title: Zork

text: Lebling contends that "Adventure" was one of "Zork"s only influences, as there were few other games to emulate at the time. Although the game's combat is based on "Dungeons & Dragons", Lebling said the other developers had never played it. He also thought of the parser and associated text responses as taking on the role of the Dungeon Master from a "Dungeons & Dragons" game, trying to lead the player through a story solely by describing it; this had also been the idea behind the parser in "Adventure".


title: Zork

text: The developers did not announce their game while it was in development, but a lack of security on the MIT systems meant that anyone who could access the PDP-10 computer over the ARPANET could see what programs were being run. As a result, a small community of people, many of whom had been involved in playing and contributing to "Trivia", would "snoop" on the system for new programs. They found the new "Zork" adventure game and spread word of it under that name. This community—dozens or possibly hundreds of players, according to Lebling—interacted with the developers as they created the game, playtesting additions and submitting bug reports. The implementers added a command transcript feature to keep track of what commands players tried to use unsuccessfully.


title: Zork

text: By the end of June, the game was approximately half the size of the final "Zork", and had a substantial community of players for the time. The group added locations such as a volcano and coal mine, and soon shifted their efforts to improving the game's engine and adding the ability to save the player's progress in the game. Following user requests, they also added the ability for the game to run on PDP-10 computers running different operating systems—TENEX and TOPS-20—which were much more popular than the Incompatible Timesharing System operating system the MIT computer used. These users then set up a mailing list to distribute updates to the game. The developers returned to creating new content in the fall of 1977, adding the "Alice in Wonderland" section and a system for fighting enemies.


title: Zork

text: Around this time, community member Ted Hess at DEC decoded the protections the group had made for the source code, and another DEC employee, Bob Supnik, created a port of the game to Fortran. This port, released in March 1978, opened the game to a wider set of players without access to a PDP-10 mainframe. At the time, the team had decided to give the game an actual name besides "zork", and chose "Dungeon". This name was used for the Fortran version, which was spread through the DEC users group as one of its most popular pieces of software. TSR Hobbies claimed the title violated their trademark for "Dungeons & Dragons", and the developers reverted to their original title.


title: Zork

text: Over the course of 1978, the team added the bank and Royal Zork Puzzle Museum sections, along with some puzzles and ideas suggested by players. The last puzzle was added in February 1979, though the team continued to release bug fix updates until the final update in January 1981. Anderson attributes this to the team running out of ideas and time, and having run out of space in the one megabyte of memory allocated for the game.


title: Zork

text: Very little of the game was planned ahead of time, nor were aspects of the game specific to one developer; instead, whenever one of the developers had an idea they liked, that developer would add it to the game, developing the concept and writing the text to go with it. According to Lebling, Blank ended up focusing mostly on the parser, Anderson on the game code, Blank and Daniels on new puzzles, and Lebling on descriptions of locations. Anderson says that Blank wrote "40 or 50" iterations of the parser, and describes Daniels as designing puzzles that were then largely implemented by the others. He credits Blank with vehicles and saving, and Lebling with the robot, grues, and the fighting system. To immerse the player in the game, the developers decided not to describe the player character, removing any accidental descriptions or gendered pronouns. The text responses to the player's commands were frequently opinionated and sarcastic, a design choice that mirrored the group's speaking patterns. The team felt it would both make the system feel less like a computer and also train the player to write commands in a way that the parser could understand rather than ways it would misinterpret.


title: Zork

text: In 1979, Anderson, Blank, Lebling, and five other members of the Dynamic Modelling Group incorporated Infocom as a software company for members to join after leaving MIT. No specific projects were initially agreed upon and Infocom had no paid employees, but discussions were focused on developing software for smaller mainframe computers. Blank and Joel Berez came up with a plan to make "Zork" work on personal microcomputers, which were then beginning to become popular and which would greatly expand the audience for the game. Although microcomputers had very limited memory space compared to mainframe computers, they felt the project might be viable using floppy disks and a custom programming language if the game was cut into two pieces.


title: Zork

text: The pair worked on the project through the summer and fall of 1979 without pay, as the new company only had the funds to pay for the computers. They ported the game to a new Zork Implementation Language (ZIL), which would then be run on a standardized "Z-machine" software-based computer. For each type of microcomputer they wanted to release "Zork" or other ZIL-based games on, they could write an interpreter program that could run the Z-Machine instead of rewriting each game. Lebling divided "Zork" in half to create standalone episodes, modifying the game's layout to improve its flow and disconnecting locations now in separate episodes.


title: Zork

text: By the end of 1979, Berez was elected the company's president. The core game was complete, but only had been run on DECSYSTEM-20 and PDP-11 mainframe computers. Infocom purchased a TRS-80 personal computer early in 1980, which could run the game after Blank and Scott Cutler created an interpreter program. Infocom began preparing to release the first section under the title "Zork: The Great Underground Empire - Part I". Mike Dornbrook, who had never played the game, tested it as an audience surrogate. He felt that the game would be wildly successful and develop a cult following, and urged Infocom to produce tie-in products like maps, hints, and shirts. The rest of the company was not convinced enough to start producing any such add-ons, but they did add an object in the game that gave an address for players to mail in for maps and hints in case it proved popular.


title: Zork

text: The game now complete, the company began looking for a professional publisher with store and distributor connections. They felt this was preferable to self-publishing. Berez approached Microsoft, who declined based on the game competing with "Microsoft Adventure" (1979), their version of "Adventure". Microsoft CEO Bill Gates was a fan of "Zork", but by the time he heard of the proposal, Infocom was in negotiations with another publisher, Personal Software, one of the first professional software publishing companies. Personal Software agreed to publish the game in June 1980, sending the company an advance payment. "Zork: The Great Underground Empire", also known as "Zork I" or just "Zork", was published for the TRS-80 in December 1980. Since Personal Software decined to publish the 1979 PDP-11 version of the game, Infocom sold some copies earlier in the year after announcing to PDP-11 user groups. Lebling recalled about 20 floppy disk copies sold directly with Anderson's typewritten manual.


title: Zork

text: By the end of 1980, an Apple II version of "Zork I" was completed and sold through Personal Software. Infocom began receiving requests for hints and maps as predicted, and Berez began handling map and poster orders while Dornbrook wrote customized hints for players; in September 1981 he founded the Zork Users Group as a separate company to handle all mail order sales and hint requests. Infocom eventually produced hint booklets with progressive answers to questions written in invisible ink, branded as InvisiClues. In the meantime, Lebling worked on converting the second half of "Zork" into "Zork II", but in the process thought up several new puzzles for the game. Although as late as December 1980 he told "Byte" that it would be a two-part game, it soon became clear that the second half would not fit into the allotted space. As a result, the game was split again into "Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz" and "Zork III: The Dungeon Master". According to Lebling, splitting the game into episodes led to different atmospheres: "Zork I" was focused on exploration and "Adventure"-style gameplay, "II" had more of a focus on plot and added magic spells to the base game, and "III" was less straightforward, with time-sensitive aspects. Marc Blank constructed "Zork III" and added gameplay changes such as the modified point system to move the game away from straightforward dungeon exploration.


title: Zork

text: "Zork II" was offered to Personal Software in April 1981 and the contract was signed in June, but Infocom grew wary of continuing this relationship. The Infocom team felt that Personal Software was not advertising "Zork I" very strongly, and did not seem excited about Infocom's plans for "Zork III" and other planned text adventure games such as "Deadline" and "Starcross". Personal Software soon stopped publishing entertainment software altogether and rebranded as VisiCorp in 1982 to align with its VisiCalc spreadsheet software. Rather than find another publisher, Infocom decided to self-publish its games and began renting office space and contracting with production facilities. It bought out Personal Software's stock of Apple II "Zork I" copies and began publishing "Zork I" and "II" directly by the end of 1981. "Zork III" followed in the fall of 1982. Infocom developed interpreters for the Commodore 64, the Atari 8-bit family of computers, CP/M systems, and the IBM Personal Computer, and released the episodes of "Zork" for them as well in 1982.


title: Zork

text: Following its 1980 release, "Zork I" became a bestseller from 1983 through 1985, with 380,000 copies sold by 1986. In its first nine months, Personal Software sold 7,500 copies for the TRS-80 and Apple II. Sales ballooned as Infocom began self-publishing the trilogy and the personal computer market expanded. "Zork I" had sold 38,000 copies by the end of 1982, nearly 100,000 in 1983, and around 150,000 copies in 1984. Its success outpaced Infocom's later games; "Inc." reported in 1983 that "Zork I", only one of Infocom's 15 released titles, composed 20 percent of their annual sales. "Zork I" sales declined beginning in 1985. The second and third parts of "Zork" also sold well, though not as highly as the first: over 170,000 "Zork II" and 130,000 "Zork III" copies sold by 1986.


title: Zork

text: Overall sales of the first three episodes reached over 760,000 copies by early 1989. Combined, they sold more than 250,000 copies by 1984, and more than 680,000 copies through 1986, including the 1986 "Zork Trilogy" compilation release. Between 1982 and 1986, the "Zork" trilogy composed more than one-third of Infocom's two million total game sales. Activision purchased Infocom in 1986 and reported that the three "Zork" games and trilogy compilation sold another 80,000 copies by early 1989.


title: Zork

text: The episodes of "Zork" were highly praised in contemporaneous reviews. "Byte" and "80 Micro" praised their writing, which the "Byte" reviewer described as "entertaining, eloquent, witty, and precise". Reviewers for "Softalk" and "The Space Gamer" enjoyed how the parser let them input more complex sentences than did earlier games, the "Softalk" review noting that every other game since "Adventure" had limited the player to two-word phrases, though they also thought that players would largely stick with clearer two-word commands. "80 Micro" wondered if "Zork" could ever be completed because of how much the parser let the player do. "Byte" concluded that "no single advance in the science of "Adventure" has been as bold and exciting" as "Zork", a sentiment echoed by "Softalk".


title: Zork

text: In the years after its release, "Zork I" received more reviews praising the game in relation to "Adventure" and the genre. Jerry Pournelle recommended the game in his long-running "Byte" column, stating in 1983 that "if you liked "Adventure" and wanted more ... I guarantee you'll love "Zork"". "Computer Gaming World" in 1982, "PC Magazine" in 1982, and "SoftSide" in 1983 all recommended it as a "must-have" for anyone interested in fantasy or adventure games. "Family Computing", in late 1983, proclaimed it a classic of the genre and the game that made the adventure genre more than a novelty.


title: Zork

text: Reviewers similarly praised "Zork" second and third episodes. "Softline" recommended "Zork II" for its "well-balanced mix of humor, wit, and wry puns" for both new and experienced players. "PC Magazine" stated that it would appeal to all players and that the game was challenging, enjoyable, and funny. A reviewer for "Softalk" said that it broke away from both the first episode and "Adventure" to be "fresh and interesting". Some of the puzzles in "Zork II" were later considered "infamously difficult", and in a hint book, Infocom apologized for one puzzle's difficulty and reliance on baseball knowledge. Reviews in "Softalk" and "Creative Computing" named "Zork III" as the best in the trilogy. "PC World" said it was "just as exciting and puzzling as "Zork I" and "II"", though its puzzles could be frustrating. "K-Power" concluded that "Zork III" was "the most intelligent text game for a microcomputer that we've ever seen".


title: Zork

text: "Commodore Magazine", in June 1983, described the combined trilogy as the most popular adventure game, as well as the best. "The Addison-Wesley Book of Atari Software 1984" gave all three parts of "Zork" an overall A+ rating. It called "Zork I" "the definitive adventure game", adding that "Zork II" "has the same outstanding command flexibility, wry humor, and word recognition of "Zork"", and concluded that "Zork III" was "perhaps the most entertaining of the three" and "a highwater mark for subtlety and logic".


title: Zork

text: "Zork" has been described as "by far the most famous piece of [interactive fiction]" and "the father figure of the genre". Game historian Matt Barton contended that "to say that "Zork" is an influential adventure game is like saying the Iliad is an influential poem". Rather than simply influencing games, Barton said it instead showed that the computer could simulate a rich virtual world, and helped lay the foundations of video game concepts around exploring, collecting objects, and overcoming problems. Nick Montfort, in his book on interactive fiction "Twisty Little Passages" (2003), suggested that "Zork"s legacy and influence lay not in its parser or writing, but in the way it modeled the game world as a complex, dynamic space that the player moved through. Janet Murray, in "Hamlet on the Holodeck" (1997), considered this a result of the way the game was programmed compared to other games of the time, with each area, item, and actor modeled as their own object that could act and be acted upon. Historians have argued that "Zork", along with "Colossal Cave Adventure", influenced the creation of the MUD genre, and through it the more recent massively multiplayer online role-playing game genre.


title: Zork

text: "Zork"s natural language parser has been noted as having a strong personality, and one of the first games to have one. It has been cited as starting a strong trend in writing for adventure games having "metafictional humor, and tendency towards self-parody". Decades later "Zork" is still cited as an inspiration for text interfaces such as chatbots. It has also been used, along with other text adventure games, as a framework for testing natural language processing systems.


title: Zork

text: "Zork" was listed on several lists of the best video games more than a decade after release. In 1992, "Computer Gaming World" added "Zork" to its Hall of Fame. It was placed on "best games of all time" lists for "Computer Gaming World" and "Next Generation" in 1996, and "Next Generation" listed the entire series as a whole in 1999. In 2016, "PC Gamer" ranked "Zork" as one of the 50 most important video games ever made for establishing Infocom as a studio and defining an entire generation of adventure games. In 2007, "Zork" was listed among the ten "game canon" video games selected for preservation by the Library of Congress.


title: Zork

text: "Zork" was the centerpiece of Infocom's game catalog, and Infocom quickly followed it with several more text adventure games using variants of the "Zork" codebase and the Z-machine, each of which sold tens of thousands of copies. By 1984, three years after Infocom began self-publishing "Zork I", Infocom had 50 full-time employees, US$6 million in annual sales, and 12 other games released. Infocom internally nicknamed its early games in relation to "Zork", such as "Zork: the Mystery" ("Deadline", 1982), "Zorks in Space" ("Starcross", 1982), and "Zork IV" ("Enchanter", 1983). By 1986 this had increased to 26 total titles. Although "Wishbringer: The Magick Stone of Dreams" (1985) was ostensibly set in the same world as "Zork", the company had not made any more official "Zork" games, releasing only a "Zork Trilogy" compilation of all three episodes.


title: Zork

text: In 1985, Infocom diversified into professional software by creating a relational database product called Cornerstone. Poor sales led to financial difficulties and the company was sold to Activision in 1986. Infocom then created two more "Zork" games: "Beyond Zork: The Coconut of Quendor" (1987), which added a graphical map and more role-playing and combat elements, and "Zork Zero: The Revenge of Megaboz" (1988), a prequel game that added graphical elements and menus as well as graphical minigames. Infocom's tenure under Activision was rocky, and rising costs and falling profits, exacerbated by a lack of new products in 1988, led Activision to close Infocom in 1989.


title: Zork

text: Activision returned to the series with several graphic adventure games: "Return to Zork" (1993), "Zork Nemesis: The Forbidden Lands" (1996), and "" (1997). It also released "" (1997), a free text adventure game partially written by original Infocom implementers Michael Berlyn and Marc Blank to promote "Zork: Grand Inquisitor". In 2009, Jolt Online Gaming released "Legends of Zork", a freemium browser-based online adventure game.


title: Zork

text: The original "Zork" games have been re-released in several compilations since "Zork Trilogy". They are included in "The Lost Treasures of Infocom" (1991), "Zork Anthology" (1994), "Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom" (1996), and "Zork Legacy Collection" (1996). A graphical port of "Zork I" for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn consoles was developed by Arc System Works and published by Shōeisha in Japan in 1996, 19 years after its original release. Unofficial versions of "Zork" have been created for over forty years for a wide range of systems, such as browsers or smart speakers.


title: Zork

text: Four gamebooks, written by Infocom developer Steve Meretzky and set in the "Zork" world, were published in 1983–1984: "The Forces of Krill" (1983), "The Malifestro Quest" (1983), "The Cavern of Doom" (1983), and "Conquest at Quendor" (1984). These books, known collectively as the ""Zork" books", are presented as interactive fiction in the style of the "Choose Your Own Adventure" series, wherein the player makes periodic choices and turns to a page that corresponds to that choice. Two novels were published based on the original game: "The Zork Chronicles" by George Alec Effinger (1990) and "The Lost City of Zork" by Robin Wayne Bailey (1991). In 1996, Threshold Entertainment acquired the rights to "Zork" and announced plans to create a "Zork" movie and live action TV series, though it was never produced.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: 227 is an American sitcom television series that originally aired on NBC from September 14, 1985, to May 6, 1990. The series stars Marla Gibbs as Mary Jenkins, a sharp-tongued, city resident gossip and housewife. Other main characters include her husband Lester (Hal Williams), their daughter Brenda (Regina King), landlady Rose Holloway (Alaina Reed Hall), and neighbors Sandra Clark (Jackée Harry) and Pearl Shay (Helen Martin).


title: 227 (TV series)

text: The series was adapted from a play written in 1978 by Christine Houston about the lives of women in a predominantly black apartment building in 1950s Chicago. The setting of the series, however, was changed to present-day Washington, D.C. The show was created as a starring vehicle for Marla Gibbs, who had become famous as Florence Johnston, the maid on "The Jeffersons", and had starred in Houston's play in Los Angeles. This role was similar in nature to that of tart-tongued Florence; Gibbs' character, housewife Mary Jenkins, loved a good gossip and often spoke what she thought, with sometimes not-so-favorable results.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: According to Gibbs, "227" was originally offered to ABC but sold to NBC. Since "The Jeffersons" was still on the air on CBS, the new show was scheduled to begin in 1986. However, when "The Jeffersons" was abruptly and unexpectedly canceled in 1985, Gibbs was free to begin, and "227" went into production a year earlier than had been previously planned.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: "227" followed the lives of people in a middle-class apartment building, 227 Lexington Place (the numerical address from which the sitcom's name comes), in Northeast, Washington, D.C. The show was centered around Mary Jenkins (Marla Gibbs), a nosy and tart-tongued but loving housewife. Her husband, Lester (Hal Williams), had his own construction company, and their daughter, Brenda (Regina King, in her first television acting role), was boy-crazy yet smart and studious.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: Also cast in "227" was Sandra Clark (Jackée Harry), Mary's younger neighbor who constantly bickered back and forth with her about their respective views on life. While Mary was a happily married housewife with a stable lifestyle, Sandra was a stylish, loose, man-hungry, somewhat ditzy diva, and a serial dater who dressed provocatively. Although their relationship was antagonistic at first, Mary and Sandra became good friends as time went on. Also living in the building was Pearl Shay (Helen Martin), a feisty but kind-hearted busybody neighbor who was known for snooping and had a sharp sense of humor. Pearl had a grandson named Calvin Dobbs (Curtis Baldwin), whom Brenda had a crush on and would finally date later in the series' run.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: Rose Lee Holloway (Alaina Reed Hall) was Mary's level-headed best friend and often the voice of reason among 227's residents. She and Mary were often seen sitting on the front stoop of the building, exchanging rumors and gossip, with Pearl adding sly commentary and humor from her front window. Rose had a daughter named Tiffany (Kia Goodwin), who was Brenda's closest friend, but the child actor's mother was unhappy in California, so she was let out of her contract and written out of the series after the second season, although she was mentioned occasionally. In the premiere episode, Rose became the unexpected landlord of the building after the building's stingy slumlord Mr. Calloway died. Rose stayed on as landlady until the fourth season (for season five, Paul Winfield was introduced as the building's new snide, wealthy landlord Julian C. Barlow).


title: 227 (TV series)

text: In the first season, both Helen Martin and Curtis Baldwin, who had only been recurring stars, appeared in nearly every episode. From season 2 onward, they were upped to series regulars.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: By the time taping started on the third season in 1987, Jackée Harry, who had just won an Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actress, changed her stage name to simply Jackée, which she used until 1994. In the fourth season, an 11-year-old child prodigy named Alexandria DeWitt (Countess Vaughn) became the Jenkinses' houseguest. Vaughn received her role after she appeared on "Star Search" and declared to host Ed McMahon that her favorite show was "227". However, Alexandria left during Calvin's graduation episode near the end of season four to reunite with her father, who, after completing his archaeological dig in the Amazon, had moved to London to catalogue his items.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: After the fourth season, Jackée's television pilot, titled "Jackée", found Sandra moving to New York City and finding work at a spa. NBC aired the episode on May 11, 1989. The pilot was rejected, and Jackée left the show; however, she was a guest star in seven of the final season's episodes.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: In the show's final season, Toukie Smith, Barry Sobel, Stoney Jackson, Kevin Peter Hall, and Paul Winfield joined the cast in an effort to stop the show's declining ratings. In the end, the cast additions proved fruitless, and "227" ended its run in the spring of 1990.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: With the exception of "The Cosby Show" and "A Different World", "227" achieved higher ratings than other sitcoms airing at the time with a predominantly African-American cast during the first two seasons of its original run on NBC.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: NBC aired daytime reruns of "227" from September 1989 to July 1990. The show went into syndication in the fall of 1990. It has previously aired on cable's BET, TV One, TV Land, Centric, and UP (formerly GMC). Selected minisodes from the first season are available to view for free on Crackle. "227" (alongside "Amen") aired on Encore Black from November 12, 2013, to November 30, 2015. The show is owned and distributed by Sony Pictures Television. "227" aired back-to-back episodes on Logo starting at midnight on New Year's Day 2016. In January 2017, the series began airing on Antenna TV; in 2021 it began airing on sister network Rewind TV. The series started airing on OWN weekend nights starting December 2, 2017.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: In Canada, "227" is available online, broadcast, and on demand by CTV. In the UK, the series has previously aired on BBC One, Sky One, ITV, Sky Living and Channel 4.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: The series became available to stream on Amazon Prime Video on July 15, 2021 and on Hulu on May 23, 2022.


title: 227 (TV series)

text: On September 28, 2004, Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment released the complete first season of "227" on DVD in Region 1.


title: Monty Don

text: Montagu Denis Wyatt Don (born George Montagu Don; 8 July 1955) is a British horticulturist, broadcaster, and writer who is best known as the lead presenter of the BBC gardening television series "Gardeners' World".


title: Monty Don

text: Born in Germany and raised in England, Don studied at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he met his future wife. They ran a successful costume jewellery business through the 1980s until the stock market crash of 1987 resulted in almost complete bankruptcy. In 1989, Don made his television debut as a regular on "This Morning" with a gardening segment, which led to further television work across the decade including his own shows for BBC Television and Channel 4. Don began his writing career at this time and published his first of over 25 books, in 1990. Between 1994 and 2006, Don wrote a weekly gardening column in "The Observer".


title: Monty Don

text: In 2003, Don replaced Alan Titchmarsh as the lead presenter of "Gardeners' World", only leaving the show between 2008 and 2011 due to illness. Since then he has written and produced several garden series of his own; the most recent was "Monty Don's Adriatic Gardens" which aired in 2022.


title: Monty Don

text: George Montagu Don was born on 8 July 1955 in Iserlohn, West Germany. He is the youngest of five children to British parents Denis Thomas Keiller Don, a career soldier stationed in Germany at the time of his birth, and Janet Montagu ("née" Wyatt). Soon after Don's birth, his parents changed the name on his birth certificate to Montagu Denis Don due to a family spat over the name. When Don was 10, he added his mother's maiden name to it, becoming Montagu Denis Wyatt Don. Don is a descendant of botanist George Don and the Keiller family, best known as the inventors of Keiller's marmalade. On his maternal side, he is descended from the Wyatt family of architects. Don has a twin sister, Alison, who at the age of 19 was nearly killed in a car accident, suffering a broken neck and blindness.


title: Monty Don

text: When Don was one, the family moved to Hampshire, England. He described his parents as "very strict". He attended three independent schools: Quidhampton School in Basingstoke, followed by Bigshotte School in Wokingham, where at seven, he was asked to leave school for being too boisterous. He then attended Malvern College in Malvern, which he hated, followed by a state comprehensive school, the Vyne School, also in Basingstoke. He failed his A-levels and while studying for retakes at night school, worked on a building site and a pig farm by day. During his childhood he had become an avid gardener and farmer. In his late teens, Don spent several months in Aix-en-Provence, France where he worked as a gardener and played rugby in local teams. He returned to England, determined to attend Cambridge University out of "sheer bloody-mindedness", and passed the entrance exams. He studied English at Magdalene College, during which time he met his future wife Sarah Erskine, a trained jeweller and architect. Don took up boxing to impress his father, a former heavyweight boxing champion in the army, becoming a Cambridge Half Blue for boxing. He gave up after getting knocked out and suffering concussion.


title: Monty Don

text: In 1981, Don and Erskine started Monty Don Jewellery, a London-based business that designed, made, and sold costume jewellery. The company became a success and in five years, operated from a shop on Beauchamp Place in Knightsbridge with hundreds of outworkers and had secured as many as 60 outlets across the UK, including Harrods, Harvey Nichols, and Liberty. Among their customers were Boy George, Michael Jackson, and Princess Diana. However, the 1987 stock market crash caused an almost complete bankruptcy as it cut off American sales, their biggest market. The situation prompted Don to embark on a career in writing and broadcasting. Reflecting on the experience, he wrote: "We were lambs to the slaughter and we lost everything, [...] we lost our house, our business. We sold every stick of furniture we had at Leominster market". He was unemployed from 1991 to 1993, and spent all of 1992 on the dole. Some of their jewellery is kept at the V&A Museum.


title: Monty Don

text: By mid-1989, Don had written several gardening articles and granted writers access to his home garden which was featured in various publications. This increased exposure led to Don writing a gardening column for the "Mail on Sunday", a book deal, and an invitation to a screen test for a proposed weekly live gardening segment on the ITV television breakfast show "This Morning". Don landed the spot and his first segment aired in October 1989, receiving £100 a show. After 26 spots on "This Morning", Don landed additional television work as presenter on the BBC Television shows "Holiday" and "Tomorrow's World". Though he had some doubts about being a presenter, he took the jobs as he felt desperate for work. In November 1999, Channel 4 started to air the gardening series "Fork to Fork", in which Don and his wife presented segments on growing and cooking organic vegetables. This was followed by three other series hosted by Don between 1999 and 2003: "Real Gardens", "Lost Gardens", and "Don Roaming".


title: Monty Don

text: In September 2002, the BBC announced Don as the new lead presenter of its long-running series "Gardeners' World" from 2003, succeeding Alan Titchmarsh. Don is the first self-taught horticulturist presenter in the show's history. Don hosted the show until he put his career on hold to recover from his minor stroke in 2008, and the show continued with Toby Buckland filling in as host. During Don's initial stint, viewing figures fell from 5 million to 2 million, this fall being most frequently blamed on the BBC's decision to change the show's format soon after Don's arrival. After viewing figures fell below two million for the first time in 2009, the BBC announced further changes to the programme to entice viewers back. In December 2010, Don announced his return as host for the 2011 series. Reaction to the announcement was divided on the programme's blog.


title: Monty Don

text: Initially Don filmed episodes of "Gardeners' World" in Berryfields, a rented garden in Stratford-upon-Avon. When he returned as host in 2011, Don began to present from his own garden, Longmeadow, in Ivington, Herefordshire. He was frequently seen on screen with his Golden Retriever Nigel until the dog died in May 2020, shortly before its 12th birthday. In 2016, Don introduced viewers to his new golden retriever, Nell. This was followed by the addition of Patti, a Yorkshire Terrier, in April 2020. In 2020, Don signed a contract with the BBC to continue presenting "Gardeners' World" for three years.


title: Monty Don

text: Don is also known for writing and presenting his own series. In 2005, he set up a smallholding in Herefordshire so a group of young drug offenders could work the land. The project was documented for the BBC series "Growing Out of Trouble", airing in 2006. This was followed by the ambitious BBC series "Around the World in 80 Gardens" in 2008, where Don visited 80 gardens of a variety of styles worldwide. In 2010, Don presented "My Dream Farm", a Channel 4 series which helped people learn to become successful smallholders, and "Mastercrafts", a BBC series which celebrated six traditional British crafts. "Monty Don's Italian Gardens" aired on the BBC in 2011, which was followed by "Monty Don's French Gardens", in 2013. Later that year, Don presented an episode of "Great British Garden Revival". In 2014, Don became the lead presenter for the BBC's flagship Chelsea Flower Show coverage, again replacing Titchmarsh.


title: Monty Don

text: In 2015, Don presented the four-part BBC series "The Secret History of the British Garden", charting the development of British gardens from the 17th to the 20th century. Since 2014, Don has presented three series of "Big Dreams, Small Spaces", where he helps amateur gardeners in creating their own "dream spaces" on a domestic scale. Don's next series was "Monty Don's Paradise Gardens" in 2018, travelling across the Islamic world and beyond in search of paradise gardens and considering their place in the Quran. This was followed by "Monty Don's Japanese Gardens" in 2019, "Monty Don's American Gardens" in 2020, and "Monty Don's Adriatic Gardens" in 2022.


title: Monty Don

text: Don has described himself primarily as a writer, "who happens to have lots of television work." By the early 1990s, Don had written two unpublished novels, "The Clematis Affair" and "An Afternoon in Padua". He later described them as "excruciatingly bad". In January 1994, Allan Jenkins, then editor of "The Observer", invited Don to write a weekly gardening column for the newspaper. The column began in February of that year and lasted until May 2006; Jenkins was his editor for seven years. In a piece from 2004 to commemorate the tenth year of the column, Don wrote: "It has been more life-changing than any other work I have done in my adult life." Don has written articles for the "Daily Mail" and Mail Online since 2004.


title: Monty Don

text: In 2005 the book "The Jewel Garden: A Story of Despair and Redemption", a joint autobiography and the story of their home and gardens at Longmeadow, by Don and his wife Sarah, was published by Routledge.


title: Monty Don

text: In 2016 Hodder Books published an audiobook of Don's "Nigel: My Family and Other Dogs", read by the author.


title: Monty Don

text: Between 2008 and 2016 Don was President of the Soil Association. He is currently a patron of Bees for Development Trust and the Pope's Grotto Preservation Trust.


title: Monty Don

text: Don had never received formal training as a gardener. In 2006 he commented, "I was – am – an amateur gardener and a professional writer. My only authority came from a lifetime of gardening and a passion amounting to an obsession for my own garden."


title: Monty Don

text: Don is a keen proponent of organic gardening, becoming "officially" organic in his own garden in 1997. The practice of organic techniques often features in his published and broadcast work. The organic approach is most prominent in his 2003 book "The Complete Gardener". This has led him into some controversy with those advocating non-organic techniques, with some criticising his position of influence presenting "Gardeners' World" and exclusion of non-organic solutions to pests and diseases in the garden.


title: Monty Don

text: Don's sartorial style in the garden has been the subject of some critical attention, with Richard D. North commenting, in 2013:


title: Monty Don

text: In June 2020 "Prospect" magazine declared Don "the nation's gardener". Comedian Joe Lycett has described Monty Don as a gay icon.


title: Monty Don

text: Don married Sarah Erskine in 1983. They have two sons, Adam and Tom, and daughter Freya. The couple lived in Islington, north London, while Don pursued postgraduate study at the London School of Economics and worked as a waiter at Joe Allen restaurant in Covent Garden and later as a binman. The couple then moved to the De Beauvoir Town area of Hackney where they made their first garden. In 1989, they relocated to The Hanburies, a country house in Herefordshire. The making of the garden there, and the subsequent loss of the house in the aftermath of the crash of their jewellery business, was the subject of Don's first book, "The Prickotty Bush". In 1991, the Dons bought a home in Ivington, Herefordshire where they started to create a new garden named Longmeadow. The home was unfit to live in at the time of purchase, so while they refurbished it they rented a home in Leominster that was infested with rats and had no heating. They moved into their Ivington home at the end of 1992.


title: Monty Don

text: Don has owned many dogs throughout his adult life. Three that he currently own are Nellie and Ned, Golden Retrievers, and Patti, a Yorkshire terrier; which are seen on camera with Don on "Gardeners' World". He also owns dogs that are not featured on the show. The coppice at Longmeadow holds the graves of Dons' other pets, including dogs Beaufort, Red, Poppy and Barry, and cats Stimpy and Blue. Don also has a sheep farm, on which he keeps 500 ewes.


title: Monty Don

text: Nigel was a male Golden Retriever dog owned by Don. Nigel made many appearances on "Gardeners' World", sometimes with Nellie. The dog was chosen as a seven-week-old puppy from a litter in the Forest of Dean on 1 July 2008 and was popular with viewers who were concerned when he disappeared from the programme in September 2012. He had injured himself after twisting sideways when jumping to catch a tennis ball and had ruptured an intervertebral disc in his spine. Nigel recovered and resumed his television appearances.


title: Monty Don

text: Don said that he had chosen Nigel because the domestic dog signifies the good and bad in human relationships with nature; humans can prioritise fluffy animals over others. In September 2016 an autobiographical book entitled "Nigel: my family and other dogs" was published, telling the story of Nigel and the other dogs in Don's life, including the female golden retriever, Nellie. On 11 May 2020 Don announced, through his Twitter and Instagram pages, that Nigel had died, six days before his 12th birthday. Don told the BBC Radio 4 "Today" programme that Nigel had been more than a companion and had helped him with his struggles with depression. He said, "He was a bear of slightly limited brain, what he had was this absolute sense of purity. He exuded a kind of unsullied innocence and we all love our dogs, everybody thinks their dog is special, I've had lots of dogs and there was something special about Nigel." As with Don's other dogs, Nigel is buried in the garden at Longmeadow.


title: Monty Don

text: Don has suffered with depression since his mid-twenties. He first wrote about his experiences with it, and its effect on his personal life, in a piece for "The Observer" in 2000. His editor recalled that it "changed the way that people saw him" and Don himself said the article generated "a very immediate response" from readers. Don recalled "great spans of muddy time" in his life and realised that gardening "heals me better than any medicine". This quote served as the inspiration for William Doyle's 2021 album "Great Spans of Muddy Time".


title: Monty Don

text: At one point, Don's wife threatened to leave with their children if he did not seek help. After receiving cognitive behavioural therapy and taking Prozac for a short time, Don quit both when he realised his depression was mostly seasonal, which he attributed to seasonal affective disorder, and found relief with a lightbox.


title: Monty Don

text: In August 2007, Don suffered from a bout of peritonitis, an abdominal infection. His wife had found him unconscious on the floor and he was rushed to hospital for emergency surgery.


title: Monty Don

text: In February 2008, Don suffered a minor stroke at home. He had been feeling unwell since the Christmas prior, mostly due to exhaustion from travelling to film "Around the World in 80 Gardens". When his symptoms did not improve, a brain scan weeks later revealed a temporary blockage in one of his arteries to the brain. In May 2008 he put his career on hold to recover.


title: Monty Don

text: In 2015 Don said that years of gardening had left him with sore knees, one of which causes constant pain and needs replacing.


title: Monty Don

text: In July 2006 he appeared on BBC Radio 4's "Desert Island Discs", choosing an eclectic mix of pop and classical records; the Beatles' "A Hard Day's Night" was his favourite disc, his book choice was "Collected Poems" by Henry Vaughan and his luxury item the painting "Hendrikje Bathing" by Rembrandt.


title: Monty Don

text: Shortly before he fell ill with his stroke, Don had launched the Monty Don Project, a charity to help persistent offenders and drug addicts heal themselves by working the land.


title: Monty Don

text: Don was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2018 Birthday Honours for services to horticulture, to broadcasting and to charity.


title: Monty Don

text: In May 2022 he was awarded the Victoria Medal of Honour by the council of the Royal Horticultural Society.


title: Josephine Tewson

text: Josephine Ann Tewson (26 February 1931 – 18 August 2022) was an English actress, best known for her roles in British television sitcoms, such as Edna Hawkins ("Mrs H") in "Shelley", Elizabeth "Liz" Warden in "Keeping Up Appearances" (1990–1995), and Miss Davenport in "Last of the Summer Wine" (2003–2010).


title: Josephine Tewson

text: Tewson was born in Hampstead, London on 26 February 1931. Her father, William, was a professional musician and played the double bass in the BBC Symphony Orchestra; her mother, Kate (née Morley, born 1908), was a nurse, the daughter of Haydn Morley who captained Sheffield Wednesday in the 1890 FA Cup Final. After grammar school, Tewson studied at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art from which she graduated in 1952.


title: Josephine Tewson

text: A regular comedy performer in sketches featuring Ronnie Corbett and Ronnie Barker on "David Frost on Sunday" and "Hark at Barker" (1969), she later appeared in "Mostly Monkhouse", a BBC Radio Comedy programme with David Jason supporting Bob Monkhouse. She also appeared a few times in "Z-Cars" (1963–69) and "The Charlie Drake Show" (1968). Tewson played Edna Hawkins (usually referred to as "Mrs H" by Shelley) in the first six series of the British sitcom "Shelley" (1979–82). Later, she played Jane Travers in Ronnie Barker's sitcom "Clarence" (1988), which he also wrote, and was his last starring television role before his retirement.


title: Josephine Tewson

text: Tewson was featured with John Inman in "Odd Man Out" (1977), an unsuccessful sitcom in which they played adult half-siblings who had recently met. She was rumoured to be Inman's cousin, though she has denied this idea in several interviews. She appeared in the 1984 children's film "Gabrielle and the Doodleman" as the characters Mrs. Briggs (Gabrielle's father's housekeeper) and the Fairy Godmother.


title: Josephine Tewson

text: Tewson was well-known in England for her role as Elizabeth Warden, neighbour and reluctant confidante of social wannabe Hyacinth Bucket in "Keeping Up Appearances". Tewson appeared in nearly every episode for the 5 series run, providing a counter to "Mrs Bucket".


title: Josephine Tewson

text: Tewson appeared semi-regularly as Miss Davenport in "Last of the Summer Wine" (2003–2010), a series written by Roy Clarke who also wrote "Keeping Up Appearances". She also appeared in two episodes of the documentary series "Comedy Connections", talking about her work in "Keeping Up Appearances" (2004) and opposite "The Two Ronnies" (2005). In 2009, she played the role of Iris in the radio drama "Leaves in Autumn" written by Susan Casanove, produced by the Wireless Theatre Company.


title: Josephine Tewson

text: Other television appearances were in an episode of "Heartbeat" ("Closing The Book", 2002) and as the competition judge, Samantha Johnstone, in an episode in the mystery drama "Midsomer Murders" ("Judgement Day", 2000). She was featured in two episodes of "Doctors" as kleptomaniac, Audrey Wilson, ("Now You See It...", 2009) and as Marjorie Page, a woman in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease ("The Bespectacled Bounder", 2012). Tewson played a school teacher in a Sugar Puffs "I Want My Honey" advert during the late 1980s/early 1990s. Tewson played a nanny in a 30-second commercial for Nabisco Fruit Newtons, first aired in 1997 in the United States.


title: Josephine Tewson

text: In 2012, Tewson launched her one-woman show, "Still Keeping Up Appearances?", and toured across the UK until early 2019.


title: Josephine Tewson

text: Tewson was married to actor Leonard Rossiter from 1958 until their divorce in 1961. She later married Henry Newman in 1972, who died in 1980.


title: Archive

text: An archive is an accumulation of historical records or materials – in any medium – or the physical facility in which they are located.


title: Archive

text: Archives contain primary source documents that have accumulated over the course of an individual or organization's lifetime, and are kept to show the function of that person or organization. Professional archivists and historians generally understand archives to be records that have been naturally and necessarily generated as a product of regular legal, commercial, administrative, or social activities. They have been metaphorically defined as "the secretions of an organism", and are distinguished from documents that have been consciously written or created to communicate a particular message to posterity.


title: Archive

text: In general, archives consist of records that have been selected for permanent or long-term preservation on grounds of their enduring cultural, historical, or evidentiary value. Archival records are normally unpublished and almost always unique, unlike books or magazines of which many identical copies may exist. This means that archives are quite distinct from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, although archival collections can often be found within library buildings.


title: Archive

text: A person who works in archives is called an archivist. The study and practice of organizing, preserving, and providing access to information and materials in archives is called archival science. The physical place of storage can be referred to as an archive (more usual in the United Kingdom), an archives (more usual in the United States), or a repository.


title: Archive

text: The computing use of the term "archive" should not be confused with the record-keeping meaning of the term.


title: Archive

text: The English word "archive" is derived from the French "archives" (plural), and in turn from Latin "archīum" or "archīvum", the romanized form of the Greek ("arkheion"). The Greek term originally referred to the home or dwelling of the Archon, a ruler or chief magistrate, in which important official state documents were filed and interpreted; from there its meaning broadened to encompass such concepts as "town hall" and "public records". The root of the Greek word is ("arkhē"), meaning among other things "magistracy, office, government", and derived from the verb ("arkhō"), meaning "to begin, rule, govern" (also the root of English words such as "anarchy" and "monarchy").


title: Archive

text: The word "archive" is first attested in English in the early 17th century, and the word "archivist" in the mid 18th century, although in these periods both terms are usually found used only in reference to foreign institutions and personnel. Not until the late 19th century did they begin to be used at all widely in domestic contexts.


title: Archive

text: The practice of keeping official documents is very old. Archaeologists have discovered archives of hundreds (and sometime thousands) of clay tablets going back to the third and second millennia BC in sites like Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Hattusas, Ugarit, and Pylos. These discoveries have been fundamental to learning about ancient alphabets, languages, literature, and politics.


title: Archive

text: Archives were well developed by the ancient Chinese, the ancient Greeks, and ancient Romans (who called them "Tabularia"). However, those archives have been lost, since documents written on materials like papyrus and paper deteriorated relatively quickly, unlike their clay tablet counterparts. Archives of churches, kingdoms, and cities from the Middle Ages survive and have often kept their official status uninterruptedly to the present. They are the basic tool for historical research on this period.


title: Archive

text: England after 1066 developed archives and archival access methods. The Swiss developed archival systems after 1450.


title: Archive

text: The first predecessors of archival science in the West are Jacob von Rammingen's manuals of 1571. and Baldassarre Bonifacio's "De Archivis libris singularis" of 1632.


title: Archive

text: Modern archival thinking has some roots dating back to the French Revolution. The French National Archives, which possess perhaps the largest archival collection in the world (with records going as far back as 625 A.D.), were created in 1790 during the Revolution from various government, religious, and private archives seized by the revolutionaries.


title: Archive

text: In 1883 French archivist Gabriel Richou published the first Western text on archival theory, entitled "Traité théorique et pratique des archives publiques" ("Treaty of Theory and Practice of the Public Archives"), in which he systematized the archival theory of the "respect des fonds", first published by Natalis de Wailly in 1841.


title: Archive

text: Historians, genealogists, lawyers, demographers, filmmakers, and others conduct research at archives. The research process at each archive is unique, and depends upon the institution that houses the archive. While there are many kinds of archives, the most recent census of archivists in the United States identifies five major types: academic, business (for profit), government, non-profit, and other. There are also four main areas of inquiry involved with archives: material technologies, organizing principles, geographic locations, and tangled embodiments of humans and non-humans. These areas help to further categorize what kind of archive is being created.


title: Archive

text: Archives in colleges, universities, and other educational facilities are typically housed within a library, and duties may be carried out by an archivist. Academic archives exist to preserve institutional history and serve the academic community. An academic archive may contain materials such as the institution's administrative records, personal and professional papers of former professors and presidents, memorabilia related to school organizations and activities, and items the academic library wishes to remain in a closed-stack setting, such as rare books or thesis copies. Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior appointment only; some have posted hours for making inquiries. Users of academic archives can be undergraduates, graduate students, faculty and staff, scholarly researchers, and the general public. Many academic archives work closely with alumni relations departments or other campus institutions to help raise funds for their library or school. Qualifications for employment may vary. Entry-level positions usually require an undergraduate diploma, but typically archivists hold graduate degrees in history or library science (preferably certified by a body such as the American Library Association). Subject-area specialization becomes more common in higher ranking positions.


title: Archive

text: Archives located in for-profit institutions are usually those owned by a private business. Examples of prominent business archives in the United States include Coca-Cola (which also owns the separate museum World of Coca-Cola), Procter and Gamble, Motorola Heritage Services and Archives, and Levi Strauss & Co. These corporate archives maintain historic documents and items related to the history and administration of their companies. Business archives serve the purpose of helping their corporations maintain control over their brand by retaining memories of the company's past. Especially in business archives, records management is separate from the historic aspect of archives. Workers in these types of archives may have any combination of training and degrees, from either a history or library background. These archives are typically not open to the public and only used by workers of the owner company, though some allow approved visitors by appointment. Business archives are concerned with maintaining the integrity of their company, and are therefore selective of how their materials may be used.


title: Archive

text: Government archives include those maintained by local and state government as well as those maintained by the national (or federal) government. Anyone may use a government archive, and frequent users include reporters, genealogists, writers, historians, students, and people seeking information on the history of their home or region. Many government archives are open to the public and no appointment is required to visit.


title: Archive

text: In the United States, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) maintains central archival facilities in the District of Columbia and College Park, Maryland, with regional facilities distributed throughout the United States. Some city or local governments may have repositories, but their organization and accessibility varies widely. Similar to the library profession, certification requirements and education also varies widely, from state to state. Professional associations themselves encourage the need to professionalize. NARA offers the Certificate of Federal Records Management Training Program for professional development. The majority of state and local archives staff hold a bachelor's degree—increasingly repositories list advanced degrees (e.g. MA, MLS/MLIS, PhD) and certifications as a position requirement or preference.


title: Archive

text: In the UK, the National Archives (formerly known as the Public Record Office) is the government archive for England and Wales. The physical records stored by the National Archives amount to of shelving, a number that increases every year. The English Heritage Archive is the public archive of English Heritage. The National Records of Scotland, located in Edinburgh, serve that country; while the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland in Belfast is the government archive for Northern Ireland.


title: Archive

text: A network of county record offices and other local authority-run archives exists throughout England, Wales, and Scotland and holds many important collections, including local government, landed estates, church, and business records. Many archives have contributed catalogues to the national "Access to Archives" programme and online searching across collections is possible.


title: Archive

text: In France, the French Archives Administration ("Service interministériel des Archives de France") in the Ministry of Culture supervises the National Archives ("Archives nationales"), which possess of physical records (the total length of occupied shelves put next to each other), with original records going as far back as A.D. 625, and 74.75 terabytes (74,750 GB) of electronic archives, as well as the National Overseas Archives (ANOM, of physical records), the (ANMT, of physical records), and all local public archives (departmental archives, or "archives départementales", located in the "préfectures" of each of the 100 "départements" of France plus the City of Paris, more than 400 municipal archives in the larger towns and cities of France, and 12 newer regional archives) which possess of physical records and 225.25 terabytes of electronic archives (). Put together, the total volume of archives under the supervision of the French Archives Administration is the largest in the world.


title: Archive

text: The archives of the French Ministry of Armed Forces (Defence Historical Service, ca. of physical records) and the archives of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (, ca. of physical records) are managed separately by their respective ministries and do not fall under the jurisdiction of the Archives of France Administration.


title: Archive

text: Most intergovernmental organisations keep their own historical archives. However, a number of European organisations, including the European Commission, choose to deposit their archives with the European University Institute in Florence.


title: Archive

text: Archdioceses, dioceses, and parishes also have archives in the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches. Very important are monastery archives, because of their antiquity, like the ones of Monte Cassino, Saint Gall, and Fulda. The records in these archives include manuscripts, papal records, local church records, photographs, oral histories, audiovisual materials, and architectural drawings.


title: Archive

text: Most Protestant denominations have archives as well, including the Presbyterian Historical Society, The Moravian Church Archives, The Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives, the United Methodist Archives and History Center of the United Methodist Church, and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).


title: Archive

text: Non-profit archives include those in historical societies, not-for-profit businesses such as hospitals, and the repositories within foundations. Such repositories are typically set up with private funds from donors to preserve the papers and history of specific persons or places. These institutions may rely on grant funding from the government as well as private funds. Depending on the availability of funds, non-profit archives may be as small as the historical society in a rural town to as big as a state historical society that rivals a government archives. Users of this type of archive may vary as much as the institutions that hold them. Employees of non-profit archives may be professional archivists, paraprofessionals, or volunteers, as the education required for a position at a non-profit archive varies with the demands of the collection's user base.


title: Archive

text: Web archiving is the process of collecting portions of the World Wide Web and ensuring the collection is preserved in an archive, such as an archive site, for future researchers, historians, and the public. Due to the massive size of the Web, web archivists typically employ web crawlers for automated collection.


title: Archive

text: Some archives defy categorization. There are tribal archives within the Native American nations in North America, and there are archives that exist within the papers of private individuals. Many museums keep archives in order to prove the provenance of their pieces. Any institution or persons wishing to keep their significant papers in an organized fashion that employs the most basic principles of archival science may have an archive. In the 2004 census of archivists taken in the United States, 2.7% of archivists were employed in institutions that defied categorization. This was a separate figure from the 1.3% that identified themselves as self-employed.


title: Archive

text: Another type of archive is the Public Secrets project. This is an interactive testimonial, in which women incarcerated in the California State Prison System describe what happened to them. The archive's mission is to gather stories from women who want to express themselves, and want their stories heard. This collection includes transcripts and an audio recording of the women telling their stories.


title: Archive

text: The archives of an individual may include letters, papers, photographs, computer files, scrapbooks, financial records, or diaries created or collected by the individual – regardless of medium or format. The archives of an organization (such as a corporation or government) tend to contain other types of records, such as administrative files, business records, memos, official correspondence, and meeting minutes. Some archives are made up of a compilation of both types of collections. An example of this type of combined compilation is The Transgender Archives at the University of Victoria which contain a multitude of collections of donations from both individuals and organizations from all over the world. Many of these donations have yet to be cataloged, but are currently in the process of being digitally preserved and made available to the public online.


title: Archive

text: The Arctic World Archive is a commercially-run facility for data preservation located in the Svalbard archipelago, Norway, which contains data of historical and cultural interest from several countries, as well as all of American multinational company GitHub's open source code. The data is kept on reels of specially developed film in a steel vault buried deep beneath the permafrost, with the data storage medium expected to last for 500 to 1000 years.


title: Archive

text: The International Council on Archives (ICA) has developed a number of standards on archival description including the General International Standard Archival Description ISAD(G). ISAD(G) is meant to be used in conjunction with national standards or as a basis for nations to build their own standards. In the United States, ISAD(G) is implemented through , popularly known as "DACS". In Canada, ISAD(G) is implemented through the Council of Archives as the Rules for Archival Description, also known as "RAD".


title: Archive

text: The cultural property stored in archives is threatened by natural disasters, wars or other emergencies in many countries. International partners for archives are UNESCO and Blue Shield International in accordance with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property from 1954 and its 2nd Protocol from 1999. From a national and international perspective, there are many collaborations between archives and local Blue Shield organizations to ensure the sustainable existence of cultural property storage facilities. In addition to working with the United Nations peacekeeping in the event of war, the protection of the archives requires the creation of "no strike lists", the linking of civil and military structures and the training of local personnel.


title: Archive

text: Archives that primarily contain physical artifacts and printed documents are increasingly shifting to digitizing items that did not originate digitally, which are then usually stored away. This allows for greater accessibility when using search tools and databases as well as an increase in the availability of digitized materials from outside the physical parameters of an archive; but there may be an element of loss or disconnect when there are gaps in what items are made available digitally. Both physical and digital archives also generally have specific limitations regarding the types of content that is deemed able to be preserved, categorized, and archived. Conventional institutionalized archive spaces have a tendency to prioritize tangible items over ephemeral experiences, actions, effects, and even bodies. This type of potentially biased prioritization may be seen as a form of privileging particular types of knowledge or interpreting certain experiences as more valid than others, limiting the content available to archive users, leading to barriers in accessing information and potentially the alienation of under-represented and/or marginalized populations and their epistemologies and ontologies.


title: Archive

text: As a result of this perceived under-representation, some activists are making efforts to decolonize contemporary archival institutions that may employ hegemonic and white supremacist practices by implementing subversive alternatives such as anarchiving or counter-archiving with the intention of making intersectional accessibility a priority for those who cannot or do not want to access contemporary archival institutions. An example of this is Morgan M. Page’s description of disseminating transgender history directly to trans people through various social media and networking platforms like tumblr, Twitter, and Instagram, as well as via podcast. While the majority of archived materials are typically well conserved within their collections, anarchiving’s attention to ephemerality also brings to light the inherent impermanence and gradual change of physical objects over time as the result of being handled.


title: Archive

text: The concept of counter-archiving brings into question what tends to be considered archivable and what is therefore selected to be preserved within conventional contemporary archives. With the options available through counter-archiving, there is the potential to "challenge traditional conceptions of history" as they are perceived within contemporary archives, which creates space for narratives that are often not present in many archival materials. The unconventional nature of counter-archiving practices makes room for the maintaining of ephemeral qualities contained within certain historically significant experiences, performances, and personally or culturally relevant stories that do not typically have a space in conventional archives.


title: David Keith (actor)

text: David Lemuel Keith (born May 8, 1954) is an American actor and director. His breakthrough role was that of aspiring Navy pilot Sid Worley in "An Officer and a Gentleman" (1982), for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe Award. The positive reception for this role led to leading parts in the films "The Lords of Discipline" (1983), "Firestarter" (1984) and "White of the Eye" (1987). Keith had supporting roles in features including "Major League II" (1994), "The Indian in the Cupboard" (1995), "U-571" (2000), "Men of Honor" (2000) and "Daredevil" (2003).


title: David Keith (actor)

text: Keith was born in Knoxville, Tennessee, the son of Hilda Earle, a worker for the Knox County Board of Education, and Lemuel Grady Keith, Jr., a personnel division worker for the Tennessee Valley Authority. His cousin is Mike Keith, play-by-play announcer for the Tennessee Titans NFL football team.


title: David Keith (actor)

text: Keith had an early supporting role in the prison film "Brubaker". He had supporting roles in "The Rose", starring Bette Midler, and "An Officer and a Gentleman", with Richard Gere. Keith played a local thug in "The Great Santini", starred in "The Lords of Discipline" and "White of the Eye", and held a prominent supporting role in "U-571" opposite Matthew McConaughey. He played opposite child-star Drew Barrymore in the 1984 thriller "Firestarter" and Brooke Shields in 1992's "Running Wild". He is also well known for his role as Jack Parkman in Major League II starring Charlie Sheen and Tom Berenger.


title: David Keith (actor)

text: Keith played Elvis Presley in the 1988 film "Heartbreak Hotel". He directed "The Curse" and "The Further Adventures of Tennessee Buck" (in which he also starred). He appeared in "Ernest Goes to School" as Squint Westwood (a spoof of Clint Eastwood) and in "The Indian in the Cupboard" as the cowboy "Boo-Hoo" Boone. He played the leading role of Nate Springfield in the 2003 film "Hangman's Curse". He also co-starred in "The Class", an American sitcom, as Yonk Allen, a retired professional football player. Other roles include parts in "Daredevil" and the 2002 television film "Carrie". He appeared in the 2004 film "Raise Your Voice" starring Hilary Duff, and the 2006 film "Expiration Date".


title: David Keith (actor)

text: He has appeared on many television series, including "NCIS", "", "", "", "High Incident" and "Hawaii Five-0". In 2010, Keith co-starred as John Allen, father of Robert Allen (James Wolk) in the short-lived television drama "Lone Star".


title: David Keith (actor)

text: Keith married Nancy Clark, a realtor, in 2000; the couple divorced in 2016. They have two children, Presley and Coulter. He is an avid University of Tennessee Volunteers fan and is present on the sidelines for Volunteer football games when his schedule allows.


title: David Keith (actor)

text: Keith was a National Advisory Board member and spokesperson for PROTECT: The National Association to Protect Children. Keith was present during the sentencing phase for John Couey, who was convicted of kidnapping, raping, and murdering Jessica Lunsford. Keith said that he was planning on going to Washington, D.C. with Mark Lunsford after the sentencing, to lobby Congress for more support of sex offender laws. Keith gave an interview with Tampa Bay ABC affiliate WFTS-TV, and was quoted as saying:One of the great things I said about Mark (Lunsford) is he wants justice and he wants closure in this; he wants justice for his daughter. But what he really wants is to protect children and if we can get child molesters in jail, that's the way you protect children!


title: Silovik

text: In the Russian political lexicon, a silovik (; plural: "siloviki", ) is a person who works in the Russian Armed Forces, the Russian national police, the Russian national drug control, the Russian immigration control (GUVM), the Ministry of Justice, FSB political police, former KGB, GRU, the Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR), the Federal Protective Service (FSO) and any other state organisation that is authorised to use force against people. This word is also used for a politician who came into politics from these organisations.


title: Silovik

text: "Siloviki" is also used as a collective noun to designate all troops and officers of all law enforcement agencies of post-Soviet countries, not necessarily high-ranking ones.


title: Silovik

text: The term "siloviki" ('siloviks') is literally translated as "people of force" or "strongmen" (from Russian "сила", "force"). It originated from the phrase "institutions of force" (), which appeared in the early Boris Yeltsin era (early 1990s) to denote the military-style uniformed services, including the military proper, the police (Ministry of Internal Affairs), national security (FSB) organizations and some other structures.


title: Silovik

text: A similar term is "securocrat" (law enforcement and intelligence officer). Daniel Treisman in turn proposed a term "silovarch" (silovik and oligarch).


title: Silovik

text: Siloviki often wish to encourage a view that they might be seen in Russia as being generally non-ideological, with a pragmatic law-and-order focus and Russian national interests at heart. They are generally well educated and bring past commercial experience to their government posts. It is assumed that siloviki have a natural preference for the reemergence of a strong Russian state.


title: Silovik

text: The siloviki do not form a cohesive group. They do not have a single leader and there is no common, articulated "silovik agenda". However, according to John P. Willerton, these security-intelligence officials brought the work ethic and skills—that Putin apparently favoured—to the administration.


title: Silovik

text: A former KGB general said that "a Chekist is a breed... A good KGB heritage—a father or grandfather, say, who worked for the service—is highly valued by today's siloviki. Marriages between siloviki clans are also encouraged."


title: Silovik

text: Senior siloviki under the presidency of Vladimir Putin included Sergei Ivanov, Viktor Ivanov, Sergei Shoigu, Igor Sechin, Nikolai Patrushev, Alexander Bortnikov and Sergey Naryshkin who had close working relationships with Putin and held key positions in Putin's governments. Willerton points out, however, that it is difficult to assess if their common security-intelligence background translates into common political preferences.


title: Silovik

text: Following the 2011 Russian protests, Russian president Dmitri Medvedev, having made promises of political reform, nevertheless appointed several siloviki to prominent positions in the government: Sergei Ivanov to chief of staff of the presidential administration; Dmitry Rogozin to deputy prime minister; and Vyacheslav Volodin to deputy chief of staff.


title: Silovik

text: Putin's chief national security adviser, Nikolai Patrushev, who believed that the West has been in an undeclared war with Russia for years, was a leading figure behind Russia's updated national security strategy, published in May 2021. It stated that Russia may use "forceful methods" to "thwart or avert unfriendly actions that threaten the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Russian Federation".


title: Hyperbole

text: Hyperbole (; adj. hyperbolic ) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally 'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and creates strong impressions. As a figure of speech, it is usually not meant to be taken literally.


title: Hyperbole

text: 'Hyperbole' is derived from the "huperbolḗ" by way of Latin. The word is composed from "hupér" 'above, beyond' and "bállō" 'throw'.


title: Hyperbole

text: Unlike most English words beginning with "hyper-", it is stressed on the second syllable. The first known use is in the 15th century.


title: Hyperbole

text: Hyperbole is often used for emphasis or effect. In casual speech, it functions as an intensifier: saying "the bag weighed a ton" simply means that the bag was extremely heavy. The rhetorical device may be used for serious or ironic or comic effects. Understanding hyperbole and its use in context can help understand the speaker's point. Hyperbole generally conveys feelings or emotions from the speaker, or from those who the speaker may talk about. It can be used in a form of humor, excitement, distress, and many other emotions, all depending on the context in which the speaker uses it.


title: Hyperbole

text: Hyperbole is one of the most widely recognized and used forms of figurative language in everyday life. It is used heavily in advertising and entertainment. Advertisers use hyperbole to exaggerate the benefits of products to boost sales. Repetitive hyperbole is used in public relations to increase the popularity of a person or product. It is also used in propaganda, giving it a bad reputation.


title: Hyperbole

text: Rhetorical hyperbole is defined as "extravagant exaggeration employed for rhetorical effect" for First Amendment purposes. Greenbelt Cooperative Pub. Ass’n v. Bresler (1970), Letter Carriers v. Austin (1974) and Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. (1989) are notable cases. In Watts v. United States (1969) the defendant was absolved of federal anti-threat punishment for saying "the first person he would put in his scope is L.B.J."; the court found this to be "political hyperbole".


title: Hyperbole

text: Hyperbole has been used throughout literature for many centuries. Heroic dramas, which are dramas with an emphasis on grandeur and excess, often make use of hyperbole to extend the effect and epic nature of the genre. Modern tall tales also make use of hyperbole to exaggerate the feats and characteristics of their protagonists. For example, the American tall tale about Paul Bunyan relies heavily on hyperbole to establish Bunyan's giant stature and abilities.


title: Hyperbole

text: For hyperbole to be effective it needs to be obvious, deliberate, and outlandish. Using hyperbolic speech as a character trait can denote an unreliable narrator.


title: Hyperbole

text: Emerson's "Concord Hymn" uses hyperbole in the lines "Here once the embattled farmers stood / And fired the shot heard round the world."


title: Hyperbole

text: In Kurt Vonnegut's "Slaughterhouse-Five", the protagonist emerges from his shelter to find total destruction, and makes the hyperbolic statement that "Dresden was like the moon now, nothing but minerals." The hyperbole conveys how completely the city was ruined.


title: Hyperbole

text: One of the most frequently used hyperboles in English is the word "literally". It became a controversial issue when people began to use "literally" to mean "figuratively" (the exact opposite). Many dictionaries now document the meaning as "to acknowledge that something is not literally true but is used for emphasis or to express strong feeling". Hence, "literally" has become one of the primary ways to exaggerate and hyperbolize a statement.


title: Susan Clark

text: Susan Clark (born Nora Golding; March 8, 1943) is a Canadian actress, known for her movie roles such as "Coogan's Bluff" and "", and for her role as Katherine Papadopolis on the American television sitcom "Webster", on which she appeared with her husband, Alex Karras.


title: Susan Clark

text: Clark was born Nora Golding in Sarnia, Ontario, the daughter of Eleanor Almond (née McNaughton) and George Raymond Golding.


title: Susan Clark

text: In the early 1960s Clark travelled to the UK where she appeared in several television series episodes.


title: Susan Clark

text: She was employed by Universal Pictures from 1967 where she appeared in several television series and made her feature film debut in "Banning".


title: Susan Clark

text: Clark had leading roles in several Universal films, including "Coogan's Bluff" with Clint Eastwood in 1968, "Tell Them Willie Boy Is Here" with Robert Redford in 1969, "Valdez Is Coming" with Burt Lancaster in 1971, "Showdown" with Dean Martin in 1973, "Night Moves" with Gene Hackman in 1975, the disaster film "Airport 1975", "The Apple Dumpling Gang" with Bill Bixby in 1975, and another disaster film, "City on Fire", in 1979.


title: Susan Clark

text: In 1976, she starred in a three-hour made-for-television movie biography of the aviator Amelia Earhart which also covered her marriage to noted publisher G. P. Putnam; she received an Emmy nomination for Best Actress. She posed topless for "Playboy" in the February 1973 issue pictorial entitled "The Ziegfeld Girls: A dazzling review starring the talking pictures' own Susan Clark".


title: Susan Clark

text: Clark played Dr. Cleo Markham in "", hooker Cherry Forever in "Porky's" (in which Karras also starred), Elizabeth Murray in "Emily of New Moon", Elaine Moore in the television movie "Trapped", and Muriel Mulligan in the 1994 television movie "". She played murderess Beth Chadwick in the "Columbo" episode "Lady in Waiting".


title: Susan Clark

text: She starred in the TV movie, "Babe", playing multi-sport athlete Babe Didrikson Zaharias. Her performance won her an Emmy in 1976. She and Karras played husband and wife together on the sitcom "Webster" for six years in the 1980s.


title: Susan Clark

text: In 2006, Clark appeared at the Manitoba Theatre Centre in the Warehouse production of "The Retreat from Moscow", and in the 2007 Mainstage production of "The Importance of Being Earnest".


title: Susan Clark

text: She married American football player turned actor Alex Karras in 1980. They met when they co-starred in "Babe" (and he played her husband, professional wrestler George Zaharias). They later co-starred on the popular primetime sitcom "Webster" together, portraying husband and wife. Their daughter Katie was born in 1980 as well.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The AGM-86 ALCM is an American subsonic air-launched cruise missile (ALCM) built by Boeing and operated by the United States Air Force. This missile was developed to increase the effectiveness and survivability of the Boeing B-52H Stratofortress strategic bomber. The missile dilutes an enemy's forces and complicates air defense of its territory.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The concept started as a long-range drone aircraft that would act as a decoy, distracting Soviet air defenses from the bombers. As new lightweight nuclear weapons emerged in the 1960s, the design was modified with the intent of attacking missile and radar sites at the end of its flight. Further development extended its range so much that it emerged as a weapon allowing the B-52s to launch their attacks while still well outside Soviet airspace, saturating their defenses with hundreds of tiny, low-flying targets that were extremely difficult to see on radar.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The ALCM so improved the capabilities of the US bomber force that the Soviets developed new technologies to counter the weapon. Among these were airborne early warning aircraft and new weapons like the MiG-31 and Tor missile system specifically to shoot down the AGM-86. The Air Force responded with the development of the AGM-129 ACM, which included stealth capabilities. The ending of the Cold War led to cutbacks in this program, and its expensive maintenance eventually resulted in it being abandoned in favor of life extensions to the original ALCM.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: Examples of the AGM-86A and AGM-86B are on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum, near Washington, D.C.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The ALCM traces its history to the ADM-20 Quail missile, which began development in February 1956. Quail was the ultimate outcome of several similar programs to develop a small decoy aircraft that would be launched from bombers during their approach to targets, presenting false targets to saturate the defenses and allow the bombers to escape an attack. The small jet-powered drone aircraft had a simple inertial navigation system (INS) that allowed it to fly a pre-programmed course that would make it visible to known Soviet defensive sites. A number of radar jammers and radar reflectors were intended to make it appear like a B-52 on a radar display.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: Quail was designed in the mid-1950s when the normal attack profile for a strategic bomber was to fly as high and fast as possible to reduce the time the defenders had to respond to the aircraft before it flew out of range. This was effective against interceptor aircraft but of little use against surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), whose attack times were measured in seconds.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: This led to the adoption of low-level attacks, where the bombers would fly below the radar horizon so they could not be seen on ground-based radars. Quail, originally designed for the high-altitude mission, was modified with the addition of a barometric altimeter to allow it to fly at lower altitudes. Doing so seriously limited its effective range and flight time. In the early 1960s, the Air Force began to question the usefulness of Quail in the face of improving Soviet defenses.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: Looking for another solution to the Soviet SAM problem, in 1964 the Air Force began developing a new system that would directly attack the missile sites rather than confuse them. This emerged as the AGM-69 SRAM, with a range of about , allowing it to be launched from outside the roughly range of the SA-2 Guideline missiles it faced. Flying at Mach 3, it quickly flew out in front of the bombers, reaching the missile site before the bomber flew into the range of the SA-2.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: While highly capable against known missile locations, SRAM could do nothing to defend against unknown sites, nor help with the problem of interceptor aircraft. To deal with these threats, Quail continued to be carried, typically in pairs, providing some defense against these other threats. However, by the late 1960s the Air Force concluded "that the Quail was only slightly better than nothing."


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: In January 1968, a new requirement emerged for a modern version of Quail for this new mission, the Subsonic Cruise Aircraft Decoy, or SCAD. SCAD was designed specifically to fit onto the same rotary launcher used by SRAM, allowing a single aircraft to carry multiple SRAM and SCAD and launch either at any time. This led to it being the same length as SRAM, and the use of a fuselage with a triangular cross-section, which maximized the usable volume on the rotary launchers. The system was otherwise similar to Quail, using a simple inertial navigation system (INS) allowing the missile to fly a pre-programmed course.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: Soon after development began, it was noted that the very small nuclear warheads being developed at that time could be fit to SCAD without seriously affecting its performance as a decoy. This would allow it to act as a decoy for much of its flight, and then deliberately approach a selected defensive site and attack it. As such, the program was renamed Subsonic Cruise Armed Decoy, retaining the SCAD acronym.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: For this role, the accuracy of the original INS guidance hardware was not enough. While a similar system was also used in SRAM, its shorter range and much shorter flight times meant the drift rate of the system was not a serious concern as long as the bomber could feed it accurate information just before launch, to "zero out" the drift. In contrast, SCAD was designed to fly over much longer ranges and slower speeds, resulting in longer flight times and increasing the problem with drift; even with the drift "zeroed out" just before launch, subsequent drift during the longer flight would accumulate to an unacceptable error. To provide the accuracy needed to attack the SAM sites with a small warhead, some system was needed to zero out the drift in-flight, and for this need, a radar-based TERCOM system was added.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: Development was approved in July 1970, and it was given the designation ZAGM-86A, the Z indicating its initial development status.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: As SCAD moved from the pure-decoy role to decoy-and-attack, this meant it would be able to carry out the same mission as SRAM, but from much longer range. This would reduce the need for a decoy. Accordingly, in June 1973, SCAD was canceled in favor of a system dedicated purely to the long-range attack mission. The original designation number remained, but the name changed to reflect the new mission, becoming the Air Launched Cruise Missile, or ALCM.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The first example, similar to the original SCAD in most ways, flew for the first time in March 1976, and its new guidance system was first tested that September. In January 1977, the missile was ordered into full-scale production. Compared to the models that entered service in the 1980s, the A-model had a distinctive look; the nose tapered sharply to a triangular point giving it a shark-like appearance, compared to the later models which had a more rounded conventional appearance.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: Meanwhile, the Air Force had also issued a requirement for a version with a much longer range. This would allow the bombers to launch their missiles from far off the Russian coast, placing it outside the range of the interceptors as well. To reach the intended range, this new Extended Range Version (ERV) would have to be lengthened to contain more fuel, or external fuel tanks would have to be added. Either change would make it too large to fit on the SRAM launchers, and more annoyingly, the extended-fuselage version would be too large to fit in the bomb bay of the new B-1 Lancer bomber. The Air Force intended to replace the original ALCM with the new version at some future date.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The Navy was also in the midst of its own cruise missile project, the Sea-Launched Cruise Missile (SLCM), which ultimately emerged as the BGM-109 Tomahawk, which was similar to ALCM in many ways. In 1977, the Air Force and Navy were ordered to collaborate under the "Joint Cruise Missile Project", JCMP, with the intention of using as many parts in common as possible. After considering the two designs, the Air Force agreed to modify the ALCM with the SLCM's McDonnell Douglas AN/DPW-23 TERCOM system, as well as using its Williams F107 turbofan engine.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: While the JCMP program was taking place, the B-1 was canceled. This eliminated the need for ALCM to fit in the B-1's bomb bay, and the length limitations that implied. The Air Force decided to cancel production of the A-model ALCM, and replace it with either an air-launched version of the SLCM, or the ERV. The ERV flew in August 1979, and was declared the winner of the head-to-head fly-off against the SLCM in March 1980.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: Production of the initial 225 AGM-86B missiles began in fiscal year 1980. It entered operational use on the B-52H in August 1981 and became its primary weapon in December 1982. Production of a total 1,715 missiles was completed in October 1986. The air-launched cruise missile had become operational four years earlier, in December 1982. More than 100 launches have taken place since then, with a 90% approximate success rate.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: In June 1986 a limited number of AGM-86B missiles were converted to carry a high-explosive blast/fragmentation warhead and an internal GPS. They were redesignated as the AGM-86C CALCM. This modification also replaced the B model's TERCOM and integrated a GPS capability with the existing inertial navigation system computer .


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: In 1996 and 1997, 200 additional CALCMs were produced from excess ALCMs. These missiles, designated Block I, incorporate improvements such as a larger and improved conventional payload (1,360 kg, 3,000 lb blast class), a multi-channel GPS receiver and integration of the buffer box into the GPS receiver. The upgraded avionics package was retrofitted into all existing CALCM (Block 0) so all AGM-86C missiles are electronically identical.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: All variants of the AGM-86 missile are powered by a Williams F107 turbofan jet engine that propels it at sustained subsonic speeds and can be launched from aircraft at both high and low altitudes. The missile deploys its folded wings, tail surfaces and engine inlet after launch.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: AGM-86B/C/D missiles increase flexibility in target selection. AGM-86B missiles can be air-launched in large numbers by the bomber force. B-52H bombers carry six AGM-86B or AGM-86C missiles on each of two externally mounted pylons and eight internally on a rotary launcher, giving the B-52H a maximum capacity of 20 missiles per aircraft.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: An enemy force would have to counterattack each of the missiles individually, making defense against them costly and complicated. The enemy's defenses are further hampered by the missiles' small size and low-altitude flight capability, which makes them difficult to detect on radar.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The nuclear armed AGM-86B uses a terrain contour-matching guidance system (TERCOM) to fly to its assigned target.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The AGM-86C/D CALCM carries a conventional high-explosive payload rather than a thermonuclear payload. This is a fragmentation warhead in the AGM-86C and a unitary penetrating warhead in the AGM-86D. The AGM-86C/D uses an onboard Global Positioning System (GPS) coupled with its inertial navigation system (INS) to navigate in flight. This allows the missile to guide itself to the target with pinpoint accuracy. Litton Guidance and Control, and Interstate Electronics Corp. were the guidance contractors for the C model.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The CALCM became operational in January 1991 at the onset of Operation Desert Storm. Seven B-52Gs from Barksdale AFB launched 35 missiles at designated launch points in the U.S. Central Command's area of responsibility to attack high-priority targets in Iraq. These "round-robin" missions marked the beginning of the operation's Air Force component and were the longest known aircraft combat sorties in history at the time (more than and 35 hours of flight).


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: CALCM's next employment occurred in September 1996 during Operation Desert Strike. In response to Iraq's continued hostilities against the Kurds in northern Iraq, the Air Force launched 13 CALCMs in a joint attack with the Navy. This mission has put the CALCM program in the spotlight for future modifications. Operation Desert Strike was also the combat debut of the B-52H and the carriage of the CALCM on the weapons bay-mounted Common Strategic Rotary Launcher (CSRL). During the Operation Desert Storm, the CALCM had been carried on the B-52G and wing-mounted pylons.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The CALCM was also used in Operation Desert Fox in 1998, Operation Allied Force in 1999, and Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003. Operation Iraqi Freedom was also the combat debut of the AGM-86D, a further development of the missile which replaced the blast/fragmentation warhead of the AGM-86C with a penetrating warhead.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: In 2007 the USAF announced its intention to retire all of its AGM-129 ACMs and to reduce the ALCM fleet by more than 500 missiles, leaving 528 nuclear cruise missiles. The ALCM force will be consolidated at Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota, and all excess cruise missile bodies will be destroyed. The reductions are a result of the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty requirement to go below 2,200 deployed nuclear weapons by 2012, with the AGM-129 ACM chosen for disposal because it has reliability problems and high maintenance costs.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: Even with the SLEP (service life extension program), the remaining AGM-86s were to reach their end of service by 2020, leaving the B-52 without a nuclear mission. However, in 2012, the USAF announced plans to extend the useful life of the missiles until at least 2030.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: To replace the ALCM, the USAF planned to award a contract for the development of the new Long-Range Stand-Off (LRSO) weapon in 2015. Unlike the AGM-86, the LRSO will be carried on multiple aircraft, including the B-52, the B-2 Spirit, and the Northrop Grumman B-21. Like the AGM-86, the LRSO can be armed with either a conventional or nuclear warhead. The LRSO program is to develop a weapon that can penetrate and survive integrated air defense systems and prosecute strategic targets. Both conventional and nuclear versions of the weapon are required to reach initial operational capability (IOC) before the retirement of their respective ALCM versions, around 2030.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The technology development contracts were to be submitted before the end of 2012. In March 2014 a further three-year delay in the project was announced by the Department of Defense, delaying a contract award until fiscal year 2018. The House Armed Services Committee moved to reject this delay. The delay was caused by financial pressures and an uncertain acquisition plan, and allowed by the long remaining service life left for the AGM-86 and lack of urgent necessity compared to other defense needs.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: As of August 24, 2017, the Department of Defense has awarded both Lockheed Martin and Raytheon Corporations with $900 million to develop the LRSO. Contracts end in 2022, when the Department of Defense will select one design to continue further developments.


title: AGM-86 ALCM

text: The CALCM was retired on 20 November 2019, replaced in the conventional standoff strike role by the AGM-158B JASSM-ER.


title: Action (2019 film)

text: Action is a 2019 Indian Tamil-language action film written and directed by Sundar C. and produced by R. Ravindran under his banner Trident Arts. The film stars Vishal and Tamannaah as army officers Subhash and Diya, who embark on a globetrotting mission to hunt down a terrorist. The film co-stars Akanksha Puri, Aishwarya Lekshmi, marking the debut in Tamil cinema, Ramki, Chaya Singh, Yogi Babu, and Kabir Duhan Singh. The music was composed by Hiphop Tamizha. It also marks Vishal's second collaborations with Sundar C. after "Aambala" and with Tamannaah after "Kaththi Sandai". Sundar C makes a cameo appearance.


title: Action (2019 film)

text: "Action" was released theatrically on 15 November 2019 and received praise for action sequences, cast performances and soundtrack, but criticism directed towards the writing. It was an "average" venture at the box office, but was a success in its Hindi-dubbed version, which was released in 2020.


title: Action (2019 film)

text: Subhash is a Colonel in the Indian Army, whose father is the retired CM of Tamil Nadu, and is now succeeded by his elder son Saravanan. Subhash calls his whole family along with his lover, Meera for a short trip.Lieutenant Diya is revealed to be silently in love with Subhash. During a campaign involving the Prime Ministerial candidate Guptaji, Saravanan finds out that his friend Deepak has fled after extracting on loan. When he calls Deepak, Deepak tells him to leave the ceremony. On the other hand, Subhash tries to converse with Meera during the campaign and sends her a message.