary across time. Modern labor-saving inventions and the development of the sciences have vastly improved the standard of living in modern societies for even the poorest of people. This comparative wealth across time is also applicable to the future; given this trend of human advancement, it is possible that the standard of living that the wealthiest enjoy today will be considered impoverished by future generations.


title: Wealth

text: Industrialization emphasized the role of technology. Many jobs were automated. Machines replaced some workers while other workers became more specialized. Labour specialization became critical to economic success. However, physical capital, as it came to be known, consisting of both the natural capital and the infrastructural capital, became the focus of the "analysis of wealth".


title: Wealth

text: Adam Smith saw wealth creation as the combination of materials, labour, land, and technology in such a way as to capture a profit (excess above the cost of production). The theories of David Ricardo, John Locke, John Stuart Mill, in the 18th century and 19th century built on these views of wealth that we now call classical economics.


title: Wealth

text: Marxian economics ("see labor theory of value") distinguishes in the "Grundrisse" between material wealth and human wealth, defining human wealth as "wealth in human relations"; land and labour were the source of all material wealth. The German cultural historian Silvio Vietta links wealth/poverty to rationality. Having a leading position in the development of rational sciences, in new technologies and in economic production leads to wealth, while the opposite can be correlated with poverty.


title: Wealth

text: The wealth of households worldwide amounts to US$280 trillion (2017). According to the eighth edition of the Global Wealth Report, in the year to mid-2017, total global wealth rose at a rate of 6.4%, the fastest pace since 2012 and reached US$280 trillion, a gain of US$16.7 trillion. This reflected widespread gains in equity markets matched by similar rises in non-financial assets, which moved above the pre-crisis year 2007's level for the first time this year. Wealth growth also outpaced population growth, so that global mean wealth per adult grew by 4.9% and reached a new record high of US$56,540 per adult. Tim Harford has asserted that a small child has greater wealth than the 2 billion poorest people in the world combined, since a small child has no debt.


title: Wealth

text: According to the 2021 global wealth report by McKinsey & Company, the worldwide total net worth is currently at US$514 trillion in 2020, with China being the wealthiest nation with net worth of US$120 trillion. However, another report by Credit Suisse in 2021 found that the total wealth of the US still exceeded that of China, with the US having US$126.3 trillion and China having US$74.9 trillion.


title: Wealth

text: In Western civilization, wealth is connected with a quantitative type of thought, invented in the ancient Greek "revolution of rationality", involving for instance the quantitative analysis of nature, the rationalization of warfare, and measurement in economics. The invention of coined money and banking was particularly important. Aristotle describes the basic function of money as a universal instrument of quantitative measurement"for it measures all things [...]"making things alike and comparable due to a social "agreement" of acceptance. In that way, money also enables a new type of economic society and the definition of wealth in measurable quantities, such as gold and money. Modern philosophers like Nietzsche criticized the fixation on measurable wealth: "Unsere ‘Reichen' – das sind die Ärmsten! Der eigentliche Zweck alles Reichtums ist vergessen!" ("Our 'rich people' – those are the poorest! The real purpose of all wealth has been forgotten!")


title: Wealth

text: In economics, wealth (in a commonly applied accounting sense, sometimes savings) is the net worth of a person, household, or nation – that is, the value of all assets owned net of all liabilities owed at a point in time. For national wealth as measured in the national accounts, the net liabilities are those owed to the rest of the world. The term may also be used more broadly as referring to the productive capacity of a society or as a contrast to poverty. Analytical emphasis may be on its determinants or distribution.


title: Wealth

text: Economic terminology distinguishes between wealth and income. Wealth or savings is a "stock" variable – that is, it is measurable "at a date" in time, for example the value of an orchard on December 31 minus debt owed on the orchard. For a given amount of wealth, say at the beginning of the year, income from that wealth, as measurable "over" say a year is a "flow" variable. What marks the income as a flow is its measurement per unit of time, such as the value of apples yielded from the orchard per year.


title: Wealth

text: In macroeconomic theory the 'wealth effect' may refer to the increase in aggregate consumption from an increase in national wealth. One feature of its effect on economic behavior is the wealth elasticity of demand, which is the percentage change in the amount of consumption goods demanded for each one-percent change in wealth.


title: Wealth

text: There are several historical developmental economics points of view on the basis of wealth, such as from "Principles of Political Economy" by John Stuart Mill, "The Wealth of Nations" by Adam Smith, "Capital" by Karl Marx, etc. Over the history, some of the key underlying factors in wealth creation and the measurement of the wealth include the scalable innovation and application of human knowledge in the form of institutional structure and political/ideological "superstructure", the scarce resources (both natural and man-made), and the saving of monetary assets.


title: Wealth

text: Wealth may be measured in nominal or real values – that is, in money value as of a given date or adjusted to net out price changes. The assets include those that are tangible (land and capital) and "financial" (money, bonds, etc.). Measurable wealth typically excludes intangible or nonmarketable assets such as human capital and social capital. In economics, 'wealth' corresponds to the accounting term 'net worth', but is measured differently. Accounting measures net worth in terms of the historical cost of assets while economics measures wealth in terms of current values. But analysis may adapt typical accounting conventions for economic purposes in social accounting (such as in national accounts). An example of the latter is generational accounting of social security systems to include the present value projected future outlays considered to be liabilities. Macroeconomic questions include whether the issuance of government bonds affects investment and through the wealth effect.


title: Wealth

text: Environmental assets are not usually counted in measuring wealth, in part due to the difficulty of valuation for a non-market good. Environmental or green accounting is a method of social accounting for formulating and deriving such measures on the argument that an educated valuation is superior to a value of zero (as the implied valuation of environmental assets).


title: Wealth

text: Social class is not identical to wealth, but the two concepts are related (particularly in Marxist theory), leading to the concept of socioeconomic status. Wealth at the individual or household level refers to value of everything a person or family owns, including personal property and financial assets.


title: Wealth

text: In both Marxist and Weberian theory, class is divided into upper, middle, and lower, with each further subdivided (e.g., upper middle class).


title: Wealth

text: The middle class views wealth as something for emergencies and it is seen as more of a cushion. This class comprises people that were raised with families that typically owned their own home, planned ahead and stressed the importance of education and achievement. They earn a significant amount of income and also have significant amounts of consumption. However, there is limited savings (deferred consumption) or investments, besides retirement pensions and home ownership.


title: Wealth

text: Below the middle class, the working class and poor have the least amount of wealth, with circumstances discouraging accumulation of assets.


title: Wealth

text: Although precise data are not available, the total household wealth in the world, excluding the value of human capital, has been estimated at $418.3 trillion (US$418.3×10) at the end of the year 2020.


title: Wealth

text: For 2018, the World Bank estimated the value of the world's produced capital, natural capital, and human capital to be $1,152 trillion. According to the Kuznets curve, inequality of wealth and income increases during the early phases of economic development, stabilizes and then becomes more equitable.


title: Wealth

text: , about 90% of global wealth is distributed in North America, Europe, and "rich Asia-Pacific" countries, and in 2008, 1% of adults were estimated to hold 40% of world wealth, a number which falls to 32% when adjusted for purchasing power parity. According to Richard H Ropers, the concentration of wealth in the United States is "inequitably distributed".


title: Wealth

text: In 2013, 1% of adults were estimated to hold 46% of world wealth and around $18.5 trillion was estimated to be stored in tax havens worldwide.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: Sleeping with Sirens is an American rock band from Orlando, Florida, currently residing in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The band currently consists of Kellin Quinn (lead vocals, keyboards), touring lead guitarist Tony Pizzuti, Nick Martin (rhythm guitar, backing vocals), Justin Hills (bass guitar, backing vocals) and Matty Best (drums, percussion). The band was formed in 2009 by members of For All We Know and Paddock Park. The group is currently signed to Sumerian Records and have released six full-length albums and an acoustic EP.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: The band rose to fame with their song "If I'm James Dean, You're Audrey Hepburn", the lead single from their debut album, "With Ears to See and Eyes to Hear", which was released in 2010. Their second album, "Let's Cheers to This", was released in 2011 and became a breakout for the band, thanks to the popular single "If You Can't Hang", which was certified Gold on July 18, 2018, by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling 500,000 copies in the US. The group's third album, "Feel", debuted at No. 3 on the US "Billboard" 200, and a fourth album, entitled "Madness", was released on March 17, 2015, through Epitaph Records and spawned the single "Kick Me". Their fifth studio album, "Gossip", was released on September 22, 2017, on Warner Bros. Records. Their sixth studio album, "How It Feels to Be Lost", was released on September 6, 2019, through Sumerian Records. The group is known primarily for the versatility of vocalist Kellin Quinn's leggero tenor vocal range, along with the heavy sound used on their early work and the pop influences they used later into their career.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: The band's first album, "With Ears to See and Eyes to Hear", was released on March 23, 2010. It debuted at number 7 on "Billboard"s Top Heatseekers chart and at number 36 on Top Independent Albums. The album spawned three singles. One of those singles, "If I'm James Dean, You're Audrey Hepburn" earned the band much recognition, and on July 18, 2018, the single was certified gold by the RIAA after 500,000 copies were sold in the US.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On April 7, 2011, the band released "Do It Now Remember It Later", the first single off of the band's new album. Later in the month on April 28, the next single "Fire" was released. The band's second album "Let's Cheers to This" was released on May 10, 2011.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On June 26, 2012, the band released its first acoustic EP, "If You Were a Movie, This Would Be Your Soundtrack".


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On October 21, 2012, Sleeping with Sirens released a new single called "Dead Walker Texas Ranger" as a Halloween special.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: In January 2013, the band entered the studio to record its follow up to "Let's Cheers to This" with an estimated release date of mid-2013. On April 23, 2013, the band released a new single called "Low" and revealed the new album's title as "Feel" and release date as June 4, 2013. In support of the new album, the band will be playing Kia main stage at the Vans Warped Tour 2013. On May 21, the band released the second single from Feel, "Alone" Featuring Machine Gun Kelly.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On August 4, the band announced that it would be headlining a tour titled the Feel This Tour in support of the album "Feel". Memphis May Fire, Breathe Carolina, Issues, and Our Last Night supported the tour on selected dates.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On October 16, 2013, guitarist Jesse Lawson announced his departure from the band, citing his desire to spend more time with his family and start a new musical venture. After Lawson's amicable departure the band tapped Nick Martin to fill in on guitar on the band's upcoming UK/EU Feel tour.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On July 6, 2014, the band released pictures of the band members in the studio recording new music with John Feldmann. On July 21, 2014, the band announced that it would be headlining a world tour alongside Pierce the Veil, with supporting acts Beartooth and This Wild Life. On August 8, 2014, the band members announced that the band had parted ways with Rise Records and working on as an independent band. However, on November 10, 2014, it was announced on Alternative Press that the band signed to Epitaph Records and released a new single called "Kick Me". The band followed the release of "Kick Me", with its single "We Like It Loud", on New Year's Day. It was available for free download for twenty four hours through the band's website.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: The band's next album, "Gossip" was released on September 22, 2017. They began their worldwide, Up Close and Personal Gossip tour, in October 2017 with special guests The White Noise, Palaye Royale and Chase Atlantic. Starting in May 2018, Sleeping with Sirens began the European leg of the tour with Chase Atlantic and Chapel.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On June 19, 2019, the band released the single "Leave It All Behind", which is closer to their older sound than the poppier sound of Gossip, and announced their sixth studio album, "How It Feels to Be Lost". It will be the band's first release under Sumerian Records. On July 19, 2019, the band released the album's second single, "Break Me Down." On August 8, 2019, the band released the album's third single, "Agree to Disagree."


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: Longtime drummer Gabe Barham departed the band on September 1, 2019. Shortly after, it was announced that Matty Best (of Tonight Alive) would be taking over drumming duties for the band.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On April 9, 2020, lead guitarist Jack Fowler teased a short clip from a heavy and yet-to-be-released song.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On July 24, 2020, band released a new single that Jack Fowler teased before, "Talking to Myself", with an accompanying lyric video. The band announced the release of a deluxe version of the album "How It Feels To Be Lost", which came out on August 21, 2020.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On June 2, 2021, the band released the single "Bloody Knuckles" from their upcoming album. On June 22, 2022, the band released their second single called "Crosses" featuring Spencer Chamberlain from Underoath whilst also announcing their seventh studio album "Complete Collapse", which was released on October 14, 2022.


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: On August 11, 2022, the band released two singles "Let You Down" featuring Charlotte Sands and "Ctrl + Alt + Del".


title: Sleeping with Sirens

text: The band's music has been described as post-hardcore, pop rock, metalcore, alternative rock, pop punk, pop, screamo, emo, and post-emo.


title: Soapstone

text: Soapstone (also known as steatite or soaprock) is a talc-schist, which is a type of metamorphic rock. It is composed largely of the magnesium rich mineral talc. It is produced by dynamothermal metamorphism and metasomatism, which occur in the zones where tectonic plates are subducted, changing rocks by heat and pressure, with influx of fluids, but without melting. It has been a medium for carving for thousands of years.


title: Soapstone

text: The definitions of the terms "steatite" and "soapstone" vary with the field of study. In geology, steatite is a rock that is to a very large extent composed of talc. The mining industry will define steatite as a high-purity talc rock that is suitable for manufacturing of, for example, insulators, the lesser grades of the mineral can be called simply "talc rock". Steatite can be used both in lumps ("block steatite", "lava steatite", "lava grade talc"), and in the ground form. While the geologists logically will use "steatite" to designate both forms, in the industry "steatite" without additional qualifications typically means the steatite that is either already ground or the one to be utilized in the ground form in the future. If the ground steatite is pressed together into blocks, these are called "synthetic block steatite", "artificial block steatite", "artificial lava talc".


title: Soapstone

text: In industrial applications "soapstone" refers to dimension stone that consists of either amphibole-chlorite-carbonate-talc rock, talc-carbonate rock, or simply talc rock and is sold in the form of sawed slabs. "Ground soapstone" sometimes designates the ground waste product of the slab manufacturing.


title: Soapstone

text: Petrologically, soapstone is composed dominantly of talc, with varying amounts of chlorite and amphiboles (typically tremolite, anthophyllite, and cummingtonite, hence its obsolete name, magnesiocummingtonite), and traces of minor iron-chromium oxides. It may be schistose or massive. Soapstone is formed by the metamorphism of ultramafic protoliths (e.g. dunite or serpentinite) and the metasomatism of siliceous dolomites.


title: Soapstone

text: By mass, "pure" steatite is roughly 63.37% silica, 31.88% magnesia, and 4.74% water. It commonly contains minor quantities of other oxides such as CaO or AlO.


title: Soapstone

text: Pyrophyllite, a mineral very similar to talc, is sometimes called soapstone in the generic sense, since its physical characteristics and industrial uses are similar, and because it is also commonly used as a carving material. However, this mineral typically does not have such a soapy feel as soapstone.


title: Soapstone

text: Soapstone is relatively soft because of its high talc content, talc having a definitional value of 1 on the Mohs hardness scale. Softer grades may feel similar to soap when touched, hence the name. No fixed hardness is given for soapstone because the amount of talc it contains varies widely, from as little as 30% for architectural grades such as those used on countertops, to as much as 80% for carving grades.


title: Soapstone

text: Soapstone is easy to carve; it is also durable, heat-resistant and has a high heat storage capacity. It has therefore been used for cooking and heating equipment for thousands of years.


title: Soapstone

text: Soapstone is often used as an insulator for housing and electrical components, due to its durability and electrical characteristics and because it can be pressed into complex shapes before firing. Soapstone undergoes transformations when heated to temperatures of into enstatite and cristobalite; on the Mohs scale, this corresponds to an increase in hardness to 5.5–6.5. The resulting material, harder than glass, is sometimes called "lava".


title: Soapstone

text: Ancient Egyptian scarab signets and amulets were most commonly made from glazed steatite. The Yoruba people of West Nigeria used soapstone for several statues, most notably at Esie, where archaeologists have uncovered hundreds of male and female statues about half of life size. The Yoruba of Ife also produced a miniature soapstone obelisk with metal studs called "the staff of Oranmiyan".


title: Soapstone

text: Native Americans have used soapstone since the Late Archaic Period. During the Archaic archaeological period (8000-1000 BC), bowls, cooking slabs, and other objects were made from soapstone. Use of soapstone in native American cultures continue to the modern day. Later, other cultures carved soapstone smoking pipes, a practice that continues today. The soapstone's low heat conduction allows for prolonged smoking without the pipe heating up uncomfortably.


title: Soapstone

text: Indigenous peoples of the Arctic have traditionally used soapstone for carvings of both practical objects and art. The qulliq, a type of oil lamp, is carved out of soapstone and used by the Inuit, Chukchi, and Yupik peoples. This kind of lamp was the single most important article of furniture for the Inuit in their dwellings.


title: Soapstone

text: In the United States, locally quarried soapstone was used for gravemarkers in 19th century northeast Georgia, around Dahlonega, and Cleveland as simple field stone and "slot and tab" tombs. Small blocks of soapstone (8" x 10" x 1") were also heated on the cookstove or near the fire and used to warm cold bedclothes or to keep hands and feet cozy while sleighing.


title: Soapstone

text: The ancient trading city of Tepe Yahya in southeastern Iran was a center for the production and distribution of soapstone in the 5th to 3rd millennia BC.


title: Soapstone

text: Soapstone has been used in India as a medium for sculptures since at least the time of the Vijayanagara Empire. Even earlier, steatite was used as the substrate for Indus-Harappan seals. After carving, the seals were heated above 1000C for several days to make them hard and durable to make the final seals used for making impressions on clay.


title: Soapstone

text: In China, during the Spring and Autumn Period (771–476 BC), soapstone was carved into ceremonial knives. Soapstone was also used to carve Chinese seals.


title: Soapstone

text: Pipes and decorative carvings of local animals were made out of soapstone by Australian Aboriginal artist Erlikilyika (c.1865–c.1930) in Central Australia.


title: Soapstone

text: The Minoan civilization on Crete used soapstone. At the Palace of Knossos, a steatite libation table was found. Soapstone is relatively abundant in northern Europe. Vikings hewed soapstone directly from the stone face, shaped it into cooking pots, and sold these at home and abroad. In Shetland, there is evidence these vessels were used for processing marine and dairy fats. Several surviving medieval buildings in northern Europe are constructed with soapstone, amongst them Nidaros Cathedral.


title: Soapstone

text: In modern times, soapstone is most commonly used for architectural applications, such as counter tops, floor tiles, showerbases, and interior surfacing.


title: Soapstone

text: Soapstone is sometimes used for construction of fireplace surrounds, cladding on wood-burning stoves, and as the preferred material for woodburning masonry heaters because it can absorb, store, and evenly radiate heat due to its high density and magnesite (MgCO) content. It is also used for countertops and bathroom tiling because of the ease of working the material and its property as the "quiet stone". A weathered or aged appearance occurs naturally over time as the patina is enhanced.


title: Soapstone

text: Soapstone can be used to create molds for casting objects from soft metals, such as pewter or silver. The soft stone is easily carved and is not degraded by heating. The slick surface of soapstone allows the finished object to be easily removed.


title: Soapstone

text: Welders and fabricators use soapstone as a marker due to its resistance to heat; it remains visible when heat is applied. It has also been used for many years by seamstresses, carpenters, and other craftspeople as a marking tool, because its marks are visible but not permanent.


title: Soapstone

text: Resistance to heat made steatite suitable for manufacturing gas burner tips, spark plugs, electrical switchboards.


title: Soapstone

text: Steatite ceramics are low-cost biaxial porcelains of nominal composition (MgO)(SiO). Steatite is used primarily for its dielectric and thermal insulating properties in applications such as tile, substrates, washers, bushings, beads, and pigments. It is also used for high-voltage insulators, which have to stand large mechanical loads, e.g. insulators of mast radiators.


title: Soapstone

text: Soapstone continues to be used for carvings and sculptures by artists and indigenous peoples. In Brazil, especially in the state of Minas Gerais, the abundance of soapstone mines allow local artisans to craft pots, pans, wine glasses, statues, jewel boxes, coasters, and vases from soapstone. These handicrafts are commonly sold in street markets found in cities across the state. Some of the oldest towns, notably Congonhas, Tiradentes, and Ouro Preto, still have some of their streets paved with soapstone from colonial times.


title: Soapstone

text: Architectural soapstone is mined in Canada, Brazil, India, and Finland and imported into the United States. Active North American mines include one south of Quebec City with products marketed by Canadian Soapstone, the Treasure and Regal mines in Beaverhead County, Montana mined by the Barretts Minerals Company, and another in Central Virginia operated by the Alberene Soapstone Company.


title: Soapstone

text: Soapstones can be put in a freezer and later used in place of ice cubes to chill alcoholic beverages without diluting. Sometimes called whiskey stones, these were first introduced around 2007. Most whiskey stones feature a semipolished finish, retaining the soft look of natural soapstone, while others are highly polished.


title: Soapstone

text: People can be exposed to soapstone dust in the workplace via inhalation and skin or eye contact. Exposure above safe limits can lead to symptoms including coughing, shortness of breath, cyanosis, crackles, and pulmonary heart disease.


title: Soapstone

text: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for soapstone exposure in the workplace as 20 million particles per cubic foot over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended exposure limit of 6 mg/m total exposure and 3 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 3000 mg/m, soapstone is immediately dangerous to life and health.


title: Soapstone

text: The local names for the soapstone vary: in Vermont, name "grit" is used, in Georgia "white-grinding" and "dark-grinding" varieties are distinguised, California has "soft", "hard", and "blue" talc.


title: Rob Holding

text: Robert Samuel Holding (born 20 September 1995) is an English professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for club Arsenal.


title: Rob Holding

text: Holding progressed through the Bolton Wanderers youth system, making his senior debut in April 2015 while on loan at Bury. After one season in the Bolton first team, he signed for Premier League club Arsenal in July 2016. He has won the FA Cup and the FA Community Shield twice each with the club. Holding has represented England at under-21 level and was part of the team that won the Toulon Tournament in 2016.


title: Rob Holding

text: Holding was born and raised in Stalybridge, Greater Manchester. He attended West Hill School in the town.


title: Rob Holding

text: Holding played for Stalybridge Celtic Juniors before joining the Bolton Wanderers youth system at the age of seven. He joined League Two club Bury on loan on 26 March 2015 for rest of the 2014–15 season. Holding made his only Bury appearance on 3 April 2015 as a 79th-minute substitute in a 2–0 away win against Cambridge United. On his return to Bolton, he signed his professional contract with the club.


title: Rob Holding

text: He made his Bolton debut on 11 August 2015 as a starter in a 1–0 home defeat to Burton Albion in the League Cup. He scored his first goal for the club on 23 January 2016 in the seventh minute of a 3–1 home win against Milton Keynes Dons. Holding was voted as Bolton Wanderers' Player of the Year for the 2015–16 season. He made 30 appearances, scoring one goal, as the team finished bottom of the Championship and were relegated to League One.


title: Rob Holding

text: Holding signed for Premier League club Arsenal on 22 July 2016 for a fee of around £2 million. Following injuries to centre backs Per Mertesacker and Gabriel Paulista, he was called upon to make his Arsenal debut in the 2016–17 Premier League season opener on 14 August 2016 against Liverpool, which Arsenal lost 4–3 at home. After his performance in the game against Leicester City, former Arsenal manager, Arsene Wenger, once famously said in the post match press conference, "Unfortunately no one speaks about the performance of Rob Holding. You should be happy, he is English and 20 years old. I am sorry he didn't cost £55 million, so he can't be good." In the final two months of the season, Holding became a regular member of Arsenal's starting line-up, with the team winning all six of the matches he played in the Premier League. He played the full 90 minutes in Arsenal's 2–1 victory over Chelsea on 27 May in the 2017 FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium.


title: Rob Holding

text: Holding played in the 2017 FA Community Shield on 6 August which Arsenal won 4–1 penalty shoot-out to Chelsea after a 1–1 extra-time draw. He scored his first Arsenal goal on 28 September 2017 with a close-range shot in their 4–2 away win over BATE Borisov in the UEFA Europa League. He signed a new long-term contract with the club on 1 May 2018.


title: Rob Holding

text: On 5 December 2018, Holding suffered a ruptured anterior cruciate ligament in his left knee during a 2–2 draw against Manchester United. Holding would undergo surgery and was expected to be out for about six to nine months.


title: Rob Holding

text: Holding made his return to first team action on 24 September 2019 in Arsenal's 5–0 EFL Cup home victory against Nottingham Forest. He marked his return from injury with his first goal at Emirates Stadium, scoring Arsenal's third from a Reiss Nelson corner-kick. On 1 August 2020, Holding was selected to start in the FA Cup Final against Chelsea, and went on to win his second winners' medal as Arsenal won their 14th FA Cup.


title: Rob Holding

text: On 28 August 2020, Holding was in the starting 11 in the 2020 FA Community Shield, which Arsenal clinched a 5–4 victory over Liverpool in the penalty shootout after the match was 1–1 after 90 minutes. On 12 January 2021, Holding committed his future to Arsenal by signing a new three and a half year deal. He earned his 100th appearance for the Arsenal in the 3–1 victory over Southampton two weeks later.


title: Rob Holding

text: On 1 May 2022, Holding scored his first Premier League goal on his 81st appearance in the competition, netting Arsenal's first goal via a Bukayo Saka corner-kick in an eventual 2–1 away victory against West Ham United at the London Stadium. Eleven days later, Holding received his first career red card, picking up a second yellow away against rivals Tottenham Hotspur in the 33rd minute of the North London derby after two bookable offences both on Son Heung-min, with Arsenal going on to lose 3–0.


title: Rob Holding

text: Holding was called up to the England under-21 squad for the Toulon Tournament May 2016 as a replacement for Everton defender Brendan Galloway. He made his debut for Gareth Southgate's team when starting against Guinea on 23 May. England won the tournament with Holding making two appearances, and was an unused substitute in the final on 29 May as England beat France 2–1. He was selected for England's squad for the 2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship in Poland, but did not make an appearance with England eliminated in the semi-final. Holding made five appearances for the under-21s from 2016 to 2017.


title: Reprise Records

text: Reprise Records is an American record label founded in 1960 by Frank Sinatra. It is owned by Warner Music Group, and operates through Warner Records, one of its flagship labels.


title: Reprise Records

text: Artists currently signed to Reprise Records include Enya, Michael Bublé, Eric Clapton, Stevie Nicks, Neil Young, Deftones, Mastodon, Lindsey Buckingham, Josh Groban, Disturbed, Idina Menzel, My Chemical Romance, Gerard Way, Green Day, Dwight Yoakam, and Never Shout Never.


title: Reprise Records

text: Reprise Records was formed in 1960 by Frank Sinatra in order to allow more artistic freedom for his own recordings. Soon thereafter, he garnered the nickname "The Chairman of the Board". Because of dissatisfaction with Capitol Records, and after trying to buy Norman Granz's Verve Records, the first album Sinatra released on Reprise was "Ring-a-Ding-Ding!" As CEO of Reprise, Sinatra recruited several artists for the fledgling label, such as fellow Rat Pack members Dean Martin and Sammy Davis, Jr. The original roster from 1961 to 1963 included Bing Crosby, Jo Stafford, Rosemary Clooney, Duke Ellington, Nancy Sinatra, Esquivel and stand-up comedian Redd Foxx. The original Reprise LP label had four different logos, depending on the genre: a steamship for Pop records (pictured), a cherub for Jazz records, an owl for Spoken Word/Comedy records, and a picture of Sinatra for his records.


title: Reprise Records

text: One of the label's founding principles under Sinatra's leadership was that each artist would have full creative freedom, and at some point complete ownership of their work, including publishing rights. This is the reason why recordings of early Reprise artists (Dean Martin, Jimi Hendrix, the Kinks, etc.) are (in most cases) currently distributed through other labels. In Martin's case, his Reprise recordings were out of print for nearly 20 years before a deal was struck with Capitol Records. Reprise continued to reissue the Sinatra catalog until 2013 when it was sold to Capitol.


title: Reprise Records

text: In August 1963, as part of a film deal, Warner Bros. purchased Reprise (which had been losing money) from Frank Sinatra, who nonetheless retained a 1/3 interest in the label. Many of the older artists on the label were dropped by Warner Bros. Records. Reprise president Mo Ostin was retained as the head of the label and he went on to play a very significant role in the history of the Warner group of labels over the next four decades. Warner-Reprise executives began targeting younger acts, beginning by securing the American distribution rights to the Pye Records recordings by the Kinks in 1964. Reprise soon added teen-oriented pop acts like Dino, Desi & Billy to the roster. As well, Sinatra's own daughter Nancy (who began recording for the label in 1961) was retained by Ostin, becoming a major pop star from late 1965. The label moved almost exclusively to rock-oriented music in the late 1960s, although Frank Sinatra continued to record for the label until the 1980s.


title: Reprise Records

text: Through direct signings or distribution deals, by the 1970s the Reprise roster grew to include Lee Hazlewood, Jill Jackson, Jimi Hendrix, the early Joni Mitchell recordings, Neil Young, the Electric Prunes, Donna Loren, Arlo Guthrie, Norman Greenbaum, Tom Lehrer, Tiny Tim, Ry Cooder, Captain Beefheart, John Sebastian, Family, the early 1970s recordings by Frank Zappa and the Mothers, Gram Parsons, Emmylou Harris, Nico's "Desertshore", the Fugs, Jethro Tull, Pentangle, T. Rex, the Meters, John Cale, Gordon Lightfoot, Michael Franks, Richard Pryor, Al Jarreau, Fleetwood Mac, Fanny, and the Beach Boys.


title: Reprise Records

text: In 1976, the Reprise label was deactivated by Warner Bros. and all of its roster (except Frank Sinatra and Neil Young) was moved to the main Warner Bros. label. Although older catalog albums continued to be manufactured with the Reprise logo, and albums by the Beach Boys on Brother Records were issued in the Reprise catalog numbering sequence, aside from Sinatra and Young (and the Sylvia Syms album "Syms by Sinatra", which Sinatra conducted and co-produced) there were no new releases on Reprise for several years.


title: Reprise Records

text: In late 1985, some copies of the Dream Academy's hit single "Life in a Northern Town" were pressed on the Warner Bros. label bearing the Reprise logo. 1986 saw releases bearing Reprise labels from the Dream Academy as well as Dwight Yoakam. In summer 1987, Warner Bros. Records chairman Mo Ostin and label president Lenny Waronker officially announced the reactivation of Reprise, including its own separate promotions department, and former Warner Bros. Vice President of Promotion Rich Fitzgerald was appointed as label vice president. In the time since, Warner Bros. has often elevated the stature of Reprise to the rank of secondary parent label, as many of its subsidiary labels (such as Straight and Kinetic) have had their records released in conjunction with Reprise.


title: Reprise Records

text: As of 2017, it is home to such artists as Enya, Michael Bublé, Eric Clapton, Green Day, Stevie Nicks, Neil Young, Deftones, Josh Groban, Disturbed, Idina Menzel, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Gerard Way and Never Shout Never.


title: Reprise Records

text: It was formerly home to the Jimi Hendrix and the Barenaked Ladies' catalogs in the U.S. When the Bee Gees back catalog was remastered by Rhino Records in the 2000s, their CDs were issued under the Reprise label (they appeared on sister labels Atco and Warner Bros. in the past).


title: Reprise Records

text: In 2010, Reprise opened a country music division, operating as part of Warner Music Group Nashville, featuring Blake Shelton, the JaneDear Girls, Michelle Branch and Frankie Ballard as part of its roster.


title: Reprise Records

text: In 2017, Reprise released Enya's albums on vinyl. Some of them were pressed on this format for the first time.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Ṣādiq (; 702 – 765 CE), commonly known as Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (), was an 8th-century Shia Muslim scholar, jurist, and theologian. He was the founder of the Jaʿfarī school of Islamic jurisprudence and the sixth Imam of the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī denominations of Shīʿa Islam. The traditions ("ḥadīth") recorded from al-Ṣādiq and his predecessor, Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Bāqir, are said to be more numerous than all the "ḥadīth" reports preserved from the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the other Shīʿīte Imams combined. Among other theological contributions, he elaborated the doctrine of "" (divinely inspired designation of each Imam by the previous Imam) and "" (the infallibility of the Imams), as well as that of (religious dissimulation under prosecution).


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Al-Ṣādiq is also important to Sunnīs as a jurist and transmitter of "ḥadīth", and a teacher to the Sunnī scholars and Imams Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān and Mālik ibn Anas, who founded the Ḥanafī and Mālikī schools of Sunnī jurisprudence, respectively. Al-Ṣādiq also figures prominently in the initiatic chains of many Sufi orders. A wide range of religious and scientific works were attributed to him, though no works penned by al-Ṣādiq remain extant.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq was born around 700 CE, perhaps in 702. He was about thirty-seven when his father, Muḥammad al-Bāqir, died after designating him as the next Imam. As the sixth Shīʿīte Imam, al-Ṣādiq kept aloof from the political conflicts that embroiled the region, evading the requests for support that he received from rebels. He was the victim of some harassment by the Abbasid caliphs and was eventually, according to Shīʿīte sources, poisoned at the instigation of the caliph al-Mansur. The question of succession after al-Ṣādiq's death divided the early Shīʿa community. Some considered the next Imam to be his eldest son, Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar, who had predeceased his father. Others accepted the Imamate of his younger son and brother of Ismāʿīl, Mūsā al-Kāẓim. The first group became known as the Ismāʿīlīs, whereas the second and larger group was named Jaʽfari or the Twelvers.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Ṣādiq was born in Medina around 700 CE, and 702 is given in most sources, according to Gleave. Jaʿfar was the eldest son of Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Bāqir, the fifth Shīʿīte Imam, who was a descendant of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and Fāṭima, Muhammad's daughter. Jaʿfar's mother, Umm Farwah, was a great-granddaughter of the first "rāshidūn" caliph, Abū Bakr. During the first fourteen years of his life, Jaʿfar lived alongside his grandfather, Zayn al-Abidin, the fourth Shīʿīte Imam, and witnessed the latter's withdrawal from politics and his limited efforts amid the popular appeal of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. Jaʿfar also noted the respect that the famous scholars of Medina held toward Zayn al-Abidin. In his mother's house, Jaʿfar also interacted with his grandfather, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, a famous traditionalist of his time. The Umayyad rule reached its peak in this period, and the childhood of al-Ṣādiq coincided with the growing interest of Medinans in religious sciences and the interpretations of the Quran. With the death of Zayn al-Abidin, Jaʿfar entered his early manhood and participated in his father's efforts as the representative of the Household of Muhammad ("Ahl al-Bayt"). Jaʿfar performed the ritual with his father, al-Bāqir, and accompanied him when the latter was summoned to Damascus by the Umayyad caliph Hisham for questioning.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Most Umayyad rulers are often described by Muslim historians as corrupt, irreligious, and treacherous. The widespread political and social dissatisfaction with the Umayyad Caliphate was spearheaded by the prophet's extended family, who were seen by Muslims as God-inspired leaders in their religious struggle to establish justice over impiety. Al-Sadiq's imamate extended over the latter half of the Umayyad Caliphate, which was marked by many (often Shia) revolts and eventually witnessed the violent overthrow of the Umayyads by the Abbasids, the descendants of the prophet's paternal uncle al-Abbas. Al-Sadiq maintained his father's policy of quietism in this period and, in particular, was not involved in the uprising of his uncle, Zayd, who enjoyed the support of the Mu'tazilites and the traditionalists of Medina and Kufa. Al-Sadiq also played no role in the Abbasid overthrow of the Umayyads. His response to a request for help from Abu Muslim, the Khorasani rebel leader, was to burn his letter, saying, "This man is not one of my men, this time is not mine." At the same time, al-Sadiq did not advance his claims to the caliphate, even though he saw himself as the divinely designated leader of the Islamic community (). This spiritual, rather than political, imamate of al-Sadiq was accompanied by his teaching of the doctrine (religious dissimulation) to protect the Shia against prosecution by Sunni rulers. In this period, al-Sadiq taught quietly in Medina and developed his considerable reputation as a scholar, according to Momen.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: The years of transition from the Umayyads to the Abbasids was a period of weak central authority, allowing al-Sadiq to teach freely. Some four thousand scholars are thus reported to have studied under al-Sadiq. Among these were Abu Ḥanifa and Malik ibn Anas, founders of the Hanafi and Maliki schools of law in Sunni Islam. Wasil ibn Ata, founder of the Mu'tazila school of thought, was also among his pupils. After their overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Abbasids violently prosecuted their former Shia allies against the Umayyads. Because they had relied on the public sympathy for the Ahl al-Bayt to attain power, the Abbasids considered al-Sadiq a potential threat to their rule. As the leader of the politically quiet branch of the Shia, he was summoned by al-Mansur to Baghdad but was reportedly able to convince the caliph to let him stay in Medina by quoting the hadith, "The man who goes away to make a living will achieve his purpose, but he who sticks to his family will prolong his life." Al-Sadiq remained passive in 762 CE to the failed uprising of his nephew, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya. Nevertheless, he was arrested and interrogated by al-Mansur and held in Samarra, near Baghdad, before being allowed to return to Medina. His house was burned by order of al-Mansur, though he was unharmed, and there are reports of multiple arrests and attempts on his life by the caliph.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq was about thirty-seven when his father, al-Bāqir, died after designating him as the next Shīʿīte Imam. He held the Imamate for at least twenty-eight years. His Imamate coincided with a crucial period in the history of Islam, as he witnessed both the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate by the Abbasids in the mid-8th century (661–750 CE) and later the Abbasids' prosecution of their former Shīʿīte allies against the Umayyads. The leadership of the early Shīʿa community was also disputed among its different factions. In this period, the various Alid uprisings against the Umayyads and later the Abbasids gained considerable support among the Shia. Among the leaders of these movements were Zayd ibn Ali (al-Sadiq's uncle), Yahya bin Zayd (al-Sadiq's cousin), Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya and his brother (al-Sadiq's nephews). These claimants saw the imamate and caliphate as inseparable for establishing the rule of justice, according to Jafri. In particular, Zayd argued that the imamate could belong to any descendant of Hasan or Husayn who is learned, pious, and revolts against the tyrants of his time. In contrast, similar to his father and his grandfather, al-Sadiq adopted a quiescent attitude and kept aloof from politics. He viewed the imamate and caliphate as separate institutions until such time that God would make the Imam victorious. This Imam, who must be a descendant of Muhammad through Ali and Fatima, derives his exclusive authority not from political claims but from (divinely inspired designation by the previous Imam) and he also inherits the special knowledge () which qualifies him for the position. Al-Sadiq did not originate this theory of imamate, which was already adopted by his predecessors, Zayn al-Abidin and al-Baqir. Rather, al-Sadiq leveraged the sudden climate of political instability to freely propagate and elaborate the Shia teachings, including the theory of imamate.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: After the death of Ja'far al-Sadiq, his following fractured, and the largest group, who came to be known as the Twelvers, followed his younger son, Musa al-Kadhim. It also appears that many expected the next Imam to be al-Sadiq's eldest son, Isma'il, who predeceased his father. This group, which later formed the Isma'ili branch, either believed that Isma'il was still alive or instead accepted the imamate of Isma'il's son, Muhammad. While the Twelvers and the Isma'ilis are the only extant Shia sects today, there were more factions at the time: Some followers of al-Sadiq accepted the imamate of his eldest surviving son, Abdullah al-Aftah. Several influential followers of al-Sadiq are recorded to have first followed Abdullah and then changed their allegiance to Musa. As Abdullah later died childless, the majority of his followers returned to Musa. A minority of al-Sadiq's followers joined his other son, Muhammad al-Dibaj, who led an unsuccessful uprising against Caliph al-Ma'mun, after which he abdicated and publicly confessed his error. A final group believed that al-Sadiq was not dead and would return as Mahdi, the promised savior in Islam.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Al-Sadiq died in 765 CE (148 AH) at sixty-four or sixty-five. His death in Shia sources is attributed to poisoning at the instigation of al-Mansur. According to Tabatabai, after being detained in Samarra, al-Sadiq was allowed to return to Medina, where he spent the rest of his life in hiding until he was poisoned by order of al-Mansur. He was buried in the al-Baqi Cemetery in Medina, and his tomb was a place of pilgrimage until 1926. It was then that Wahhabis, under the leadership of Ibn Saud, the founding King of Saudi Arabia, conquered Medina for the second time and razed all the tombs except that of the Islamic prophet. According to Tabatabai, upon hearing the news of his death, al-Mansur ordered the governor of Medina to behead al-Sadiq's heir, the future Imam. The governor, however, learned that al-Sadiq had chosen four people, rather than one, to administer his will: al-Mansur himself, the governor, the Imam's oldest (surviving) son Abdullah al-Aftah, and Musa al-Kazim, his younger son. Al-Mansur's plot was thus thwarted.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Al-Sadiq married Fatima, a descendant of Hasan, with whom he had two sons, Isma'il (the sixth Isma'ili Imam) and Abdullah al-Aftah. He also married Hamida Khatun, a slave-girl from Berber or Andalusia, who bore al-Sadiq three more sons: Musa al-Kazim (the seventh Twelver Imam), Muhammad al-Dibaj, and Ishaq al-Mu'tamin. She was known as Hamida the Pure and respected for her religious learning. Al-Sadiq often referred other women to learn the tenets of Islam from her. He is reported to have praised her, "Hamida is removed from every impurity like an ingot of pure gold." Ishaq al-Mu'tamin, is said to have married Sayyida Nafisa, a descendant of Hasan.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: After Ali, al-Sadiq is possibly the most famed religious scholar of the House of Muhammad, widely recognized as an authority in Islamic law, theology, hadith, and esoteric and occult sciences. Amir-Moezzi considers him possibly the most brilliant scholar of his time, and the variety of (at times contradictory) views ascribed to al-Sadiq suggest that he was an influential figure in the history of early Islamic thought, as nearly all the early intellectual factions of Islam (except perhaps the Kharijites) wished to incorporate al-Sadiq into their history in order to bolster their schools’ positions. He is cited in a wide range of historical sources, including the works of al-Tabari, Ya'qubi, al-Masudi, and Ibn Khallikan. This popularity, however, has hampered the scholarly attempts to ascertain al-Sadiq's actual views. A number of religious and scientific works also bear al-Sadiq's name, though scholars generally regard them as inauthentic. It seems likely that he was a teacher who left writing to others.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: The most extensive contributions of al-Sadiq were to the Twelver Shia, helping establish them as a serious intellectual force in the late Umayyad and early Abbasid periods, according to Gleave. Tabatabai writes that the number of traditions left behind by al-Sadiq and his father, al-Baqir, were more than all the hadiths recorded from Muhammad and the other Shia Imams combined. Shia thought has continued to develop based on the teachings of the Shia Imams, including al-Sadiq. According to Rizvi, al-Sadiq preached against slavery.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Following his predecessors, Zayn al-Abidin and al-Baqir, al-Sadiq further elaborated the Shia doctrine of imamate, which has become the hallmark of the Twelver and Isma'ili Shia theologies, but rejected by the Zaydis. In this doctrine, Imam is a descendant of Muhammad through Ali and Fatima who derives his exclusive authority not from political claims but from , that is, divinely-inspired designation by the previous Imam. As the successor of Muhammad, the Imam has an all-inclusive mandate for temporal and religious leadership of the Islamic community, though this doctrine views the imamate and caliphate as separate institutions until such time that God would make the Imam victorious. The Imam also inherits from his predecessor the special knowledge (), which qualifies him for the position. Similar to Muhammad, Imam is believed to be infallible thanks to this unique knowledge, which also establishes him as the sole authorized source for interpreting the revelation and guiding the Muslims along the right path. This line of Imams in Shia Islam is traced back to Ali, who succeeded Muhammad through a divine decree.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Law in Islam is an all-embracing body of ordinances that govern worship and ritual in addition to a proper legal system. Building on the work of his father, al-Sadiq is remembered as the eponymous founder of the Ja'fari school of law (), followed by the Twelver Shia. According to Lalani, the Isma'ili jurisprudence (), as codified by al-Qadi al-Numan, is also primarily based on the large corpus of statements left behind by al-Sadiq and his father, al-Baqir. Al-Sadiq denounced the contemporary use of opinion (), personal juristic reasoning (), and analogical reasoning () as human attempts to impose regularity and predictability onto the laws of God. He argued that God's law is occasional and unpredictable and that Muslims should submit to the inscrutable will of God as revealed by the Imam. He also embraced a devolved system of legal authority: it is ascribed to al-Sadiq that, "It is for us [the Imams] to set out foundational rules and principles (), and it is for you [the learned] to derive the specific legal rulings for actual cases." Similarly, when asked how legal disputes within the community should be solved, al-Sadiq described the state apparatus as evil () and encouraged the Shia to refer to "those who relate our [i.e., the Imams'] hadiths" because the Imams have "made such a one a judge () over you." The Sunni jurisprudence is based on the three pillars of the Quran, the practices of Muhammad (), and consensus (), whereas the Twelver Shia jurisprudence adds to these pillars a fourth pillar of reasoning () during the occultation of Mahdi. In Shia Islam, also includes the practices of the Shia Imams.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: is a form of religious dissimulation, where an individual can hide one's beliefs under persecution. was introduced by al-Baqir and later advocated by al-Sadiq to protect his followers from prosecution at the time when al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph, conducted a brutal campaign against the Alids and their supporters. This doctrine is based on verse 16:106 of the Quran, where the wrath of God is said to await the apostate "except those who are compelled while their hearts are firm in faith." According to Amir-Moezzi, in the early sources, means "the keeping or safeguarding of the secrets of the Imams' teaching," which may have resulted at times in contradictory traditions from the Imams. In such cases, if one of the contradictory reports matches the corresponding Sunni doctrine, it would be discarded because the Imam must have had agreed with Sunnis to avoid prosecution of himself or his community. Armstrong suggests that also kept conflict to a minimum with those religious scholars () who disagreed with the Shia teachings.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: On the question of predestination and free will, which was under much discussion at the time, al-Sadiq followed his father, portraying human responsibility but preserving God's autocracy, asserting that God decreed some things absolutely but left others to human agency. This compromise, widely adopted afterward, is highlighted when al-Sadiq was asked if God forces His servants to do evil or whether He had delegated power to them: he answered negatively to both questions and instead suggested, "The blessings of your Lord are between these two." Al-Sadiq taught "that God the Most High decreed some things for us and He has likewise decreed some things through our agency: what He has decreed for us or on our behalf He has concealed from us, but what He has decreed through our agency He has revealed to us. We are not concerned, therefore, so much with what He has decreed for us as we are with what He has decreed through our agency." Al-Sadiq is also credited with the statement that God does not "order created beings to do something without providing for them a means of not doing it, though they do not do it or not do it without God's permission." Al-Sadiq declared, "Whoever claims that God has ordered evil, has lied about God. Whoever claims that both good and evil are attributed to him, has lied about God." In his prayers, he often said, "There is no work of merit on my own behalf or on behalf of another, and in evil there is no excuse for me or for another."


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Al-Sadiq is attributed with what is regarded as the most important principle for judging traditions, that a hadith should be rejected if it contradicts the Quran, whatever other evidence might support it. In his books "Haqaeq al-Tafsir" and "Ziadat Ḥaqaeq al-Tafsir", the author Abd-al-Raḥman Solami cites al-Ṣadiq as one of his major (if not the major) sources. It is said that al-Sadiq merged the inner and the outer meanings of the Quran to reach a new interpretation of it (). It is ascribed to al-Sadiq that, "The Book of God [Quran] comprises four things: the statement set down (), the implied purport (), the hidden meanings, relating to the supra-sensible world (), and the exalted spiritual doctrines (). The literal statement is for the ordinary believers (). The implied purport is the concern of the elite (). The hidden meanings pertain to the Friends of God (). The exalted spiritual doctrines are the province of the prophets ()." These remarks echo the statement of Ali, the first Shia Imam.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Ja'far al-Sadiq's significance in the formation of early Muslim thought is demonstrated by the fact that his name is used as a reference in Sufi, scientific, Sunni legal, Ismaili, and circles. Most of these groups desired to use his legacy for their own agendas. However, the Imami Shia tradition is the most comprehensive source for his teachings.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: While the Sunnis respect al-Sadiq as a transmitter of hadith and a jurist (), Shiites view him as an imam and therefore infallible, and record his sayings and actions in the works of hadith and jurisprudence (). In the Shia writings of the Imamiyya, his legal rulings constitute the most important source of Imamiyya law. In fact, the Imam's legal doctrine is called Ja'fari jurisprudence () by both the Imamis and the Sunnis in order to refer to his legal authority.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: The Shias considered al-Sadiq the only legitimate person who could represent the Sharia in his time and have the authority to rule.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: According to Imami Shi'as, Ja'far al-Sadiq, is the sixth imam who was responsible for turning the imamiya into a powerful intellectual movement during the late Umayyad and early Abbasid eras.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Al-Sadiq is presented by Ya'qubi as one of the most respected personalities of his epoch, adding that it was customary to refer to al-Sadiq as 'the learned one'.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Al-Sadiq is respected in Sunni Islam as a jurist and a master teacher of hadith sciences, who is cited in several s (chains of transmissions). Among his students were Abu Ḥanifa and Malik ibn Anas, founders of the Hanafi and Maliki schools of law in Sunni Islam.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: According to Jafri, the famous Sunni jurist Malik ibn Anas would quote al-Sadiq as, "The truthful () Ja'far ibn Muhammad himself told me that…" (A similar attitude is reported from Abu Hanifa.)


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Malik was a teacher of al-Shafi'i, who was, in turn, a teacher of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. It has thus been noted that all of the four Imams of Sunni are connected to Ja'far, whether directly or indirectly. Wasil ibn Ata, founder of the Mu'tazila school of thought, was also among al-Sadiq's pupils. The Sunni scholar al-Dhahabi recognizes al-Sadiq's contribution to Sunni tradition, and al-Shahrastani, the influential Sunni historian, pays al-Sadiq a high tribute in his work.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Al-Sadiq holds a special prominence among Sufi orders: a number of early Sufi figures are associated with al-Sadiq; he is praised in the Sufi literature for his knowledge of (), and numerous sayings and writings about spiritual progress are ascribed to him in Sufi circles. He is also viewed at the head of the Sufi line of saints and mystics by the Sufi writers Abu Nu'aym and Farid al-Din Attar. Attar praises al-Sadiq as the one "who spoke more than the other imams concerning the ," who "excelled in writing on innermost mysteries and truths and who was matchless in expounding the subtleties and secrets of revelation." However, some of the material attributed to al-Sadiq in the Sufi literature is said to be apocryphal. Among others, the Shia Moqaddas Ardabili has thus dismissed the alleged links between al-Sadiq and Sufism as an attempt to gain the authority of al-Sadiq for Sufi teachings. Gleave and Bowering suggest that "Tafsir al-Quran", "Manafe' Sowar al-Quran," and "Kawass al-Qoran al-Azam," three mystical commentaries of the Quran attributed to al-Sadiq, were composed after his death because these works demonstrate a mastery of the recent lexicon of Muslim mysticism. Alternatively, Taylor is certain that the traditions in the Quranic exegesis edited by the mystic Dhu al-Nun Misri can be traced back to the Imam. Given the appeal and influence of al-Sadiq outside the circle of his Shia supporters, Algar suggests that he likely played some role in the formation of Sufism. Both Abu Nu'aym and Attar narrate several encounters between al-Sadiq and contemporary proto-Sufis to highlight his asceticism (). One encounter describes how Sofyan Ṯawri, the renowned jurist and ascetic, allowed himself to reproach the Imam for his silken robe, only for the Imam to reveal beneath it a modest white woolen cloak, explaining that the finery was for men to behold and the woolen cloak for God. The Imam thus displayed the former and concealed the latter.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: One of the distinctive features of the is the imam's deification. One group of them, called the "Mufawidda", preached that God gave the Prophet and the imams the authority to create and take care of all living things. Many Twelver Shi'i traditions state that al-Baqir and al-Sadiq did not have supernatural abilities and did not perform the miracles attributed to them. Despite these denials, a number of hadiths that contained concepts found their way into Twelver Shiite hadith collections.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: According to some early Imami heresiographers, Abu al-Khattab (died 755) asserted that he had been chosen to serve as al-Sadiq's envoy and had been given access to his hidden doctrines. It seems that Abu al-Khattab's views on al-Sadiq's divinity and his own status as a prophetic messenger of God eventually led al-Sadiq to repudiate him in 748. His adherents were referred to as Khattabiyya. Later Twelver tradition disavows any connection between al-Sadiq and the views of Abu al-Khattab.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: The same Imami heresiographers also claim that al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi (died before 799) and his followers, the "Mufaddaliya", likewise regarded al-Sadiq as a god and themselves as his prophets. However, it is not certain whether the "Mufaddaliya" ever existed, and in Twelver hadith al-Mufaddal consistently appears as the intimate companion of Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son Musa al-Kazim, with the exception of the brief period of disgrace with Jaʿfar al-Sadiq due to his "Khattabiyya" leanings. According to Twelver traditions, al-Mufaddal was even appointed by al-Sadiq to control the excesses of "Khattabiyya". Nevertheless, al-Mufaddal's status as a close confidant of Ja'far al-Sadiq led to a large number of writings being attributed to him by later authors, including major works such as the "Kitab al-Haft wa-l-azilla" and the "Kitab al-Sirat".


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: A large number of religious books bear al-Sadiq's name as their author, but none of them can be attributed to al-Sadiq with certainty.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: It has been suggested that al-Sadiq was a writer who left the work of writing to his students. In this regard, some of the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan () also claim to be mere expositions al-Sadiq's teachings.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: A Quran commentary (), a book on divination (Ketb al-jafr), numerous drafts of his will, and several collections of legal dicta are among the works attributed to al-Sadiq.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: In Sufi circles, a number of mystical Quranic exegeses are attributed to al-Sadiq, such as "Tafsir al-Quran", "Manafe' Sowar al-Quran", and "Kawass al-Quran al-Azam".


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Another attributed work is the book of , a mystical commentary which according to Ibn Khaldun was written by al-Sadiq about the hidden () meanings of the Quran. According to Ibn Khaldun this book was transmitted from al-Sadiq and written down by Hārūn ibn Saʿīd al-ʿIjlī.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: Perhaps the most influential mystical exegesis attributed to al-Sadiq is the , composed by Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī (d.330/942). This text was first introduced to modern scholarship by Louis Massignon, and was later published in a critical edition by Paul Nwyia. Another version was published by ʿAlī Zayʿūr. One of the outstanding features of this exegesis is its emphasis on letter mysticism. It is considered to be the oldest mystical commentary of the Quran after Sahl al-Tustari's exegesis.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: "Tafsīr al-Nuʿmānī" is another exegesis attributed to al-Sadiq, which he supposedly narrated on the authority of Ali from the prophet Muhammad. This treatise was compiled by Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Nu'mani - known as Ibn Abi Zainab. The 17th-century scholar Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi recorded it in his . A summary of it has also been attributed to the Twelver theologian Sharif al-Murtaza and was published under the title .


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: "Tafsīr al-Imām al-Ṣādiq" is another commentary attributed to al-Sadiq, which Agha Bozorg Tehrani mentions it in his book al-Dharī'a under the title "Tafsir al-Imam Ja'far bin Muhammad al-Sadiq" and it is believed that one of Sadiq's students narrated it from him. Fuat Sezgin calls this work "Tafsīr al-Qurʾān". A copy of it with the title "Tafsīr al-Imām al-Ṣādiq", according to Bankipur Oriental Library's catalogue, is written by al-Nuʿmānī based on the sayings of al-Sadiq. This commentary is arranged according to the Surahs of the Quran and covers only the words of the Quran that require explanation. This commentary, which is a type of mystical commentary, deals with both the exoteric (ẓāhir) and the esoteric (bāṭin) aspects of the Quran. It is mostly about God and his relationship with mankind, also man's knowledge of God and the relationship between Muhammad and God.


title: Ja'far al-Sadiq

text: The ('Declaration by al-Mufaddal of the Oneness of God'), also known as the ('Book on the Beginning of Creation and the Incitement to Contemplation'), is a ninth-century treatise concerned with proving the existence of God, attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq's financial agent al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi (died before 799). The work presents itself as a dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is the main speaker.