title: Maggie Greene

text: Six months later, Maggie is the leader of Hilltop, and gets into a dispute with another community called Commonwealth, whose army is led by Daryl. Maggie allows them to stay to avoid another war. Commonwealth's corrupt Governor, Pamela Milton (Laila Robins), and her right-hand man, Lance Hornsby (Josh Hamilton), try to persuade her to merge Hilltop into Commonwealth, reasoning that the "new world" they are building means a better future for her and Herschel. Maggie ultimately declines the offer, however, because she does not trust Milton. Meanwhile, she once again encounters Negan, who is now married to a woman named Annie (Medina Senghore), who is pregnant with his child. Seeing that having a family has changed Negan for the better, Maggie slowly begins to trust him.


title: Maggie Greene

text: When Milton's son Sebastian (Teo Rapp-Olsson) uses the Commonwealth's police to steal a cache of money and weapons, he frames Maggie. Hornsby interrogates Hershel for his mother's whereabouts, leading to a tense confrontation between him and Maggie when she resurfaces to protect her son. She then leaves Hilltop to keep Hershel safe, leaving the boy in the care of Negan and Annie. She is then kidnapped by Leah Shaw (Lynn Collins), a former Reaper now working for Hornsby, and Daryl's former lover, who holds her prisoner in her cabin. Maggie gets free and fights Leah, who overpowers and tries to kill her. Daryl saves Maggie at the last second, however, by killing Leah. Maggie and Daryl flee the cabin just as Hornsby and his men descend upon it, and they rendezvous with Negan to prepare for war with the Commonwealth.


title: Maggie Greene

text: While tracking one of the Commonwealth's convoys, Maggie is separated from Hershel, and fears he is dead; after putting down a child walker that resembles Hershel, she is haunted by the possibility that she may have killed her own son. She then discovers that the convoy is in fact headed for Alexandria, and declares that her group will get their home back. She infiltrates Commonwealth's prison, where she finds Hershel, alive but locked in a cage by the sadistic warden, and saves him. by She and Daryl lead an attack on the Commonwealth, during which Milton fires at her. Judith shields Maggie, and is seriously wounded.


title: Maggie Greene

text: After Maggie's group joins with Commonwealth's military in overthrowing Milton, they prepare to defend their community against a huge horde of walkers. Maggie and Negan serve as snipers, and Maggie saves Milton from being eaten by a zombiefied Hornsby, reasoning that, for Milton, prison is a worse punishment than death. After the horde is destroyed, Maggie has one last conversation with Negan, who has decided to leave the Commonwealth with Annie. Maggie says she will never be able to forgive him, but will try to get past her anger to move on with her life and set an example for Hershel. Soon afterward, Maggie bids goodbye to Rosita, who is on her deathbed after being bitten by a walker.


title: Maggie Greene

text: Lauren Cohan was officially announced as being cast in June 2011, along with co-stars Scott Wilson and Pruitt Taylor Vince. She was promoted to series regular starting with the third season. She was the top billed female actress on the show as of season four, until her departure in season nine.


title: Maggie Greene

text: At the conclusion of the eighth season, Cohan finished her contract on "The Walking Dead" as a series regular. It was later reported Cohan had not reached an agreement to sign on for season 9 as a main cast member due to a pay dispute, as she demanded an enhanced salary closer to her male co-stars Andrew Lincoln and Norman Reedus. AMC refused, and Cohan began making herself available for TV pilots. She booked the role of CIA operative Francesca "Frankie" Trowbridge in the ABC pilot "Whiskey Cavalier", co-starring with Scott Foley. It was later confirmed she had reached an agreement to appear in season 9 under a limited capacity of 6 episodes in the first half of season 9. Later, it was confirmed "Whiskey Cavalier" was picked up to series; the show was cancelled after one season. Cohan was confirmed to return to "The Walking Dead" as a series regular for its eleventh season, after her recurring role in the second half of the tenth season.


title: Maggie Greene

text: The character has received very positive reviews, with many critics praising Maggie's relationship with Glenn, Lauren Cohan's emotional performance, and the character's growth, as well as her interactions with Hershel Greene. The episode "Cherokee Rose" marks Glenn and Maggie's first sexual encounter. Critics commended the development of the relationship between Maggie and Glenn. Andrew Conrad of "The Baltimore Sun" stated that the storyline epitomized a "steamy romance", while "The Wall Street Journal" Aaron Rutkoff called it "the funniest moment of the series." Goldman opined that their sexual encounter felt genuine; "He's a nice guy, she seems like a cool gal, and it felt genuine when she noted she felt plenty lonely too and ready for some companionship." Nick Venable of Cinema Blend asserted that the interactions between Maggie and Glenn were the highlight of the episode. "I'm glad the writers are introducing this comic book plot point, as this show seriously needs a couple without closets full of skeletons. When Glenn accidentally grabs a box of condoms for Maggie to see, I chuckled heartily. The ensuing conversation also made me smile, which makes me wonder why humor is paid the least amount of attention on the show." Jackson was surprised with the scene, and called it "unexpected".


title: Maggie Greene

text: The progressing relationship between Maggie and Glenn in "Secrets" was well received by critics. Nate Rawlings of "Time" asserted that their interactions carried the most emotional poignance. Rawlings opined: "She's forced to confront, perhaps for the first time, that these creatures are slobbering monsters. Before her attack, she yelled at Dale [sic] for calling them Walkers; to her they're mom, her brother, the neighbors. After her attack, her mind might be changed."


title: Maggie Greene

text: Cohan's performance in "Killer Within" was praised by Eric Goldman. Goldman later praised Cohan in "When the Dead Come Knocking" when referring to the scene where The Governor forces Maggie to strip saying: "More importantly, what he did do to her was terrible as it was, as he forced her to strip, slammed her down on a table and basically did all he could to try and mentally break her. Her telling him, in the face of all this, "Do whatever you're gonna do. Go to hell" was a powerful moment for Maggie. Lauren Cohan did terrific work here, showing someone simultaneously terrified and defiant in the face of a hellish scenario."


title: Maggie Greene

text: In "Coda", Cohan's performance was praised, in particular, the scene where Maggie reacts to Beth's death. Laura Prudom of "Variety" said: "The episode's final few moments did prove to be some of the series' most powerful yet — both Lauren Cohan and Norman Reedus gave truly gut-wrenching performances after Beth's death, and it was heartbreaking to see Maggie's rapid transition from elation at learning her sister was alive to utter devastation at seeing her dead over the course of twenty minutes."


title: Maggie Greene

text: Noel Murray of "Rolling Stone" ranked Maggie Greene 7th in a list of 30 best "Walking Dead" characters, saying, "She's developed political acumen thanks to the tutelage of Deanna, and has used it to fill the void within the survivors and become the group's real leade. And while she experimented with becoming as razor-edged as Carol, she ultimately realized that hardness didn't fit her personality or perspective. Battle-tested, strong-willed, and played with real nuance and grace by Lauren Cohan, the young Ms. Greene has quietly become a "Walking Dead" MVP. Give 'em hell, Maggie."


title: Jessie Reyez

text: Jessica Reyez (born June 12, 1991) is a Canadian singer and songwriter. Her 2016 single "Figures" peaked at number 58 on the Canadian Hot 100 in 2017 and was certified triple Platinum by Music Canada and Platinum by the RIAA. Her 2017 EP, "Kiddo", led to four nominations at the 2018 Juno Awards, winning Breakthrough Artist. Her follow up EP, "Being Human in Public," was released in 2018. It won R&B/Soul Recording of The Year at the 2019 Juno Awards and was nominated for Best Urban Contemporary Album at the 2020 Grammy Awards. Reyez again won the R&B/Soul Recording of the Year, for "Feel it Too" with Tory Lanez and Tainy, at the 2020 Juno Awards, where she was also nominated for Artist of the Year. Reyez has written songs for Calvin Harris, Kehlani, Dua Lipa and Normani, most notably penning the hit "One Kiss", and has collaborated with Eminem on multiple occasions. Her debut album, "Before Love Came to Kill Us", was released on March 27, 2020, to widespread critical acclaim, and saw commercial success, entering at number thirteen on the US Billboard 200.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: Jessica Reyez was born in the Jane and Finch area of Toronto, Ontario to Colombian parents. She was introduced to the guitar by her father, leading to a career in art and music. She played guitar as a child and began writing her own music in high school. Jessie and her family then moved to Brampton. After graduating, she opted out of college and instead chose to pursue her music while doing odd jobs on the side. In 2012, Reyez and her family moved to Florida, where she was primarily bartending and busking on the beach, but she returned to Toronto in 2014 after being accepted to The Remix Project's Academy of Recording Arts. At the Remix Project, Reyez was mentored by Daniel Daley, from Dvsn, and her music was heard by King Louie.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: In 2014, Reyez and King Louie released a joint single titled "Living in the Sky", followed by a second single, "It Hurts (Selena)", in 2015. In early 2017, she released the single "Shutter Island" and toured Europe opening for PartyNextDoor. Her follow-up single, "Figures", was premiered by Zane Lowe on Beats 1 radio, alongside its music video. "Figures" peaked at number 58 on the Canadian Hot 100 in 2017 and was certified triple platinum by Music Canada.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: In April 2017, Reyez released her debut EP, "Kiddo" as well as her short film "Gatekeeper", which addressed sexism and exploitation in the music industry. It specifically was based on her experience with music producer Noel "Detail" Fisher, who was accused of sexual misconduct by multiple women, including artist Bebe Rexha. Kiddo peaked at number 83 on the Canadian Album Chart.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: "Kiddo" was placed on the Long List of the 2017 Polaris Music Prize and lead to four nominations at the 2018 Juno Awards (R&B/Soul Recording of the Year, Breakthrough Artist, Video of the Year, and Juno Fan Choice Award), where she won Breakthrough Artist. She also received two 2017 iHeartRadio Much Music Video Awards nominations for Best New Canadian Artist and Fan Fave Video for "Shutter Island". She was also nominated for two 2018 MTV Music Video Awards, including Push Artist of the Year and Video With A Message (for "Gatekeeper"). Reyez performed "Figures" at the 2017 BET Awards on June 25, 2017 and on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" on August 8, 2017. Later in 2017, she signed a record and publishing deal with Island Records.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: Billboard named Reyez one of the "10 Hip-Hop and R&B Artists to Watch in 2018". She also received a SOCAN Songwriting Prize nomination for the song "Cotton Candy". Reyez released her second EP, "Being Human in Public", and toured across North America. The EP won 2019's R&B/Soul Recording of The Year at the 2019 Juno Awards and was nominated for Best Urban Contemporary Album at the 2020 Grammy Awards. It also appeared on the short list for the 2019 Polaris Music Prize.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: In August, Reyez collaborated with Eminem on "Nice Guy" and "Good Guy", from the album "Kamikaze," both charting on the Billboard Hot 100 and appeared on the soundtrack to "Fifty Shades Freed." On April 9, 2019, Reyez released the single "Imported" featuring 6lack, a re-working of a song off her last EP. The single was later certified Gold by both the RIAA and Music Canada. She also had a cameo in the Netflix film, "Someone Great" and appeared on "," performing (with 070 Shake) and co-writing the song "Scar""."


title: Jessie Reyez

text: Reyez received her first Grammy nomination, when "Being Human in Public" was nominated for Best Urban Contemporary Album at the 2020 Grammy Awards. Reyez opened for Billie Eilish on her Where Do We Go? world tour, with some of the dates postponed due to COVID-19 pandemic. She was also booked to perform for the first time at Coachella festival, which was also postponed due to the pandemic.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: Reyez released her debut studio album, "Before Love Came to Kill Us", on March 27, 2020. The album includes collaborations with Eminem and 6lack, with the deluxe edition including additional features from Rico Nasty, Melii, JID, and A Boogie wit da Hoodie. The album was preceded by the single "Love in the Dark" and also included previous singles "Figures" and "Imported". "Before Love Came to Kill Us" debuted at #13 on the Billboard 200 and was short-listed for the 2020 Polaris Music Prize.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: Reyez was nominated for two awards at the 2020 Juno Awards: Artist of the Year and R&B/Soul Recording of the Year (for "Feel It Too" with Tory Lanez and Tainy), winning the latter award. The music video for Reyez's song "Far Away" won the 2020 Prism Prize, with director Peter Huang winning the $20,000 award. Reyez was featured in Beyoncé's musical film "Black Is King", which premiered on Disney+ in July 2020.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: Reyez is nominated for five awards at the 2021 Juno Awards: Artist of the Year, Songwriter of the Year, and R&B/Soul Recording of the Year (for "Before Love Came to Kill Us"), with two of her music videos nominated Video of the Year. She performed at the ceremony and won Video of the Year for "No One's in the Room", which was directed by Emma Higgins.


title: Jessie Reyez

text: Reyez released her second studio album, "Yessie", on September 16, 2022. The album consists of 11 tracks, featuring one collaboration with former collaborator 6lack on the song "Forever".


title: Seth Gilliam

text: Seth Gilliam (born November 5, 1968) is an American actor. He is best known for his portrayals of Ellis Carver on "The Wire", Clayton Hughes on "Oz", Detective Daniels on "" (2007–2008), Dr. Alan Deaton on "Teen Wolf", Father Gabriel Stokes on "The Walking Dead", and Sugar Watkins in the movie "Starship Troopers".


title: Seth Gilliam

text: Gilliam's film career began in the early 1990s. He has starred in award-winning films such as "Still Alice". His other film credits include Sergeant Sugar Watkins in the 1997 action film "Starship Troopers" and Sergeant Steven Altameyer in the 1996 film "Courage Under Fire".


title: Seth Gilliam

text: Gilliam has had a number of recurring roles on television, including during the seventh season of "The Cosby Show" as Aaron Dexter, boyfriend of Erika Alexander's character, and as Alan Deaton on "Teen Wolf". His most prominent role has been on "The Wire". In 2008, he attracted attention for criticizing the show being overlooked for Emmy nominations despite its critical success. He has had a number of guest roles in other shows such as "", "Nurse Jackie", "Skins", "Person of Interest", and "The Good Wife". He played Clayton Hughes on "Oz". In May 2014, Gilliam was cast as Father Gabriel Stokes in the fifth season of AMC's "The Walking Dead". Along with Chad Coleman and Lawrence Gilliard Jr., he is the third "The Wire" alum to join the series.


title: Seth Gilliam

text: Gilliam has acted on stage, playing Prince Edward in a 1993 production of "Richard III". He played the title role in "Othello", first in 2010 at Boston's Commonwealth Shakespeare Company and then the following year at the Houston Shakespeare Festival, directed by his wife, Leah C. Gardiner. The pair returned to Houston in 2013 for "Antony and Cleopatra", with Gilliam playing Antony and Gardiner directing. Gilliam has stated that he prefers acting on the stage although he loves his work in film and television: "Acting for the stage is a lot more fun to do. There is instant communication with the audience. An actor can tell whether or not he or she is connecting with an audience or whether they understand what's going on."


title: Seth Gilliam

text: On May 3, 2015, Gilliam was arrested in Peachtree City, Georgia, for driving under the influence as he was speeding one-hundred and seven miles per hour in a fifty-five miles per hour zone. Police found a marijuana cigarette in his car.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Sound recording is the transcription of invisible vibrations in air onto a storage medium such as a phonograph disc. The process is reversed in sound reproduction, and the variations stored on the medium are transformed back into sound waves.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a microphone diaphragm that senses changes in atmospheric pressure caused by acoustic sound waves and records them as a mechanical representation of the sound waves on a medium such as a phonograph record (in which a stylus cuts grooves on a record). In magnetic tape recording, the sound waves vibrate the microphone diaphragm and are converted into a varying electric current, which is then converted to a varying magnetic field by an electromagnet, which makes a representation of the sound as magnetized areas on a plastic tape with a magnetic coating on it. Analog sound reproduction is the reverse process, with a bigger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Digital recording and reproduction converts the analog sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of sampling. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a wider variety of media. Digital recording stores audio as a series of binary numbers (zeros and ones) representing samples of the amplitude of the audio signal at equal time intervals, at a sample rate high enough to convey all sounds capable of being heard. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Prior to the development of sound recording, there were mechanical systems, such as wind-up music boxes and, later, player pianos, for encoding and reproducing instrumental music.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Long before sound was first recorded, music was recorded—first by written music notation, then also by mechanical devices (e.g., wind-up music boxes, in which a mechanism turns a spindle, which plucks metal tines, thus reproducing a melody). Automatic music reproduction traces back as far as the 9th century, when the Banū Mūsā brothers invented the earliest known mechanical musical instrument, in this case, a hydropowered (water-powered) organ that played interchangeable cylinders. According to Charles B. Fowler, this "...cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century." The Banū Mūsā brothers also invented an automatic flute player, which appears to have been the first programmable machine.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Carvings in the Rosslyn Chapel from the 1560s may represent an early attempt to record the Chladni patterns produced by sound in stone representations, although this theory has not been conclusively proved.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: In the 14th century, a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder was introduced in Flanders. Similar designs appeared in barrel organs (15th century), musical clocks (1598), barrel pianos (1805), and music boxes (ca. 1800). A music box is an automatic musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth (or "lamellae") of a steel comb.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The fairground organ, developed in 1892, used a system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books. The player piano, first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store a long piece of music. The most sophisticated of the piano rolls were "hand-played," meaning that they were duplicates from a master roll which had been created on a special piano, which punched holes in the master as a live performer played the song. Thus, the roll represented a recording of the actual performance of an individual, not just the more common method of punching the master roll through transcription of the sheet music. This technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904. Piano rolls were in continuous mass production from 1896 to 2008. A 1908 U.S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, there were between 70,000 and 75,000 player pianos manufactured, and between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 piano rolls produced.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1857 – Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville invents the Phonautograph in Paris. Twenty years before Edison invented the recording process, Frenchman Leon Scott de Martinville invented a device for recording sound. He called it the Phonautograph and patented it on March 25, 1857. The Phonautograph recorded sound, tracing the shape of sound waves as undulations or other deviations in a line traced on smoke-blackened paper or glass, but it was not capable of playing sound back. A digitally converted phonautograph recording of "Au Clair de la Lune " is now considered the earliest recognizable record of the human voice and the earliest recognizable record of music.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1877 – Charles Cros invents the Paleophone. Paris was clearly the centre of the world in the early days of sound recording. It was there that Leon Scott de Martinville invented his Phonautograph to capture sound onto paper in 1857 and 20 years later Charles Cros took the process forward by working out how to record sound onto a cylinder by tracing oscillations using a screw. In April 1877 he wrote a paper describing his thesis and submitted it in a sealed envelope to the Academy of Science in Paris. Before he got a chance to build a prototype, a hard working inventor by the name of Thomas Edison living thousands of miles away in the USA beat him to it. Edison had been independently considering the same problem and in late 1877 he built a machine that recorded and played back sound which he called a Phonograph. Edison became world famous whilst Charles Cros is largely forgotten.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1878 – Thomas Edison perfects a cylinder based Phonograph that he invented the previous year. It expanded on the principles of Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville‘s phonautograph and recorded sound onto a tinfoil sheet phonograph cylinder, and could both record and reproduce sounds. His first recording? It was the nursery rhyme “Mary’s got little lamb.”He also sets up the Edison Speaking Phonograph Company in the same year.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1880’s – Charles Sumner Tainter and Chichester Bell working under Alexander Graham Bell at his Volta Labaratory improved the phonograph cylinder including developing wax covered cardboard cylinders, ultimately creating a new form of recording machine: the Graphophone.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1887 – Emile Berliner changes the game by inventing the gramophone. Briefly based on cylinders, Berliner changed his methodology in 1888 to use discs with imprinted grooves on the flat side of a disc rather than the outside of a cylinder. He initially envisioned his invention would be a toy.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1888 – Columbia Records is born out of Alexander Graham Bell’s Volta Graphophone Company. Columbia Records named after its home state, broke away from the North American Phonograph Company selling records and phonographs manufactured by Columbia itself.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1889 – William Barry Owen and Trevor Lloyd Williams register the Gramophone Company in London. On February 23rd 1889 William Barry Owen and Trevor Lloyd Williams registered the small, private Gramophone Company. Trevor Williams was a young lawyer working in the same hotel where Owen was staying in London. American born Owen was in London with the aim of securing large amounts in funding and investment to set up The Gramophone Company in the UK, however Owen didn’t have much luck with his high profile visitors and English businessmen so in a final attempt he leant a gramophone to his lawyer – Trevor Lloyd Williams. Williams was unimpressed by the new technology at first but became convinced of the future success of The Gramophone Company after a visit to meet the gramophone inventor himself, Emile Berliner, in Washington D.C.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1898 – Magnetic recording is demonstrated in principle by Valdemar Poulsen in his Telegraphone. Poulsen obtained a Telegraphone Patent in 1898, and later developed other magnetic recorders that recorded on steel wire, tape, or disks. None of these devices had electronic amplification, but the recorded signal was strong enough to be heard through a headset or transmitted on telephone wires. In 1900 at the World Fair in Paris, Poulsen had the chance to record the voice of Emperor Franz Josef of Austria which is widely believed to be the oldest surviving magnetic audio recording.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1902 – Successful moulding processes for cylinder recordings are developed and mass production begins. Previously only several hundred sale-able cylinders could be made from each recording, so the talent was booked for marathon sessions, hours long to create as many master copies of the recording as possible.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1904 – Enrico Caruso becomes the first super star recording artist. First recorded by the Gramophone Company, Caruso went on to make over one million pounds in royalties as a result of his contacts with the Gramophone Company.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1917 – First jazz recordings are made. The Original Dixieland Jazz Band made the music’s first recordings early in 1917, and their “Livery Stable Blues” became the earliest released jazz record. The band was made up of five musicians who had previously played in the Papa Jack Laine bands, a diverse and racially integrated group of musicians who played for parades, dances, and advertising in New Orleans.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1920 – First electrical recordings are made by scientists at the Bell Laboratories in the United States. The first electrical recording issued to the public was of November 11, 1920 funeral services for the Unknown Soldier in Westminster Abbey, London. The microphones used were like those in contemporary telephones. They were inconspicuously set up in the abbey and connected by wires to recording equipment in a vehicle outside. Although electronic amplification was used, the resulting audio was weak and unclear. The novel procedure did, however, allow a recording to be made which would otherwise not have been practical in those circumstances


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1925 – The invention of electrical recording allows all the major labels to start using microphones in studio sessions. The clear tone compared to acoustic recordings meant that acoustic recordings could no longer compete with their electrically recorded counter parts, so all the major labels moved over to electrical recordings.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1928 – Fritz Pfleumer develops magnetic tapes for sound recording in Germany. The tapes become widely used over the next decade with almost all studios adopting the new technology by 1935. In 1927, after experimenting with various materials, Pfleumer coated thin paper with iron oxide powder using lacquer as glue. He received a patent in 1928 for magnetic tape recording and on 1 December 1932 Pfleumer granted AEG the right to use his invention when building the world’s first practical tape recorder.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1929 – Flat discs become very popular making the cylinder obsolete and production of cylinders stops.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1931 – Alan Blumlein develops binaural sound (now known as stereo sound) at the Central Research laboratories at the EMI site in Hayes. After a night at the cinema Blumlein was frustrated that the sound from a character on screen could only be heard from a speaker at the other side of the room. To solve this problem, he invented the audio stereo system which is still in use today. He began by removing the idea that two loudspeakers represented the listeners’ two ears and instead sought to re-create the features of the sound field including directional information.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1934 – Lacquer coated discs are introduced. The introduction of lacquer-coated blank discs made instantaneous recording possible for broadcast and home recording. Very soon all the major networks began recording their programs on 16” lacquer-coated aluminum discs that could hold up to 15 minutes of audio recording on a side. Using lacquer coated discs was used well into the 1970’s when it was replaced by magnetic tape recording.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1934 – Talking Books for the blind. The American Federation for the Blind collaborated with the Library of Congress and RCA Victor records to make long playing audio books for the sight impaired. A year later the Royal institute of Blind People in London introduced their ‘Talking Books’ service.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1940 – Multi track recording developed. The guitarist, composer and technician Les Paul experimented with multi track recordings and his experiments lead to the development of 4 and 8 track recordings. These were later adopted by all the major studio’s in the 60’s with many of the Beatle’s and Rolling Stone’s Albums being the first to have 4 track records. Walt Disney’s animated feature Fantasia was one of the first commercial appearances of a four-track record, producing something similar to what is now known as surround sound.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1963 – Phillips develops the cassette tape. Their compact audio cassette was the first to combine to convenience of a tape recording format that did not require manual threading. It took about a decade before cassettes began to dominate the consumer market.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: 1964 – Vinyl records become the worldwide industry standard. Shellac discs are no longer produced commercially.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The first device that could record actual sounds as they passed through the air (but could not play them back—the purpose was only visual study) was the phonautograph, patented in 1857 by Parisian inventor Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. The earliest known recordings of the human voice are phonautograph recordings, called "phonautograms", made in 1857. They consist of sheets of paper with sound-wave-modulated white lines created by a vibrating stylus that cut through a coating of soot as the paper was passed under it. An 1860 phonautogram of Au Clair de la Lune, a French folk song, was played back as sound for the first time in 2008 by scanning it and using software to convert the undulating line, which graphically encoded the sound, into a corresponding digital audio file.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Thomas Edison's work on two other innovations, the telegraph and the telephone, led to the development of the phonograph. Edison was working on a machine in 1877 that would transcribe telegraphic signals onto paper tape, which could then be transferred over the telegraph again and again. The phonograph was both in a cylinder and a disc form.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: On April 30, 1877, French poet, humorous writer and inventor Charles Cros submitted a sealed envelope containing a letter to the Academy of Sciences in Paris fully explaining his proposed method, called the paleophone. Though no trace of a working paleophone was ever found, Cros is remembered by some historians as an early inventor of a sound recording and reproduction machine.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The first practical sound recording and reproduction device was the mechanical phonograph cylinder, invented by Thomas Edison in 1877 and patented in 1878. The invention soon spread across the globe and over the next two decades the commercial recording, distribution, and sale of sound recordings became a growing new international industry, with the most popular titles selling millions of units by the early 1900s. A process for mass-producing duplicate wax cylinders by molding instead of engraving them was put into effect in 1901.The development of mass-production techniques enabled cylinder recordings to become a major new consumer item in industrial countries and the cylinder was the main consumer format from the late 1880s until around 1910.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The next major technical development was the invention of the gramophone record, generally credited to Emile Berliner and patented in 1887, though others had demonstrated similar disk apparatus earlier, most notably Alexander Graham Bell in 1881. Discs were easier to manufacture, transport and store, and they had the additional benefit of being marginally louder than cylinders. Sales of the gramophone record overtook the cylinder ca. 1910, and by the end of World War I the disc had become the dominant commercial recording format. Edison, who was the main producer of cylinders, created the Edison Disc Record in an attempt to regain his market. The double-sided (nominally 78 rpm) shellac disc was the standard consumer music format from the early 1910s to the late 1950s. In various permutations, the audio disc format became the primary medium for consumer sound recordings until the end of the 20th century.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Although there was no universally accepted speed, and various companies offered discs that played at several different speeds, the major recording companies eventually settled on a "de facto" industry standard of nominally 78 revolutions per minute. The specified speed was 78.26 rpm in America and 77.92 rpm throughout the rest of the world. The difference in speeds was due to the difference in the cycle frequencies of the AC electricity that powered the stroboscopes used to calibrate recording lathes and turntables. The nominal speed of the disc format gave rise to its common nickname, the "seventy-eight" (though not until other speeds had become available). Discs were made of shellac or similar brittle plastic-like materials, played with needles made from a variety of materials including mild steel, thorn, and even sapphire. Discs had a distinctly limited playing life that varied depending on how they were manufactured.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Earlier, purely acoustic methods of recording had limited sensitivity and frequency range. Mid-frequency range notes could be recorded, but very low and very high frequencies could not. Instruments such as the violin were difficult to transfer to disc. One technique to deal with this involved using a Stroh violin which uses a conical horn connected to a diaphragm that in turn is connected to the violin bridge. The horn was no longer needed once electrical recording was developed.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The long-playing 33 rpm microgroove LP record, was developed at Columbia Records and introduced in 1948. The short-playing but convenient 45 rpm microgroove vinyl single was introduced by RCA Victor in 1949. In the US and most developed countries, the two new vinyl formats completely replaced 78 rpm shellac discs by the end of the 1950s, but in some corners of the world, the 78 lingered on far into the 1960s. Vinyl was much more expensive than shellac, one of the several factors that made its use for 78 rpm records very unusual, but with a long-playing disc the added cost was acceptable. The compact 45 format required very little material. Vinyl offered improved performance, both in stamping and in playback. Vinyl records were, over-optimistically, advertised as "unbreakable". They were not, but they were much less fragile than shellac, which had itself once been touted as "unbreakable" compared to wax cylinders.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Sound recording began as a purely mechanical process. Except for a few crude telephone-based recording devices with no means of amplification, such as the telegraphone, it remained so until the 1920s. Between the invention of the phonograph in 1877 and the first commercial digital recordings in the early 1970s, arguably the most important milestone in the history of sound recording was the introduction of what was then called "electrical recording", in which a microphone was used to convert the sound into an electrical signal that was amplified and used to actuate the recording stylus. This innovation eliminated the "horn sound" resonances characteristic of the acoustical process, produced clearer and more full-bodied recordings by greatly extending the useful range of audio frequencies, and allowed previously unrecordable distant and feeble sounds to be captured. During this time, several radio-related developments in electronics converged to revolutionize the recording process. These included improved microphones and auxiliary devices such as electronic filters, all dependent on electronic amplification to be of practical use in recording.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: In 1906, Lee De Forest invented the Audion triode vacuum tube, an electronic valve that could amplify weak electrical signals. By 1915, it was in use in long-distance telephone circuits that made conversations between New York and San Francisco practical. Refined versions of this tube were the basis of all electronic sound systems until the commercial introduction of the first transistor-based audio devices in the mid-1950s.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: During World War I, engineers in the United States and Great Britain worked on ways to record and reproduce, among other things, the sound of a German U-boat for training purposes. Acoustical recording methods of the time could not reproduce the sounds accurately. The earliest results were not promising.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The first electrical recording issued to the public, with little fanfare, was of November 11, 1920, funeral service for The Unknown Warrior in Westminster Abbey, London. The recording engineers used microphones of the type used in contemporary telephones. Four were discreetly set up in the abbey and wired to recording equipment in a vehicle outside. Although electronic amplification was used, the audio was weak and unclear, as only possible in those circumstances. For several years, this little-noted disc remained the only issued electrical recording.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Several record companies and independent inventors, notably Orlando Marsh, experimented with equipment and techniques for electrical recording in the early 1920s. Marsh's electrically recorded Autograph Records were already being sold to the public in 1924, a year before the first such offerings from the major record companies, but their overall sound quality was too low to demonstrate any obvious advantage over traditional acoustical methods. Marsh's microphone technique was idiosyncratic and his work had little if any impact on the systems being developed by others.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Telephone industry giant Western Electric had research laboratories with material and human resources that no record company or independent inventor could match. They had the best microphone, a condenser type developed there in 1916 and greatly improved in 1922, and the best amplifiers and test equipment. They had already patented an electromechanical recorder in 1918, and in the early 1920s, they decided to intensively apply their hardware and expertise to developing two state-of-the-art systems for electronically recording and reproducing sound: one that employed conventional discs and another that recorded optically on motion picture film. Their engineers pioneered the use of mechanical analogs of electrical circuits and developed a superior "rubber line" recorder for cutting the groove into the wax master in the disc recording system.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: By 1924, such dramatic progress had been made that Western Electric arranged a demonstration for the two leading record companies, the Victor Talking Machine Company and the Columbia Phonograph Company. Both soon licensed the system and both made their earliest published electrical recordings in February 1925, but neither actually released them until several months later. To avoid making their existing catalogs instantly obsolete, the two long-time archrivals agreed privately not to publicize the new process until November 1925, by which time enough electrically recorded repertory would be available to meet the anticipated demand. During the next few years, the lesser record companies licensed or developed other electrical recording systems. By 1929 only the budget label Harmony was still issuing new recordings made by the old acoustical process.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Comparison of some surviving Western Electric test recordings with early commercial releases indicates that the record companies artificially reduced the frequency range of recordings so they would not overwhelm non-electronic playback equipment, which reproduced very low frequencies as an unpleasant rattle and rapidly wore out discs with strongly recorded high frequencies.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: In the 1920s, Phonofilm and other early motion picture sound systems employed optical recording technology, in which the audio signal was graphically recorded on photographic film. The amplitude variations comprising the signal were used to modulate a light source which was imaged onto the moving film through a narrow slit, allowing the signal to be photographed as variations in the density or width of a "sound track". The projector used a steady light and a photodetector to convert these variations back into an electrical signal, which was amplified and sent to loudspeakers behind the screen. Optical sound became the standard motion picture audio system throughout the world and remains so for theatrical release prints despite attempts in the 1950s to substitute magnetic soundtracks. Currently, all release prints on 35 mm movie film include an analog optical soundtrack, usually stereo with Dolby SR noise reduction. In addition, an optically recorded digital soundtrack in Dolby Digital and/or Sony SDDS form is likely to be present. An optically recorded timecode is also commonly included to synchronize CDROMs that contain a DTS soundtrack.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: This period also saw several other historic developments including the introduction of the first practical magnetic sound recording system, the magnetic wire recorder, which was based on the work of Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen. Magnetic wire recorders were effective, but the sound quality was poor, so between the wars, they were primarily used for voice recording and marketed as business dictating machines. In 1924, a German engineer, Kurt Stille, improved the Telegraphone with an electronic amplifier. The following year, Ludwig Blattner began work that eventually produced the Blattnerphone, which used steel tape instead of wire. The BBC started using Blattnerphones in 1930 to record radio programs. In 1933, radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi's company purchased the rights to the Blattnerphone, and newly developed Marconi-Stille recorders were installed in the BBC's Maida Vale Studios in March 1935. The tape used in Blattnerphones and Marconi-Stille recorders was the same material used to make razor blades, and not surprisingly the fearsome Marconi-Stille recorders were considered so dangerous that technicians had to operate them from another room for safety. Because of the high recording speeds required, they used enormous reels about one meter in diameter, and the thin tape frequently broke, sending jagged lengths of razor steel flying around the studio.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Magnetic tape recording uses an amplified electrical audio signal to generate analogous variations of the magnetic field produced by a tape head, which impresses corresponding variations of magnetization on the moving tape. In playback mode, the signal path is reversed, the tape head acting as a miniature electric generator as the varyingly magnetized tape passes over it. The original solid steel ribbon was replaced by a much more practical coated paper tape, but acetate soon replaced paper as the standard tape base. Acetate has fairly low tensile strength and if very thin it will snap easily, so it was in turn eventually superseded by polyester. This technology, the basis for almost all commercial recording from the 1950s to the 1980s, was developed in the 1930s by German audio engineers who also rediscovered the principle of AC biasing (first used in the 1920s for wire recorders), which dramatically improved the frequency response of tape recordings. The K1 Magnetophon was the first practical tape recorder, developed by AEG in Germany in 1935. The technology was further improved just after World War II by American audio engineer John T. Mullin with backing from Bing Crosby Enterprises. Mullin's pioneering recorders were modifications of captured German recorders. In the late 1940s, the Ampex company produced the first tape recorders commercially available in the US.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Magnetic tape brought about sweeping changes in both radio and the recording industry. Sound could be recorded, erased and re-recorded on the same tape many times, sounds could be duplicated from tape to tape with only minor loss of quality, and recordings could now be very precisely edited by physically cutting the tape and rejoining it.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Within a few years of the introduction of the first commercial tape recorder—the Ampex 200 model, launched in 1948—American musician-inventor Les Paul had invented the first multitrack tape recorder, ushering in another technical revolution in the recording industry. Tape made possible the first sound recordings totally created by electronic means, opening the way for the bold sonic experiments of the Musique Concrète school and avant-garde composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen, which in turn led to the innovative pop music recordings of artists such as The Beatles and The Beach Boys.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The ease and accuracy of tape editing, as compared to the cumbersome disc-to-disc editing procedures previously in some limited use, together with tape's consistently high audio quality finally convinced radio networks to routinely prerecord their entertainment programming, most of which had formerly been broadcast live. Also, for the first time, broadcasters, regulators and other interested parties were able to undertake comprehensive audio logging of each day's radio broadcasts. Innovations like multitracking and tape echo allowed radio programs and advertisements to be produced to a high level of complexity and sophistication. The combined impact with innovations such as the endless loop broadcast cartridge led to significant changes in the pacing and production style of radio program content and advertising.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: In 1881, it was noted during experiments in transmitting sound from the Paris Opera that it was possible to follow the movement of singers on the stage if earpieces connected to different microphones were held to the two ears. This discovery was commercialized in 1890 with the Théâtrophone system, which operated for over forty years until 1932. In 1931, Alan Blumlein, a British electronics engineer working for EMI, designed a way to make the sound of an actor in a film follow his movement across the screen. In December 1931, he submitted a patent application including the idea, and in 1933 this became UK patent number 394,325. Over the next two years, Blumlein developed stereo microphones and a stereo disc-cutting head, and recorded a number of short films with stereo soundtracks.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: In the 1930s, experiments with magnetic tape enabled the development of the first practical commercial sound systems that could record and reproduce high-fidelity stereophonic sound. The experiments with stereo during the 1930s and 1940s were hampered by problems with synchronization. A major breakthrough in practical stereo sound was made by Bell Laboratories, who in 1937 demonstrated a practical system of two-channel stereo, using dual optical sound tracks on film. Major movie studios quickly developed three-track and four-track sound systems, and the first stereo sound recording for a commercial film was made by Judy Garland for the MGM movie "Listen, Darling" in 1938. The first commercially released movie with a stereo soundtrack was Walt Disney's "Fantasia", released in 1940. The 1941 release of Fantasia used the Fantasound sound system. This system used a separate film for the sound, synchronized with the film carrying the picture. The sound film had four double-width optical soundtracks, three for left, center, and right audio—and a fourth as a "control" track with three recorded tones that controlled the playback volume of the three audio channels. Because of the complex equipment this system required, Disney exhibited the movie as a roadshow, and only in the United States. Regular releases of the movie used standard mono optical 35 mm stock until 1956, when Disney released the film with a stereo soundtrack that used the Cinemascope four-track magnetic sound system.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: German audio engineers working on magnetic tape developed stereo recording by 1941. Of 250 stereophonic recordings made during WW2, only three survive: Beethoven's 5th Piano Concerto with Walter Gieseking and Arthur Rother, a Brahms Serenade, and the last movement of Bruckner's 8th Symphony with Von Karajan. Other early German stereophonic tapes are believed to have been destroyed in bombings. Not until Ampex introduced the first commercial two-track tape recorders in the late 1940s did stereo tape recording become commercially feasible. Despite the availability of multitrack tape, stereo did not become the standard system for commercial music recording for some years, and remained a specialist market during the 1950s. EMI (UK) was the first company to release commercial stereophonic tapes. They issued their first "Stereosonic" tape in 1954. Others quickly followed, under the His Master's Voice (HMV) and Columbia labels. 161 Stereosonic tapes were released, mostly classical music or lyric recordings. RCA imported these tapes into the USA. Although some HMV tapes released in the USA cost up to $15, two-track stereophonic tapes were more successful in America during the second half of the 1950s.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The history of stereo recording changed after the late 1957 introduction of the "Westrex stereo phonograph disc", which used the groove format developed earlier by Blumlein. Decca Records in England came out with FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording) in the 1940s, which became internationally accepted as a worldwide standard for higher quality recording on vinyl records. The Ernest Ansermet recording of Igor Stravinsky's Petrushka was key in the development of full frequency range records and alerting the listening public to high fidelity in 1946.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Until the mid-1960s, record companies mixed and released most popular music in monophonic sound. From mid-1960s until the early 1970s, major recordings were commonly released in both mono and stereo. Recordings originally released only in mono have been rerendered and released in stereo using a variety of techniques from remixing to pseudostereo.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Magnetic tape transformed the recording industry. By the early 1950s, most commercial recordings were mastered on tape instead of recorded directly to disc. Tape facilitated a degree of manipulation in the recording process that was impractical with mixes and multiple generations of directly recorded discs. An early example is Les Paul's 1951 recording of "How High the Moon", on which Paul played eight overdubbed guitar tracks. In the 1960s Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys, Frank Zappa, and The Beatles (with producer George Martin) were among the first popular artists to explore the possibilities of multitrack recording techniques and effects on their landmark albums "Pet Sounds", "Freak Out!", and "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band".


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The next important innovation was small cartridge-based tape systems, of which the compact cassette, commercialized by the Philips electronics company in 1964, is the best known. Initially a low-fidelity format for spoken-word voice recording and inadequate for music reproduction, after a series of improvements it entirely replaced the competing consumer tape formats: the larger 8-track tape (used primarily in cars) and the fairly similar "Deutsche Cassette" developed by the German company Grundig. The Deutsche Cassette was not particularly common in Europe and practically unheard-of in America. The compact cassette became a major consumer audio format and advances in electronic and mechanical miniaturization led to the development of the Sony Walkman, a pocket-sized cassette player introduced in 1979. The Walkman was the first personal music player and it gave a major boost to sales of prerecorded cassettes, which became the first widely successful release format that used a re-recordable medium: the vinyl record was a playback-only medium and commercially prerecorded tapes for reel-to-reel tape decks, which many consumers found difficult to operate, were never more than a niche market item.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: A key advance in audio fidelity came with the Dolby A noise reduction system, invented by Ray Dolby and introduced into professional recording studios in 1966. It suppressed the background of hiss, which was the only easily audible downside of mastering on tape instead of recording directly to disc. A competing system, dbx, invented by David Blackmer, also found success in professional audio. A simpler variant of Dolby's noise reduction system, known as Dolby B, greatly improved the sound of cassette tape recordings by reducing the especially high level of hiss that resulted from the cassette's miniaturized tape format. The compact cassette format also benefited from improvements to the tape itself as coatings with wider frequency responses and lower inherent noise were developed, often based on cobalt and chrome oxides as the magnetic material instead of the more usual iron oxide.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The multitrack audio cartridge had been in wide use in the radio industry, from the late 1950s to the 1980s, but in the 1960s the pre-recorded 8-track tape was launched as a consumer audio format by the Lear Jet aircraft company. Aimed particularly at the automotive market, they were the first practical, affordable car hi-fi systems, and could produce sound quality superior to that of the compact cassette. The smaller size and greater durability — augmented by the ability to create home-recorded music mixtapes since 8-track recorders were rare — saw the cassette become the dominant consumer format for portable audio devices in the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: There had been experiments with multi-channel sound for many yearsusually for special musical or cultural eventsbut the first commercial application of the concept came in the early 1970s with the introduction of Quadraphonic sound. This spin-off development from multitrack recording used four tracks (instead of the two used in stereo) and four speakers to create a 360-degree audio field around the listener. Following the release of the first consumer 4-channel hi-fi systems, a number of popular albums were released in one of the competing four-channel formats; among the best known are Mike Oldfield's "Tubular Bells" and Pink Floyd's "The Dark Side of the Moon". Quadraphonic sound was not a commercial success, partly because of competing and somewhat incompatible four-channel sound systems (e.g., CBS, JVC, Dynaco and others all had systems) and generally poor quality, even when played as intended on the correct equipment, of the released music. It eventually faded out in the late 1970s, although this early venture paved the way for the eventual introduction of domestic surround sound systems in home theatre use, which gained popularity following the introduction of the DVD.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The replacement of the relatively fragile vacuum tube by the smaller, rugged and efficient transistor also accelerated the sale of consumer high-fidelity sound systems from the 1960s onward. In the 1950s, most record players were monophonic and had relatively low sound quality. Few consumers could afford high-quality stereophonic sound systems. In the 1960s, American manufacturers introduced a new generation of "modular" hi-fi components — separate turntables, pre-amplifiers, amplifiers, both combined as integrated amplifiers, tape recorders, and other ancillary equipment like the graphic equalizer, which could be connected together to create a complete home sound system. These developments were rapidly taken up by major Japanese electronics companies, which soon flooded the world market with relatively affordable, high-quality transistorized audio components. By the 1980s, corporations like Sony had become world leaders in the music recording and playback industry.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The advent of digital sound recording and later the compact disc (CD) in 1982 brought significant improvements in the quality and durability of recordings. The CD initiated another massive wave of change in the consumer music industry, with vinyl records effectively relegated to a small niche market by the mid-1990s. The record industry fiercely resisted the introduction of digital systems, fearing wholesale piracy on a medium able to produce perfect copies of original released recordings.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The most recent and revolutionary developments have been in digital recording, with the development of various uncompressed and compressed digital audio file formats, processors capable and fast enough to convert the digital data to sound in real time, and inexpensive mass storage.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: This generated new types of portable digital audio players. The minidisc player, using ATRAC compression on small, re-writeable discs was introduced in the 1990s, but became obsolescent as solid-state non-volatile flash memory dropped in price. As technologies that increase the amount of data that can be stored on a single medium, such as Super Audio CD, DVD-A, Blu-ray Disc, and HD DVD became available, longer programs of higher quality fit onto a single disc. Sound files are readily downloaded from the Internet and other sources, and copied onto computers and digital audio players. Digital audio technology is now used in all areas of audio, from casual use of music files of moderate quality to the most demanding professional applications. New applications such as internet radio and podcasting have appeared.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Technological developments in recording, editing, and consuming have transformed the record, movie and television industries in recent decades. Audio editing became practicable with the invention of magnetic tape recording, but technologies like MIDI, sound synthesis and digital audio workstations allow greater control and efficiency for composers and artists. Digital audio techniques and mass storage have reduced recording costs such that high-quality recordings can be produced in small studios.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Today, the process of making a recording is separated into tracking, mixing and mastering. Multitrack recording makes it possible to capture signals from several microphones, or from different takes to tape, disc or mass storage allowing previously unavailable flexibility in the mixing and mastering stages.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: There are many different digital audio recording and processing programs running under several computer operating systems for all purposes, ranging from casual users and serious amateurs working on small projects to professional sound engineers who are recording albums, film scores and doing sound design for video games.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Digital dictation software for recording and transcribing speech has different requirements; intelligibility and flexible playback facilities are priorities, while a wide frequency range and high audio quality are not.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The development of analog sound recording in the nineteenth century and its widespread use throughout the twentieth century had a huge impact on the development of music. Before analog sound recording was invented, most music was as a live performance. Throughout the medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, and through much of the Romantic music era, the main way that songs and instrumental pieces were "recorded" was through music notation. While notation indicates the pitches of the melody and their rhythm many aspects of the performance are undocumented. Indeed, in the Medieval era, Gregorian chant did not indicate the rhythm of the chant. In the Baroque era, instrumental pieces often lack a tempo indication and usually none of the ornaments were written down. As a result, each performance of a song or piece would be slightly different.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: With the development of analog sound recording, though, a performance could be permanently fixed, in all of its elements: pitch, rhythm, timbre, ornaments and expression. This meant that many more elements of a performance would be captured and disseminated to other listeners. The development of sound recording also enabled a much larger proportion of people to hear famous orchestras, operas, singers and bands, because even if a person could not afford to hear the live concert, they may be able to hear the recording. The availability of sound recording thus helped to spread musical styles to new regions, countries and continents. The cultural influence went in a number of directions. Sound recordings enabled Western music lovers to hear actual recordings of Asian, Middle Eastern and African groups and performers, increasing awareness of non-Western musical styles. At the same time, sound recordings enabled music lovers outside the West to hear the most famous North American and European groups and singers.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: As digital recording developed, so did a controversy commonly known as the analog versus digital controversy. Audio professionals, audiophiles, consumers, musicians alike contributed to the debate based on their interaction with the media and the preferences for analog or digital processes. Scholarly discourse on the controversy came to focus on concern for the perception of moving image and sound. There are individual and cultural preferences for either method. While approaches and opinions vary, some emphasize sound as paramount, others focus on technology preferences as the deciding factor. Analog fans might embrace limitations as strengths of the medium inherent in the compositional, editing, mixing, and listening phases. Digital advocates boast flexibility in similar processes. This debate fosters a revival of vinyl in the music industry, as well as analog electronics, and analog type plug-ins for recording and mixing software.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: In copyright law, a "phonogram" or "sound recording" is a work that results from the fixation of sounds in a medium. The notice of copyright in a phonogram uses the sound recording copyright symbol, which the Geneva Phonograms Convention defines as ℗ (the letter P in a full circle). This usually accompanies the copyright notice for the underlying musical composition, which uses the ordinary © symbol.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: The recording is separate from the song, so copyright for a recording usually belongs to the record company. It is less common for an artist or producer to hold these rights. Copyright for recordings has existed since 1972, while copyright for musical composition, or songs, has existed since 1831. Disputes over sampling and "beats" are ongoing.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: United States copyright law defines "sound recordings" as "works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds" other than an audiovisual work's soundtrack. Prior to the Sound Recording Amendment (SRA), which took effect in 1972, copyright in sound recordings was handled at the state level. Federal copyright law preempts most state copyright laws but allows state copyright in sound recordings to continue for one full copyright term after the SRA's effective date, which means 2067.


title: Sound recording and reproduction

text: Since 1934, copyright law in Great Britain has treated sound recordings (or "phonograms") differently from musical works. The "Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988" defines a sound recording as (a) a recording of sounds, from which the sounds may be reproduced, or (b) a recording of the whole or any part of a literary, dramatic or musical work, from which sounds reproducing the work or part may be produced, regardless of the medium on which the recording is made or the method by which the sounds are reproduced or produced. It thus covers vinyl records, tapes, compact discs, digital audiotapes, and MP3s that embody recordings.


title: Link Wray

text: Fred Lincoln "Link" Wray Jr. (May 2, 1929 – November 5, 2005) was an American guitarist, songwriter, and vocalist who became popular in the late 1950s.


title: Link Wray

text: "Rolling Stone" placed Wray at No. 45 of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time. In 2013 and 2017 he was a nominee for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


title: Link Wray

text: Wray was born on May 2, 1929, in Dunn, North Carolina, to Fred Lincoln Wray, Sr. and his wife, Lillian Mae Wray (née Coats), whom her son identified as being Shawnee. He recounted that his family experienced discrimination, including times when they had to hide from the Ku Klux Klan. Wray later said: "The cops, the sheriff, the drugstore owner—they were all Ku Klux Klan. They put the masks on and, if you did something wrong, they'd tie you to a tree and whip you or kill you." Three songs Wray performed during his career were named for Indigenous peoples: "Shawnee", "Apache", and "Comanche."


title: Link Wray

text: His two brothers, Vernon (born January 7, 1924 - died March 26, 1979) and Doug (born July 4, 1933 - died April 29, 1984), were his earliest bandmates.


title: Link Wray

text: Wray served in the U.S. Army during the Korean War (1950–53). He contracted tuberculosis, which hospitalized him for a year. His stay concluded with the removal of a lung, which doctors predicted would mean he would never be able to sing again.


title: Link Wray

text: Building on the distorted electric guitar sound of early records, Wray's first hit was the 1958 instrumental "Rumble". The record was first released on Cadence Records (catalog number 1347) as by "Link Wray & His Ray Men". "Rumble" was banned in New York and Boston for fear that it would incite teenage gang violence, "rumble" being slang for a gang fight.


title: Link Wray

text: Before, during, and after his stints with major labels Epic and Swan, Wray released 45s under many names. Tiring of the corporate music machine, he began recording albums using a three-track studio he converted from an outbuilding on his brother's property that his father used to raise chickens, in Accokeek, Maryland. He wrote and recorded the eponymously-titled LP "Link Wray" (1971), on which he wrote about his frustrations. The Neville Brothers have recorded two tracks from it, "Fallin' Rain" and "Fire and Brimstone".


title: Link Wray

text: While living in the San Francisco Bay Area in the early 1970s, Wray was introduced to Quicksilver Messenger Service guitarist John Cipollina by bassist James "Hutch" Hutchinson. He subsequently formed a band initially featuring special guest Cipollina along with the rhythm section from Cipollina's band Copperhead, bassist Hutch Hutchinson, and drummer David Weber. They opened for the band Lighthouse at the Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles from May 15–19, 1974. He later did numerous concerts and radio broadcasts in the Bay Area, including at KSAN and at promoter Bill Graham's Winterland Ballroom venue, with Les Lizama later replacing Hutchinson on bass. He toured and recorded two albums with retro-rockabilly artist Robert Gordon in the late 1970s. The 1980s to the present day saw a large number of reissues as well as new material. One member of his band in the 1980s, session drummer Anton Fig, later became drummer in the CBS Orchestra on the "Late Show with David Letterman". In 1994, he played on four songs of the album "Chatterton" by French rocker Alain Bashung. He went on to release two albums of new music: "Shadowman" (1997) and "Barbed Wire" (2000).


title: Link Wray

text: In November 2017, Easy Eye Records announced the future release of two recently discovered recordings, "Son of Rumble", presumably a follow-up to 1958's "Rumble", and "Whole Lotta Talking", recorded in 1970. The recordings were issued as a 45rpm single in April 2018.


title: Link Wray

text: Easy Eye released another 45rpm single of newly discovered/unreleased material for RSD 2019, "Vernon's Diamond" b/w "My Brother, My Son". "Vernon's Diamond" was recorded circa 1958-59 and is an early version of "Ace of Spades", and "My Brother, My Son" was recorded at the same sessions as "Whole Lotta Talking" in 1970.


title: Link Wray

text: Wray's first three marriages, to Elizabeth Canady Wray, Ethel Tidwell Wray, and Sharon Cole Wray, produced eight children. In the early 1980s, Wray relocated to Denmark and married Olive Povlsen, who became his manager.


title: Link Wray

text: Wray died of heart failure at his home in Copenhagen, on November 5, 2005, at the age of 76. Survivors included his nine children, 24 grandchildren, and two great-grandchildren. Wray was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the crypt of the Christian's Church, Copenhagen.


title: Link Wray

text: Link Wray's 1950s recordings "straddled country and rockabilly". He later performed surf influenced garage rock in the 1960s, swamp rock and country rock in the early 1970s and hard rock in the late 1970s and onward.


title: Link Wray

text: Wray is credited with inventing the power chord. According to AllMusic's Cub Koda, Wray's instrumental recordings starting with "Rumble" through his Swan singles in the early 1960s laid the blueprints for "heavy metal, thrash, you name it." "Rumble" facilitated the emergence of "punk and heavy rock", according to Jeremy Simmonds.


title: Link Wray

text: Wray has influenced a wide range of artists. Jimmy Page described Link Wray as having a "real rebel attitude" and credited Wray in the documentary "It Might Get Loud" as a major influence in his early career. According to "Rolling Stone", Pete Townshend of The Who once said, "If it hadn't been for Link Wray and 'Rumble,' I never would have picked up a guitar." Mark E. Smith of The Fall wrote in his autobiography: "The only people I ever really looked up to were Link Wray and Iggy Pop... Guys like [Wray] are very special to me." Iggy Pop and Neil Young have also cited Wray as an influence on their work.


title: Link Wray

text: Bob Dylan refers to Wray in his song "Sign Language", which he recorded as a duet with Eric Clapton in 1975: "Link Wray was playin' on a juke box I was payin'/ for the words I was saying, so misunderstood/he didn't do me no good" Both Dylan and Bruce Springsteen performed Wray's tune "Rumble" in concert as a tribute to the influential musician upon his 2005 death. In 2007, musician Steven Van Zandt inducted Link Wray into the Native American Music Hall of Fame with a tribute performance by his grandson Chris Webb and Native artist Gary Small.


title: Link Wray

text: Wray was a featured collaborator on Robert Gordon's 1977 single "Red Hot" (Private Stock 45-156). The single peaked at No. 83 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.


title: Wende Correctional Facility

text: Wende Correctional Facility is a maximum security prison located in town of Alden in Erie County, New York, east of Buffalo. The prison is named for this region of Alden. The prison was formerly the site of an Erie County jail, and was sold to the state to further the need for a maximum security state prison. The Erie County Correctional Facility was built adjacent to Wende.


title: Wende Correctional Facility

text: The state of New York announced its $48 million purchase of the prison on March 24, 1983. At the time of the sale, the facility housed 592 prisoners.


title: Wende Correctional Facility

text: Like other prisons, Wende was a vector in the COVID-19 pandemic. As of November 6, 2020, 31 prisoners had tested positive for COVID-19; one of the first confirmed infections was that of recently sentenced movie executive Harvey Weinstein. According to a March 31, 2020, statement by the New York State Correctional Officers and Police Benevolent Association, 135 correctional officers at Wende were in quarantine, and 6 had tested positive for the virus.


title: Wende Correctional Facility

text: David McClary, convicted of murdering police officer Edward Byrne, spent three years in solitary confinement while at Wende. In 1999, a federal jury granted him $660,000 in damages.


title: Wende Correctional Facility

text: In 2003, Wende officers ordered that Muslim prisoner Darryl Holland produce a urine sample in a three-hour window for a drug test. Holland, who was fasting for Ramadan, refused to drink water for the sample and was placed in solitary confinement for 77 days. While Judge Michael Anthony Telesca of the U.S. District Court for the Western District of New York granted the prison summary judgement in 2013, a panel of judges from the Second Circuit ruled that Holland could still sue on First Amendment grounds.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: The TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK is a twin-engine, tandem seat, multi-role, all-weather attack helicopter based on the Agusta A129 Mangusta platform. The T129 was developed by Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) in partnership with Leonardo (AgustaWestland Helicopters). The helicopter is designed for armed reconnaissance and attack missions in hot and high environments and rough geography in both day and night conditions.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: The ATAK programme was begun to meet the requirements of Turkish Armed Forces for an armed tactical reconnaissance and an attack helicopter. The T129 is the result of the integration of Turkish-developed avionics, airframe modifications, and weapon systems onto the AgustaWestland A129 airframe, with upgraded engines, transmission and rotor blades. It is in use by the Turkish Army and other services including the Turkish Gendarmerie. The helicopter has a unit cost of roughly US$50 million.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: The ATAK programme was begun to meet the Turkish Armed Forces' requirements for an attack and tactical reconnaissance helicopter. Turkey announced on 30 March 2007 that it had decided to negotiate with AgustaWestland to co-develop and produce 51 (with 40 options) attack helicopters based on the Agusta A129 Mangusta. It is to be assembled in Turkey by Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) as the T129. On 7 September 2007, a $1.2 billion contract was signed.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: On 22 June 2008, the agreement between TUSAS Aerospace Industries (TAI) and AgustaWestland formally entered into force. Under the agreement, TAI would develop an indigenous mission computer, avionics, weapons systems, self-protection suites and the helmet-mounting cuing systems. Tusaş Engine Industries (TEI) would manufacture the LHTEC CTS800-4N engines under licence. Under the agreement, Turkey has full marketing and intellectual property rights for the T129 platform; Turkey can export also the platform to third party nations, excluding Italy and the United Kingdom. However, the T129's LHTEC CTS800-4N gives the United States a veto over any prospective export sales and so Turkey developed its own TEI TS1400 powerplant. About 95% of the initial parts of the serial production T129 are manufactured in Turkey.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: On 16 July 2007, the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Meteksan Savunma Sanayii AŞ and Bilkent University formed a consortium to develop an advanced millimetre wave radar (MILDAR), similar to the Longbow and the IAI/ELTA radars, intended to enter service in 2009. MILDAR was successfully completed development in February 2012.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In 2007, it was reported that one helicopter will be kept by the Turkish Ministry of Defense and used as a test-bed for systems development. The remaining 50 helicopters will be delivered to the Turkish Army. An optional 40 further T129 helicopters will be produced if necessary. These 50 T129s are to be designated T129B. In November 2010, Turkey ordered an additional nine T129 helicopters to increase its total ordered to 60. These T129s were for an urgent Turkish Army operational requirement and was built by TAI for delivery in 2012, one year prior to the delivery of the previously ordered 51 helicopters. These T129s are designated T129A, lacking advanced anti-tank missiles. As a result of delays, the T129As entered service in 2014.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: On 28 September 2009, the T129's maiden flight took place when P1 prototype flew at AgustaWestland's facilities in Vergiate, Italy. On 19 March 2010, the first T129 prototype (P1) conducted high altitude hover tests near Verbania, Italy following the completion of several successful test flights. During the hover test, T129 P1 lost its tail rotor at 15,000 feet. Test pilot Cassioli regained enough control to steer away from residential area before crashing; the crew escaped without serious injuries. On 17 August 2011, TAI announced the first successful flight of the T129 prototype "P6", the first of three prototypes to be assembled in Turkey.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In 2013, media reports claimed that the first batch of helicopters delivered to Turkish Army for trials did not meet the requirements of the contract, specifically in terms of "vibration, balance, weight". The T129 was nose-heavy; to resolve this, 137 kg was added to the tail, causing the total weight to exceed the specified requirement. The higher weight may decrease the T129's service ceiling, which is detrimental for operating under hot and high conditions, like those found in Southeastern Anatolia. The Undersecretariat for Defense Industries will adjust the contract in accordance. Experts expect weight reductions as development continues.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: On 22 April 2014, TAI formally delivered the first serial production T129 ATAK to the Turkish Land Forces. Total nine T129 ATAK helicopters of the first batch delivered to the Turkish Land Forces after completing qualification testing.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: HAVELSAN developed a simulator system for the T129 and presented at the International Defence Industry Fair (IDEF) 2017.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: The T129 ATAK is optimized for "hot and high conditions", performance requirements against challenging geographical and environmental conditions in night and day operations. It has several key improvements over the original A129 inline with the requirements of the Turkish Army.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: The helicopter is equipped with the "Hunter Kaska" integrated control system specially designed for the helicopter. The system enables the automatic orientation of target detection and weapon systems to the pilot's line of sight with high tracking accuracy. The helicopter is also equipped with a dedicated electro-optical FLIR system "ASELFLIR-300T" for multi-purpose missions manufactured by the Turkish company Aselsan.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: The helicopter also equipped with advanced electronic warfare and countermeasure systems which increase survival capabilities in combat situations. These systems include a Radar Warning Receiver (RIAS), Radar Frequency Mixer (RFKS) and a Laser Receiver (LIAS) in addition to an automatic Countermeasure Firing System (KTAS).


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: The ATAK can be used in the anti-armour, armed reconnaissance, ground attack, escort, asymmetrical, fire support and short range anti-aircraft roles. The T129 ATAK is equipped with a 20 mm three-barrel rotary cannon in a nose turret with 500 rounds of ammunition. It can also be equipped with up to 8 UMTAS 160 mm long range anti-tank missiles, 76 unguided 70mm rockets for close air support, 16 CIRIT 70 mm missiles and 8 air launched Stinger short range air-to-air missiles.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: The helicopter features also include high maneuverability, low visibility, sound and radar silhouette, high impact resistance and ballistic tolerance.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In May 2014, the Turkish Army formally inducted the first nine T129s into service; these initial rotorcraft were to a less advanced interim EDH A-model variant, intended to replace some of the ageing AH-1s in use prior to the introduction of the more capable T129B variant to service. On 25 April 2015, a pair of T129s were used in combat for the first time in a counter-terrorism operation in Turkey's Siirt Province. Delivery of the final EDH-standard T129s took place on 31 July 2015.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: On 10 February 2018, during the Turkish military operation in Afrin, a T129 of the Turkish Army was shot down by Kurdish YPG anti-aircraft fire in Kırıkhan district of Hatay Province. It was later confirmed by the Turkish Armed Forces and President Erdoğan.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: When the Philippine Air Force (PAF) re-evaluated its capabilities and performance after the siege of Marawi in 2017 against ISIS-inspired terrorists, it found that the MD-520MG Defender and the newer AW-109E Power armed helicopters did not have sufficient firepower. In 2017, the Philippine government received confirmation from the Jordanian government that they would provide two used Bell AH-1S Cobra attack helicopters, with options for more, subject to the decision of the Jordanian government, which further complicated the decision-making process.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: Instead of acquiring more light armed helicopters, the PAF is now interested in purpose-built attack helicopters, even if acquired in smaller quantities. In the end, the PAF's Technical Working Group (TWG) selected the TAI T129 ATAK due to its lower price than its American competitors. TAI was able to offer six T129s for the approved budget, compared to just five AH-1Z Vipers from Bell, or four AH-64E Apaches from Boeing.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: The DND had already signed a contract for the acquisition of six T129B helicopters from TAI for Php13.7 billion through a government-to-government deal with the Turkish Ministry of Defense by the second half of 2020.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: As of December 2022, a total of four units out of six ordered T129B attack helicopters and their accompanying spare parts and logistical support items have been accepted into service by the Air Force. The last batch of two more helicopters is expected to be completed and delivered by 2023.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In September 2018, Brazil showed interest in acquiring T129 with army officials visiting Turkey. In March 2019, ten Brazilian Army pilots received certificates for completing T129 test flights at Forte Ricardo Kirk, Taubaté.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In an Iraqi TV broadcast, the Iraqi defense minister announced in August 2021 that Iraq will acquire 12 T129 ATAK helicopters.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: According to a statement by the Turkish Aerospace Industries General Manager Temel Kotil during the Farnborough Airshow. Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) will provide six T-129 ATAK helicopters to Nigeria under a recent contract.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In 2017, Pakistan indicated that it was interested in possibly purchasing the T129 ATAK for the Pakistan Army Aviation Corps (PAAC), as a replacement to their ageing Bell AH-1F Cobra gunships; the PAAC had extensively tested the T129 and the Z-10ME in 2016.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In May 2018, Turkey's ruling Justice and Development Party (AK Parti) announced that Pakistan had purchased a batch of 30 T129 helicopters for US$1.5 billion, which Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) confirmed in July.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: Pakistan's purchase of the T129 was riddled with issues; the United States Department of Defense (DoD) refused to issue the export-license for the LHTEC T800-4A turboshaft engines necessary for the ordered gunships, owing to diplomatic issues between the United States and Turkey. In 2020, Pakistan granted a one-year extension to TAI, to allow the latter to persuade the DoD to issue the required export-license; TAI also approached its sister-company, Tusaş Engine Industries, to develop an indigenous engine for the T129, as a possible replacement for the T800-4A. TAI also hired a U.S-based lobbying firm, Capitol Counsel, to lobby U.S lawmakers to clear the Pakistani deal. In 2021, Pakistan granted a six-month extension to TAI, in a further bid to resolve the issue.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In January 2022, multiple reports of Pakistan cancelling the deal for the 30 T129s, in favor of the Z-10ME emerged. However, the Pakistani military's public relations wing - the Inter-Services Public Relations (ISPR), denied the reports, stating that the deal had not been terminated.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In 2011, Saudi Arabia asked Turkey to enter a tender to produce attack helicopters for the Saudi Air Force.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: On 31 July 2021, it was reported that Morocco was in the "advanced stage of negotiation" with Turkey for the purchase of 22 T129 ATAK helicopters. Additional sources claimed previous negotiations were suspended in 2018 due to US sanctions.


title: TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK

text: In January 2013, a media report stated that South Korea's attack helicopter competition included the T129 in the final three bidders with the Bell AH-1Z Viper and the Boeing AH-64 Apache. However, the AH-64E Apache was chosen in April 2013.


title: Nancy Walker

text: Nancy Walker (born Anna Myrtle Swoyer; May 10, 1922 – March 25, 1992) was an American actress and comedian of stage, screen, and television. She was also a film and television director (lending her talents to "The Mary Tyler Moore Show", on which she also made several guest appearances). During her five-decade-long career, she may be best remembered for her long-running roles as Mildred on "McMillan & Wife" and Ida Morgenstern, who first appeared on several episodes of "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" and later became a prominent recurring character on the spinoff series "Rhoda".


title: Nancy Walker

text: Walker was born in 1922 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the elder of two daughters of vaudevillian Dewey Barto (né Stewart Steven Swoyer) and Myrtle Flemming Lawler, a dancer. The couple wed in Manhattan in 1919. Walker and her father both stood 4'11" (1.50 m). Her younger sister was Betty Lou Barto.


title: Nancy Walker

text: In 1937, as "Nan Barto", Walker appeared on the NBC radio programs "Coast to Coast on a Bus" and "Our Barn." She made her Broadway debut in 1941 in "Best Foot Forward." The role provided Walker with her film debut, when she signed a contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to appear in the 1943 film version, starring Lucille Ball. She also appeared with Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland in the second film version of "Girl Crazy" (1943). Her next film, "Broadway Rhythm", in which she had a featured musical number backed by Tommy Dorsey and His Orchestra, "Milkman, Keep Those Bottles Quiet", ended Walker's contract with MGM.


title: Nancy Walker

text: Her dry comic delivery enabled her to continue acting throughout the 1940s and 1950s, originating the roles of Hildy Eszterhazy ("I Can Cook, Too!") in "On the Town" (1944) and Lily Malloy in "Look Ma, I'm Dancin'!" (1948) on Broadway. She was nominated for a Tony Award in 1956 for her work in the musical revue "Phoenix '55", and again in 1960 for her performance in "Do Re Mi", opposite Phil Silvers.


title: Nancy Walker

text: Walker also starred in the short-lived Broadway musical comedy "Copper and Brass" in 1957, and appeared in the 1958 New York City Center production of "Wonderful Town". For the early 1970s revival of "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum", she appeared again opposite Silvers, playing the character of Domina. Owing to her television contractual responsibilities, she was unable to transfer with the show to Broadway. Her musical appearances led to record releases, including "I Hate Men" (1959; with Sid Bass and his orchestra, featuring such show tunes as "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair" and "You Irritate Me So"); the cover featured Walker humorously sticking male dolls with pins.


title: Nancy Walker

text: Dozens of television guest appearances and recurring roles followed, providing her with steady work. Her career spanned five decades and included comedies, dramas, and television variety shows such as "Faye Emerson's Wonderful Town", "The Garry Moore Show", and "The Carol Burnett Show".


title: Nancy Walker

text: In the 1960–61 television season, she appeared in two episodes of NBC's "The Tab Hunter Show". In 1970, she secured a recurring role as Emily, the housekeeper, on the television series "Family Affair", which starred Brian Keith. After five seasons, though, the ratings of "Family Affair" had plummeted opposite NBC's popular "The Flip Wilson Show", and the series was canceled at the end of that season.


title: Nancy Walker

text: In 1970, she also made her first appearance playing Ida Morgenstern, the mother of Valerie Harper's character Rhoda Morgenstern on the first season of "The Mary Tyler Moore Show". The role proved to be ideal for her. The episode that introduced her character, "Support Your Local Mother", was so well received that it won an Emmy for Outstanding Writing Achievement in a Comedy Series for James L. Brooks and Allan Burns. Walker thereafter became an annual guest star on the show for the next three years. When the MTM spinoff series "Rhoda" premiered in 1974, Walker was a regular cast member in 41 episodes.


title: Nancy Walker

text: From 1971 to 1976, she was a regular on the successful Rock Hudson detective series "McMillan & Wife", playing the McMillans' housekeeper, Mildred. During the first two years of "Rhoda", Walker was not featured every week, so she was able to shuttle back and forth between the CBS sitcom and the NBC detective series. These two roles brought her seven Emmy Award nominations. In 1976, ABC-TV offered Walker a contract to headline her own series, "The Nancy Walker Show", which was produced by Norman Lear's production company, in which she starred as Nancy Kittredge, a talent agent. Walker appeared on a second-season episode of "The Muppet Show".


title: Nancy Walker

text: Before she filmed the first episode of the series, Walker made her only appearance on "Rhoda" for the 1976–77 season. In the season premiere, "The Separation", Rhoda (Valerie Harper) and her husband Joe (David Groh) decide to separate. Rhoda tries to keep the news from her mother Ida (Walker), since Ida is about to embark on a year-long trip across America with Rhoda's father (Harold Gould). Ida learns the truth from Rhoda prior to Ida's departure.


title: Nancy Walker

text: Almost immediately, Garry Marshall signed Walker for another series, "Blansky's Beauties". The main character of the series was introduced a week before the series premiere in an episode of the hit sitcom, "Happy Days". The show premiered on ABC-TV in February 1977 with Walker playing Nancy Blansky, den mother to a group of Las Vegas showgirls. It failed to find an audience and was canceled in May 1977, giving Walker the unenviable distinction of being in two failed series in the same year. She returned to "Rhoda" at the beginning of the 1977–78 season (giving the show a much-needed boost in the ratings, which had fallen the previous year), and remained with the series for the rest of its run. During this time, she began directing, including episodes of "The Mary Tyler Moore Show", "Rhoda", "13 Queens Boulevard", and "Alice".


title: Nancy Walker

text: One of Walker's last major film roles was in the 1976 all-star comedy spoof "Murder by Death". She continued to remain active in show business until her death, playing Rosie, a New Jersey diner waitress in a series of commercials for Bounty paper towels from 1970 to 1990. She helped make the product's slogan, "the quicker picker-upper", a common catchphrase. She credited the towel commercials with landing her the role of Ida Morgenstern.


title: Nancy Walker

text: Among her final guest appearances in a television series was the recurring role of Aunt Angela, Sophia Petrillo's (Estelle Getty) widowed sister, on "The Golden Girls", for which she received an Emmy Award nomination. "Golden Girls" creator Susan Harris then cast Walker opposite Bruce Weitz in her NBC sitcom project "Mama's Boy", which aired as six comedy specials during the 1987–88 season, but never reached series status.


title: Nancy Walker

text: In 1990, Walker began starring on the Fox sitcom "True Colors" as Sara Bower, the outspoken mother of Ellen Davis Freeman (Stephanie Faracy), who moves into Ellen's household despite having objections to her daughter's interracial marriage. In 1990, Walker appeared as herself in the "Columbo" episode "Uneasy Lies the Crown".


title: Nancy Walker

text: Walker had guest starred as Rhoda's mother Ida Morgenstern in several episodes of "The Mary Tyler Moore Show", and continued that role in its spin-off "Rhoda". After establishing the character, Walker directed some episodes of both series, along with episodes of other situation comedy series.


title: Nancy Walker

text: In 1980, Walker made her feature-film directorial debut, directing disco group The Village People and Olympian Bruce Jenner in the pseudoautobiographical musical "Can't Stop the Music". The film was a box-office failure, and Walker's sole feature-film directorial credit. After the film, she did some stage and television directing, including three episodes of the situation comedy "Alice".


title: Nancy Walker

text: Walker was married twice. Her first husband was Joseph Garland Moore Jr., known as Gar Moore, whom she wed on August 1, 1948. They divorced within 10 months. She remarried, to musical theater teacher David Craig on January 29, 1951. Craig died in 1998 at the age of 75 from lung cancer. The couple had a daughter, Miranda Craig, an advertising copywriter, who died at age 47 from undisclosed causes.


title: Nancy Walker

text: Walker was also a close friend of actor Montgomery Clift. Biographer Patricia Bosworth stated the two first met in 1948, but did not become good friends until 10 years later, after Clift's disfiguring car accident. Bosworth adds that Walker would sustain him as his dearest friend for the rest of his life; their relationship was one of mutual support – whereas most of Clift's friends assumed he needed to be looked after, or else left alone, Walker stated, "he needed to be needed", adding "I liked his face better after the accident; his strength "shone" through." Clift nicknamed friends for whom he felt particular affection, and he called Walker "Nanny".


title: Nancy Walker

text: Walker was a Democrat who supported Adlai Stevenson's campaign during the 1952 presidential election.


title: Nancy Walker

text: Thomas S. Hischak. "The Oxford Companion to the American Musical: theatre, film, and television" (June 2008), Oxford University Press, USA ()


title: Nancy Walker

text: "Betty Lou Swoyer, aka Betty Lou Barto" https://www.ancestry.com/genealogy/records/betty-lou-swoyer-aka-betty-lou-barto-24-rdl1c1. Ancestry.com 2022.