title: Luka Garza

text: Garza scored 44 points, third-most in Iowa history, in a 103–91 loss to Michigan on December 6. He followed this up with 21 points and 10 rebounds in a 72–52 win over Minnesota and was named Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week. In an 84–68 win against Iowa State on December 12, Garza had a tooth jarred loose after taking an elbow from teammate Joe Wieskamp. Garza returned to the game and finished with 21 points and 11 rebounds. Garza had 34 points and 12 rebounds in a 89–86 loss to Penn State on January 4, 2020. He was named to the midseason watch lists for the Wooden Award, Naismith Trophy and Oscar Robertson Trophy. On February 13, Garza tallied 38 points, eight rebounds and four blocks in an 89–77 loss to Indiana. At the close of the regular season, he was named the Big Ten Player of the Year. He was then named National Player of the Year by the Sporting News. Garza averaged 23.9 points and 9.8 rebounds per game as a junior, earning consensus first-team All-American honors. Following the season, Garza declared for the 2020 NBA draft. On August 2, he announced he was withdrawing from the draft and returning to Iowa.


title: Luka Garza

text: On November 27, Garza scored a Carver–Hawkeye Arena-record 41 points, including 36 in the first half, on 14-of-15 shooting while posting nine rebounds and three blocks in a 103–76 win over Southern. He joined John Johnson as the only players in program history to record two 40-point games. In his next game, on December 3, Garza scored 30 first-half points as part of a 35-point, 10-rebound performance in a 99–58 victory over Western Illinois. On December 11, he posted 34 points and six three-pointers in a 105–77 win over Iowa State. Garza scored his 2,000th point in a February 2, 2021, win over Michigan State. On February 21, he recorded 23 points and 11 rebounds in a 74–68 victory over Penn State, surpassing Roy Marble to become Iowa's all-time leading scorer. After a win over the #25 Wisconsin Badgers, athletic director Gary Barta announced that they would be retiring #55 for Garza.


title: Luka Garza

text: At the close of the season, Garza was again named "Sporting News" Player of the Year, becoming the first repeat winner since Michael Jordan in 1983 and 1984. He averaged 24.1 points and 8.7 rebounds as a senior, and became the first player in Iowa men's basketball history to twice be named Big Ten Player of the Year and consensus first-team All-American.


title: Luka Garza

text: Garza was selected with the 52nd overall pick by the Detroit Pistons in the 2021 NBA draft. After a standout Summer League performance, Garza was signed to a two-way contract by the Pistons and their G-League affiliate, the Motor City Cruise. On September 24, the team announced they had converted his contract from a two-way to a standard deal.


title: Luka Garza

text: On October 23, Garza made his NBA debut, posting three points, two rebounds, two steals and one assist across six minutes of play in a 97–82 loss to the Chicago Bulls. On November 23, Garza made his first career start, scoring seven points on 3-of-5 shooting from the field and 1-of-1 from three, in addition to three rebounds and two assists in a 100–92 loss to the Miami Heat. On December 26, Garza scored a career-high 20 points on 7-of-14 shooting from the field and 2-of-5 from three, to go along with six rebounds and two assists before fouling out in a 144–109 blowout loss to the San Antonio Spurs. On January 1, 2022, Garza logged his first career double-double with a career-high tying 20 points and a career-high 14 rebounds across a career-high 40 minutes of action in a 117–116 win over the Spurs. Together with teammates Hamidou Diallo and Saddiq Bey, they became the first trio in league history to register 20 points and 14 rebounds in the same game in over 40 years. On June 29, the Pistons declined their team option on Garza, making him a free agent.


title: Luka Garza

text: On August 23, 2022, Garza signed with the Minnesota Timberwolves. On October 15, 2022, the Timberwolves signed him to a two-way contract.


title: Luka Garza

text: In September 2020, Garza expressed his interest to represent the Bosnia and Herzegovina national team internationally. In December 2021, he told a reporter that he finished the process of obtaining dual citizenship.


title: Luka Garza

text: Garza's father is of Spanish American origin, and his mother is from Bosnia and Herzegovina, of Bosniak origin. Both of Garza's parents have basketball experience: his father, Frank, played collegiately at Idaho, and his mother, Šejla (née Muftić), played professionally in Europe. His paternal grandfather, James Halm, played college basketball for Hawaii. His maternal uncle, Teoman Alibegović, is the all-time leading scorer for the Slovenia national basketball team.


title: Luka Garza

text: His maternal grandfather, Refik Muftić, was an accomplished association football goalkeeper, spending his entire career with FK Sarajevo.


title: Luka Garza

text: Garza's mother is also an executive assistant at the Embassy of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Washington, D.C.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: New York is a 2009 Indian Hindi-language psychological spy thriller film directed by Kabir Khan and produced by Aditya Chopra, based on a script by lyricist Sandeep Shrivastava and a story by Chopra, with Visual Computing Labs, Tata Elxsi Ltd. handling the visual effects. The film stars John Abraham, Katrina Kaif, Neil Nitin Mukesh, Irrfan Khan and Nawazuddin Siddiqui in lead roles. Shot simultaneously in Hindi and English, the film tells a story about 3 friends studying at the fictional New York State University whose lives are changed by the September 11 attacks and its aftermath.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: "New York" released on 26 June 2009, and proved to be a commercial success, grossing ₹81.21 crore worldwide, and was the sixth-highest grossing Hindi film of 2009. It received highly positive reviews from critics upon release, with praise for its direction, screenplay and performances of the cast, with particular praise directed towards Kaif and Nitin Mukesh's performances.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: At the 55th Filmfare Awards, "New York" received 2 nominations – Best Actress (Kaif) and Best Supporting Actor (Nitin Mukesh).


title: New York (2009 film)

text: In the United States in 2009, the FBI arrest Omar Aijaz, a young Muslim man originally from Delhi, India, after finding guns in the trunk of a taxi cab he owned. Omar is then taken into custody and interrogated by FBI Agent Roshan, also a Muslim man originally from South Asia who has been living in the United States for twenty years. Omar then discovers that he was set up by the FBI to force him to spy on a former college friend, Sameer "Sam" Sheikh, whom he has not seen in seven years and who the FBI believes is a terrorist. In the process, Omar discovers that Sam has married Maya, a mutual friend whom Omar had a crush on in university and finds out that Sam and Maya have a young son, Danyal.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: Roshan orders Omar to tell him everything he knows about Sam. The film then flashes back to September 1999, when Omar begins his studies at the New York State University. He is befriended by his international student counselor Maya and learns that though she was born and raised in New York, she is fluent in Hindi because of her mother's interest in Bollywood films. Omar also meets Sam, an American Muslim who is also fluent in Hindi due to the fact that his father is a professor of Indian studies. Over the next two years, all three become inseparable friends and gradually Omar falls in love with Maya. When Omar realises that she loves Sam, however, he distances himself from them both. Their carefree days end with the onset of the September 11 attacks, or 9/11.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: After finishing his story, Omar agrees to help Roshan (rather reluctantly), if only to prove that both he and Sam are innocent. He reunites with Maya and Sam and stays in their house, all the while spying for the FBI. Omar learns that Maya is a civil rights activist who is helping one of Sam's employees, Zilgai overcome his experience as a former 9/11 detainee. Zilgai was eventually released due to lack of evidence and has been having difficulty adjusting back to normal life.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: As time progresses, Omar feels satisfied that he can find nothing to warrant the FBI's suspicions and is ready to leave when a series of events forces him to reconsider. In the process, Omar learns from Sam that ten days after 9/11, Sam was arrested and detained for a period of nine months as a suspected terrorist, a charge which everyone, including the FBI and Roshan, now agree was incorrect. Though he was eventually released due to lack of evidence, the impact of being detained and tortured permanently changed Sam in ways which are difficult for those surrounding him to understand, leaving him with feelings of deep resentment towards the FBI. Omar thus finds that Sam ultimately resorted to plans for terrorism as a means of revenge.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: In addition, Maya is unable to help Zilgai resolve the trauma of being a detainee. After a routine traffic stop escalates and an NYPD police officer gives Maya a very rough full-body search, Zilgai becomes agitated. He drops Maya at her home and eventually kills the police officer the same night. After being declared a fugitive, Zilgai leads the police on a long chase ultimately ending in his suicide.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: The climax of the film rests upon the attempts of Maya, Omar, and Roshan to prevent Sam from committing an act of terrorism by telling him that if he perpetuates towards terrorism, others will suffer as he has. Finally convinced, Sam surrenders and aborts his attempt to bomb the FBI building. However, the moment he drops his cell-phone (which was originally intended as a detonator for the bomb) he is shot and killed by FBI snipers. The cell phone falls benign to the ground without activating anything. Maya, who was running toward Sam, is also killed by stray gunfire and Omar, bereft of speech, breaks down.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: Six months later, Omar has adopted Danyal, and Roshan has received commendation for aiding in the anti-terrorism cause. Omar is comforted by Roshan who explains to him that everybody was right in their place, but the timing was wrong. As for Sam, the path he chose killed him. Everybody has moved on after 9/11, as it's high time. Roshan explains to Omar that both Sam and Maya will always be alive in Omar’s good memories and in his heart. Their friendship will always be alive because of the good memories that they had spent together. They reconcile with each other. The film ends with all three of them going out for pasta and a side note describing the after-effects of 9/11.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: "New York" explores the aftermath of 9/11. In a June 2009 interview with the Indo-Asian News Service (IANS), director Kabir Khan argued that the film "is based on part of the political canvas of 9/11, but it speaks of prejudices after the great human tragedy. It is a definite and very relevant subject about post-9/11 prejudices that have increased after the attacks [...] We have in fact divided time in a pre- and post-9/11 world in the film to highlight its obvious repercussions in times to come. The repercussions of the attacks are still very strongly felt globally and will continue to do so." Khan continued to state that the film had the full support of the "New York Film Commission," " as it is not an anti-something film. It is a very balanced story and not a jingoistic film." In a separate interview with IANS, actor John Abraham argued that, "in its own strange way, "New York" begins where Pakistani film "Khuda Ke Liye" ended. That's the interesting part of the film [...] Each director has his own way of interpreting and researching the plight of legal detainees." Abraham continued by suggesting that this is why Khan and Shoaib Mansoor offer different interpretations of these events in their respective films. The plot of "New York" is similar to <nowiki>"</nowiki>The Greater Good<nowiki>"</nowiki>, the twenty-first episode of the first season of ABC TV series "Lost".


title: New York (2009 film)

text: Production began in September 2008 and filming lasted over a period of 100 days. Most of the shoot took place in New York although some of the scenes which took place in New York were actually shot in Philadelphia. "New York" is the first Hindi film to have a production schedule there. In preparation for his role as an American Muslim of Indian origin, Abraham studied the Quran. Khan had to submit his script for approval from U.S. authorities before making the film. He stated: "We had to submit the script to seek permission to shoot in Guantanamo as well as in the States and we got their green signal to go ahead very easily. The film may be about 9/11 and what happens post it, but they did not object to our theme and did not even raise any questions. The US officials were very cooperative and we shot for around 3 days at this high-profile prison."


title: New York (2009 film)

text: The soundtrack of "New York" was released on 10 June 2009. The songs and the theme featured in the soundtrack are composed by Pritam Chakraborty, Julius Packiam and Pankaj Awasthi and the lyrics are penned by Sandeep Shrivastava and Junaid Wasi. Packiam composed the film score. The remix version of "Hai Junoon" used in the end credits of the film is sung by K.K. and Monali Thakur and not available in the original soundtrack.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: "New York" grossed a record Rs. 35 million during its first 3 days in India, with theatres at their highest occupancy since January at 80–85%. During its first week, it ranked #1 at the box office in India and grossed Rs. 618.9 million worldwide, and was declared a hit. Its total gross in India after a 6-week run was Rs. .


title: New York (2009 film)

text: "New York"'s opening weekend was highly successful in India and the Middle East. It also proved popular in Australia and did well in the UK and U.S. Of its opening in India, Khan commented: "I always believed that "New York" will be a word-of-mouth film which would open on a decent note and then show an increase in business with every passing day. When I was told by friends and people from industry that it had opened to a housefull response in the very first show at so many places across the country, even I was taken aback." It became the sixth highest-grossing film of 2009, grossing Rs. .


title: New York (2009 film)

text: Subhash K. Jha gave "New York" a rave review arguing that "New York" "is what cinema in contemporary times should be, must be, though it seldom is" and designates it "an important film" which "cares about the prejudices that have taken over the world. Jha also states that, "stereotypical portrayals of the cultural diaspora are fortunately rare in this piece of contemporary art which has plenty of heart, a heart that never overflows in an embarrassing torrent of emotions." Devansh Patel, film critic for London's "Hounslow Chronicle", gave "New York" 5 out of 5 stars stating that it is, "the most thought provoking movie Yash Raj Films has ever come up with." Nikhat Kazmi of the "Times of India" gave it 4 out of 5 stars, describing "New York" as, "an extremely taut and highly emotive piece of political drama [...] topical, meaningful, and entertaining, all at the same time." Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" gave it four out of five stars arguing that "New York" is "one of the finest films produced by this premier production house, Yash Raj [...] the screenplay is its biggest star, without a doubt. Given the fact that "New York" isn't one of those routine masala fares, Kabir has injected songs only when required. Cinematography is striking." Joginder Tuteja of the "Indo-Asian News Service" (IANS) calls the film "a must-watch" and gave it 4 out of 4 stars. He states: "When a hardcore commercial flick gets a standing ovation and a huge round of applause at the end of the show, you know that there is something definitely right that the director has done. In this regard, Kabir Khan can take a bow because he has done exceedingly well in making a film that is not frivolous, has a message and still carries enough commercial ingredients to reach out to masses as well as classes." Jayant of the "Hindustan Times" argues that comparing "New York" "to Mark Pellington's "Arlington Road" would be grossly unfair. If anything, this is a much better movie than that 1999, part-spooky conspiracy theory. The central theme itself is closer to Shoaib Mansoor's "Khuda Kay Liye" (2007), and you can sense how the superior execution here makes all the filmmaking difference." Additionally, Shekhar describes "New York" in "NDTV" as, "an A-list film that gets a straight A." Sandhya Iyer of the "Sakaal Times" gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars arguing that ""New York" manages to be gripping, thanks to an excellent screenplay. Most importantly, the story has the right mix of realism and drama – one that Kabir Khan unfolds with quiet confidence." Mathures Paul of "The Statesman" states: "Finally, here's a film that entertains and makes viewers think."


title: New York (2009 film)

text: "New York" was the opening film for the 33rd Cairo International Film Festival on 10 November 2009. The film's director, Kabir Khan, was in attendance and addressed the audience at the end of its screening. "New York" was also screened at the Pusan International Film Festival in October 2009. Yash Chopra of "New York's" Yash Raj Films won the Asian Filmmaker of the Year award.


title: New York (2009 film)

text: The DVD for "New York" was released on 8 August 2009. Joginder Tuteja of "Bollywood Hungama" gave the DVD four out of five stars. The DVD includes (but is not limited to) 2.5 hours of special features such as: "Making of the Film," "Deleted Scenes," "New York Special – Zoom TV,"


title: French petition against age of consent laws

text: In 1977, a petition was addressed to the French parliament calling for the abrogation of several articles of the age of consent law. The primary argument behind the petition was the disparity in age of consent created by a previous piece of legislation, which made heterosexual sex legal at the age of 15, but prohibited sodomy and similar acts until age 18.


text: A number of French intellectuals—including Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Jacques Derrida, Louis Aragon, Roland Barthes, Simone de Beauvoir, Jean-Paul Sartre, Félix Guattari, Michel Leiris, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Philippe Sollers, Jacques Rancière, Jean-François Lyotard, Francis Ponge, and various prominent doctors and psychologists—signed the petition. In 1979 two open letters were published in French newspapers defending individuals arrested under charges of statutory rape, in the context of reformation of age of consent laws.


text: In 1945, an ordinance was enacted by the French government that established an age of consent in France of 15. However, an article within this ordinance forbade sodomy and similar "sexual relations against nature" with any person under the age of 21. In 1974, this was lowered to 18. This was perceived by activists, including Michel Foucault and Guy Hocquenghem, as being discriminatory against gay men.


text: Michel Foucault argued that it is intolerable to assume that a child is incapable of giving meaningful consent to sexual relations. Foucault also believed consent, as a concept, was a "contractual notion", and that it was not a sufficient measure of whether harm was being conducted Foucault, Sartre, and newspapers such as "Libération" and "Le Monde" each defended the idea of sexual relationships with minors.


text: Michel Foucault stated that the petition was signed by himself, by the novelist/gay activist Guy Hocquenghem, the actor/play-writer/jurist Jean Danet, pediatrician and child psychoanalyst Françoise Dolto and also by people belonging to a wide range of political positions.


text: The main body of the text calls for the end of discrimination against homosexual men encoded in the 1945 ordinance. It then calls for a commission called the Commission de Révision du Code Pénal (Penal Code Revision Commission) to review the age of consent and recommend changes to parliament. The petition also explicitly addresses the 'Affaire de Versailles', where three adult men, Dejager (age 45), Gallien (age 43), and Burckhardt (age 39) had sexual intercourse with minors from both genders aged 12-13.


text: On April 4, 1978, a conversation detailing the reasons for their positions was broadcast by radio France Culture in the program ""Dialogues"". The participants, Michel Foucault, Jean Danet and Guy Hocquenghem, had all signed the 1977 petition, along with other intellectuals. They argued the idea of legal consent is a contractual notion and a "trap", saying that "no one makes a contract before making love". The conversation has been published as and later reprinted as ""The Danger of Child Sexuality"".


text: An open letter signed by 69 people, including Jean-Paul Sartre, Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Roland Barthes, Philippe Sollers, and Louis Aragon was published in "Le Monde" in 1977, on the eve of the trial of three Frenchmen (Bernard Dejager, Jean-Claude Gallien, and Jean Burckardt) all accused of having sex with 12- and 13-year-old girls and boys. Two of them had then been in temporary custody since 1973 and the letter referred to this fact as scandalous. The letter claimed there was a disproportion between the qualification of their acts as a crime and the nature of the reproached acts, and also a contradiction since adolescents in France were fully responsible for their acts from the age of 13. The text also opined that if 13-year-old girls in France had the right to receive the pill, then they also should be able to consent, arguing for the right of "13- and 12-year-olds" "to have relations with whomever they choose."


text: A similar letter was published in the paper "Libération" in 1979, supporting Gérard R., an accused child sex criminal awaiting his trial for eighteen months, signed by 63 persons, stating that Gérard R. lived with young girls aged 6 to 12 and that they were happy with the situation. The letter was later reproduced in the paper "L'Express", in the issue of March 7, 2001.


text: In 1982, the French government removed its clauses regarding sodomy and similar acts "against nature" from the 1945 ordinance.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Austrian Airlines AG, often shortened to Austrian, is the flag carrier of Austria and a subsidiary of the Lufthansa Group. The airline is headquartered on the grounds of Vienna International Airport in Schwechat where it also maintains its hub. As of July 2016, the airline flew to six domestic and more than 120 international year-round and seasonal destinations in 55 countries and is a member of the Star Alliance.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: The airline was formed in 1957 by the merger of Air Austria and Austrian Airways, but traces its history back to 1923 at the founding of Austrian Airways. Throughout much of the company's existence, it was a state-owned entity. On 31 March 1958, the airline performed its scheduled service, flying a leased Vickers Viscount from Vienna to Zurich and London; it subsequently purchased its own Viscount fleet. On 18 February 1963, Austrian ordered its first jet-powered airliner, the Sud Aviation Caravelle. It subsequently introduced various models and derivatives of the Douglas DC-9 jetliner; by the end of 1971, Austrian was an all-jet operator. During the 1980s, it introduced the DC-9-80, otherwise known as the McDonnell Douglas MD-80, to its fleet. Various airliners produced by Airbus, Boeing, Fokker and other manufacturers were introduced across the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Throughout the 1990s, the airline sought out new strategic alliances, as well to expand its presence in the long-haul market, launching new services to China and South Africa. In 2000, Austrian became a member of Star Alliance; a few years prior, it had also joined the Qualiflyer Group. During the 2000s, the airline expanded through the acquisitions of Rheintalflug and Lauda Air and adopted the shortened "Austrian" name in 2003. Throughout the 2000s, Austrian sustained several years of losses; during 2008, the airline's then-owner, the Austrian government, was advised to privatise Austrian via its sale to a foreign company. During 2009, the Lufthansa Group purchased Austrian after receiving approval from the European Commission following an investigation into the tendering process.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Following its privatisation, both fleet expansion and cost-saving initiatives were enacted as the business was restructured; visible changes included route alterations, a new corporate design, and a revised aircraft livery. Following labour disputes over several of the cost cutting measures, all Austrian Airlines' flights were transferred on 1 July 2012 to its subsidiary, Tyrolean Airways, which operated under the Austrian name. On 1 April 2015, after a new labour agreement had been reached, all flights transferred back to Austrian, and Tyrolean Airways was merged into its parent. During the late 2010s, restructuring of both its fleet and route network continued. On 17 March 2020, the airline temporarily suspended operations as a result of the COVID-19 outbreak.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: On 3 May 1923, Walter Barda-Bardenau received approval by the Austrian government for establishing an airline. He participated in the newly formed Austrian Airlines (German: Österreichische Luftverkehrs AG) with one percent, with the remaining shares going to the Austrian railway transportation company (50%) and the Junkers-Werke (49%).


title: Austrian Airlines

text: The company's initial fleet consisted of Junkers F 13s. On 14 May 1923, the first flight performed by the fledging airline was conducted between Vienna and Munich, piloted by Hans Baur. The landing took place in Vienna Jedlesee; there occurred a conversion to float and the connecting flight to Budapest. The company was operated by Junkers Trans European Union. Its destinations included Munich, Budapest, Nuremberg, Graz, Klagenfurt, and St. Wolfgang. Some targets in Austria were served with seaplanes. The union was dissolved in September 1926.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: From 1927, the company procured new aircraft with support from the government. During the same year, it formed an operating partnership agreement with Deutsche Luft Hansa. Line connections were planned and operated jointly by the two companies, while a route network to Berlin, Budapest, and Milan Vienna was created. In 1932, Luft Hansa Junkers held a 49% interest in the company. After recovering from the global economic fallout from the Great Depression, the firm's fleet was expanded via the addition of several Junkers Ju 52/3 m. The rapid growth of the firm throughout the 1930s led to it becoming the fourth-largest airline in Europe at one point.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: In 1938, the company began planning routes to Rome, Paris, and London, using a fleet of Junkers Ju 90 aircraft. Following the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in March 1938, these plans were promptly abandoned. From 1 January 1939, the airline was fully under the control of Lufthansa. During June 1939, the company was deleted from the commercial register.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: After the Second World War, Austria was once again separated from Germany. While it regained its independence as a result of the Austrian State Treaty of 1955, the newly reconstituted nation was initially lacking a national airline. During 1955, two separate companies, "Air Austria" and "Austrian Airways", were quickly established to start filling this vacant niche. On 4 April 1957, Austrian Airlines was formed as "Österreichische Luftverkehrs AG" through the merger of Air Austria and Austrian Airways. On 30 September 1957, the new entity commenced operations, performing its maiden flight on 31 March 1958 when a leased Vickers Viscount 779 took off from Vienna for a scheduled service to Zurich and London.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: During early 1960, six new-build Viscount 837s were delivered to Austrian Airlines; unlike earlier aircraft, which had been leased, these were owned by the company and quickly displaced the former. Operations expanded quickly, opting to launch domestic services for the first time on 1 May 1963. Within ten years of operations, Austrian Airlines' financial situation had improved considerably; its share capital had reportedly increased from an initial ATS 60 million to reach ATS 290 million in 1957.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: During its first decade of operation, Austrian Airlines experienced competition from Adria Airways; passengers from the Austrian provinces of Styria and Carinthia were routinely commuting to neighbouring Yugoslavia to use airports in what is now Slovenia. On 18 February 1963, Austrian ordered its first jet airliner, the Sud Aviation Caravelle, which it operated in an 80-seat configuration. During 1969, the airline broke new ground with the launch of its first long-distance route to New York City in the United States (early flights were made in co-operation with Belgian Sabena with a layover in Brussels).


title: Austrian Airlines

text: The Caravelle formed a core part of Austrian Airlines' fleet up until 1973. Deliveries of the American-built jetliner, the Douglas DC-9, commenced during 1971. Starting in 1971, Austrian opted to standardise its fleet. By the end of that year, all Viscounts had been permanently withdrawn, leaving the firm with an all-jet fleet. Its new fleet centered around a core of nine DC-9-32s, these would be operated by Austrian Airlines for both short- and medium-haul flights for many years. During 1975, the first of five DC-9-51s, an improved model, was introduced to service.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: On 13 October 1977, Austrian became the first customer for the DC-9-80, otherwise known as the McDonnell Douglas MD-80, having placed an initial order for eight. On 26 October 1980, the first MD-81, which was capable of longer-range flights than earlier models, made its first commercial flight with the airline, flying from Vienna to Zurich. During 1984, Austrian became the first customer for the MD-87 and played an influential role in its development. The first MD-87 entered service at the end of 1987, as did the MD-83 from 1990, while six of the airline's MD-81s were upgraded to MD-82 standards.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: During 1988, Austrian Airlines underwent an initial public offering upon the Vienna Stock Exchange, although the majority of shares in the company remained held by the Austrian government at this time.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Throughout the 1990s, many airlines focused on co-operation and alliances. Austrian was one of the first companies to join the Qualiflyer Group, founded by Swissair. This was also a period of quick expansion in the long-haul market, launching new flight paths to China and South Africa. During the late 1990s, Austrian Airlines developed an appetite for acquisitions; during March 1997, it bought a 35 percent stake in Lauda Air while an 85.7 percent shareholding in Tyrolean Airways was acquired in December of that year. Two years later, the airline wholly acquired Tyrolean Airways, making it a subsidiary During 1999, Austrian Airlines launched the ability for customers to book flights via the internet.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: On 26 March 2000, Austrian became a member of Star Alliance. During January 2001, it acquired a majority of the shares in Lauda Air; one month later, the airline also bought all of the shares in Rheintalflug. Austrian Airlines' operating name was shortened to "Austrian" in September 2003, it also renamed its three constituent carriers during this rebranding. On 1 October 2004, the flight operations departments of Austrian and Lauda Air were merged into a single unit, leaving Lauda Air as a brand name only for charter flights. It had 6,394 employees. Another subsidiary of Austrian Airlines, Tyrolean Airways, specialised in regional flights, having been merged with Rheintalflug during 2002. During March 2004, it launched its "Focus East" plan, expanding the airline's destinations across Central and Eastern Europe to 38; as a consequence, the Austrian Airlines Group became a market leader within this region.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: In October 2006, Austrian was forced to adopt a stringent cost-saving policy, and in 2007, it eliminated over 500 jobs. Many long-haul destinations were cancelled, such as Sydney via Kuala Lumpur, Melbourne via Singapore, Kathmandu or Shanghai. Three remaining Fokker 70s were sent to Tyrolean Airways. It was also decided to abandon the long-haul Airbus planes, consisting of four Airbus A340s and four Airbus A330s, to standardise the fleet in favour of Boeing 777s and Boeing 767s. Austrian Airlines removed complimentary in-flight meals and alcoholic drinks on short-haul services, introducing what was called a "Self Select Bistro Service", except on flights from London and any flights above 100 minutes in duration. Head office moved from Oberlaa to Vienna Airport in 2007, whereas headquarters remained in Vienna.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: After recording a small profit of €3.3 million in 2007, financial guidance for 2008 had to be changed negatively several times, to a loss of €475 million expected as of the end of November.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: In June 2008, Merrill Lynch advised the Austrian government to sell the airline to a foreign company. Interest was shown by Lufthansa, Air France–KLM, Royal Jordanian, Air China, Turkish Airlines, Aeroflot, S7 Airlines, and Singapore Airlines. Of those, Lufthansa, Air France-KLM, and S7 emerged as potential bidders.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: On 13 November 2008, state holding ÖIAG announced that Lufthansa was selected. The German company was to enter Austrian's capital with a 41.6% share, for which it would pay €366,268.75. AUA CEO Alfred Ötsch and OIAG chairman Peter Michaelis were heavily criticised for revealing to Lufthansa that it had to take over the €500 million debt only when the deal had been made binding. Michaelis refused a new tendering procedure, but was made a scapegoat with his shareholder rights removed, and Ötsch resigned on 29 January 2013.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: On 1 July 2009, the European Commission initiated investigation on the acquisition for breach of free-trade rules, suspecting that the tendering process was a fake one, everything being already decided in favour of Lufthansa. Finally, following approval from the European Commission, Lufthansa purchased Austrian Airlines during September 2009. Shares in Austrian Airlines AG were suspended on the Vienna Stock Exchange on 4 February 2010. After a time of uncertainty following the demission of appointed CEO Thierry Antinori, the arrival of Jaan Albrecht as the new CEO in 2011 signalled the beginning of a new era for the airline, with improving passenger numbers and a more strategic position within the Lufthansa framework. The completion of extension works at the Vienna International Airport will give the airline more room for expansion. As a result, in January 2012, a new strategy was implemented, with the addition of 11 new aircraft in the next three years, leading to a renewal of the fleet on the long term, with Airbus planes serving medium-haul routes and Boeings serving long-haul routes.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: During December 2011, a new cost-saving plan was revealed, as the company was still losing money despite eliminating 2,500 jobs. Lufthansa refused to provide financial support. In March 2012, Austrian called once more for recapitalisation. Lufthansa approved a capital increase of €140 million, providing effective measure to be taken to address the structural deficiencies.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: On 30 April 2012, after failure of negotiations over cost-cutting measures, AUA operations were taken over by subsidiary Tyrolean Airways. After this date, all Austrian flights were operated by Tyrolean. However, 110 pilots and 250 flight personnel chose not to go to Tyrolean, but to instead leave the group.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: During April 2013, Austrian Airlines retired its final Boeing 737, a 737-800 variant in Lauda Air markings, as part of its fleet-consolidation exercise. The airline's 11 Boeing 737s were replaced by seven Airbus A320s, it was reportedly expected to achieve annual saving of €17 million through the move to a single type. In March 2014, it was announced that Austrian had returned to profitability for the first time in six years. This same year, management intensified efforts to end a long-running labour dispute.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: In October 2014, it was announced that Tyrolean's flight operations and staff were to be reintegrated into Austrian Airlines by 31 March 2015, this move was a consequence of a new labour agreement having been recently reached.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Ahead of this merger, Austrian announced an overhauled concept, initially called "my Austrian", on 26 March 2015; it included a new corporate design, a revised aircraft livery, and a number of new routes. However, in January 2016, Austrian Airlines announced it would revise its new branding introduced in spring 2015 by dropping the word "my" in front of Austrian; this new feature had been severely criticised.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: In June 2015, Austrian Airlines announced the purchase of 17 Embraer 195s from within the Lufthansa Group. These Embraer aircraft, which had been owned by Lufthansa CityLine, replaced the ageing Fokker 70s and 100s. By August 2016, eight of 17 Embraer aircraft had been delivered while 9 of 23 Fokker left the fleet. By late July 2017, all of the remaining Fokker 70s had been phased out; the Fokker 100s followed by the end of the year. That same year, Austrian began offering Internet on board its short-haul and medium-haul flights for the first time.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Due to increasing competition from low-cost carriers at its Vienna base and the need to streamline operations to avoid financial losses, in 2019, the airline announced a restructuring to its fleet and network. All Bombardier Q400 turboprop aircraft are being replaced with Airbus A320s by March 2021, with all crew bases outside of Vienna shut down and routes not going through Vienna airport moved to either Lufthansa or Eurowings. In January 2020, Austrian announced the further retirement of three of its six Boeing 767-300ER long-haul aircraft scheduled, the last of which will leave the fleet by fall 2021. It has yet to be determined if and when they will be replaced by other aircraft, with the Boeing 787 Dreamliner a possible replacement.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Austrian suspended all regularly scheduled flights between 18 March and 15 June 2020 as global air traffic collapsed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With regular operations suspended, the airline carried out several repatriation flights to carry home Austrians stranded abroad, as well as freight flights to carry medical supplies. Such flights were launched to Abuja, Bali, Lima, Mexico City, and Sydney. In summer 2020, the airline received €600 million in financial aid from Lufthansa and the Austrian government to help it weather the pandemic; in return, Austrian committed to, among others, reducing emissions in Austria by 50% by 2030. Overall, the airline ended 2020 flying 3.1 million passengers, a 79% drop from the prior year.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: In September 2021, it has been announced that Austrian Airlines will terminate all of its remaining scheduled services originating from Austrian airports outside of Vienna. These will be either cancelled or transferred to sister company Eurowings.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Austrian Airlines Group is wholly owned by Lufthansa. Austrian owns shares in 24 companies, including:


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Until 2008, full detailed accounts for Austrian Airlines were published in their annual reports; following the takeover by Lufthansa, only summary information for Austrian is now made available, usually by way of press release. Figures for years ending 31 December are:


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Citing the colours of the national flag of Austria, Austrian Airlines' colour scheme has always been a pattern of red, white, and red. Aircraft bellies were silver from the 1950s to 1980s, the upper part was white with the Austrian Airlines arrow and the text "Austrian Airlines" (until 1972, again from 1995 to 2003) or "Austrian" (1972–1995, from 2003 onwards). Austrian Airlines' slogan was "the friendly airline" at the time. As part of the 2015 rebranding, the blue belly and engine painting of the livery were replaced by white and red.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: The Austrian Airlines' arrow ("Austrian Chevron") has seen several design modifications over the years. When created in 1960 it was redolent of the shape of a flying bird; the design became more formal in 1972. As part of a rebranding exercise in 1995, the "Chevron" was placed on the red-white-red tail fin. In the new corporate design, in use since 2003, the old "Chevron" shape was used again, this time in a more modern style and with a drop shadow placed underneath.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Several special colour schemes have been used throughout the decades. Since joining Star Alliance, a few aeroplanes have flown with Star Alliance markings. For the Mozart year in 2006, an Airbus A320 was decorated in a Mozart design, and an Airbus A340-300 was coated with an "hommage" to the Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. A Boeing 737-600 was given a glacier look for a Tyrol advertisement. Three designs were put on aeroplanes to mark Euro 2008. An Airbus A320 was given a retro livery to mark the company's 50th anniversary. Austrian's slogan is "the charming way to fly".


title: Austrian Airlines

text: In 2006, Austrian decided to retire its A330 and A340 fleet, which consisted of four Airbus A330-200s, two Airbus A340-200s, and two Airbus A340-300s. These aircraft were sold to TAP Air Portugal, the French Air Force, and SWISS respectively. As a result of having less long-haul capacity, Austrian suspended some of its long-haul flights to East Asia. Flights to Shanghai (resumed 2016), Phuket, Colombo, Mauritius (resumed in 2014), Malé, and Kathmandu ended in 2007.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Both Australia routes - Melbourne via Singapore and Sydney via Kuala Lumpur - were terminated in March 2007, ending operations on the Kangaroo Route. Austrian was the last European-based airline offering direct flights from Melbourne to Europe. It started with Lauda aircraft, and later used Austrian Airlines aircraft. Austrian has temporarily restarted the Vienna to Sydney route in March 2020, as part of their repatriation flights to retrieve people stranded in other countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. The flight from Vienna to Sydney will be non-stop and the return flight will make a stopover in Penang, Malaysia to refuel and onload additional cargo. Using a Boeing 777, the non-stop flight will cover a distance of over 16,000 kilometers or 9,940 miles and it will last almost 18 hours, making it the longest flight in the history of Austrian Airlines.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Austrian was one of the few airlines to fly to post-war Iraq when it began flights to Erbil in December 2006.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: New flights to Mumbai began in November 2010 and Austrian resumed flights to Baghdad on 8 June 2011. On 13 January 2013, Austrian Airlines suspended flights to Tehran due to a lack of demand. Austrian Airlines resumed flights to Chicago on 17 May 2013, and launched Newark in 2014. Austrian Airlines started service to Mauritius in the beginning of the 2015 winter schedule. The expansion of the intercontinental network seems to indicate improving results for Austrian, with Lufthansa placing its confidence in the airline. Austrian Airlines began service to Mauritius and Miami in October 2015. Austrian Airlines commenced service to Los Angeles on 10 April 2017, covering a distance of over 9,877 kilometers or 6,137 miles; the flight takes about 12 hours and 30 minutes, using Boeing 777-200ER aircraft. Austrian Airlines announced it would commence service (four times a week) to Shiraz which began on 2 July 2017, with a stopover in Isfahan using Airbus A320 aircraft.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Over the years, Austrian Airlines operated the following aircraft types. Other aircraft types previously operated by the airline included the British Aerospace 146, Douglas DC-3, Hawker Siddeley HS 748 and Aero Commander (Grand Commander 680FL model).


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Austrian operates several lounges at its hub in Vienna. There are three Business, two Senator and two HON-Circle lounges. It also operates a Business lounge at Domodedovo International Airport in Moscow. In other cities, business class passengers are welcome to use Star Alliance business class lounges.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Do & Co has handled catering for Austrian Airlines since 2007. On long-haul flights, Business Class meals are prepared by a chef on board.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: As of 2011 all Austrian planes of the Airbus A320 family are equipped with new seats and a new cabin design. By September 2013, Austrian's entire long-haul-fleet (Boeing 767 and Boeing 777) also got new seats and a new cabin design. It contains full-flat-beds with a pneumatics-system and aisle access from nearly every seat in Business Class, and new seats with video-on-demand for every passenger in Economy Class.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: Austrian myHoliday replaced Lauda Air as Austrian Airlines' holiday brand in April 2013 and was renamed into myAustrian Holidays in mid-2015. It operates seasonal charter flights at own risk and in co-operation with tour operators as well as exclusive ad hoc charter flights. All charter flights are operated by Austrian Airlines aircraft and crew. A Do & Co board service is served on all flights.


title: Austrian Airlines

text: The following is a list of incidents and accidents involving Austrian Airlines mainline aircraft. It excludes occurrences with subsidiaries, such as Tyrolean Airways or Austrian Air Services.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: Billy Clifford Gilmour (born 11 June 2001) is a Scottish professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for Premier League club Brighton & Hove Albion and the Scotland national team.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: Gilmour spent three months at a young age with Celtic before moving to Rangers, where he developed in the club's academy and trained with the first-team squad at the age of 15. He joined Chelsea in 2017 after turning down a professional contract with Rangers. Gilmour made 22 appearances for the "Blues" and was on the bench for the 2021 UEFA Champions League and FA Cup finals. He spent a season on loan at Norwich City where the club were eventually relegated before he signed with Brighton & Hove Albion on a permanent move the season after on summer deadline day 2022.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: He represented Scotland at every youth level from under-15, under-16, under-17, under-19 and under-21 levels before making his senior debut in 2021.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: Gilmour was born on 11 June 2001 at Ayrshire Central Hospital in Irvine, Ayrshire and resided in Ardrossan, North Ayrshire. His father served with the Royal Navy and played junior football for Ardrossan Winton Rovers. Gilmour attended Stanley Primary School in Ardrossan and Grange Academy in Kilmarnock, where he was part of the Scottish Football Association (SFA) Performance School programme. He listed Cesc Fàbregas, Luka Modrić and Andrés Iniesta as his football role models.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: Gilmour spent three months at a young age with Celtic, before moving to Rangers due to the logistics of attending training. He made his debut for the under-20 development team in December 2016 at the age of 15, and was invited to train with the first-team squad the following month by manager Mark Warburton. Gilmour was given a squad number and, following Warburton's departure from the club, was twice included in the provisional squad for the Scottish Cup matches by Rangers caretaker manager Graeme Murty.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: The next Rangers manager, Pedro Caixinha, described Gilmour as a player with a "bright future" and held talks with the player's family in an attempt to persuade him to stay with the club. Rangers, however, announced in May 2017 that they had reached an agreement for Gilmour to join Chelsea for a "significant fee". Reports suggested that Chelsea would pay an initial development fee of around £500,000, with potential further payments dependent on his progress. SFA Performance Director Malky Mackay had advised Gilmour and his family that he should stay at Rangers, as he would have had more chance of gaining first team experience. Mackay said, "I really hope he goes out on loan quickly to someone and keeps progressing".


title: Billy Gilmour

text: Gilmour became officially contracted to Chelsea in July 2017, following his 16th birthday. He joined the club's under-18 squad, making a goalscoring debut in an Under-18 Premier League match against Arsenal during September 2017, and going on to score in each of his first three appearances. In July 2018, after turning 17, Gilmour signed his first professional contract with Chelsea.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: Newly-appointed Chelsea manager Frank Lampard gave Gilmour his senior debut on 10 July 2019, in a pre-season friendly against Bohemians in Dublin. His first appearance in a competitive matchday squad for the first-team came in the 2019 UEFA Super Cup against Liverpool, when he was an unused substitute.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: He made his Premier League debut on 31 August against Sheffield United, coming on in the 84th minute for Tammy Abraham. He made his full debut on 25 September, playing the full 90 minutes in a 7–1 EFL Cup win against Grimsby Town. Gilmour was added to the Chelsea first-team squad on a permanent basis in February 2020. He was widely praised for his performance in a 2–0 win against Liverpool in an FA Cup tie on 3 March. Gilmour would later make his first Premier League start later that week on 8 March against Everton, earning Man of the Match honours in a 4–0 win. He did not play much for the next six months or so, due to the lockdown caused by COVID-19 and a knee injury. Gilmour made 11 appearances for the Chelsea first team during the 2019–20 season.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: In September 2020, Gilmour took the 23 squad number for 2020–21 season after Michy Batshuayi returned to Crystal Palace on loan. Gilmour returned to the Chelsea starting lineup on 8 December 2020, when he made his first Champions League start in a 1–1 draw with Krasnodar. Under Thomas Tuchel, Gilmour would feature periodically. Gilmour was an unused substitute as Chelsea defeated Manchester City 1–0 in the 2021 UEFA Champions League Final on 29 May.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: In July 2021, Gilmour joined fellow Premier League club Norwich City on a season-long loan. Gilmour cited fellow Scotland international Grant Hanley as an influencing factor in his decision to join the club. He played 28 times for Norwich during the 2021–22 season, but the team finished last in the 2021–22 Premier League and were relegated.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: In June 2022, Chelsea exercised an option to extend Gilmour's contract to the end of the 2023–24 season.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: On 1 September 2022, Gilmour transferred to fellow Premier League club Brighton & Hove Albion on a four-year deal. He made his debut three days later, coming on as a 90+3rd minute substitute for Moisés Caicedo in the 5–2 home win over Leicester. Gilmour made his first "Albion" start on 9 November, playing the whole match of the 3–1 EFL Cup third round victory away at Arsenal, assisting Tariq Lamptey's goal.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: Gilmour played for the Scotland under-16s in the 2016 Victory Shield tournament. He made his Scotland under-17 debut against Italy in August 2017, and scored his first international goal in a 2–1 defeat against England two days later. Under-21 debut followed when he featured in a 1–0 win against France at the 2018 Toulon Tournament, and won the "Revelation of the Tournament" award after helping Scotland to a fourth-placed finish.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: Gilmour was included in the Scotland for UEFA Euro 2020 by Steve Clarke. He made his full international debut on 2 June 2021, coming off the bench in the 81st minute of a pre-tournament friendly against the Netherlands. Gilmour made his first start for Scotland in a goalless draw against England on 18 June, and was awarded man of the match by UEFA. He then tested positive for COVID-19, meaning that he missed Scotland's final group game against Croatia.


title: Billy Gilmour

text: Gilmour remained in the squad for Scotland's continuing 2022 World Cup qualifiers in September, starting all five games against Denmark, Moldova, Austria, Israel and the Faroe Islands. His performances were widely acclaimed, with him winning man of the match in the 1–0 victory over Moldova at Hampden.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: Brescia Calcio, commonly referred to as Brescia (), is an Italian football club based in Brescia, Lombardy, that currently plays in .


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The club holds the record for total number of seasons (64) and consecutive seasons (18, from 1947–48 to 1964–65) in Serie B, which they have won four times. Their best finish in Serie A came in the 2000–01 season when they placed eighth. At the beginning of the 21st century, led by the 1993 Ballon d'Or winner Roberto Baggio, the club also qualified for the Intertoto Cup twice, reaching the final in 2001 but being defeated on the away goals rule by Paris Saint-Germain. During this era, Pep Guardiola, future highly decorated manager, also played for the club.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The team's colours are blue and white. Its stadium is the 19,550-seater Stadio Mario Rigamonti. They have a long-standing rivalry with Atalanta from nearby Bergamo.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The team was founded in 1911 as Brescia Football Club, joining the "Terza Categoria" division the same year. In 1913, Brescia was promoted to First Division for its first time ever, and from 1929 it played in Serie A for six of the seven following seasons. Successively, the club played among the two top divisions until 1982, when Brescia was relegated to Serie C1. The club then returned to Serie B in 1985. Brescia played outside the two national tournaments of Lega Calcio (A and B) only four years: under this aspect, only 11 clubs in all Italy marked a better performance.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: Brescia won the Anglo-Italian Cup in 1994, the biggest notable achievement in their entire history to date. Brescia actually came to the footballing forefront only in 2000, when the previously unfancied club signed former FIFA World Player of the Year Roberto Baggio, who led Brescia to a seventh-place finish in the 2000–01 season, thus qualifying for the UEFA Intertoto Cup. Successively, Brescia reached the Intertoto Cup finals, then lost to Paris Saint-Germain according to the away goals rule after achieving a 0–0 away draw in the first leg and a 1–1 home draw in the second leg. Baggio spent four years at Brescia before retiring in 2004 and during those historic four years, Brescia became widely known as "Baggio's Brescia". During Baggio's four-year spell with Brescia, the club recorded its best-ever run of staying in Serie A. In the very next season that followed Baggio's retirement (2004–05), however, Brescia were relegated from Serie A on the last day, finishing a lowly 19th. Brescia struggled for returning to top flight after the relegation and finally returned to Serie A after beating Torino with a 2–1 aggregate in the 2009–10 season. In the 2010–11 season, however, they were relegated back to Serie B. In the 2014–15 season, they were relegated to Lega Pro after finishing second from last. However, after Parma's declaration of bankruptcy and demotion to Serie D, Brescia was among the teams selected to replace them in Serie B. A new promotion to Serie A was secured in the 2018–19 season, with two games to spare.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: One of the most decorated managers of all time, Mircea Lucescu, the Romanian Gheorghe Hagi, striker Luca Toni, Barcelona's icon playmaker Pep Guardiola, Brescian striker Mario Balotelli and playmaker Andrea Pirlo – born in Brescia – have also spent time playing for the club.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The first Brescia kit in 1911 was blue (the national colour) with a thick white vertical stripe down the middle, a design which has returned for the centenary season in 2011. The first appearance of a white "V" was in 1927; added so that the team could use "Stadium", the newly built home of another team, Virtus. This style remained until 1940 when the "V" was removed and a plain blue shirt was used.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: Some substantial changes after World War II saw the shirt become plain white with blue shorts. This was short-lived and, in 1954, the plain blue shirt returned. The white "V" also returned eventually in 1961 as a show of goodwill by the new chairman at the time.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The "V" disappeared again in 1969; replaced by a diagonal white sash, and returned, but much smaller, in 1974 for two years. The "V" was situated over the heart with the inclusion of the lioness, the symbol of the city of Brescia. The shirt remained plain blue until 1991, when the "V" returned and has been used ever since.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The first badge appeared on Brescia kits in the 1980s; a blue crest with a golden outline featuring a lion. The city of Brescia is known as "Leonessa d'Italia" (the Lioness of Italy) after ten days of popular uprising that took place in the city in the spring of 1849 against Austrian rule.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The crest was changed for the centenary of Brescia Calcio in 2011, featuring higher visibility, leaves, and a substantial redesign of the old logo.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The thick profile of the gold shield and laurel branches surrounding the badge are in pure celebration of achieving 100 years of age. The lettering has changed in favour of a font in the style of the period when the team was founded.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The Lion that, due to a misunderstanding of history, many believe to be a lioness (the definition of "Leonessa d'Italia" was assigned to Brescia following the uprisings, but the lion as a symbol of Brescia dates back to the Republic of Venice), has undergone a total redesign which aims to fix some errors in heraldic iconography (the absence of nails, muscle weakness and weak curvature of the tail) and to restore a more toned and ferocious looking lion, the symbol a football team should have.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: The first ground at which football was played in Brescia was Campo Fiera, where the English workers at the Tempini plant played on their breaks.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: In 1911, in the wake of enthusiasm following the foundation of the new club, it is thought a fenced ground was built shortly after on Via Milano.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: In 1920 came the opening of the new ground on Via Cesare Lombroso, Brescia, which was used by the team until 1923. From 1923 until 1959, the team had moved into a more modern and larger facility located at Porta Venezia (then Via Naviglio), built for the town's sports club Virtus and called "Stadium".


title: Brescia Calcio

text: It was in 1956 that the municipality had the idea to move the club to a stadium more suited to host the matches of the new Serie B.


title: Brescia Calcio

text: They began the renovation and construction of the stands to the existing ground at Via Giovanni Novagani. This was completed in 1959 and Brescia began to play their home games in the new Mario Rigamonti stadium (named after the Torino player, Mario Rigamonti, who died in the Superga air disaster).


title: Brescia Calcio

text: Over the years, the stadium has undergone several refurbishments (construction of roofing, press room, etc.), the most significant of which was in 2007 with the installation of new security measures.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The New Testament apocrypha (singular apocryphon) are a number of writings by early Christians that give accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. Some of these writings were cited as scripture by early Christians, but since the fifth century a widespread consensus has emerged limiting the New Testament to the 27 books of the modern canon. Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches generally do not view the New Testament apocrypha as part of the Bible.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The word "apocrypha" means "things put away" or "things hidden", originating from the Medieval Latin adjective "apocryphus", "secret" or "non-canonical", which in turn originated from the Greek adjective ("apokryphos"), "obscure", from the verb ("apokryptein"), "to hide away". From the Greek prefix "apo" which means "away" and the Greek verb "kryptein" which means "to hide".


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The general term is usually applied to the books that were considered by the church as useful, but not divinely inspired. As such, to refer to Gnostic writings as "apocryphal" is misleading since they would not be classified in the same category by orthodox believers. Often used by the Greek Fathers was the term antilegomena, or "spoken against", although some canonical books were also spoken against, such as the Apocalypse of John in the East. Often used by scholars is the term pseudepigrapha, or "falsely inscribed" or "falsely attributed", in the sense that the writings were written by an anonymous author who appended the name of an apostle to his work, such as in the Gospel of Peter or The Æthiopic Apocalypse of Enoch: almost all books, in both Old and New Testaments, called "apocrypha" in the Protestant tradition are pseudepigrapha. In the Catholic and Orthodox traditions, what are called the apocrypha by Protestants include the deuterocanonical books: in the Catholic tradition, the term "apocrypha" is synonymous with what Protestants would call the pseudepigrapha, the latter term of which is almost exclusively used by scholars.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: That some works are categorized as New Testament apocrypha is indicative of the wide range of responses that were engendered in the interpretation of the message of Jesus of Nazareth. During the first several centuries of the transmission of that message, considerable debate turned on safeguarding its authenticity. Three key methods of addressing this survive to the present day: ordination, where groups authorize individuals as reliable teachers of the message; creeds, where groups define the boundaries of interpretation of the message; and canons, which list the primary documents certain groups believe contain the message originally taught by Jesus. There was substantial debate about which books should be included in the canons. In general, those books that the majority regarded as the earliest books about Jesus were the ones included. Books that were not accepted into the canons are now termed "apocryphal". Some of them were vigorously suppressed and survive only as fragments. The earliest lists of canonical works of the New Testament were not quite the same as modern lists; for example, the Book of Revelation was regarded as disputed by some Christians (see Antilegomena), while Shepherd of Hermas was considered genuine by others, and appears (after the Book of Revelation) in the Codex Sinaiticus.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The Syriac Peshitta, used by all the various Syrian Churches, originally did not include 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude and Revelation (and this canon of 22 books is the one cited by John Chrysostom (~347–407) and Theodoret (393–466) from the School of Antioch). Western Syrians have added the remaining five books to their New Testament canons in modern times (such as the "Lee Peshitta" of 1823). Today, the official lectionaries followed by the Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church and the East Syriac Chaldean Catholic Church, which is in communion with the Holy See, still only present lessons from the 22 books of the original Peshitta.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The Armenian Apostolic church at times has included the Third Epistle to the Corinthians, but does not always list it with the other 27 canonical New Testament books. This church did not accept Revelation into its Bible until 1200 CE. The New Testament of the Coptic Bible, adopted by the Egyptian Church, includes the two Epistles of Clement.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: English translations were made in the early 18th century by William Wake and by Jeremiah Jones, and collected in 1820 by William Hone's "Apocryphal New Testament". The series "Ante-Nicene Fathers", vol. 8, contains translations by Alexander Walker. New translations by M. R. James appeared in 1924, and were revised by J.K. Eliott, "The Apocryphal New Testament", Oxford University Press, 1991. The "standard" scholarly edition of the New Testament Apocrypha in German is that of Schneemelcher, and in English its translation by Robert McLachlan Wilson.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Constantin von Tischendorf and other scholars began to study New Testament apocrypha seriously in the 19th century and produce new translations. The texts of the Nag Hammadi library are often considered separately but the current edition of Schneemelcher also contains eleven Nag Hammadi texts.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Books that are known objectively not to have existed in antiquity are usually not considered part of the New Testament apocrypha. Among these are the Libellus de Nativitate Sanctae Mariae (also called the "Nativity of Mary") and the Latin Infancy gospel. The latter two did not exist in antiquity, and they seem to be based on the earlier Infancy gospels.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The rarity of information about the childhood of Jesus in the canonical gospels led to a hunger of early Christians for more detail about the early life of Jesus. This was supplied by a number of 2nd-century and later texts, known as infancy gospels, none of which were accepted into the biblical canon, but some scholars have noted that the very number of surviving infancy manuscripts attests to their continued popularity.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Most of these were based on the earliest infancy gospels, namely the Infancy Gospel of James (also called the "Protoevangelium of James") and Infancy Gospel of Thomas, and on their later combination into the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew (also called the "Infancy Gospel of Matthew" or "Birth of Mary and Infancy of the Saviour").


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The other significant early infancy gospels are the Syriac Infancy Gospel, the History of Joseph the Carpenter, Life of John the Baptist.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The Jewish–Christian Gospels were gospels of a Jewish Christian character quoted by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Jerome and probably Didymus the Blind. Most modern scholars have concluded that there was one gospel in Aramaic/Hebrew and at least two in Greek, although a minority argue that there were only two, Aramaic/Hebrew and Greek.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: None of these gospels survives today, but attempts have been made to reconstruct them from references in the Church Fathers. The reconstructed texts of the gospels are usually categorized under New Testament Apocrypha. The standard edition of Schneemelcher describes the texts of three Jewish–Christian gospels as follows:


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: A number of gospels are concerned specifically with the "Passion" (from the Latin verb "patior, passus sum"; "to suffer, bear, endure", from which also "patience, patient", etc.)) of Jesus:


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Although three texts take Bartholomew's name, it may be that one of the "Questions of Bartholomew" or the "Resurrection of Jesus Christ" is in fact the unknown "Gospel of Bartholomew".


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: A number of texts aim to provide a single harmonization of the canonical gospels, that eliminates discordances among them by presenting a unified text derived from them to some degree. The most widely read of these was the "Diatessaron".


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: In the modern era, many Gnostic texts have been uncovered, especially from the Nag Hammadi library. Some texts take the form of an expounding of the esoteric cosmology and ethics held by the Gnostics. Often this was in the form of dialogue in which Jesus expounds esoteric knowledge while his disciples raise questions concerning it. There is also a text, known as the Epistula Apostolorum, which is a polemic against Gnostic esoterica, but written in a similar style as the Gnostic texts.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The Sethians were a gnostic group who originally worshipped the biblical Seth as a messianic figure, later treating Jesus as a re-incarnation of Seth. They produced numerous texts expounding their esoteric cosmology, usually in the form of visions:


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Some of the Gnostic texts appear to consist of diagrams and instructions for use in religious rituals:


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Several texts concern themselves with the subsequent lives of the apostles, usually with highly supernatural events. Almost half of these, anciently called "The Circuits of the Apostles" and now known by the name of their purported author, "Leucius Charinus" (supposedly a companion of John the apostle), contained the Acts of Peter, John, Andrew, Thomas, and Paul. These were judged by the Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople in the ninth century to be full of folly, self-contradiction, falsehood, and impiety. The "Acts of Thomas" and the "Acts of Peter and the Twelve" are often considered Gnostic texts. While most of the texts are believed to have been written in the 2nd century, at least two, the "Acts of Barnabas" and the "Acts of Peter and Paul" are believed to have been written as late as the 5th century.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: There are also non-canonical epistles (or "letters") between individuals or to Christians in general. Some of them were regarded very highly by the early church.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Several texts (over 50) consist of descriptions of the events surrounding the varied fate of Mary (the mother of Jesus):


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: In addition to the known apocryphal works, there are also small fragments of texts, parts of unknown (or uncertain) works. Some of the more significant fragments are:


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Several texts are mentioned in many ancient sources and would probably be considered part of the apocrypha, but no known text has survived:


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: While many of the books listed here were considered heretical (especially those belonging to the gnostic tradition—as this sect was considered heretical by Proto-orthodox Christianity of the early centuries), others were not considered particularly heretical in content, but in fact were well accepted as significant spiritual works. Those marked with a lozenge (♦) are also included in the collection known as the Apostolic Fathers.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: While some of the following works appear in complete Bibles from the fourth century, such as 1 Clement and The Shepherd of Hermas, showing their general popularity, they were not included when the canon was formally decided at the end of that century.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Among historians of early Christianity the books are considered invaluable, especially those that almost made it into the final canon, such as Shepherd of Hermas. Bart Ehrman, for example, said:


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The victors in the struggles to establish Christian Orthodoxy not only won their theological battles, they also rewrote the history of the conflict; later readers then naturally assumed that the victorious views had been embraced by the vast majority of Christians from the very beginning ... The practice of Christian forgery has a long and distinguished history ... the debate lasted three hundred years ... even within "orthodox" circles there was considerable debate concerning which books to include.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: The historical debate primarily concerned whether certain works should be read in the church service or only privately. These works were widely used but not necessarily considered "Catholic" or 'universal.' Such works include the Didache, Shepherd of Hermas, 1 Clement, 2 Clement, the Epistle of Barnabas, and to a lesser extent the Apocalypse of Peter.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Considering the generally accepted dates of authorship for all of the canonical New Testament works (ca. 100 CE), as well as the various witnesses to canonicity extant among the writings of Ignatius, Polycarp, Irenaeus, etc., the four gospels and letters of Paul were held by the gentile Christian community as scriptural, and 200 years were needed to finalize the canon; from the beginning of the 2nd Century to the mid-4th Century, no book in the final canon was ever declared spurious or heretical, except for the Revelation of John which the Council of Laodicea in 363–364 CE rejected (although it accepted all of the other 26 books in the New Testament). This was possibly due to fears of the influence of Montanism which used the book extensively to support their theology. See Revelation of John for more details.


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: Athanasius wrote his Easter letter in 367 CE which defined a canon of 27 books, identical to the current canon, but also listed two works that were "not in the canon but to be read:" The Shepherd of Hermas and the Didache. Nevertheless, the early church leaders in the 3rd and 4th Centuries generally distinguished between canonical works and those that were not canonical but 'useful,' or 'good for teaching,' though never relegating any of the final 27 books to the latter category. One aim with establishing the canon was to capture only those works which were held to have been written by the Apostles, or their close associates, and as the Muratorian fragment canon (ca. 150–175 CE) states concerning the Shepherd of Hermas:


title: New Testament apocrypha

text: ...But Hermas wrote The Shepherd very recently, in our times, in the city of Rome, while bishop Pius, his brother, was occupying the chair of the church of the city of Rome. And therefore it ought indeed to be read; but it cannot be read publicly to the people in church either among the Prophets, whose number is complete, or among the Apostles, for it is after their time.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Eli Whitney Jr. (December 8, 1765January 8, 1825) was an American inventor, widely known for inventing the cotton gin, one of the key inventions of the Industrial Revolution that shaped the economy of the Antebellum South.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Although Whitney himself believed that his invention would reduce the need for enslaved labor and help hasten the end of southern slavery, Whitney's invention made upland short cotton into a profitable crop, which strengthened the economic foundation of slavery in the United States and prolonged the institution. Despite the social and economic impact of his invention, Whitney lost many profits in legal battles over patent infringement for the cotton gin. Thereafter, he turned his attention into securing contracts with the government in the manufacture of muskets for the newly formed United States Army. He continued making arms and inventing until his death in 1825.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Whitney was born in Westborough, Massachusetts, on December 8, 1765, the eldest child of Eli Whitney Sr., a prosperous farmer, and his wife Elizabeth Fay, also of Westborough.


title: Eli Whitney

text: The younger Eli was famous during his lifetime and after his death by the name "Eli Whitney", though he was technically Eli Whitney Jr. His son, born in 1820, also named Eli, was known during his lifetime and afterward by the name "Eli Whitney, Jr."


title: Eli Whitney

text: Whitney's mother, Elizabeth Fay, died in 1777, when he was 11. At age 14 he operated a profitable nail manufacturing operation in his father's workshop during the Revolutionary War.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Because his stepmother opposed his wish to attend college, Whitney worked as a farm laborer and school teacher to save money. He prepared for Yale at Leicester Academy (now Becker College) and under the tutelage of Rev. Elizur Goodrich of Durham, Connecticut, he entered in the fall of 1789 and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1792. Whitney expected to study law but, finding himself short of funds, accepted an offer to go to South Carolina as a private tutor.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Instead of reaching his destination, he was convinced to visit Georgia. In the closing years of the 18th century, Georgia was a magnet for New Englanders seeking their fortunes (its Revolutionary-era governor had been Lyman Hall, a migrant from Connecticut). When he initially sailed for South Carolina, among his shipmates were the widow (Catherine Littlefield Greene) and family of the Revolutionary hero Gen. Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island. Mrs. Greene invited Whitney to visit her Georgia plantation, Mulberry Grove. Her plantation manager and husband-to-be was Phineas Miller, another Connecticut migrant and Yale graduate (class of 1785), who would become Whitney's business partner.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Whitney is most famous for two innovations which came to have significant impacts on the United States in the mid-19th century: the cotton gin (1793) and his advocacy of interchangeable parts. In the South, the cotton gin revolutionized the way cotton was harvested and reinvigorated slavery. Conversely, in the North the adoption of interchangeable parts revolutionized the manufacturing industry, contributing greatly to the U.S. victory in the Civil War.


title: Eli Whitney

text: The cotton gin is a mechanical device that removes the seeds from cotton, a process that had previously been extremely labor-intensive. The word "gin" is short for "engine." While staying at Mulberry Grove, Whitney constructed several ingenious household devices which led Mrs Greene to introduce him to some businessmen who were discussing the desirability of a machine to


title: Eli Whitney

text: separate the short staple upland cotton from its seeds, work that was then done by hand at the rate of a pound of lint a day. In a few weeks Whitney produced a model. The cotton gin was a wooden drum stuck with hooks that pulled the cotton fibers through a mesh. The cotton seeds would not fit through the mesh and fell outside. Whitney occasionally told a story wherein he was pondering an improved method of seeding the cotton when he was inspired by observing a cat attempting to pull a chicken through a fence, and able to only pull through some of the feathers.


title: Eli Whitney

text: A single cotton gin could generate up to of cleaned cotton daily. This contributed to the economic development of the Southern United States, a prime cotton growing area; some historians believe that this invention allowed for the African slavery system in the Southern United States to become more sustainable at a critical point in its development.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Whitney applied for the patent for his cotton gin on October 28, 1793, and received the patent (later numbered as X72) on March 14, 1794, but it was not validated until 1807. Whitney and his partner, Miller, did not intend to sell the gins. Rather, like the proprietors of grist and sawmills, they expected to charge farmers for cleaning their cotton – two-fifths of the value, paid in cotton. Resentment at this scheme, the mechanical simplicity of the device and the primitive state of patent law, made infringement inevitable. Whitney and Miller could not build enough gins to meet demand, so gins from other makers found ready sale. Ultimately, patent infringement lawsuits consumed the profits (one patent, later annulled, was granted in 1796 to Hogden Holmes for a gin which substituted circular saws for the spikes) and their cotton gin company went out of business in 1797. One oft-overlooked point is that there were drawbacks to Whitney's first design. There is significant evidence that the design flaws were solved by his sponsor, Mrs. Greene, but Whitney gave her no public credit or recognition.


title: Eli Whitney

text: After validation of the patent, the legislature of South Carolina voted $50,000 for the rights for that state, while North Carolina levied a license tax for five years, from which about $30,000 was realized. There is a claim that Tennessee paid, perhaps, $10,000.


title: Eli Whitney

text: While the cotton gin did not earn Whitney the fortune he had hoped for, it did give him fame. It has been argued by some historians that Whitney's cotton gin was an important if unintended cause of the American Civil War. After Whitney's invention, the plantation slavery industry was rejuvenated, eventually culminating in the Civil War.


title: Eli Whitney

text: The cotton gin transformed Southern agriculture and the national economy. Southern cotton found ready markets in Europe and in the burgeoning textile mills of New England. Cotton exports from the U.S. boomed after the cotton gin's appearance – from less than in 1793 to by 1810. Cotton was a staple that could be stored for long periods and shipped long distances, unlike most agricultural products. It became the U.S.'s chief export, representing over half the value of U.S. exports from 1820 to 1860.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Whitney believed that his cotton gin would reduce the need for enslaved labor and would help hasten the end of southern slavery. Paradoxically, the cotton gin, a labor-saving device, helped preserve and prolong slavery in the United States for another 70 years. Before the 1790s, slave labor was primarily employed in growing rice, tobacco, and indigo, none of which were especially profitable anymore. Neither was cotton, due to the difficulty of seed removal. But with the invention of the gin, growing cotton with slave labor became highly profitable – the chief source of wealth in the American South, and the basis of frontier settlement from Georgia to Texas. "King Cotton" became a dominant economic force, and slavery was sustained as a key institution of Southern society.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Eli Whitney has often been incorrectly credited with inventing the idea of interchangeable parts, which he championed for years as a maker of muskets; however, the idea predated Whitney, and Whitney's role in it was one of promotion and popularizing, not invention. Successful implementation of the idea eluded Whitney until near the end of his life, occurring first in others' armories.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Attempts at interchangeability of parts can be traced back as far as the Punic Wars through both archaeological remains of boats now in Museo Archeologico Baglio Anselmi and contemporary written accounts. In modern times the idea developed over decades among many people. An early leader was Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, an 18th-century French artillerist who created a fair amount of standardization of artillery pieces, although not true interchangeability of parts. He inspired others, including Honoré Blanc and Louis de Tousard, to work further on the idea, and on shoulder weapons as well as artillery. In the 19th century these efforts produced the "armory system," or American system of manufacturing. Certain other New Englanders, including Captain John H. Hall and Simeon North, arrived at successful interchangeability before Whitney's armory did. The Whitney armory finally succeeded not long after his death in 1825.


title: Eli Whitney

text: The motives behind Whitney's acceptance of a contract to manufacture muskets in 1798 were mostly monetary. By the late 1790s, Whitney was on the verge of bankruptcy and the cotton gin litigation had left him deeply in debt. His New Haven cotton gin factory had burned to the ground, and litigation sapped his remaining resources. The French Revolution had ignited new conflicts between Great Britain, France, and the United States. The new American government, realizing the need to prepare for war, began to rearm. The War Department issued contracts for the manufacture of 10,000 muskets. Whitney, who had never made a gun in his life, obtained a contract in January 1798 to deliver 10,000 to 15,000 muskets in 1800. He had not mentioned interchangeable parts at that time. Ten months later, the Treasury Secretary, Oliver Wolcott, Jr., sent him a "foreign pamphlet on arms manufacturing techniques," possibly one of Honoré Blanc's reports, after which Whitney first began to talk about interchangeability.


title: Eli Whitney

text: In May 1798, Congress voted for legislation that would use eight hundred thousand dollars in order to pay for small arms and cannons in case war with France erupted. It offered a 5,000 dollar incentive with an additional 5,000 dollars once that money was exhausted for the person that was able to accurately produce arms for the government. Because the cotton gin had not brought Whitney the rewards he believed it promised, he accepted the offer. Although the contract was for one year, Whitney did not deliver the arms until 1809, using multiple excuses for the delay. Recently, historians have found that during 1801–1806, Whitney took the money and headed into South Carolina in order to profit from the cotton gin.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Although Whitney's demonstration of 1801 appeared to show the feasibility of creating interchangeable parts, Merritt Roe Smith concludes that it was "staged" and "duped government authorities" into believing that he had been successful. The charade gained him time and resources toward achieving that goal.


title: Eli Whitney

text: When the government complained that Whitney's price per musket compared unfavorably with those produced in government armories, he was able to calculate an actual price per musket by including fixed costs such as insurance and machinery, which the government had not accounted for. He thus made early contributions to both the concepts of cost accounting, and economic efficiency in manufacturing.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Machine tool historian Joseph W. Roe credited Whitney with inventing the first milling machine circa 1818. Subsequent work by other historians (Woodbury; Smith; Muir; Battison [cited by Baida]) suggests that Whitney was among a group of contemporaries all developing milling machines at about the same time (1814 to 1818), and that the others were more important to the innovation than Whitney was. (The machine that excited Roe may not have been built until 1825, after Whitney's death.) Therefore, no one person can properly be described as the inventor of the milling machine.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Despite his humble origins, Whitney was keenly aware of the value of social and political connections. In building his arms business, he took full advantage of the access that his status as a Yale alumnus gave him to other well-placed graduates, such as Oliver Wolcott, Jr., Secretary of the Treasury (class of 1778), and James Hillhouse, a New Haven developer and political leader.


title: Eli Whitney

text: His 1817 marriage to Henrietta Edwards, granddaughter of the famed evangelist Jonathan Edwards, daughter of Pierpont Edwards, head of the Democratic Party in Connecticut, and first cousin of Yale's president, Timothy Dwight, the state's leading Federalist, further tied him to Connecticut's ruling elite. In a business dependent on government contracts, such connections were essential to success.


title: Eli Whitney

text: Whitney died of prostate cancer on January 8, 1825, in New Haven, Connecticut, just a month after his 59th birthday. He left a widow and his four children behind. One of his offspring, Eli Whitney III (known as Eli Whitney Jr.), was instrumental in building New Haven, Connecticut's waterworks. During the course of his illness, he reportedly invented and constructed several devices to mechanically ease his pain.


title: Eli Whitney

text: The Eli Whitney Students Program, Yale University's admissions program for non-traditional students, is named in honor of Whitney, who not only began his studies there when he was 23, but also went on to graduate Phi Beta Kappa in just three years.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian Boru (; modern ; 23 April 1014) was an Irish king who ended the domination of the High Kingship of Ireland by the Uí Néill and probably ended Viking invasion/domination of Ireland. Brian built on the achievements of his father, Cennétig mac Lorcain, and especially his elder brother, Mathgamain. Brian first made himself king of Munster, then subjugated Leinster, eventually becoming High King of Ireland. He was the founder of the O'Brien dynasty, and is widely regarded as one of the most successful and unifying monarchs in medieval Ireland.


title: Brian Boru

text: With a population of under 500,000 people, Ireland had over 150 kings, with greater or lesser domains. The Uí Néill king Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, abandoned by his northern kinsmen of the Cenél nEógain and Cenél Conaill, acknowledged Brian as High King at Athlone in 1002. In the decade that followed, Brian campaigned against the northern Uí Néill, who refused to accept his claims, against Leinster, where resistance was frequent, and against the Norse-Gaelic Kingdom of Dublin. Brian was described in the "Annals of Ulster" as "ardrí Gaidhel Erenn & Gall & Bretan, August iartair tuaiscirt Eorpa uile" (High King of the Gaels of Ireland and the Norse foreigners and the Britons, "Augustus" of all north-western Europe), the only Irish king to receive that distinction in the annals.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian's hard-won authority was seriously challenged in 1013 when his ally Máel Sechnaill was attacked by the Cenél nEógain king Flaithbertach Ua Néill, with the Ulstermen as his allies. This was followed by further attacks on Máel Sechnaill by the Germanic Norsemen of Dublin under their Norse king Sigtrygg Silkbeard and the Leinstermen led by Máel Mórda mac Murchada. Brian campaigned against these enemies in 1013. In 1014, Brian's armies confronted the armies of Leinster and Dublin. The resulting Battle of Clontarf saw Brian killed, his army nonetheless victorious against the Leinstermen and Norsemen. The battle is widely lauded as a pivotal moment in Irish history, and is well known in popular memory.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian was well regarded by contemporary chroniclers. The Norse-Gaels and Scandinavians also produced works mentioning Brian, including "Njal's Saga", the "Orkneyinga Saga", and the now-lost "Brian's Saga". Brian's war against Máel Mórda and Sigtrygg was to be inextricably connected with his complicated marital relations, in particular his marriage to Gormlaith, Máel Mórda's sister and Sigtrygg's mother, who had been in turn the wife of Amlaíb Cuarán, king of Dublin and York, then of Máel Sechnaill, and finally of Brian himself.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian Boru was one of the twelve sons of Cennétig mac Lorcáin (d. 951), who was King of Dál gCais and king of Tuadmumu (Thomond), modern County Clare, then a sub-kingdom in the north of Munster. Cennétig was described as "rígdamna Caisil", meaning that he was either heir or candidate ("king material") to the kingship of Cashel or Munster, although this might be a later interpolation. Brian's mother was Bé Binn inion Urchadh, daughter of Urchadh mac Murchadh (d. 945), king of Maigh Seóla in west Connacht. That they belonged to the Uí Briúin Seóla may explain why he received the name Brian, which was rare among the Dál gCais.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian's family were descended from the Ui Tairdelbach branch of the Dal gCais (or Deis Tuisceart). This branch had recently taken power from the Ui Óengusso branch which had traditionally supplied the kings of the Dal gCais (also known as the Deisi Tuaiscirt). The Uí Toirdhealbhach had extended their influence over Thomond and in 925 the annals note that Ánrothán son of Máel Gorm assumed the kingship of Corco Mruad. In 934 Reabachán mac Mothla died in 934 and was named as "King of the Dál gCais" in the Annals (the earliest usage of this term). The same year of his death, his son Dub Gilla was killed by Brian's uncle Conghalach and Brian's grandfather Lorcáin is said to have succeeded to the kingship. He enjoyed a short reign before being succeeded by his own son Cinnéidigh who was the first King of Dál gCais to lead an army outside his own territory and lead an expedition as far north as Athlone. By his death in 951, he had been acknowledged as "King of Tuadmumu". His brother, Mathgamain, built on these achievements and was the first to capture Cashel and become King of Munster.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian was born at Kincora, his father's residence or fort in Killaloe, a town in the region of Tuadmumu. Brian's posthumous cognomen "Bóruma" (anglicised as Boru) may have referred to "Béal Bóruma", a fort north of Killaloe, where the Dál gCais held sway. Another explanation, though possibly a late (re-)interpretation, is that the nickname represented Old Irish "bóruma" "of the cattle tribute", referring to his capacity as a powerful overlord.


title: Brian Boru

text: As the youngest of twelve brothers, Brian was highly unlikely to be heir to his father's throne. When he was young, he was sent to a monastery to study Latin and the history of Ireland. He was taught at the monastery on the island of Innisfallen, near modern Killarney in County Kerry. His teacher or mentor was the noted monk, Maelsuthain Ua Cearbhaill, an Eóganacht chief who had become the head of the monastery, noted for starting the Annals of Inisfallen. Ua Cearbhaill would later become Brian's "anmchara" (advisor). However, when Brian was ten years old, he received news that his father had been killed in battle with the Vikings of Limerick, and he was brought home.


title: Brian Boru

text: According to a biography of Brian, he once witnessed a raid on a Dal gCáis fort by the Vikings of Limerick. The fort was located on the banks of the River Shannon, allowing the Vikings to sail up the river from Limerick to attack it. According to the story, Brian, Mathgamain, and another older brother were on a hill or high ground near the fort tending to a herd of cattle. While they were there, they saw the raid from the mountainside after hearing screams and seeing smoke in the sky. They rushed down to the town, only to find the Vikings had already left. The settlement was burnt and looted. Brian's mother was killed, as were several of Brian's brothers who were defending the town, along with many of the townspeople. This event horrified Brian and had a lasting impact on him.


title: Brian Boru

text: The River Shannon served as an easy route by which raids could be made against the provinces of Connacht and Meath. Both Brian's father, Cennétig mac Lorcáin, and his older brother Mathgamain had conducted river-borne raids, in which the young Brian would undoubtedly have participated. This may have been the root of his appreciation for naval forces in his later career.


title: Brian Boru

text: When their father died, the kingship of Tuadmumu passed to Brian's older brother, Mathgamain. Brian and Mathgamain campaigned together throughout Munster. When Mathgamain was killed in 976. Brian replaced him. Subsequently, he became king of the entire kingdom of Munster.


title: Brian Boru

text: In 964, Brian's older brother, Mathgamain, claimed control over the entire province of Munster by capturing the Rock of Cashel, capital of the ancient Eóganachta, the hereditary overlords or High Kings of Munster, but who in dynastic strife and with multiple assassinations had weakened themselves to the point they were now impotent. Earlier attacks from both the Uí Néill and Vikings were also factors. This situation allowed the illegitimate (from the Eóganacht perspective) but militarized Dál Cais to attempt to seize the provincial kingship. Mathgamain was never fully recognized and was opposed throughout his career in the 960s and 970s by Máel Muad mac Brain, a semi-outsider from the Cashel perspective but still a legitimate Eóganacht claimant from far south Munster.


title: Brian Boru

text: In addition to Máel Muad, the Norse king Ivar of Limerick was a threat and may have been attempting to establish some overlordship in the province or a region of it himself, with the "Cogad Gaedel re Gallaib" even asserting he actually achieved this until routed by Mathgamain and Brian in the celebrated Battle of Sulcoit in 968.


title: Brian Boru

text: Initially, Mathgamain had made peace with the Norse of Limerick. However, Brian was eager to avenge the deaths of his family members at the hands of the Vikings, and deserted with a band of his followers and launched a guerilla campaign against the Vikings from the mountains of Munster. They attacked Viking forts and patrols and survived with whatever food and weapons they found. Their attacks were successful in weakening the Vikings, but casualties began to mount and according to writings by Brian's scribe, just 15 men remained. However, at this point Mathgamain, inspired by the courage of his younger brother, decided to attack the Vikings with Brian and drive them from Limerick and Munster once and for all.


title: Brian Boru

text: They gathered an army of kings from all over Munster, including their former enemy Maél Muad. They ambushed and routed the Norse at the Battle of Sulcoit. They followed up their victory by looting and burning Limerick. They killed every man of fighting age and enslaved the rest of the population.