title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Most species within the "O. unilateralis s.l." species complex have both a sexual (teleomorph) and an asexual morph (anamorph). These are different in terms of their function and characteristics. Generally, the asexual morphs identified for "Ophiocordyceps" are "Hirsutella" and "Hymenostilbe", two genera of asexually reproducing fungi.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: "O. unilateralis" species exhibit morphological variations which are most certainly due to their wide geographic range, from Japan to the Americas.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Moreover, it has been hypothesized that their morphological variations may also be a result of one fungus species maximizing its infection on one specific host ant species (host-specific infections). Different subspecies of ant can occur within the same area, which means that in order to coexist they have to occupy different ecological niches. Consequently, the fungi may have evolved at the subspecies level in order to maximize its fitness.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The "O. unilateralis" core clade, as described in 2018, has distinct morphological characteristics. It exhibits a single stroma with a "Hirsutella" asexual morph, which arises from the dorsal neck region of the dead ant and produces a dark brown perithecia attached to its stalk.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: These species are also recognizable through the host species they infect, which are only "Camponotini" species. Once the host is killed by the fungus, it is commonly found fixed through their mandibles onto the surfaces of leaves.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The "O. kniphofioides" subclade, as described in 2018, also has distinct morphological characteristics. Its species produce a stroma that grows laterally from the host's thorax which itself generates an orange ascoma. Moreover, species within this subclade share a "Hirsutella" asexual morph.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: As for the core clade, these species are also recognizable through the hosts they infect, which are usually neotropical ant species. The subclade does not present the same extended phenotype with the famous "death grip" that O. unilateralis species typically exhibit. Their hosts usually die at the base of large trees in the Amazonian rainforest, among the moss carpets.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: In tropical forests, the ant species "Camponotus leonardi" lives in the high canopy and has an extensive network of aerial trails. Sometimes the canopy gaps are too difficult to cross, so the ants' trails descend to the forest floor where they are exposed to "O. unilateralis" spores. The spores attach to their exoskeletons and eventually break through using mechanical pressure and enzymes. Like other fungi pathogenic to insects in the genus "Ophiocordyceps", the fungus targets a specific host species, "Camponotus leonardi"; despite this, the fungus may parasitize other closely related species of ants with lesser degrees of host manipulation and reproductive success.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Yeast stages of the fungus spread in the ant's body and presumably produce compounds that affect the ant's hemocoel, using the evolutionary trait of an extended phenotype to manipulate the behavioral patterns exhibited by the ant.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: An infected ant exhibits irregularly timed full-body convulsions that dislodge it from its canopy nest to the forest floor.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The changes in the behavior of the infected ants are very specific, giving rise to the popular term "zombie ants". Behaviors are tuned for the benefit of the fungus in terms of its growth and its transmission, thereby increasing its fitness.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The ant climbs up the stem of a plant and uses its mandibles with abnormal force to secure itself to a leaf vein, leaving dumbbell-shaped marks on it. The ants generally clamp to a leaf's vein at a height of 26cm above the forest floor, on the northern side of the plant, in an environment with 94–95% humidity and temperatures between . Infections may lead to 20 to 30 dead ants per square meter. When the dead ants are moved to other places and positions, further vegetative growth and sporulation either fails to occur or results in undersized and abnormal reproductive structures. In temperate forests, the typical behaviour of zombie ants is to attach themselves to the lower side of twigs, not leaves.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: A search of plant-fossil databases revealed similar marks on a fossil leaf from the Messel Pit, which is 48 million years old. Once the mandibles of the ant are secured to the leaf vein, atrophy quickly sets in, destroying the sarcomere connections in the muscle fibers and reducing the mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticular. The ant is no longer able to control the muscles of the mandible and remains fixed in place, hanging upside-down on the leaf. This lockjaw trait is popularly known as the death grip and is essential in the fungus's lifecycle. A study led in Thailand revealed that there is a synchronization of this manipulated biting behavior at solar noon.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The fungus then kills the ant and continues to grow as its hyphae invade more soft tissues and structurally fortify the ant's exoskeleton. More mycelia then sprout out of the ant, securely anchoring it to the plant substrate while secreting antimicrobials to ward off competition. When the fungus is ready to reproduce, its fruiting bodies grow from the ant's head and rupture, releasing the spores. This process takes 4–10 days.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Dead ants are found in areas termed "graveyards" which contain high densities of dead ants previously infected by the same fungus.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The term "zombie ants" has been used in popular media as well as scientific articles, but has also been described as "catchy, yet misleading".


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: "O. unilateralis"' life cycle includes and depends on the infection and the manipulation of a carpenter ant, principally "C. leonardi". The behavioral manipulation of the ant, which gives rise to the name "zombie-ant", is an extended phenotype of the fungus. It first affects the ant's behavior through convulsions that make it fall from its high canopy nest onto the forest floor. This is followed by the fungus controlling the climbing of the ant and the locking of its jaw (and subsequent death) onto a leaf around 25 centimetres above the ground, which is thought to be the optimal height for fungal spore growth and dispersion.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Throughout the lifecycle, unique challenges must be met by equally unique metabolic activities. The fungal pathogen must attach securely to the arthropod exoskeleton and penetrate it—avoiding or suppressing host defenses—then, control the behavior of the host before killing it; and finally, it must protect the carcass from microbial and scavenger attack.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The behavioral manipulation of the ant would not be possible without the presence of huge fungal cell populations beside the host's brain and within muscles because these lead to the secretion of various metabolites known to have important behavioral consequences. During the infection the parasite comes across an array of environments such as different host tissues or the immune response. Studies have shown that "O. unilateralis" reacts heterogeneously by secreting different metabolites according to the host tissue it encounters and whether they are live or dead. The identification of these natural products is important in order to understand which aspects of the ants are under control and consequently how "O. unilateralis" manipulates the ant.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The first step "O. unilateralis" has to overcome to have a successful infection, is to attach itself onto the ant's cuticle and then infiltrate it. For this purpose, the fungus' hypha pierces the exoskeleton using enzymes such as chitinase, lipase and protease, combined with mechanical pressure.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: After the fungus enters the ant it propagates, and fungal cells are found beside the host's brain. Once the population is of sufficient size, the fungus secretes compounds and takes over the central nervous system (CNS), which enables it to manipulate the ant to reach the forest floor and climb up the vegetation.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Two candidate compounds, sphingosine and guanidinobutyric acid (GBA), have been identified as responsible for the manipulation of the host brain. Both compounds are known to be involved in various neurological disorders. However, more research is needed to determine whether other fungal metabolites interact with the host brain to cause higher levels of sphingosine and GBA.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Some studies identified another compound, hypoxanthine, present at high extracellular concentrations. Hypoxanthine has deleterious effects on neural tissues of the cerebral cortex, which in the context of zombie ants may indicate a way for the fungus to alter the motor neurons of the ant, consequently affecting its behavior.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The famous "death grip" exhibited by the ant is also a result of fungus-induced manipulation. This behavior consists of an infected ant locking its mandibles onto (i.e. biting) a leaf so tightly that the ant is prevented from falling as it dies hanging upside down, consequently enabling the proper growth of the fungus' fruiting body.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: This is possibly a result of the atrophy of the ant's mandibular muscles caused by the secretion of fungal compounds. In multiple studies, fungal cell populations were found within atrophied mandibular muscle tissues. A common hypothesis amongst researchers is that fungal cells infiltrate between the muscle fibers and then secrete chemicals which cause the muscles to atrophy.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Significant decreases in leucine concentration and mitochondria number were identified in infected ants. A deficit in leucine results in the prevention of muscle regeneration because the amino acid is a nutrient regulator of muscle protein synthesis. A decrease in mitochondria ultimately results in a reduction of energy and calcium levels due to the lack of ATP and sarcoplasmic reticulum which provides calcium for actin-myosin binding which is essential for muscle cells.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: More in depth research is needed for the identification of other fungal compounds which act to atrophy the mandibular muscles, and for the understanding of their exact effects on the ant.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Effects of "O. unilateralis" on host have been found to vary according to host species. The ant species which are normally found infected in nature exhibit a manipulated behavior, whereas the species which are not typically infected are killed by the infection, but their behaviour is not altered. This is likely due to the heterogeneous nature of the fungus which secretes different metabolites according to host species.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Many studies describe "Ophiocordyceps unilateralis" distribution as pantropical since it occurs mainly in tropical forest ecosystems. However, there are some reports of the zombie-ant fungus in warm-temperate ecosystems.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Its distribution includes tropical rainforests located in Brazil, Australia and Thailand, and temperate forests found in South Carolina, Florida and Japan.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: When "O. unilateralis"-infected ants die, they are mainly located in regions containing a high density of ants which were previously manipulated and killed. These areas are termed "graveyards" and can be of 20 to 30 meters in range (with a local density of dead ants possibly exceeding 25 meters square).


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The density of dead ants within these graveyards can vary according to climatic conditions. This means that environmental conditions such as humidity and temperature can influence "O.unilateralis" effects on the host population. In fact, studies have described seasonal patterns in the density of previously infected dead ants, with an increase during the rainy season and a decrease during the dry season.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: It is thought that large precipitation events at the beginning and the end of the rainy season stimulates fungal development, which leads to more spores being released and ultimately more individuals being infected and killed.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: "Ophiocordyceps" are known in the pharmaceutical world to be a medically-important group. "O. unilateralis" fungi produce various known secondary metabolites, as well as several structurally uncharacterised substances. These natural products are reportedly being investigated as potential leads in discovery efforts toward immunomodulatory, antitumor, hypoglycemic, and hypocholesterolemic targets.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: In an "Ophiocordyceps" species within Japanese cicadas, the "Ophiocordyceps" replaces the symbiotic bacteria within the cicadas to help the host process sap as nutrients, unlike other related species, such as the "Ophiocordyceps sinensis", which is a traditional immune booster and cancer treatment in Tibetan and Chinese culture.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Naphthoquinone derivatives are an example of secondary metabolite with important pharmaceutical potentials produced by "O. unilateralis". Six known naphthoquinone derivatives have been isolated from "O. unilateralis", namely erythrostominone, deoxyerythrostominone, 4-"O"-methyl erythrostominone, epierythrostominol, deoxyerythrostominol, and 3,5,8-trihydroxy-6-methoxy-2-(5-oxohexa-1,3-dienyl)-1,4-naphthoquinone, which have shown activity in "in vitro" assays related to antimalarial drug discovery. In addition to having antimalarial activities, all six of these secondary metabolites have been demonstrated to have anticancer and antibacterial activities.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Moreover, the use of red naphthoquinone pigments produced by "O. unilateralis" has been studied as a dye for food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical manufacturing processes. In fact, naphthoquinone derivatives produced by the fungus show a red color under acidic conditions, and a purple color under basic conditions. These pigments are stable against acid/alkaline conditions and light and are not cytotoxic, which makes them applicable for food coloring and as a dye for other materials. These attributes also make it a prime candidate for antituberculosis testing in secondary TB patients, by improving symptoms and enhancing immunity when combined with chemotherapeutic drugs.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: In 2009, a study showed that "O. unilateralis" also produces polyketides. These secondary metabolites have been used in antibiotics such as patulin, cholesterol medication such as compactin, and antifungal treatments. It has also been reported that polyketides have other therapeutic effects such as antitumor, antioxidant and antiaging activities.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: "O. unilateralis" suffers from an unidentified fungal hyperparasite, reported in the lay press as the "antizombie-fungus fungus", that results in only 6–7% of sporangia being viable, limiting the damage "O. unilateralis" inflicts on ant colonies. The hyperparasite moves in to attack "O. unilateralis" as the fungal stalk emerges from the ant's body, which can stop the stalk from releasing its spores.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The graveyards of dead ants are numerous and spread throughout the surrounding area of the colony. Though "O. unilateralis" is very virulent, only about 6.5% of all fruiting bodies are viable spore producers. This is caused by the weakening of the fungus by the hyperparasite, which may limit the viability of infectious spores. Ants also groom each other to combat microscopic organisms that could potentially harm the colony. Additional fungi grant beneficial assistance to the colony, as well.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: In hostparasite dynamics, both the host and the parasite are under selective pressure: the parasite evolves to increase its transmission, whereas the host evolves to avoid and/or resist the infection by the parasite.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Some parasites have evolved to manipulate their host's behavior in order to increase their transmission to uninfected susceptible individuals, thereby increasing their fitness. This host manipulation is termed the "extended phenotype" of the parasite and is a form of adaptation. Host ant manipulation by "O. unilateralis" represents one of the best-known examples of extended phenotypes.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The extended phenotype of "O. unilateralis" typically depicts the infected ant leaving its canopy nest and its normal foraging path to reach the forest floor and subsequently climb up 25 cm above ground level. This height is considered to be optimal for fungal growth due to its humidity level and temperature. This is followed by a "death grip" of the infected ant once it is to be found at what are considered to be optimal conditions for post-mortem fungal development. This leads to the fungus continuing its growth and releasing fungal spores onto the forest floor. These spores will then be encountered by the ants which, when the aerial foraging route is not possible, have to occasionally descend to ground level. Therefore, "O. unilateralis" controls the ant's behaviour and this manipulation represents an adaptation for the fungus where natural selection acts on its genes, increasing the fungus' fitness.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Some studies proposed a theory in which "O. unilateralis" has another possible form of adaptation which ensures its repeated reproduction.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: This would be crucial for "O. unilateralis s.l." species as they can produce and release within the air, clear and thin-walled spores which are susceptible to environmental conditions such as UV radiation and dryness.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: In fact, studies suggest that the short viability of the fungal spores lead to the need of somatic investment (growth/survival) by the parasite in order to sustain the growth of the fungus' fruiting body on its host, thereby enabling successive reproduction. To do so, "O. unilateralis" fortifies the ant cadaver to prevent its decay, which consequently ensures the growth of the fruiting body. Therefore, the zombie-ant fungus adapts to the short viability of its spores by increasing their production using the dead ant.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: The principal hosts of "O. unilateralis" evolved adaptive behaviours able to limit the contact rate between uninfected susceptible hosts and infected hosts, thereby reducing the risk of transmission.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: "O.unilateralis" principal hosts evolved efficient behavioral forms of social immunity. In fact, the ants clean the exoskeletons of one another in order to decrease the presence of spores which are attached to their cuticle. Also, ants can sense that a member of the colony is infected, resulting in healthy ants carrying the "O. unilateralis"-infected individual far away from the colony to avoid fungal spore exposure. Plus, there are reports testifying that most worker ants remain inside the nest boundaries; consequently, only foragers are at risk of infection.


title: Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

text: Moreover, one of the fungus' principal hosts, "Camponotus leonardi", provided evidence for the avoidance of the forest floor by the host ants as a defence method. In areas where "O. unilateralis" is present, "C. leonardi" builds its nests high in the canopy, and has a broad network of aerial trails. These trails occasionally move down to the ground level, where infection and graveyards occur, due to canopy gaps too difficult for the ants to cross. When the trails descend to the forest floor, their length is only of three to five meters before going back up into the canopy. This demonstrates the avoidance of the zones of infection by the ants. Additionally, more evidence participates in the favour of this defence method being adaptive as it is not observed in undisturbed forests where the zombie-ant fungus is not present.


title: Hawala

text: Hawala or hewala ( , meaning "transfer" or sometimes "trust"), also known as ' in Persian, and ' or in Somali, is a popular and informal value transfer system based on the performance and honour of a huge network of money brokers (known as "hawaladars"). They operate outside of, or parallel to, traditional banking, financial channels and remittance systems. The system requires a minimum of two hawaladars that take care of the "transaction" without the movement of cash or telegraphic transfer. While hawaladars are spread throughout the world, they are primarily located in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Hawala follows Islamic traditions but its use is not limited to Muslims.


title: Hawala

text: The hawala system originated in India. Hawala as a legal concept came to be described as early as 1327, according to Schramm and Taube, though the actual practice has existed since the 8th century between Indian, Arab and Muslim traders who operated alongside the Silk Road and beyond, as a protection against theft. It is believed to have arisen in the financing of long-distance trade around the emerging capital trade centers in the early medieval period. In South Asia, it appears to have developed into a fully-fledged money market instrument, which was only gradually replaced by the instruments of the formal banking system in the first half of the 20th century.


title: Hawala

text: "Hawala" itself influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws, such as the "aval" in French law and Portuguese law, and the "avallo" in Italian law. The words "aval" and "avallo" were themselves derived from "hawala". The transfer of debt, which was "not permissible under Roman law but became widely practiced in medieval Europe, especially in commercial transactions", was due to the large extent of the "trade conducted by the Italian cities with the Muslim world in the Middle Ages". The agency was also "an institution unknown to Roman law" as no "individual could conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent". In Roman law, the "contractor himself was considered the party to the contract and it took a second contract between the person who acted on behalf of a principal and the latter in order to transfer the rights and the obligations deriving from the contract to him". On the other hand, Islamic law and the later common law "had no difficulty in accepting agency as one of its institutions in the field of contracts and of obligations in general".


title: Hawala

text: In the most basic variant of the hawala system, money is transferred via a network of hawala brokers, or "hawaladars". It is the transfer of money without actually moving it. In fact, a successful definition of the hawala system that is used is "money transfer without money movement". According to the author Sam Vaknin, there are large hawaladar operators with networks of middlemen in cities across many countries, but most hawaladars are small businesses who work at hawala as a sideline or moonlighting operation.


title: Hawala

text: The figure shows how hawala works: (1) a customer ("A", left-hand side) approaches a hawala broker ("X") in one city and gives a sum of money (red arrow) that is to be transferred to a recipient ("B", right-hand side) in another, usually foreign, city. Along with the money, he usually specifies something like a password that will lead to the money being paid out (blue arrows). (2b) The hawala broker "X" calls another hawala broker "M" in the recipient's city, and informs "M" about the agreed password, or gives other disposition of the funds. Then, the intended recipient ("B"), who also has been informed by "A" about the password (2a), now approaches "M" and tells him the agreed password (3a). If the password is correct, then "M" releases the transferred sum to "B" (3b), usually minus a small commission. "X" now owes "M" the money that "M" had paid out to "B"; thus "M" has to trust "X"s promise to settle the debt at a later date.


title: Hawala

text: The unique feature of the system is that no promissory instruments are exchanged between the hawala brokers; the transaction takes place entirely on the honour system. As the system does not depend on the legal enforceability of claims, it can operate even in the absence of a legal and juridical environment. Trust and extensive use of connections are the components that distinguish it from other remittance systems. Hawaladar networks are often based on membership in the same family, village, clan or ethnic group, and cheating is punished by effective excommunication and the loss of honour, which lead to severe economic hardship.


title: Hawala

text: Informal records are produced of individual transactions, and a running tally of the amount owed by one broker to another is kept. Settlements of debts between hawala brokers can take a variety of forms (such as goods, services, properties, transfers of employees, etc.), and need not take the form of direct cash transactions.


title: Hawala

text: In addition to commissions, hawala brokers often earn their profits through bypassing official exchange rates. Generally, the funds enter the system in the source country's currency and leave the system in the recipient country's currency. As settlements often take place without any foreign exchange transactions, they can be made at other than official exchange rates.


title: Hawala

text: Hawala is attractive to customers because it provides a fast and convenient transfer of funds, usually with a far lower commission than that charged by banks. Its advantages are most pronounced when the receiving country applies unprofitable exchange rate regulations or when the banking system in the receiving country is less complex (e.g., due to differences in legal environment in places such as Afghanistan, Yemen, Somalia). Moreover, in some parts of the world, it is the only option for legitimate fund transfers. It has been used ven by aid organizations in areas in which it is the best-functioning institution.


title: Hawala

text: The "hundi" is a financial instrument that developed on the Indian sub-continent for use in trade and credit transactions. Hundis are used as a form of remittance instrument to transfer money from place to place, as a form of credit instrument or IOU to borrow money and as a bill of exchange in trade transactions. The Reserve Bank of India describes the Hundi as "an unconditional order in writing made by a person directing another to pay a certain sum of money to a person named in the order."


title: Hawala

text: According to the CIA, with the dissolution of Somalia's formal banking system, many informal money transfer operators arose to fill the void. It estimates that such "hawaladars", "xawilaad" or "xawala" brokers are now responsible for the transfer of up to $1.6 billion per year in remittances to the country, most coming from working Somalis outside Somalia. Such funds have in turn had a stimulating effect on local business activity.


title: Hawala

text: The 2012 Tuareg rebellion left Northern Mali without an official money transfer service for months. The coping mechanisms that appeared were patterned on the hawala system.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington is a city in and the county seat of Monroe County in the central region of the U.S. state of Indiana. It is the seventh-largest city in Indiana and the fourth-largest outside the Indianapolis metropolitan area. According to the Monroe County History Center, Bloomington is known as the "Gateway to Scenic Southern Indiana". The city was established in 1818 by a group of settlers from Kentucky, Tennessee, the Carolinas, and Virginia who were so impressed with "a haven of blooms" that they called it Bloomington.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington is the home to Indiana University Bloomington, the flagship campus of the IU System. Established in 1820, IU Bloomington has 45,328 students, as of September 2021, and is the original and largest campus of Indiana University. Most of the campus buildings are built of Indiana limestone.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington has been designated a Tree City since 1984. The city was also the location of the Academy Award–winning 1979 movie "Breaking Away", featuring a reenactment of Indiana University's annual Little 500 bicycle race.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: The area in which Bloomington is situated was previously inhabited by the Delaware, Potawatomi, Miami, and Eel River Miami.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington was platted in 1818. A post office has been in operation at Bloomington since 1825. Bloomington was incorporated in 1827.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: The current city logo was adopted on January 6, 1986, by the Bloomington Common Council. It was a combination of peony and trout lily, inspired by both quilt patterns used by regional folk artists in 19th century and the shape of Downtown Square.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: The Elias Abel House, Blair-Dunning House, Bloomington City Hall, Bloomington West Side Historic District, Cantol Wax Company Building, Coca-Cola Bottling Plant, Cochran-Helton-Lindley House, Courthouse Square Historic District, Hinkle-Garton Farmstead, Home Laundry Company, Illinois Central Railroad Freight Depot, Johnson's Creamery, Legg House, Millen House, Millen-Chase-McCalla House, Monroe Carnegie Library, Monroe County Courthouse, Morgan House, J.L. Nichols House and Studio, North Washington Street Historic District, The Old Crescent, Princess Theatre, Prospect Hill Historic District, Second Baptist Church, Seminary Square Park, Steele Dunning Historic District, University Courts Historic District, Vinegar Hill Historic District, Wicks Building, Woolery Stone Company, and Andrew Wylie House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: According to the 2010 census, Bloomington has a total area of , of which (or 99.15%) is land and (or 0.85%) is water.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington is an area of irregular limestone terrain characterized by sinks, ravines, fissures, underground streams, sinking streams, springs and caves. It is in the rolling hills of southern Indiana, resting on the intersection of the Norman Uplands and the Mitchell Plain. The city's relatively varied topography is a sharp contrast to the flatter terrain more typical of central to northern portions of Indiana.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington is on comparatively high ground, the summit of the divide between the basins of the West Fork and East Fork of Indiana's White River. Accordingly, there are no major watercourses within the city, nor is much groundwater available for wells. The largest stream within the city is Clear Creek, with its eastern branch known on the Indiana University campus as "The Campus River".


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Due to the absence of either natural lakes or rivers or groundwater in or near the city, a number of dams have been constructed on nearby creeks over the last 100 years to provide for the water needs of Bloomington and Monroe County. Early 20th-century damming projects occurred at locations southwest of the city, the most notable being the Leonard Springs Dam. Due to the limestone formations underlying the reservoirs and the dams, water kept seeping from the reservoirs through naturally developing underground channels. Despite all efforts, the city was never able to fully stop the leakage, and had to resort to pumping leaking water back to the reservoir.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: By the 1920s, a more radical solution was needed to deal with the water crisis. A new reservoir, known as Griffy Lake, was constructed in a more geologically suitable area north of the city. (It is now within Bloomington's official city limits.) Later, in the 1950s, two much larger reservoirs, Lake Lemon and Lake Monroe were created in the northeastern and southeastern parts of Monroe County. Monroe Lake was created by the US Army Corps of Engineers for flood control, but has since been used to supply the city and the county with water. The water pumping station at Griffy Lake was mothballed until May of 2020.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Presently, the city is supplied with drinking water from Lake Monroe, via the Monroe Water Treatment Plant on S Shields Ridge Rd.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Originally opened in 1967, it was expanded in 2014, and now is capable of producing 30 million gallons of water per day. The sewer water from the northern part of the city is treated at the Blucher Poole Wastewater Treatment Plant (constructed 1968), and discharged into the Bean Blossom Creek. The sewer water from the southern half of the city goes to Dillman Road Wastewater Treatment Plant (constructed 1982), and is then discharged into the Clear Creek.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: PCB pollution, associated with Westinghouse's operations, long was a concern in the area. A number of sites, in particular, Bennett's Dump and Lemon Lane Landfill at the northwestern edge of the city and Neal's Landfill in the county, were listed as Superfund sites. Clean-up operations at the Bennett Quarry site, started in 1983, were largely completed by 2000., while cleanups at the other sites were completed in 2012.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington is the principal city of the Bloomington Metropolitan Statistical Area, a metropolitan area that covers Greene, Monroe, and Owen counties and had a combined population of 192,714 at the 2010 census.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: As of the 2010 census, there were 80,405 people, 31,425 households, and 11,267 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 33,239 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 83.0% White, 4.6% African American, 0.3% Native American, 8.0% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.2% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.5% of the population.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: There were 31,425 households, of which 16.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.3% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 64.1% were non-families. 38.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.09 and the average family size was 2.76.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: The median age in the city was 23.3 years. 11.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 44.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23% were from 25 to 44; 13.3% were from 45 to 64; and 7.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.3% male and 49.7% female.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 69,291 people, 26,468 households, and 10,454 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 28,400 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 87.03% White, 4.24% African American, 0.29% Native American, 5.26% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 1.10% from other races, and 2.01% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.49% of the population. 22.9% were of German, 10.2% Irish, 9.1% English and 8.4% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 89.3% spoke English, 2.9% Spanish, 1.3% Korean, 1.1% German and 1.0% Chinese or Mandarin as their first language.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: There were 26,468 households, out of which 17.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.2% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 60.5% were non-families. 39.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.09 and the average family size was 2.76.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 12.7% under the age of 18, 42.3% from 18 to 24, 24.6% from 25 to 44, 12.6% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.8 males.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: The median income for a household in the city was $25,377, and the median income for a family was $50,054. Males had a median income of $32,470 compared to $26,100 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,481. About 10.3% of families and 29.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.3% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those age 65 or over.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: The Bloomington and Monroe County region is home to major employers representing a diverse collection of fields, including education, the life sciences, advanced manufacturing and technology.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington is a regional economic center anchored by Indiana University and home to a diverse business community involved in pharmaceuticals, medical devices, technology, health care, and the arts. Bloomington's concentration of employment in the life sciences is six times greater than the U.S. average, and employment in the technology sector has grown by over 80 percent in recent years. Companies based in Bloomington include Cook Group, Author Solutions, OneWorld Enterprises, BloomingFoods, Bloomington Tutors, and Singota Solutions.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington has been recognized by "Inc. Magazine" as one of "America's Best Cities for Doing Business" and as one of Entrepreneur Magazine's Top 50 "Hottest Small Cities for Entrepreneurs". Additionally, "Forbes" Magazine ranked Bloomington No. 3 in its "Best Places for Business Careers" feature.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: A five-channel public-access television station is housed in the Monroe County Public Library. The station, known as Community Access Television Services or CATS, was established in 1973 and serves as a "dedicated constitutional forum". In April 1995, "Rox", a program produced at CATS (then Bloomington Community Access Television, or BCAT), became the first TV series distributed via the web, with an episode titled "Global Village Idiots".


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington is a gold-rated bicycle-friendly community by the League of American Bicyclists. There are several significant bike trails in and around the city, most notably the B-Line Trail which runs north to south for almost four miles through the core of Downtown Bloomington and south through Switchyard Park. An east to west version has also recently been completed along the 7th street corridor.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington and Indiana University briefly ran a dockless bikeshare program called Pace, launched in June 2018. The program was cancelled after less than a year.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bloomington, for many years was one of the largest cities without an interstate or freeway. However, interstate access finally occurred in December 2015 when the Interstate 69 expansion between Evansville and Indianapolis was completed to Bloomington.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: The upgrading of SR 37 from a 4 Lane Highway to Interstate standards for the next section of I-69 between Bloomington and Martinsville was originally scheduled for completion in August 2016. As of November 2018, the construction was substantially complete. The last section between Martinsville and Indianapolis is scheduled for completion in 2024.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: State Road 45 (SR 45) and State Road 46 (SR 46) run through Bloomington together on a four-lane highway known as the "bypass".


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: State Road 48 (SR 48) starts as a four-lane highway on the city's west side before narrowing to two-lanes at Oard Rd outside the city limits.


title: Bloomington, Indiana

text: Bus service to Indianapolis is provided by Miller Transportation bus lines, services to the Indianapolis International Airport is provided through shuttle services such as GO Express.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: California State University, Long Beach (CSULB) is a public research university in Long Beach, California. The 322-acre campus is the second largest of the 23-school California State University system (CSU) and one of the largest universities in the state of California by enrollment, its student body numbering 39,435 for the fall 2021 semester. With 5,830 graduate students as of fall 2021, the university enrolls one of the largest graduate student populations across the CSU system and in the state of California.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The Beach is home to one of the largest publicly funded art schools in the United States. The university currently operates with one of the lowest student tuition and mandatory fee rates in the country, at $5,742 per semester for full-time students with California residence as of 2021. CSULB is an Hispanic-serving institution (HSI) and is eligible to be designated as an Asian American Native American Pacific Islander serving institution (AANAPISI).


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The college was established in 1949 by California Governor Earl Warren, to serve the rapidly expanding post-World War II population of Orange and Southern Los Angeles counties. Since then, CSULB has grown to become one of the state's largest universities.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The institution was first named as Los Angeles-Orange County State College. Peter Victor Peterson was its first president. It offered 25 courses, taught by 13 faculty members, in two apartment buildings at 5381 Anaheim Road in Long Beach. In June 1950, the citizens of Long Beach voted overwhelmingly to purchase as a permanent campus for the college, then known as Long Beach State College. The purchase price was nearly $1 million. Student enrollment grew rapidly in this new, permanent location.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Carl W. McIntosh was named the college's second president in 1959. While McIntosh was president, the school grew tremendously. Enrollment surged from about 10,000 to more than 30,000, and he rapidly expanded and revamped the curriculum. McIntosh tripled the number of faculty and constructed 30 new buildings. Although the 1960s were a period of deep unrest on American college campuses, McIntosh's collegial governing style, gentle and quiet demeanor, and willingness to permit protest on campus (so long as it remained quiet and peaceful) helped keep Long Beach State College relatively quiet throughout the period. In 1964, LBSC changed its name to California State College at Long Beach. In 1967, the California state legislature revamped the state college system. It changed its name in 1968 to California State College, Long Beach, as part of these changes and began to be much more closely integrated into the California State College system. However, then as now, it is still called "Long Beach State" for short, especially in athletics.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: In 1965, CSULB hosted the first International Sculpture Symposium to be held in the United States and the first such symposium to be held at a college or university. Six sculptors from abroad and two from the United States created many of the monumental sculptures present on the campus. The event received national media attention from newspapers around the country, including "The New York Times", "Los Angeles Times Magazine", "Art in America" and a six-page color spread in "Fortune".


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: McIntosh departed for Montana State University in 1969, and was succeeded by President Steve Horn. The California State University Board of Trustees elevated the school to university status in 1972, along with 12 other state college campuses. The decision was made based on total enrollment, size of graduate programs, complexity and diversity of majors and number of doctorates held by faculty at each college. CSCLB thus became California State University, Long Beach, or CSULB.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Also in 1972, the campus became the home of the largest library facility in the then 19-campus CSU system: a modern six-story building with a seating capacity of nearly 4,000 students.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: In 1995, President Robert Maxson initiated the privately funded President's Scholars Program, providing selected qualified California high school valedictorians and National Merit finalists and semi-finalists with a full four-year scholarship package, including tuition, a book stipend, and housing. , over 1000 students have accepted the scholarship. For applicants for fall 2010, National Achievement Program Semifinalists/Finalists and National Hispanic Recognition scholars were also considered.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: In 2010, the University launched the Sunstone Innovation Challenge, an annual business plan competition seeking diverse teams to develop sustainable, entrepreneurial, and innovative ideas. The winning team receives funding and services worth $35,000.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: In August 2020, CSULB unveiled its new shark mascot, Elbee, following a 2019 student-led process that selected the shark as Beach's new mascot. While Elbee is a shark, the university's Division I intercollegiate athletics program remains “Beach Athletics.”


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: As of 2022, The Beach was elevated to "Doctoral University: High Research Activity" status by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, in recognition of the University's evolution from a master's-level comprehensive institution to one that awards doctorates.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The campus spans across 84 buildings, and is located from the Pacific Ocean. It has its own U.S. Postal ZIP Code, 90840. CSULB is located at 1250 Bellflower Boulevard. It is bounded by East 7th Street to the south, East Atherton Street to the north, Bellflower Boulevard to the west, and Palo Verde Avenue to the east.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The architecture of the campus is mostly of the International style (designed primarily by architect Edward Killingsworth) and is very minimalist, placing emphasis instead on the landscaping that surrounds it. This naturalistic, park-like layout has earned the campus numerous design awards, as well as other awards from gardening societies. Recent construction maintains the characteristic glass-and-brick style. The integration of landscaping and architecture is apparent at the school's theater complex, where a dense grove of ficus trees is planted in such a way that it forms a continuation of the pillar-supported canopy at the theater's entrance. The university's registration offices are located in the open courtyard of Brotman Hall, which is "roofed" by a similar jungle-like canopy. The Psychology building is also notable for its soaring, airy courtyard planted with tall Eucalyptus trees.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The University Student Union (USU) building is located at the center of campus. The three-story glass building occupies roughly , housing numerous offices, and offering more casual attractions, including a study lounge, a ballroom, a food court, a bowling alley, an arcade, and a movie theater.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The Rec and Wellness Center is an extensive all-purpose athletic center covering about on North Campus. It was completed in 2010. It includes facilities for fitness programs and aerobics classes, courts for volleyball, basketball, badminton, rock climbing walls, an indoor track, a student lounge, and much more. The center is funded and managed by CSULB's Associated Students, Incorporated (ASI).


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: 49er basketball and volleyball games are currently played in the iconic, eighteen-story Walter Pyramid (formerly known as the Long Beach Pyramid) located on north campus. The Pyramid is a sporting complex that can accommodate over 5,000 fans, including temporary seating and standing room. Two sections of interior stands are fitted with large hydraulic lifts that can lift the seating elements 45 degrees into the air, creating room for five volleyball courts or three basketball courts. The Pyramid is home to the Southern California Summer Pro League, a noted showcase for current and prospective NBA basketball players.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The University Art Museum's permanent collection contains primarily abstract expressionist paintings, works on paper, and an outdoor sculpture garden that began in 1966. The UAM was the first accredited museum in the CSU system. In addition, the museum's Gordon F. Hampton collection is housed at the Downtown Los Angeles law offices of Sheppard Mullin.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The campus is also home to the Carpenter Performing Arts Center, a 1,074-seat theater named after CSULB alumni Richard and Karen Carpenter.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The Earl Burns Miller Japanese Garden is an artistic retreat of solitude and beauty. Among its many picturesque attractions, the Garden features a large pond populated with koi.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The campus is built on an ancient Tongva village and burial site known as Puvungna, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. CSULB has challenged this designation, claiming they were not consulted when the application was filed. From 1992 to 1995, when the university attempted to build a strip mall and student housing on the last undeveloped portion of the campus, the Tongva people filed a lawsuit and initiated a protest, which involved physically occupying the land day and night to stave off bulldozers. The site remains as an undeveloped grassy area with a few trees.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The university, in its push to support climate sustainability, installed solar panels on the Brotman Hall building and the Facilities Management canopy parking in 2007. The university has been taking steps in addressing the challenge of sustainability, with the support of its student government, student body, and organizations, such as the Environmental Science & Policy Club.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The Environmental Science & Policy Club (ES&P Club) has brought support to environmental awareness and sustainability through club activities, such as coastal clean-ups, hikes, plant-restoration project, tabling, conferences, guest speakers, & Kaleidoscope. In 2006, the ES&P Club supported the installation of waterless urinals in the university's men's restrooms. The ES&P Club hosts an annual Earth Week celebration each April, including documentary screenings, discussions, and speaker series.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: In addition, there has been a push in recent years to revive the organic gardens on campus, culminating in 2015 with the launch of the Grow Beach University Gardens, a student-led ASI sub-group that promotes organic gardening and sustainable agriculture on campus. The new garden boxes are part of a campus-wide effort to provide a natural, organic, and convenient garden right on campus for student and faculty use.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The university "has a comprehensive energy management program incorporating real-time metering and energy-saving technologies such as the EnergySaver, which provides a more sophisticated alternative to turning off the lights by automatically varying the voltage to the ballasted fixtures and reducing the power consumed, while maintaining appropriate lighting levels."


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The Desert Studies Center is a field station of the California State University located in Zzyzx, California in the Mojave Desert. The purpose of the center is to provide opportunities to conduct research, receive instruction and experience the Mojave Desert environment. It is operated by the California Desert Studies Consortium, a consortium of 7 CSU campuses: Fullerton, Cal Poly Pomona, Long Beach, San Bernardino, Northridge, Dominguez Hills and Los Angeles.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Together, the colleges offer a total of 81 baccalaureate degrees, 67 master's degrees, 16 education-related credential programs, and three doctoral degrees (two joint and one independent).


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: CSU Long Beach has become the most applied to campus in the California State University system, receiving over 102,000 applicants with a low acceptance rate of 28%, edging out San Diego State in number of applicants and Cal Poly San Luis Obispo (Cal Poly SLO) in percentage accepted.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: CSULB is ranked the No. 3 university in the nation for promoting social mobility, according to the most recent edition of the social mobility index by CollegeNET.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The 2021 edition of Washington Monthly's College Guide and Rankings list CSULB as the No. 2 Master's-level university in the nation.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Money Magazine's 2020 College rankings saw Cal State Long Beach ranked in the Top 1% for "Best Public College", "Four-Year Institutions Ranked By Value" and "Most Transformative Colleges". In 2022, Money.com positioned California State University, Long Beach 18th out of 600 four-year colleges universities in their Best Colleges in America list.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: In 2021, "The Wall Street Journal/ Times Higher Education" ranked CSULB 8th in the nation for Campus Diversity. The category ranking, called “environment” by the publication, assessed the percentage of Pell Grant recipients, the racial and ethnic diversity of students and faculty, and the proportion of students who come from outside the United States.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The university has three student publications: the "Daily 49er", "22 West Magazine" (formerly "The Long Beach Union Newspaper") and "DIG Magazine."


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The first issue of the "Daily 49er", the campus newspaper, was published on November 11, 1949. It publishes Monday through Thursday during the fall and spring semesters, and once weekly during the summer sessions. It was one of the first college newspapers in the country to have an Internet edition, starting in August 1994.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: "22 West Magazine", which is partially student-funded, and affiliated with ASI, publishes every month during fall and spring semesters. It began on April 22, 1977, when it was formed in response to the "Daily 49er". The "Union Weekly" focuses on being an alternative voice on campus and features a satirical section called "The Grunion" (not to be confused with the Long Beach paper the Grunion Gazette). During the late 1970s through 1980s, the "Union" was a daily newspaper, giving heavy competition to the "Daily 49er". Journalism majors who worked on the "Union" did so under a pseudonym as it was a practice forbidden by the dean of the Journalism department.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: "DIG Magazine", the campus magazine, has gone through many changes throughout the years. It started off as "The Lantern", a magazine for night-time students, before transforming to "UniverCity" in 1973. Then, it turned into "University Magazine." In the early 2000s, the magazine transformed to "DIG Magazine" as a music magazine before transitioning to a general art & culture magazine. Today, the magazine features interesting people and groups within the community, and discusses topics that concern students' interests.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The California State University Long Beach Foundation owns the KKJZ non-commercial broadcast license of 88.1 FM, a jazz and blues radio station. Global Jazz, Inc., an affiliate of Mount Wilson FM Broadcasters, Inc., programs and manages the radio station. In 2015, Global Jazz moved the station thirty miles from Long Beach to West Los Angeles. While KKJZ began as a radio station exclusively playing Jazz and Blues music it has recently expanded its playlist to include Rhythm and Blues artists.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: 22 West Radio is a free format, student run internet radio station at CSU, Long Beach. It is also an HD Radio station via 88.1 HD3 . The radio station is operated year-round. The station has been around in various forms since the mid-1970s, then known as KSUL (which went defunct after 1981). 22 West Radio is a department of Associated Students, Incorporated at CSULB and is both funded and regulated by them.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Each March since 1970, the university has hosted the largest pow-wow in Southern California. This free two-day event, which attracts more than 6,000 persons each year, features Native American dancing, arts, craft and native foods.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The $70 million Student Recreation and Wellness Center is located on the northeast side of campus. It opened in fall 2010.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Eight national sororities on campus are governed by the Panhellenic Association and are members of the National Panhellenic Conference. Eleven general fraternities are members of and governed by the Interfraternity Council. There is also a Cultural Greek Council which governs over six sororities, six fraternities and one co-ed fraternity. Within the last 5 years, two fraternities have been removed for various instances of sexual assault and misconduct, specifically Sigma Alpha Epsilon and Sigma Chi. The latter's expulsion was not made known to the university community, causing controversy within the student body.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Long Beach State competes in NCAA Division I in 18 sports teams and plays competitively in baseball, cross country, softball, track and field, women's tennis, and women's soccer, as well as both men's and women's basketball, volleyball, water polo and golf teams. The university is a founding member of the Big West Conference, and also competes in the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation for sports not sponsored by the Big West.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: In the realm of sports the school is branded as "Long Beach State." "Beach", which had long been unofficially used to refer to Long Beach State and its sports teams as it is the only university on the West Coast with the word "Beach" in its name, became the official athletic program brand name in the 2020–21 school year. One can see the cheer "Go Beach!" written on many CSULB products around campus and on the large water tower near the entrance to the campus.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: The school colors have been black and gold since 2000, when they were changed by a student referendum (after George Allen changed the football uniform colors) from the original brown and gold.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Long Beach State is home to one of the top women's volleyball teams in the nation. Long Beach State has won three national titles in women's volleyball, in 1989, 1993 and 1998. The 1998 women's team was the first team in NCAA Division I history to have an undefeated season. The team's most famous alumna is Misty May-Treanor, who won three Olympic gold medals in Beach Volleyball in 2004, 2008, and 2012. Long Beach is also the only California State University to participate in the Golden Coast Conference for Men's Water polo not sponsored by the Big West Conference the Division Long Beach participates for in NCAA Division I.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Because of the proximity to California State University, Fullerton, the schools are considered rivals. The rivalry is especially heated in baseball with the Long Beach State baseball team also having a competitive college baseball program.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Alumni have written, acted and directed screenplays that have attracted Oscar-caliber talent. David Twohy (BA) co-wrote the screenplay for the Academy Award winning film "The Fugitive". Linda Woolverton (BA 1974) wrote the screenplays for the Academy Award-winning, Disney animated films "Beauty and the Beast" and "The Lion King", and the live-action 2010 film "Alice in Wonderland" directed by Oscar-nominated director Tim Burton and starring Oscar-nominated actor Johnny Depp. J. F. Lawton (BA) wrote the screenplay to "Pretty Woman", starring the Oscar-winning actress Julia Roberts. Mark Steven Johnson (BA 1989) has co-written and directed the films "Daredevil", starring Oscar-winning actor Ben Affleck, and "Ghost Rider", starring Oscar-winning actor Nicolas Cage. Actor Crispin Alapag notably on Big Time In Hollywood FL, Ray Donovan, General Hospital and VR Troopers Power Rangers.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Former students have won at least five Academy Awards. Steven Spielberg (Class of 1969, BA 2002) won two Oscars for Best Directing for "Schindler's List" and "Saving Private Ryan" and has directed a number of other successful movies such as "Jaws", "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial", and "Jurassic Park". Former industrial design major John Dykstra, who has been nominated five times for Academy Awards, won two Oscars for his special effects work on the George Lucas film "Star Wars" and the Sam Raimi film "Spider-Man 2". Deborah L. Scott (BA) won an Oscar for costume design for the James Cameron film "Titanic".


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Emmy Award-nominated director Chris Carter (BA 1979) created the series "The X-Files", which garnered several awards during its nine seasons on television. Former student Steve Martin, whose philosophy classes at the university inspired him to become a professional comedian, is an Emmy Award winner and a Disney Legend.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Alumni and former students have also participated in the world of sports. Jason Giambi, Evan Longoria, Troy Tulowitzki, Harold Reynolds, Jered Weaver, Steve Trachsel, and Jason Vargas have all been selected to play in the Major League Baseball All Stars games. Matt Duffy won the World Series with the 2014 San Francisco Giants and continues to play with the Los Angeles Angels. Jeff McNeil of the New York Mets won the 2022 NL batting title with an average of .326. Golfer Mark O'Meara (BA 1980) won the Masters Tournament and The Open Championship. Craig Hodges is a two-time NBA Champion, Terrell Davis is a two-time Super Bowl champion and Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee, and Billy Parks played five seasons in the NFL. Diver Pat McCormick won four gold medals in two consecutive Olympics (Helsinki and Melbourne), and Misty May-Treanor (BS 2002) won three gold medals in women's beach volleyball in three other consecutive Olympics (Athens, Beijing, and London). High Jumper Dwight Stones set the World Record while a student at Cal State Long Beach, in addition to winning the bronze medal at both the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich and 1976 in Montreal. Track and Field athlete Bill Green (BA 1984) set the United States and NCAA record three times in the hammer throw, and placed 5th at the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles.


title: California State University, Long Beach

text: Former students Karen Carpenter and Richard Carpenter (Class of 1972, Honorary Doctorate 2000) of "The Carpenters" are the namesakes of the Carpenter Performing Arts Center, a 1,065-seat performance hall on the campus of the university that also houses an exhibit on the Carpenters. Richard Carpenter's college instructor and choir director Frank Pooler inspired him in choral arrangement, and both Karen and Richard participated in Pooler's choir. Pooler also introduced Richard to fellow undergraduate and future song-writing collaborator John Bettis. Another undergraduate, Wesley Jacobs, would join the Carpenters as a musical instrumentalist. The Carpenters sold over 100 million records, won three Grammy Awards out of eighteen nominations, and created numerous gold and platinum albums.


title: Mr. Mister

text: Mr. Mister was an American rock band from Phoenix, Arizona, active from 1982 until 1990. The band consisted of Richard Page on lead vocals and bass guitar, Steve George on keyboards/backing vocals, Pat Mastelotto on acoustic and electronic drums/percussion and Steve Farris on guitars/backing vocals. Mr. Mister was the successor to the band Pages, fronted by Page and George from 1978 to 1981.


title: Mr. Mister

text: Although formed in Phoenix, Arizona, United States, Mr. Mister was based in Los Angeles, California. Richard Page had previously worked as a session musician (for Quincy Jones) and had composed for Michael Jackson, Rick Springfield, Donna Summer, Kenny Loggins, Al Jarreau, and many more.


title: Mr. Mister

text: In 1978, Page and his childhood friend Steve George founded the band Pages in Phoenix, Arizona. Pages explored a pop fusion sound, with a changing lineup of session musicians. Although Pages had a minor hit single with "I Do Believe in You", and its three albums garnered favorable reviews, the group had little commercial success. After disbanding Pages in 1981, Page and George focused on songwriting and studio session work for pop artists ranging from Laura Branigan to Village People.


title: Mr. Mister

text: By 1982, Page and George began putting together a more pop-oriented group with a permanent lineup, rounded out by drummer Pat Mastelotto and guitarist Steve Farris. All four members had done extensive session work for other artists and brought numerous influences to the band. The initial plan was to bring in a fifth member, a bass guitarist, but after realizing that Page, who was originally slated to be solely the lead singer, could also play bass, the members decided to remain a four-piece.


title: Mr. Mister

text: When the first Mr. Mister album, "I Wear the Face", was released by RCA Records in 1984, Page was offered the chance to replace Bobby Kimball as lead singer of Toto, and later was offered Peter Cetera's place in Chicago; he refused both offers.


title: Mr. Mister

text: Their second album, 1985's "Welcome to the Real World"—with lyrics from Page's cousin John Lang—was the breakthrough for Mr. Mister. All three singles were in the top 10, two of which hit No. 1 on the U.S. pop charts—"Kyrie" and "Broken Wings". The latter was inspired by the book of the same title by Khalil Gibran. They had several No. 1 MTV videos, and performed at the first "MTV Spring Break" show in 1986. That year, Mr. Mister had two Grammy Award nominations, including Best Pop Band (which was awarded to the "We Are the World" ensemble, USA for Africa).


title: Mr. Mister

text: During this time, Mr. Mister toured with other popular acts including Don Henley, The Bangles, Eurythmics, Tina Turner, Heart, and Adam Ant. The band's third album was "Go On...", which was not a commercial success.


title: Mr. Mister

text: During the 1980s, the group wrote and/or performed songs for several movies, including the title song for "Stand and Deliver", and "Is It Love" as the outro track for "Stakeout". "Don't Slow Down" appeared in "A Fine Mess". The band also made concert appearances with the pop rock band the Bangles.


title: Mr. Mister

text: Guitarist Steve Farris left in 1988. The remaining band members teamed up with Christian recording artist Paul Clark and acted as his backup band for Clark's 1988 indie release "Awakening from the Western Dream". Next, the band began working on a fourth album, "Pull", with session guitarists Buzz Feiten, Trevor Rabin, Doug Macaskill and Peter McRea. The album was completed in 1990, but RCA Records decided not to release it. Soon afterwards, the band broke up. The album remained unreleased for 20 years, although one track ("Waiting in My Dreams") appeared on a 2001 greatest hits collection by the band. On November 23, 2010, the remastered album was finally released by the band, in collaboration with Sony Music, on Richard Page's independent label, Little Dume Recordings.


title: Mr. Mister

text: Long after their dissolution, the band was referred to in the song "Hey, Soul Sister" by Train, with the line "Ain't that Mr. Mister on the radio, stereo?"


title: Dacians

text: The Dacians (; ; ) were the ancient Indo-European inhabitants of the cultural region of Dacia, located in the area near the Carpathian Mountains and west of the Black Sea. They are often considered a subgroup of the Thracians. This area includes mainly the present-day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Ukraine, Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary and Southern Poland. The Dacians and the related Getae spoke the Dacian language, which has a debated relationship with the neighbouring Thracian language and may be a subgroup of it. Dacians were somewhat culturally influenced by the neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4th century BC.


title: Dacians

text: The Dacians were known as "Geta" (plural "Getae") in Ancient Greek writings, and as "Dacus" (plural "Daci") or "Getae" in Roman documents, but also as "Dagae" and "Gaete" as depicted on the late Roman map "Tabula Peutingeriana". It was Herodotus who first used the ethnonym "Getae" in his "Histories". In Greek and Latin, in the writings of Julius Caesar, Strabo, and Pliny the Elder, the people became known as 'the Dacians'. Getae and Dacians were interchangeable terms, or used with some confusion by the Greeks. Latin poets often used the name "Getae". Vergil called them "Getae" four times, and "Daci" once, Lucian "Getae" three times and "Daci" twice, Horace named them "Getae" twice and "Daci" five times, while Juvenal one time "Getae" and two times "Daci". In AD 113, Hadrian used the poetic term "Getae" for the Dacians. Modern historians prefer to use the name "Geto-Dacians". Strabo describes the Getae and Dacians as distinct but cognate tribes. This distinction refers to the regions they occupied. Strabo and Pliny the Elder also state that Getae and Dacians spoke the same language.


title: Dacians

text: By contrast, the name of "Dacians", whatever the origin of the name, was used by the more western tribes who adjoined the Pannonians and therefore first became known to the Romans. According to Strabo's "Geographica", the original name of the Dacians was ""Daoi"". The name Daoi (one of the ancient Geto-Dacian tribes) was certainly adopted by foreign observers to designate all the inhabitants of the countries north of Danube that had not yet been conquered by Greece or Rome.


title: Dacians

text: The ethnographic name "Daci" is found under various forms within ancient sources. Greeks used the forms ""Dakoi"" (Strabo, Dio Cassius, and Dioscorides) and "Daoi" (singular Daos). The form "Daoi" was frequently used according to Stephan of Byzantium.


title: Dacians

text: There are similarities between the ethnonyms of the Dacians and those of Dahae (Greek "Dáoi", "Dáai", "Dai", "Dasai"; Latin "Dahae", "Daci"), an Indo-European people located east of the Caspian Sea, until the 1st millennium BC. Scholars have suggested that there were links between the two peoples since ancient times. The historian David Gordon White has, moreover, stated that the "Dacians ... appear to be related to the Dahae". (Likewise White and other scholars also believe that the names Dacii and Dahae may also have a shared etymology – see the section following for further details.)


title: Dacians

text: By the end of the first century AD, all the inhabitants of the lands which now form Romania were known to the Romans as Daci, with the exception of some Celtic and Germanic tribes who infiltrated from the west, and Sarmatian and related people from the east.


title: Dacians

text: The name "Daci", or "Dacians" is a collective ethnonym. Dio Cassius reported that the Dacians themselves used that name, and the Romans so called them, while the Greeks called them Getae. Opinions on the origins of the name "Daci" are divided. Some scholars consider it to originate in the Indo-European *"dha-k"-, with the stem *"dhe"- 'to put, to place', while others think that the name "Daci" originates in *"daca" 'knife, dagger' or in a word similar to "dáos," meaning 'wolf' in the related language of the Phrygians.""


title: Dacians

text: One hypothesis is that the name "Getae" originates in Indo-European *"guet-" 'to utter, to talk'. Another hypothesis is that "Getae" and "Daci" are the Iranian names of two Iranian-speaking Scythian groups that had been assimilated into the larger Thracian-speaking population of the later "Dacia".


title: Dacians

text: In the 1st century AD, Strabo suggested that its stem formed a name previously borne by slaves: Greek Daos, Latin Davus (-k- is a known suffix in Indo-European ethnic names). In the 18th century, Grimm proposed the Gothic "dags" or "day" that would give the meaning of "light, brilliant". Yet "dags" belongs to the Sanskrit word-root "dah-", and a derivation from "Dah" to "Daci" is difficult. In the 19th century, Tomaschek (1883) proposed the form "Dak", meaning "those who understand and can speak", by considering "Dak" as a derivation of the root "da" ("k" being a suffix); cf. Sanskrit "dasa", Bactrian "daonha". Tomaschek also proposed the form "Davus", meaning "members of the clan/countryman" cf. Bactrian "daqyu", "danhu" "canton".


title: Dacians

text: Since the 19th century, many scholars have proposed an etymological link between the endonym of the Dacians and wolves.


title: Dacians

text: However, according to Romanian historian and archaeologist Alexandru Vulpe, the Dacian etymology explained by "daos" ("wolf") has little plausibility, as the transformation of "daos" into "dakos" is phonetically improbable and the "Draco" standard was not unique to Dacians. He thus dismisses it as folk etymology.


title: Dacians

text: Another etymology, linked to the Proto-Indo-European language roots "*dhe-" meaning "to set, place" and "dheua" → "dava" ("settlement") and "dhe-k" → "daci" is supported by Romanian historian Ioan I. Russu (1967).


title: Dacians

text: Mircea Eliade attempted, in his book "From Zalmoxis to Genghis Khan", to give a mythological foundation to an alleged special relation between Dacians and the wolves:


title: Dacians

text: Evidence of proto-Thracians or proto-Dacians in the prehistoric period depends on the remains of material culture. It is generally proposed that a proto-Dacian or proto-Thracian people developed from a mixture of indigenous peoples and Indo-Europeans from the time of Proto-Indo-European expansion in the Early Bronze Age (3,300–3,000 BC) when the latter, around 1500 BC, conquered the indigenous peoples. The indigenous people were Danubian farmers, and the invading people of the BC 3rd millennium were Kurgan warrior-herders from the Ukrainian and Russian steppes.


title: Dacians

text: Indo-Europeanization was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. The people of that time are best described as proto-Thracians, which later developed in the Iron Age into Danubian-Carpathian Geto-Dacians as well as Thracians of the eastern Balkan Peninsula.


title: Dacians

text: Between 15th–12th century BC, the Dacian-Getae culture was influenced by the Bronze Age Tumulus-Urnfield warriors who were on their way through the Balkans to Anatolia.


title: Dacians

text: In the 8th to 7th centuries BCE, the migration of the Scythians from the east into the Pontic Steppe pushed westwards and away from the steppes the related Scythic Agathyrsi people who had previously dwelt on the Pontic Steppe around the Lake Maeotis, following which the Agathyrsi settled in the territories of present-day Moldova, Transylvania, and possibly Oltenia where they mingled with the indigenous population which was of Thracian origins, and having later become completely assimilated by the Geto-Thracian populations; the fortified settlements of the Agathyrsi became the centres of the Getic groups who would later transform into the Dacian culture, and an important part of the Dacian people was descended from the Agathyrsi. When the La Tène Celts arrived in the 4th century BC, the Dacians were under the influence of the Scythians.


title: Dacians

text: Alexander the Great attacked the Getae in 335 BC on the lower Danube, but by 300 BC they had formed a state founded on a military democracy, and began a period of conquest. More Celts arrived during the 3rd century BC, and in the 1st century BC the people of Boii tried to conquer some of the Dacian territory on the eastern side of the Teiss river. The Dacians drove the Boii south across the Danube and out of their territory, at which point the Boii abandoned any further plans for invasion.


title: Dacians

text: Some Hungarian historians consider the Dacians and Getae the same as the Scythian tribes of the Dahae, Massagetae, also the exonym Daxia one with Dacia.


title: Dacians

text: North of the Danube, Dacians occupied a larger territory than Ptolemaic Dacia, stretching between Bohemia in the west and the Dnieper cataracts in the east, and up to the Pripyat, Vistula, and Oder rivers in the north and northwest. In BC 53, Julius Caesar stated that the Dacian territory was on the eastern border of the Hercynian forest. According to Strabo's "Geographica", written around AD 20, the Getes (Geto-Dacians) bordered the Suevi who lived in the Hercynian Forest, which is somewhere in the vicinity of the river Duria, the present-day Váh (Waag). Dacians lived on both sides of the Danube. According to Strabo, Moesians also lived on both sides of the Danube. According to Agrippa, Dacia was limited by the Baltic Ocean in the North and by the Vistula in the West. The names of the people and settlements confirm Dacia's borders as described by Agrippa. Dacian people also lived south of the Danube.


title: Dacians

text: The Dacians and Getae were always considered as Thracians by the ancients (Dio Cassius, Trogus Pompeius, Appian, Strabo and Pliny the Elder), and were both said to speak the same Thracian language. The linguistic affiliation of Dacian is uncertain, since the ancient Indo-European language in question became extinct (?) and left very limited traces (?), usually in the form of place names, plant names and personal names. Thraco-Dacian (or Thracian and Daco-Mysian) seems to belong to the eastern (satem) group of Indo-European languages. There are two contradictory theories: some scholars (such as Tomaschek 1883; Russu 1967; Solta 1980; Crossland 1982; Vraciu 1980) consider Dacian to be a Thracian language or a dialect thereof. This view is supported by R. G. Solta, who says that Thracian and Dacian are very closely related languages. Other scholars (such as Georgiev 1965, Duridanov 1976) consider that Thracian and Dacian are two different and specific Indo-European languages which cannot be reduced to a common language (?). Linguists such as Polomé and Katičić expressed reservations about both theories.


title: Dacians

text: The Dacians are generally considered to have been Thracian speakers, representing a cultural continuity from earlier Iron Age communities loosely termed Getic, Since in one interpretation, Dacian is a variety of Thracian, for the reasons of convenience, the generic term ‘Daco-Thracian" is used, with "Dacian" reserved for the language or dialect that was spoken north of Danube, in present-day Romania and eastern Hungary, and "Thracian" for the variety spoken south of the Danube. There is no doubt that the Thracian language was related to the Dacian language which was spoken in what is today Romania, before some of that area was occupied by the Romans. Also, both Thracian and Dacian have one of the main satem characteristic changes of Indo-European language, *k and *g to *s and *z. With regard to the term "Getic" (Getae), even though attempts have been made to distinguish between Dacian and Getic, there seems no compelling reason to disregard the view of the Greek geographer Strabo that the Daci and the Getae, Thracian tribes dwelling north of the Danube (the Daci in the west of the area and the Getae further east), were one and the same people and spoke the same language.


title: Dacians

text: Another variety that has sometimes been recognized is that of Moesian (or Mysian) for the language of an intermediate area immediately to the south of Danube in Serbia, Bulgaria and Romanian Dobruja: this and the dialects north of the Danube have been grouped together as Daco-Moesian. The language of the indigenous population has left hardly any trace in the anthroponymy of Moesia, but the toponymy indicates that the Moesii on the south bank of the Danube, north of the Haemus Mountains, and the Triballi in the valley of the Morava, shared a number of characteristic linguistic features with the Dacii south of the Carpathians and the Getae in the Wallachian plain, which sets them apart from the Thracians though their languages are undoubtedly related.


title: Dacians

text: Dacian culture is mostly followed through Roman sources. Ample evidence suggests that they were a regional power in and around the city of Sarmizegetusa. Sarmizegetusa was their political and spiritual capital. The ruined city lies high in the mountains of central Romania.


title: Dacians

text: Vladimir Georgiev disputes that Dacian and Thracian were closely related for various reasons, most notably that Dacian and Moesian town names commonly end with the suffix "-DAVA", while towns in Thrace proper (i.e. South of the Balkan mountains) generally end in "-PARA" (see Dacian language). According to Georgiev, the language spoken by the ethnic Dacians should be classified as "Daco-Moesian" and regarded as distinct from Thracian. Georgiev also claimed that names from approximately Roman Dacia and Moesia show different and generally less extensive changes in Indo-European consonants and vowels than those found in Thrace itself. However, the evidence seems to indicate divergence of a Thraco-Dacian language into northern and southern groups of dialects, not so different as to qualify as separate languages. Polomé considers that such lexical differentiation (" -dava" vs. "para") would, however, be hardly enough evidence to separate Daco-Moesian from Thracian.


title: Dacians

text: An extensive account of the native tribes in Dacia can be found in the ninth tabula of Europe of Ptolemy's Geography. The Geography was probably written in the period AD 140–150, but the sources were often earlier; for example, Roman Britain is shown before the building of Hadrian's Wall in the AD 120s. Ptolemy's Geography also contains a physical map probably designed before the Roman conquest, and containing no detailed nomenclature. There are references to the Tabula Peutingeriana, but it appears that the Dacian map of the Tabula was completed after the final triumph of Roman nationality. Ptolemy's list includes no fewer than twelve tribes with Geto-Dacian names.


title: Dacians

text: The fifteen tribes of Dacia as named by Ptolemy, starting from the northernmost ones, are as follows. First, the Anartes, the Teurisci and the Coertoboci/Costoboci. To the south of them are the Buredeense (Buri/Burs), the Cotenses/Cotini and then the Albocenses, the Potulatenses and the Sense, while the southernmost were the Saldenses, the Ciaginsi and the Piephigi. To the south of them were Predasenses/Predavenses, the Rhadacenses/Rhatacenses, the Caucoenses (Cauci) and Biephi. Twelve out of these fifteen tribes listed by Ptolemy are ethnic Dacians, and three are Celts: Anarti, Teurisci, and Cotenses. There are also previous brief mentions of other Getae or Dacian tribes on the left and right banks of the Danube, or even in Transylvania, to be added to the list of Ptolemy. Among these other tribes are the Trixae, Crobidae and Appuli.


title: Dacians

text: Some peoples inhabiting the region generally described in Roman times as "Dacia" were not ethnic Dacians. The true Dacians were a people of Thracian descent. German elements (Daco-Germans), Celtic elements (Daco-Celtic) and Iranian elements (Daco-Sarmatian) occupied territories in the north-west and north-east of Dacia. This region covered roughly the same area as modern Romania plus Bessarabia (Republic of Moldova) and eastern Galicia (south-west Ukraine), although Ptolemy places Moldavia and Bessarabia in "Sarmatia Europaea", rather than "Dacia". After the Dacian Wars (AD 101-6), the Romans occupied only about half of the wider Dacian region. The Roman province of Dacia covered just western Wallachia as far as the "Limes Transalutanus" (East of the river "Alutus", or Olt) and Transylvania, as bordered by the Carpathians.


title: Dacians

text: The impact of the Roman conquest on these people is uncertain. One hypothesis was that they were effectively eliminated. An important clue to the character of Dacian casualties is offered by the ancient sources Eutropius and Crito. Both speak about men when they describe the losses suffered by the Dacians in the wars. This suggests that both refer to losses due to fighting, not due to a process of extermination of the whole population. A strong component of the Dacian army, including the Celtic Bastarnae and the Germans, had withdrawn rather than submit to Trajan. Some scenes on Trajan's Column represent acts of obedience of the Dacian population, and others show the refugee Dacians returning to their own places. Dacians trying to buy amnesty are depicted on Trajan's Column (one offers to Trajan a tray of three gold ingots). Alternatively, a substantial number may have survived in the province, although were probably outnumbered by the Romanised immigrants. Cultural life in Dacia became very mixed and decidedly cosmopolitan because of the colonial communities. The Dacians retained their names and their own ways in the midst of the newcomers, and the region continued to exhibit Dacian characteristics. The Dacians who survived the war are attested as revolting against the Roman domination in Dacia at least twice, in the period of time right after the Dacian Wars, and in a more determined manner in 117 AD. In 158 AD, they revolted again, and were put down by M. Statius Priscus. Some Dacians were apparently expelled from the occupied zone at the end of each of the two Dacian Wars or otherwise emigrated. It is uncertain where these refugees settled. Some of these people might have mingled with the existing ethnic Dacian tribes beyond the Carpathians (the Costoboci and Carpi).


title: Dacians

text: After Trajan's conquest of Dacia, there was recurring trouble involving Dacian groups excluded from the Roman province, as finally defined by Hadrian. By the early third century the "Free Dacians", as they were earlier known, were a significantly troublesome group, then identified as the Carpi, requiring imperial intervention on more than one occasion. In 214 Caracalla dealt with their attacks. Later, Philip the Arab came in person to deal with them; he assumed the triumphal title Carpicus Maximus and inaugurated a new era for the province of Dacia (July 20, 246). Later both Decius and Gallienus assumed the titles Dacicus Maximus. In 272, Aurelian assumed the same title as Philip.


title: Dacians

text: In about 140 AD, Ptolemy lists the names of several tribes residing on the fringes of the Roman Dacia (west, east and north of the Carpathian range), and the ethnic picture seems to be a mixed one. North of the Carpathians are recorded the Anarti, Teurisci and Costoboci. The Anarti (or Anartes) and the Teurisci were originally probably Celtic peoples or mixed Dacian-Celtic. The Anarti, together with the Celtic Cotini, are described by Tacitus as vassals of the powerful Quadi Germanic people. The Teurisci were probably a group of Celtic Taurisci from the eastern Alps. However, archaeology has revealed that the Celtic tribes had originally spread from west to east as far as Transylvania, before being absorbed by the Dacians in the 1st century BC.


title: Dacians

text: The main view is that the "Costoboci" were ethnically Dacian. Others considered them a Slavic or Sarmatian tribe. There was also a Celtic influence, so that some consider them a mixed Celtic and Thracian group that appear, after Trajan's conquest, as a Dacian group within the Celtic superstratum. The Costoboci inhabited the southern slopes of the Carpathians. Ptolemy named the Coestoboci (Costoboci in Roman sources) twice, showing them divided by the Dniester and the Peucinian (Carpathian) Mountains. This suggests that they lived on both sides of the Carpathians, but it is also possible that two accounts about the same people were combined. There was also a group, the Transmontani, that some modern scholars identify as Dacian Transmontani Costoboci of the extreme north. The name Transmontani was from the Dacians' Latin, literally "people over the mountains". Mullenhoff identified these with the Transiugitani, another Dacian tribe north of the Carpathian mountains.


title: Dacians

text: Based on the account of Dio Cassius, Heather (2010) considers that Hasding Vandals, around 171 AD, attempted to take control of lands which previously belonged to the free Dacian group called the Costoboci. Hrushevskyi (1997) mentions that the earlier widespread view that these Carpathian tribes were Slavic has no basis. This would be contradicted by the Coestobocan names themselves that are known from the inscriptions, written by a Coestobocan and therefore presumably accurately. These names sound quite unlike anything Slavic. Scholars such as Tomaschek (1883), Shutte (1917) and Russu (1969) consider these Costobocian names to be Thraco-Dacian. This inscription also indicates the Dacian background of the wife of the Costobocian king "Ziais Tiati filia Daca". This indication of the socio-familial line of descent seen also in other inscriptions (i.e. Diurpaneus qui Euprepes Sterissae f(ilius) Dacus) is a custom attested since the historical period (beginning in the 5th century BC) when Thracians were under Greek influence. It may not have originated with the Thracians, as it could be just a fashion borrowed from Greeks for specifying ancestry and for distinguishing homonymous individuals within the tribe. Shutte (1917), Parvan, and Florescu (1982) pointed also to the Dacian characteristic place names ending in '–dava' given by Ptolemy in the Costoboci's country.


title: Dacians

text: The Carpi were a sizeable group of tribes, who lived beyond the north-eastern boundary of Roman Dacia. The majority view among modern scholars is that the Carpi were a North Thracian tribe and a subgroup of the Dacians. However, some historians classify them as Slavs.


title: Dacians

text: According to Heather (2010), the Carpi were Dacians from the eastern foothills of the Carpathian range – modern Moldavia and Wallachia – who had not been brought under direct Roman rule at the time of Trajan's conquest of Transylvania Dacia. After they generated a new degree of political unity among themselves in the course of the third century, these Dacian groups came to be known collectively as the Carpi.


title: Dacians

text: The ancient sources about the Carpi, before 104 AD, located them on a territory situated between the western side of Eastern European Galicia and the mouth of the Danube. The name of the tribe is homonymous with the Carpathian mountains. Carpi and Carpathian are Dacian words derived from the root "(s)ker"- "cut" cf. Albanian "karp" "stone" and Sanskrit "kar"- "cut".


title: Dacians

text: A quote from the 6th-century Byzantine chronicler Zosimus referring to the Carpo-Dacians (Greek: Καρποδάκαι, Latin: "Carpo-Dacae"), who attacked the Romans in the late 4th century, is seen as evidence of their Dacian ethnicity. In fact, Carpi/Carpodaces is the term used for Dacians outside of Dacia proper.


title: Dacians

text: However, that the Carpi were Dacians is shown not so much by the form Καρποδάκαι in Zosimus as by their characteristic place-names in –"dava", given by Ptolemy in their country. The origin and ethnic affiliations of the Carpi have been debated over the years; in modern times they are closely associated with the Carpathian Mountains, and a good case has been made for attributing to the Carpi a distinct material culture, "a developed form of the Geto-Dacian La Tene culture", often known as the Poienesti culture, which is characteristic of this area.


title: Dacians

text: Dacians are represented in the statues surmounting the Arch of Constantine and on Trajan's Column. The artist of the Column took some care to depict, in his opinion, a variety of Dacian people—from high-ranking men, women, and children to the near-savage. Although the artist looked to models in Hellenistic art for some body types and compositions, he does not represent the Dacians as generic barbarians.


title: Dacians

text: Classical authors applied a generalized stereotype when describing the "barbarians"Celts, Scythians, Thraciansinhabiting the regions to the north of the Greek world. In accordance with this stereotype, all these peoples are described, in sharp contrast to the "civilized" Greeks, as being much taller, their skin lighter and with straight light-coloured hair and blue eyes. For instance, Aristotle wrote that "the Scythians on the Black Sea and the Thracians are straight-haired, for both they themselves and the environing air are moist"; according to Clement of Alexandria, Xenophanes described the Thracians as "ruddy and tawny". On Trajan's column, Dacian soldiers' hair is depicted longer than the hair of Roman soldiers and they had trimmed beards.


title: Dacians

text: Body-painting was customary among the Dacians. It is probable that the tattooing originally had a religious significance. They practiced symbolic-ritual tattooing or body painting for both men and women, with hereditary symbols transmitted up to the fourth generation.


title: Dacians

text: In the absence of historical records written by the Dacians (and Thracians) themselves, analysis of their origins depends largely on the remains of material culture. On the whole, the Bronze Age witnessed the evolution of the ethnic groups which emerged during the Eneolithic period, and eventually the syncretism of both autochthonous and Indo-European elements from the steppes and the Pontic regions. Various groups of Thracians had not separated out by 1200 BC, but there are strong similarities between the ceramic types found at Troy and the ceramic types from the Carpathian area. About the year 1000 BC, the Carpatho-Danubian countries were inhabited by a northern branch of the Thracians. At the time of the arrival of the Scythians (c. 700 BC), the Carpatho-Danubian Thracians were developing rapidly towards the Iron Age civilization of the West. Moreover, the whole of the fourth period of the Carpathian Bronze Age had already been profoundly influenced by the first Iron Age as it developed in Italy and the Alpine lands. The Scythians, arriving with their own type of Iron Age civilization, put a stop to these relations with the West. From roughly 500 BC (the second Iron Age), the Dacians developed a distinct civilization, which was capable of supporting large centralised kingdoms by 1st BC and 1st AD.


title: Dacians

text: Since the very first detailed account by Herodotus, Getae are acknowledged as belonging to the Thracians. Still, they are distinguished from the other Thracians by particularities of religion and custom. The first written mention of the name "Dacians" is in Roman sources, but classical authors are unanimous in considering them a branch of the Getae, a Thracian people known from Greek writings. Strabo specified that the Daci are the Getae who lived in the area towards the Pannonian plain (Transylvania), while the Getae proper gravitated towards the Black Sea coast (Scythia Minor).


title: Dacians

text: Since the writings of Herodotus in the 5th century BC, Getae/Dacians are acknowledged as belonging to the Thracian sphere of influence. Despite this, they are distinguished from other Thracians by particularities of religion and custom. Geto-Dacians and Thracians were kin people but they were not the same. The differences from the southern Thracians or from the neighbouring Scythians were probably faint, as several ancient authors make confusions of identification with both groups. Linguist Vladimir Georgiev says that based on the absence of toponyms ending in "dava" in Southern Bulgaria, the Moesians and Dacians (or as he calls them Daco-Mysians) couldn't be related to the Thracians.


title: Dacians

text: In the 19th century, Tomaschek considered a close affinity between the Besso-Thracians and Getae-Dacians, an original kinship of both people with Iranian peoples. They are Aryan tribes, several centuries before Scolotes of the Pont and Sauromatae left the Aryan homeland and settled in the Carpathian chain, in the Haemus (Balkan) and Rhodope mountains. The Besso-Thracians and Getae-Dacians separated very early from Aryans, since their language still maintains roots that are missing from Iranian and it shows non-Iranian phonetic characteristics (i.e. replacing the Iranian "l" with "r").