title: In the Zone

text: Spears previewed several songs to Quddus Philippe of MTV in May 2003, including "Touch of My Hand", "Brave New Girl" and "Everytime". Spears commented, "I've really been able to take my time and have creative control and make [the new album] special, special, special." On August 27, 2003, Spears opened the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards performing a medley of "Like a Virgin/Hollywood" with Madonna, Christina Aguilera and Missy Elliott. The performance started with Spears appearing on stage on top of a giant wedding cake while wearing a wedding gown and veil; she sang the first few lines of "Like a Virgin" before Aguilera appeared from behind the cake and joined her. Madonna then emerged from the cake wearing a black coat and a hat and started singing "Hollywood" before proceeding to kiss Spears and Aguilera on the lips. Missy Elliott came out from a wedding chapel to sing her song "Work It" halfway through the performance. The kiss generated strong reaction from the media. The performance was listed by "Blender" magazine as one of the twenty-five sexiest music moments on television history. MTV listed the performance as the number-one opening moment in the history of the MTV Video Music Awards.


title: In the Zone

text: For "In the Zone", Spears worked with hit producers such as Bloodshy & Avant, R. Kelly, Diddy, Christopher Stewart, Moby, Guy Sigsworth and the Matrix. She first started writing songs for "In the Zone" during the Dream Within a Dream Tour. Spears commented about writing while touring, "The only thing that was scary to me is that I didn't know if they were good. [But] You can’t trust anybody. You have to go with your feelings." Spears commented that she was an autobiographical songwriter, although not to the point she felt self-exploited. Following the end of the tour, Spears invited her friend and backing vocalist Annet Artani to her home in Los Angeles. They started writing songs at the piano, and shortly after, they traveled to Lake Como in Lombardy, Italy. Among the tracks they worked on was "Everytime", which Artani confirmed to be written as a response to Justin Timberlake's "Cry Me a River", as well as "Shine", written by Spears about her sister Jamie Lynn, which was left unfinished. Earnest recording of the album began in May 2003. Spears commented that although she did not know initially what direction she wanted to go with the album, she took time to work with different producers and to find those who she had chemistry with. The first song recorded for "In the Zone" was "Touch of My Hand", and Spears said it "really did provide a balance for the rest of the record. We just went from there." Following the recording sessions for "Everytime", Spears complimented Sigsworth, saying, "I just basically told him exactly how I wanted the song to sound. And he was so amazing because there's a lot of producers you tell them things and they don't get it. And you're like oh, that's not the right way. He got it just right. He was amazing."


title: In the Zone

text: Christopher Stewart and Penelope Magnet, known collectively as RedZone, presented Spears with the third song they had written and produced, "Pop Culture Whore". While her management liked the track, she rejected it, telling them the song "sucked". After bonding with Spears during a night in New York City to "get in her world", as Magnet explained, it was easier to "actually write and know what she would and wouldn't say, to know where her real vibe is". Stewart and Magnet began working on the first version of "Me Against the Music"; Stewart came up with the track, while Magnet developed the melody on a piano and some of the lyrics. During the recording sessions, Stewart recalls that the studio's air-conditioning died for three days, but Spears "didn't complain or anything, and for me that shows she's where she is for a reason." While rehearsing for their performance at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards, Spears played a finished version of "Me Against the Music" to Madonna. After Madonna commented that she liked the track, Spears asked her to do the song with her. RedZone then handed "Me Against the Music" to Madonna, who arranged and recorded her vocal additions on her own, therefore making the song a duet. Spears, who has been a fan of Madonna for years, was "beyond surprised" when she heard Madonna's verse. She said "I just asked her to do a little thing, but she really went there. She did a lot of stuff to it." RedZone were then enlisted to work on several more songs for the album, including co-writing "Early Mornin'", recording background vocals for "Outrageous" and producing "The Hook Up".


title: In the Zone

text: The Matrix commented that after they presented songs to Spears, she tailored them to suit herself, especially the lyrics. Christy said, "... she really knows what she wants. She knows if she's trying something on that doesn't fit right for her. She's like, 'No, that's not me.' She's not one to strap on some sort of fake image." Christy also claimed to be impressed with Spears's vocal ability during the recording of "Shadow". Steve Anderson, Lisa Greene and Stephen Lee wrote "Breathe on Me" at Metrophonic Studios in London, England. Before meeting with the other writers, Anderson thought of two concepts for songs specifically for Spears: one he had worked on "for ages", and "Breathe on Me", which he drafted on the morning of the sessions. Greene and Lee did not like the first concept, and they wrote "Breathe on Me" with Anderson. The song was produced by Mark Taylor, who kept most of the programming done by Anderson. With Taylor, Spears recorded "Breathe on Me" and "And Then We Kiss", which did not make the album. Before the album was released, Spears's manager Larry Rudolph commented that it was important for Spears to continue moving away from a traditional pop sound, citing "I'm a Slave 4 U" and "Boys" from "Britney" as departures from her previous music. Barry Weiss, then-president of Jive Label Group, added, "She has achieved what she set out to achieve, which was to make a mature album that didn't sound like something she would have done three years while still making a commercial album that has hit singles. [...] It's the kind of record she should be doing right now, and it came down to her to make it." "In the Zone" was recorded at Battery Studios and The Dojo in New York City, 3:20 Studios, Decoy Studios, Pacifique Studios, Record Plant in Los Angeles, California, Westlake Recording Studios in West Hollywood, California, The Chocolate Factory, in Chicago, Illinois, Triangle Sound Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, Metrophonic Studios and Olympic Studios in London, England, and Murlyn Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. Throughout 2003, Spears started testing tracks by playing them in nightclubs such as Show in New York City.


title: In the Zone

text: According to "Billboard", "In the Zone" marks a musical departure for Spears. Instead of traditional pop, the album is darker and more dance-oriented. Spears talked about the overall sound of the album with "Rolling Stone", saying, "I'd describe it as trance-y, kind of vibe record—something you could listen to that's no so song-structured [...] Of course I'm not doing '...Baby One More Time' and those massive hits anymore. I think this record is where I am at right now in my life. It's sensual, it's sexual. I'm probably writing about that subconsciously because I don't have that right now." Sal Cinquemani of "Slant Magazine" described the record's sound as "bold mix of hip-hop and dance music", while Amy Schriefer of NPR stated the album "mix[es] dance, house, crunk, Diwali beats and Neptunes-style hip hop". Tom Bishop of BBC News stated that the record combines bhaṅgṛā, R&B and hip hop. Caroline Sullivan of "The Guardian" deemed "In the Zone" "a happy collision of house, dreamy electro-pop and Britney’s lyrical preoccupations [...] which have her perched on the cusp between teen poppet and sexually confident woman." According to William Shaw of "Blender", the main theme of "In the Zone" is "Spears’s awakening to her sexuality as a single woman."


title: In the Zone

text: The first single from the album, "Me Against the Music", features Madonna, but was constructed as a duet after she was added to the track. Spears and Madonna trade lines during the verses, and Madonna sings solo in the bridge. The instrumentation in the song includes influences of hip hop and funk guitars. The song's lyrics feature Spears and Madonna singing of the pleasures of letting go on the dancefloor, in "I'm up against the speaker / Trying to take on the music / It's like a competition". The second song, "I Got That (Boom Boom)", is an Atlanta-style hip hop track featuring the Ying Yang Twins. "Showdown" has "bubbly" beats and its lyrics, about "fighting and making up with carnal relations", include the lines "I don't really want to be a tease / But would you undo my zipper, please?" "Rolling Stone" classified the song a pop-dancehall. The fourth track, "Breathe on Me", was described as the most sensual song of the record and compared to Madonna's 1992 studio album "Erotica". A Euro trance and ambient-techno song with trip hop influences, Spears sings, "Oh, it's so hot, and I need some air/ And boy, don't stop 'cause I'm halfway there" and "Just put your lips together and blow." "Early Mornin'" depicts Spears looking for men at a club in New York City. The song has a percolating beat and featured subdued vocals from Spears, who purrs and yawns through the track. The nightclub Show is referenced. "Toxic", which Spears later named as her favorite song from her career, was originally offered to Australian singer Kylie Minogue. Released as the album's second single, it contains elements of hip hop, electropop, and bhangra music, and features varied instrumentation, such as drums, synthesizers, high-pitched strings and surf guitars. Lyrically, "Toxic" talks about being addicted to a lover.


title: In the Zone

text: "Outrageous", the fourth and final single from the album, is a hip hop-inspired track that according to MTV features Spears "whisper[ing] and moan[ing] [...] with a snake charmer melody giving the song an exotic feel." The lyrics talk about materialism and amusement, with the singer referencing in the chorus a number of things that give her pleasure. In "Touch of My Hand", which Spears felt it was comparable to Janet Jackson's "That's the Way Love Goes" (1993), she sings in a lower register. The instrumentation contains elements of music from the Far East (particularly in its use of the Chinese instrument, the erhu) and its lyrics refer to masturbation, "I will be bold/ Going to the places where I can be out of control/ Don't want to explain tonight/ All the things I try to hide." The ninth track "The Hook Up" has a reggae feel and features Spears singing in a Jamaican Patois accent. The power ballad "Shadow" talks about how reminders of a lover can still linger after he’s gone. "Brave New Girl" lyrics talk about a young woman finding her passion and losing inhibitions. Backed by choppy, electro-funk beats, she sings in a bouncy near-rap, "She's gonna pack her bags, she's going to find her way, she's going to get right out of this/ She don't want New York, she don't want L.A., she's going to find that special kiss." The Eurodance and pop song incorporates elements of the music of No Doubt, Blondie and Madonna. "Everytime" begins with a piano introduction accompanying Spears's breathy vocals, which build from soft to strong throughout the song. "Everytime" lyrics are a plea for forgiveness for inadvertently hurting a former lover. In the song, the singer explains she feels unable to continue in lines such as "Everytime I try to fly I fall / Without my wings I feel so small". During an interview with MTV, Spears said about the song, "It's about heartbreak, it's about your first love, your first true love. That's something all people can relate to, because you all have that first love that you think you're going to be with the rest of your life." When asked if "Everytime" was about Timberlake, she responded "I'll let the song speak for itself." The Rishi Rich's Desi Kulcha Remix of "Me Against the Music" removes the original melody of the song and adds a clattering backbeat and Punjabi shouts. In "The Answer", Spears sings that her lover is the answer to all her needs: "Who can hold me tight, keep me warm through the night? / Who can wipe my tears when it's wrong, make it right? / Who can give me love till I'm satisfied? / Who's the one I need in my life?". In "Don't Hang Up", she pleads on the phone for her lover to keep her satisfied long-distance.


title: In the Zone

text: "In the Zone" was first released in Italy and the United Kingdom on November 12, 2003, and was released in the United States on November 18. In November 2003, Barry Weiss spoke to "Billboard" and said that "In the Zone" was being promoted in a worldwide level, exhausting areas such as print and electronic media, television, radio and video to raise awareness of the album's release. In addition, Jive worked with lifestyle marketer the Karpel Group to market the album to the gay community. Other broader-based marketing efforts included a tie-in with marketing company LidRock, where after ordering a soda at Sbarro, customers received a cup featuring the artwork and a three-inch disc in the lid featuring "Brave New Girl" and songs by two other artists. In December 2003, an updated LidRock disc included a remix of "Me Against the Music" without Madonna, as well as songs by fellow Jive acts Nick Cannon and Bowling for Soup. Regal Theaters also showed a short film that included footage of the making of Spears's music videos. Two national TV advertising campaigns began on November 1, 2003, one with a teaser ad in American comedy show "Saturday Night Live" and another exclusively on MTV. No sponsored cross-marketing campaigns were planned, as Larry Rudolph explained, "[This time] it's going to be more about the music than about corporate tie-ins." In terms of international exposure, during a fourth-month period Spears was featured in seven mini TV-specials and more than one-hundred and fifty interviews outside the US.


title: In the Zone

text: Spears first performed "Me Against the Music" at the 2003 NFL Kickoff Live on September 4, 2003 at the National Mall. The performance segued into a medley of "...Baby One More Time" and "I'm a Slave 4 U", which included pyrotechnics. On September 14, 2003, Spears played a surprise concert at Rain Nightclub in the Palms Casino Resort, and performed "Me Against the Music", "Breathe on Me" and a medley of "...Baby One More Time" and "I'm a Slave 4 U". On October 18, 2003, Spears performed "Me Against the Music" and "Everytime" during the twenty-ninth season of "Saturday Night Live". Spears opened the November 2003 American Music Awards telecast with a performance of "Me Against the Music". On November 17, 2003, a concert special titled "Britney Spears: In the Zone" aired on American Broadcasting Company (ABC). The following day, she performed "Me Against the Music" and "(I Got That) Boom Boom" on the American music show "TRL" at Times Square. "Me Against the Music" was also performed on American late-night show "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" and American morning show "Live with Regis and Kelly" on November 17 and 24, 2003. She performed "Toxic", "Breathe on Me" and "Me Against the Music" as the headliner of the Jingle Ball on December 8, 2003, at the Staples Center. On January 24, 2004, Spears opened the 2004 NRJ Music Awards with a performance of "Toxic". In June 2004, Spears performed "Everytime" at the British music chart show "Top of the Pops".


title: In the Zone

text: The Onyx Hotel Tour, which promoted "In the Zone", was the fourth concert tour by Britney Spears. A tour to promote the album was announced in December 2003. Its original name was the In the Zone Tour, but Spears was sued for trademark infringement and banned from using the phrase 'in the zone'. Spears felt inspired to create a show with a hotel theme which she later mixed with the concept of an onyx stone. The stage, inspired by Broadway musicals, was less elaborate than her previous tours. The setlist was composed mostly by songs from "In the Zone" as well as some of her past songs reworked with different elements of jazz, blues and Latin percussion. Tour promoter Clear Channel Entertainment marketed the tour to a more adult audience than her previous shows while sponsor MTV highly promoted the tour on television shows and the network's website. The tour was divided into seven segments: "Check-In", "Mystic Lounge", "Mystic Garden", "The Onyx Zone", "Security Cameras", "Club" and the encore. "Check-In" displayed performances with dance and advanced in the hotel theme. "Mystic Lounge" featured an homage to "Cabaret" and other musicals, while remixing some of Spears's early hits. "Mystic Garden" displayed a jungle-inspired stage. "The Onyx Zone" displayed a ballad performance with acrobats. "Security Cameras" was the raciest part of the show, with Spears and her dancers emulating different sexual practices. "Club" displayed a performance with urban influences. The encore consisted of a system malfunction interlude and Spears performed wearing a red ensemble. The tour received mixed reviews from contemporary critics, who praised it for being an entertaining show while criticizing it for looking "more [like] a spectacle than an actual concert". The Onyx Hotel Tour was commercially successful, grossing $34 million. In March, Spears suffered a knee injury onstage which forced her to reschedule two shows. In June, Spears fell and hurt her knee again during a music video shoot. She underwent surgery and the remainder of the tour was cancelled.


title: In the Zone

text: "Me Against the Music" was released as the lead single from "In the Zone" on October 14, 2003. The label's choice for the first single was originally "Outrageous", but Spears convinced them to release "Me Against the Music". The song received mixed reviews from critics. Some felt it was a strong dance track of the album, while others referred to it as lackluster and disappointing. "Me Against the Music" achieved international success, peaking atop of the charts in countries such as Australia, Denmark, Hungary, Ireland and Spain, as well as the European Hot 100 Singles. It also peaked at number two in Canada, Italy, Norway and the United Kingdom, and inside the top five in many other countries; however, it peaked at number 35 in the US "Billboard" Hot 100, being Spears' lowest charting-lead single. The song won the "Hot Dance Single of the Year" accolade at the 2004 "Billboard" Music Awards. In the song's accompanying music video, Spears chases Madonna inside a nightclub.


title: In the Zone

text: "Toxic" was released as the album's second single on January 12, 2004. After trying to choose between "(I Got That) Boom Boom" and "Outrageous", Spears selected "Toxic" instead. The song received critical acclaim.


title: In the Zone

text: "Toxic" attained worldwide success, reaching the top five in fifteen countries, while topping the charts in Australia, Canada, Hungary, Norway and the United Kingdom. In the United States, it became her first single to peak inside the top ten in almost four years. The accompanying music video for the song portrays Spears as a secret agent in the search of a vial of green liquid. After she steals it, she enters an apartment and poisons her unfaithful boyfriend. The video also includes interspersed scenes of Spears naked with diamonds over her body. "Toxic" won Spears her first Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording, and its often referred to as one of her defining songs.


title: In the Zone

text: "Everytime" was the third single released from the album, on May 10, 2004. It received positive appreciation from contemporary critics. "Everytime" was a commercial success, peaking inside the top five in most countries, while reaching the top of the charts in Australia, Hungary, Ireland and the United Kingdom and number fifteen on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The music video for "Everytime" portrays Spears as a star hounded by paparazzi, who drowns in her bathtub when she starts bleeding from a wound in her head. In the hospital, doctors fail to resuscitate her while a child is born in the next room, implying she reincarnated. The original treatment would have had Spears killing herself from a drug overdose, but the plot was removed after it received criticism by several organizations, who perceived it as a glamorization of suicide.


title: In the Zone

text: "Outrageous" was the fourth and final single from the album, released on July 13, 2004. The song was finally chosen as a single after it was selected as the theme song for the film "Catwoman" (2004). "Outrageous" received mixed reviews from critics. Some praised its funky sound, noting its influence from Michael and Janet Jackson, while others deemed it as "forgettable". The song only charted in the United States and Japan, entering many of "Billboard"s component charts and peaking at number seventy-nine on the Hot 100. The music video was being shot in New York City in June 2004, when Spears hurt her knee and had to undergo arthroscopic surgery. The video was cancelled, as well as The Onyx Hotel Tour and the feature in the "Catwoman" soundtrack.


title: In the Zone

text: "In the Zone" received positive reception from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 66, based on 13 reviews. Jason Shawhan of About.com gave a positive review, saying that while the album's vibe is sexy, the result is a personal statement from Spears. He also added, "T[here]'s another thing about Spears' new record, as none of her previous albums ever managed to produce any kind of sustained emotional response than the pleasure that comes from a good pop record. I miss Max Martin, for sure, but it feels like Ms. S. has been paying attention to La Ciccone. To put it another way, this is Britney's "True Blue"." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that the album "[is] all club-ready, but despite some hints of neo-electro and the Neptunes, it doesn't quite sound modern—it sounds like cuts from 1993 or Madonna's "Bedtime Stories" and "Ray of Light". Production-wise, these tracks are not only accomplished but much more varied than any of her previous albums." Ruth Mitchell of the BBC called "Early Mornin'" the best track of the album, but added, "Sadly, her attempts to prove her new-found maturity are what overwhelm and cloud all that is good about "In The Zone"." Mim Udovitch of "Blender" commented, "This I’m-coming-out record is an unhesitant move from songs of the heart to songs of the groin [...] No longer a girl, freed from slavery, now fully a woman, she makes a pretty convincing mistress." David Browne of "Entertainment Weekly" called "Brave New Girl" and "Touch of My Hand" the best and most straightforward moments of the album, but added that "On a CD intended to celebrate her lurch into adulthood, Spears remains distant and submerged. For all her freedom, she's still finding her way."


title: In the Zone

text: Jon Pareles of "Rolling Stone" said, "[Spears's] voice is so processed, its physicality almost disappears. [...] "In the Zone" offers strip-club, 1-900 sex, accommodating and hollow. Beyond the glittering beats, Spears sounds about as intimate as a blowup doll." Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine stated, "Britney's fourth album, "In The Zone", finds the pop tart coming of age with a bold mix of hip-hop and dance music, wiping clean the last traces of her bubblegum-pop past. [...] For the most part, "In The Zone" is a big, fat, thumping love letter to the dancefloor, which makes Madonna's involvement [...] even more appropriate." Dorian Lynskey of "The Guardian" commented, "Unlike previous Britney albums, "In the Zone" has no filler and no shoddy cover versions, just 57 varieties of blue-chip hit-factory pop. There is southern hip-hop, deep house, Neptunes-style R&B, the ubiquitous Diwali beat and, most importantly, oodles of Madonna." Jason King of "Vibe" deemed it as "A supremely confident dance record that also illustrates Spears's development as a songwriter."


title: In the Zone

text: According to Nielsen SoundScan, "In the Zone" sold 609,000 copies during its first week of availability in the United States, debuting atop of the "Billboard" 200 the week of December 6, 2003. The album had the second highest debut sales of 2003 by a female artist (only behind Alicia Keys's "The Diary of Alicia Keys"), as well as the fifth highest debut sales of the year. Spears also became the second female artist in "Billboard"'s history to have four consecutive number-one albums behind Janet Jackson who held the most at the time with five. The album was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on December 16, 2003, for shipments of over two million copies in the United States. It has sold over three million copies in the country, according to Nielsen SoundScan. In Canada, the album debuted at number two in the Canadian Albums Chart with sales of 31,000 units. It was certified triple platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) for shipments of 300,000 copies.


title: In the Zone

text: In Australia and New Zealand, "In the Zone" debuted at number ten and twenty-five on the official charts, respectively. It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) indicating shipments of 70,000 units. The album debuted at number three on the Oricon weekly albums chart in Japan, selling 59,128 copies. In Mexico, "In the Zone" was certified platinum on December 17, 2003, by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas (AMPROFON) for shipments of 100,000 copies. The album was also certified platinum in Argentina by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers (CAPIF) for shipments of 40,000 copies in total. "In the Zone" debuted at number fourteen on the UK Albums Chart, staying on the chart for forty-three weeks and jumping to its peak of number thirteen on its thirty-fourth week in the chart. It was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 300,000 copies. The album also debuted atop of the French Albums Chart, becoming her second number-one album in the country after "Oops!... I Did It Again" (2000). In April 2004, it was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for shipments of one million copies in Europe. According to IFPI, "In the Zone" was the eighth best-selling album of 2003.


title: In the Zone

text: Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commented, "If 2001's "Britney" was a transitional album, capturing Spears at the point when she wasn't a girl and not yet a woman, its 2003 follow-up, "In the Zone", is where she has finally completed that journey and turned into Britney, the Adult Woman." Erlewine compared Spears to her peer Christina Aguilera, explaining that both equated maturity with transparent sexuality and the pounding sounds of nightclubs, but while Aguilera "comes across like a natural-born skank, Britney is the girl next door cutting loose at college, drinking and smoking and dancing and sexing just a little too recklessly, since this is the first time she "can" indulge herself."


title: In the Zone

text: Sal Cinquemani of "Slant Magazine" stated, "For a girl who's always seemed too sexed-up for her age, "In the Zone" finds Britney finally filling her britches, so-to-speak. Her little girl coquettishness actually works now—maybe because, at 21, she's finally a woman." Jason King of "Vibe" said the album showcased a transformed Spears, "no longer a girl, and all the woman any man can handle." In 2009, Amy Schriefer of "NPR" listed the album on the 50 Most Important Recordings of the Decade list. Calling it "a primer on the sound of pop in the '00s", she deemed Spears as the ideal vehicle for a futuristic sound, since she was still trying to break away from her teen pop past. Schriefer praised "Toxic" and "Everytime", and also stated, "While the decade's history of celebrity obsession, paparazzi voyeurism and conflicted constructions of female sexuality and motherhood are written on Spears' body, the decade's history of impeccably crafted pop is written on her body of work."


title: Joe Hahn

text: Joseph Hahn (born March 15, 1977) is an American musician, DJ, director and visual artist best known as the DJ of the American rock band Linkin Park, doing the scratching, turntables, sampling, and programming for all seven of Linkin Park's albums. Hahn, along with bandmate Mike Shinoda, is responsible for most of Linkin Park's album artwork. Hahn also directed many of the band's music videos.


title: Joe Hahn

text: Joseph "Joe" Hahn was born the youngest of three children in Dallas; Hahn has two older sisters. Hahn grew up in Glendale, California, and is a second-generation Korean American.


title: Joe Hahn

text: Hahn graduated from Herbert Hoover High School in Glendale in 1995. He then studied at the Art Center College of Design in Pasadena but did not graduate.


title: Joe Hahn

text: Hahn began deejaying in high school, and he studied illustration at the Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California. In college, he met Mike Shinoda and joined his band Xero, which would release its self-titled demo album in 1997. The band later became known as Hybrid Theory in 1999 with the EP release of the same name as the band, then was changed again into Linkin Park during the recording sessions of "Hybrid Theory". Hahn and Shinoda guested in the X-Ecutioners' hit single "It's Goin' Down". Hahn also guest starred in Shinoda's Fort Minor's debut album "The Rising Tied" on the song "Slip Out the Back".


title: Joe Hahn

text: Hahn was called Chairman Hahn on the back cover of Linkin Park's first remix album "Reanimation" next to the remixes of the songs "With You" and "Cure for the Itch", titled "Wth>You" and "Kyur4 TH Ich", respectively. Hahn has directed several of Linkin Park's music videos, such as those for "Numb", "From the Inside", "What I've Done", "Somewhere I Belong", "Pts.OF.Athrty", "New Divide", "Bleed It Out" and "Iridescent". He has also directed videos for Alkaline Trio, Static-X, Story of the Year, and Xzibit. In a 2003 interview, he told MTV that film-making was his true passion, and that "doing the music [was] more of an extra thing". He is known to add various dramatic effects to the music videos he directs, such as casting a snake in the video for "Iridescent".


title: Joe Hahn

text: Outside of his work in music, Hahn provided special effects work on "The X-Files" and the miniseries "Frank Herbert's Dune". He also directed a short film called "The Seed" and acquired the rights to produce a film adaptation of China Miéville's novel "King Rat".


title: Joe Hahn

text: Hahn directed the trailer for the video game "Medal of Honor", featuring Linkin Park's single "The Catalyst". Hahn also directed the music video for "The Catalyst", which premiered on August 26, 2010, as well as the music video for Linkin Park's "Waiting for the End" and "Burning in the Skies". On April 13, 2011, Mike Shinoda confirmed on his blog that the music video for "Iridescent" would be directed by Hahn.


title: Joe Hahn

text: Hahn became the first Korean American to receive a Grammy when the band won the 2002 award for Best Hard Rock Performance. In November 2011, Hahn designed a helmet of Formula 1 driver Kamui Kobayashi. As of April 2012, Hahn directed a film adaptation of Eric Bogosian's "Mall", based on the novel, which stars and is executive produced by Vincent D'Onofrio. The musical score for the album was handled by Linkin Park and Alec Puro of Deadsy for the film.


title: Joe Hahn

text: In 2022, Hahn composed the original score for the Samurai movie Blade of the 47 Ronin along with co-contributor Alec Puro.


title: Joe Hahn

text: On February 15, 2005, Hahn married Karen Benedit; they divorced in 2009. On October 21, 2012, Hahn married Heidi Woan, whom he had met about two years prior in 2010. Their daughter was born the next year.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: The director of central intelligence (DCI) was the head of the American Central Intelligence Agency from 1946 to 2005, acting as the principal intelligence advisor to the president of the United States and the United States National Security Council, as well as the coordinator of intelligence activities among and between the various US intelligence agencies (collectively known as the Intelligence Community from 1981 onwards).


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: The office existed from January 1946 to April 21, 2005. After the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act it was replaced by the director of national intelligence (DNI) as head of the Intelligence Community and the director of the Central Intelligence Agency (D/CIA) as head of the CIA.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: The post of DCI was established by President Harry Truman on January 23, 1946, with Admiral Sidney Souers being the first DCI, followed by General Hoyt Vandenberg who served as DCI from June 1946 to May 1947. The DCI then ran the Central Intelligence Group (CIG), a predecessor of the CIA. The office of DCI thus predates the establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency. The CIA was created by the National Security Act of 1947, which formally defined the duties of the Director of Central Intelligence. This 1947 Act also created the National Security Council.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Until April 2005, the DCI was often referred to colloquially as the "CIA Director", even though he was head of both the CIA and the broader Intelligence Community. After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent investigation by the 9/11 Commission, a movement grew to re-organize the Intelligence Community. That movement prompted the passage of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act in December 2004, which split the DCI's duties among two new offices. The Office of the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) would serve as head of the Intelligence Community and advise the NSC on intelligence matters. The Director of the Central Intelligence Agency would serve as chief administrator of the CIA.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: The reorganization took effect on April 21, 2005. The 19th and last DCI, Porter J. Goss became the first director of the CIA, while John Negroponte became the first DNI.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: As of , there are six living former Directors of Central Intelligence (with all Directors that have served since 1987 still living), the oldest being William H. Webster (served 1987–1991, born 1924). The most recent Directors to die were George H. W. Bush (served 1976–1977, born 1924), on November 30, 2018 and William J. Casey (served 1981–1987, born 1913), on May 6, 1987.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Rear Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter was the third Director of Central Intelligence, but the first who served as the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. During his tenure, a National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects, June 18, 1948, (NSC 10/2) further gave the CIA the authority to carry out covert operations "against hostile foreign states or groups or in support of friendly foreign states or groups but which are so planned and conducted that any US Government responsibility for them is not evident to unauthorized persons."<ref name="NSC10/2"></ref> Those operations, however, were initially conducted by other agencies such as the Office of Policy Coordination. See Approval of Clandestine and Covert Operations and Clandestine HUMINT and Covert Action for details of the eventual merger of these operations with the CIA, as well as how the equivalent functions were done in other countries.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: During the first years of its existence, other branches of the US federal government did not exercise very much supervision over the Central Intelligence Agency. Supposedly justified by the desire to match and defeat Soviet actions throughout the Eastern Hemisphere, it undertook a task that many believed could be accomplished only through an approach similar to the Soviet intelligence agencies, under names including NKVD, MVD, NKGB, MGB, and KGB. Those Soviet organizations also had domestic responsibilities.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: The rapid expansion of the CIA, and a developed sense of independence under the DCI Allen Dulles exacerbated the problem of the US Intelligence Community's freedom from independent review. After the armed landing of Cuban exiles in the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961, President John F. Kennedy discharged and replaced Dulles. Dulles had been an OSS. veteran from World War II. His autobiography is more noteworthy for giving insight into the mindset of key people in the field than it is in giving a detailed description of the CIA and its operations.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: President John F. Kennedy exercised greater supervision, and he appointed a Republican with a general engineering background, John McCone. McCone, despite a lack of intelligence agency background, is often considered one of the most competent DCIs, and an excellent manager. The agency stepped up its activity in Southeast Asia under President Lyndon Johnson. McCone resigned from his position of DCI in April 1965, believing himself to have been unappreciated by Johnson. McCone's final policy memorandum to Johnson argued that expansion of the War in Vietnam would arouse national and world discontent over the war, before it defeated the North Vietnamese regime.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Raborn, a distinguished naval officer who directed the design and development of the entire Polaris ballistic missile submarine system, had a somewhat short and unhappy tenure as the DCI. His background included no foreign relations experience, and intelligence experience only concerning naval operations. CIA historians have said "Raborn did not 'take' to the DCI job", in their opinion. Raborn resigned as the DCI on June 30, 1966, having served for only fourteen months. He was then replaced by his deputy, Richard Helms.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Helms was an OSS and CIA veteran, and the first DCI to have risen through the ranks at CIA. Helms became the Director of the Office of Special Operations (OSO) after the CIA's disastrous role in the attempted Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961. Helms was made the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence under Admiral William Raborn. A year later, in 1966, he was appointed as the Director.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: In the early 1970s, partially as a result of the Watergate Affair break-ins under President Richard Nixon, the United States Congress took a more active role in intelligence agencies, as did independent commissions such as the 1975 United States President's Commission on CIA activities within the United States, also called the Rockefeller Commission after its chairman. Revelations about past CIA activities, such as assassinations and attempted assassinations of foreign leaders, illegal domestic spying on American citizens, drew considerable Congressional oversight that had not been previously exercised.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Certain of the individuals involved in the Watergate break-ins had worked, in the past, for the CIA. In an audio tape provoking Nixon's resignation as President, Nixon ordered his chief of staff, H. R. Haldeman, to tell the CIA that further investigation of the Watergate Affair would "open the whole can of worms" about the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba, and, therefore, that the CIA should tell the FBI to cease investigating the Watergate burglary, due to reasons of "national security". Helms refused.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: The ease of Helms's role under President Lyndon Johnson changed with the arrival of President Richard Nixon and Nixon's national security advisor Henry Kissinger. After the debacle of Watergate, from which Helms succeeded in distancing the CIA as far as possible, the agency came under much tighter congressional control. Nixon, however, considered Helms to be disloyal, and fired him as DCI in 1973. Helms was the only DCI convicted for irregularities in office; his autobiography describes his reaction to the charges.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: On 2 February 1973 he became the Director of Central Intelligence, following the previous director Richard Helms, after he had been fired for his refusal to block the Watergate Affair's investigation. Although his service at the CIA was short, barely six months, it was a stormy one as he again undertook comprehensive organizational and personnel changes. Schlesinger became so unpopular at the CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia, that a security camera was installed opposite his official portrait for fear that it would be vandalized. By this time he had a reputation as a tough, forthright, and outspoken administrator. Schesinger's appointment as the Secretary of Defense cut short his service as the DCI. He commissioned reports—known as the "Family Jewels"—on illegal activities by the agency.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: William Colby was another intelligence professional who was promoted to the top job. His autobiography was entitled "Honorable Men", and he believed that a nation had to believe such people made up its intelligence service. In December 1974, investigative journalist Seymour Hersh broke the news of the "Family Jewels" (leaked to him by Colby) in a front-page article in "The New York Times", revealing that the CIA had assassinated foreign leaders, and had conducted surveillance on some seven thousand American citizens involved in the antiwar movement (Operation CHAOS).


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Congress responded to the "Family Jewels" in 1975, investigating the CIA in the Senate via the Church Committee, chaired by Senator Frank Church (D-Idaho), and in the House of Representatives via the Pike Committee, chaired by Congressman Otis Pike (D-NY). President Gerald Ford created the aforementioned Rockefeller Commission, and issued an Executive Order prohibiting the assassination of foreign leaders.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Colby's tenure as DCI congressional investigations into alleged US intelligence malfeasance over the preceding twenty-five years. Colby cooperated, not out of a desire for major reforms, but in the belief that the actual scope of such misdeeds was not great enough to cause lasting damage to the CIA's reputation. He believed that cooperating with Congress was the only way to save the agency from dissolution. Colby also believed that the CIA had a moral obligation to cooperate with the Congress and demonstrate that the CIA was accountable to the Constitution. This caused a major rift within the CIA ranks, with many old-line officers such as former DCI Richard Helms believing that the CIA should have resisted congressional intrusion.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Colby's time as DCI was also eventful on the world stage. Shortly after he assumed leadership, the Yom Kippur War broke out, an event that surprised not only the American intelligence agencies but also the Israelis. This intelligence surprise reportedly affected Colby's credibility with the Nixon administration. Meanwhile, after many years of involvement, South Vietnam fell to Communist forces in April 1975, a particularly difficult blow for Colby, who had dedicated so much of his life and career to the American effort there. Events in the arms control field, Angola, the Middle East, and elsewhere also demanded attention.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: George H. W. Bush's confirmation as the Director of Central Intelligence was opposed by many politicians and citizens who were still reeling from the Watergate scandal (when Bush was the head of the Republican National Committee, and a steadfast defender of Nixon) and the Church Committee investigations. Many arguments against Bush's initial confirmation were that he was too partisan for the office. "The Washington Post", George Will, and Senator Frank Church were some notable figures opposed to Bush's nomination. After a pledge by Bush not to run for either President or Vice President in 1976, opposition to his nomination died down.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Bush served as the DCI for 355 days, from January 30, 1976, to January 20, 1977. The CIA had been rocked by a series of revelations, including disclosures based on investigations by the Senate's Church Committee, about the CIA's illegal and unauthorized activities, and Bush was credited with helping to restore the agency's morale. On February 18, 1976, President Gerald Ford issued Executive Order 11905, which established policy guidelines and restrictions for individual intelligence agencies, and clarified intelligence authorities and responsibilities. Bush was given 90 days to implement the new order, which called for a major reorganization of the American Intelligence Community and firmly stated that intelligence activities could not be directed against American citizens. In his capacity as DCI, Bush gave national security briefings to Jimmy Carter both as a presidential candidate and as President-elect, and discussed the possibility of remaining in that position in a Carter administration.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: George H. W. Bush eventually became the 41st US President in 1989, and to date is the only US President who held CIA leadership.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: A US Naval Academy classmate of Jimmy Carter's, Turner enjoyed the confidence of the White House, but his emphasis on technical methods of intelligence collection, such as SIGINT and IMINT, and his apparent dislike for, and firing of, HUMINT specialists made him quite unpopular within the CIA. Turner eliminated more than 800 operational positions in what was called the "Halloween Massacre," invoking a moniker previously used in conjunction with President Ford's 1975 staff reorganization. This organizational direction is notable because his successor William J. Casey was seen to have a completely opposite approach, focusing much of his attention on HUMINT. Turner gave notable testimony to Congress revealing much of the extent of the MKULTRA program, which the CIA ran from the early 1950s to late 1960s. Reform and simplification of the intelligence community's multilayered secrecy system was one of Turner's significant initiatives, but produced no results by the time he left office. He also wrote a book on his experience at CIA.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: During Turner's term as head of the CIA, he became outraged when former agent Frank Snepp published a book called "Decent Interval" which exposed incompetence among senior American government personnel during the fall of Saigon. accused Snepp of breaking the secrecy agreement required of all CIA agents, and then later was forced to admit under cross-examination that he had never read the agreement signed by Snepp. Regardless, the CIA ultimately won its case against Snepp at the US Supreme Court. The court forced Snepp to turn over all his profits from "Decent Interval" and to seek preclearance of any future writings about intelligence work for the rest of his life. The CIA would later rely on the "Snepp" legal precedent in forcing Turner to seek preclearance of his own memoirs, which were highly critical of President Ronald Reagan's policies.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: During his tenure at the CIA, Casey played a large part in the shaping of Reagan's foreign policy, particularly its approach to Soviet international activity. Based on a book, "The Terror Network", Casey believed that the Soviet Union was the source of most terrorist activity in the world, in spite of CIA analysts providing evidence that this was in fact black propaganda by the CIA itself. Casey obtained a report from a professor that agreed with his view, which convinced Ronald Reagan that there was a threat.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Casey oversaw the re-expansion of the Intelligence Community, in particular the CIA, to funding and human resource levels greater than those before resource cuts during the Carter administration. During his tenure restrictions were lifted on the use of the CIA to directly, covertly influence the internal and foreign affairs of countries relevant to American policy.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: This period of the Cold War saw an increase of the agency's anti-Soviet activities around the world. Notably he oversaw covert assistance to the mujahadeen resistance in Afghanistan, with a budget of over $1 billion, working closely with Akhtar Abdur Rahman (the Director General of Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence directorate). The agency aided Solidarity movement in Poland, and a number of coups and attempted coups in South and Central America.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Casey was also the principal architect of the arms-for-hostages deal that became known as the Iran–Contra affair.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Hours before Casey was scheduled to testify before Congress about his knowledge of Iran–Contra, he was reported to have been rendered incapable of speech, and was later hospitalized. In his 1987 book, "The Washington Post" reporter Bob Woodward, who had interviewed Casey on numerous occasions, said that he had gained entry to Casey's hospital room for a final, four-minute long encounter—a claim that was met with disbelief in many quarters, and adamant denial by Casey's wife, Sofia. According to Woodward, when he asked Casey if he knew about the diversion of funds to the Nicaraguan "Contras", "His head jerked up hard. He stared, and finally nodded yes."


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: William H. Webster came from a legal background, including serving as a Federal judge and as the Director of the FBI. He was expected, with this background, to clear out all legal irregularities at CIA. Repercussions from the Iran–Contra arms smuggling scandal included the creation of the Intelligence Authorization Act in 1991. It defined covert operations as secret missions in geopolitical areas where the United States is neither openly nor apparently engaged. This also required an authorizing chain of command, including an official, presidential finding report, and the informing of the House and Senate Intelligence Committees, which, in emergencies, requires only "timely notification".


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Robert Gates was nominated to become the Director of Central Intelligence in early 1987. He withdrew his name after it became clear the Senate would reject the nomination due to controversy about his role in the Iran–Contra affair.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Gates was nominated, for the second time, for the post of Director of Central Intelligence by President George H. W. Bush on May 14, 1991, confirmed by the United States Senate on November 5, and sworn in on November 6, becoming the only career officer in the CIA's history (as of 2009) to rise from an entry-level CIA employee to the Director of the CIA.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: The final report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters, issued on August 4, 1993, said that Gates "was close to many figures who played significant roles in the Iran/contra affair and was in a position to have known of their activities. The evidence developed by Independent Counsel did not warrant indictment..."


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: As the Director of Central Intelligence, Woolsey is notable for having a very limited relationship with President Bill Clinton. According to the journalist Richard Miniter:


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Never once in his two-year tenure did CIA director James Woolsey ever have a one-on-one meeting with Clinton. Even semiprivate meetings were rare. They only happened twice. Woolsey told me: "It wasn't that I had a bad relationship with the President. It just didn't exist."


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Another quotation about his relationship with Clinton, according to Paula Kaufman of "Insight" magazine:


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Remember the guy who in 1994 crashed his plane onto the White House lawn? That was me trying to get an appointment to see President Clinton.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: David Halberstam noted in his book "War in a Time of Peace" that Clinton chose Woolsey as the CIA director because the Clinton campaign had courted neo-conservatives leading up to the 1992 election, promising to be tougher on Taiwan, Bosnia, and on human rights in China, and it was decided that they ought to give at least one neo-conservative a job in the administration.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: In 1995, President Bill Clinton appointed John Deutch as the Director of Central Intelligence (cabinet rank in the Clinton administration). However, Deutch was initially reluctant to accept this appointment. As the head of the CIA, Deutch continued the policy of his predecessor R. James Woolsey to declassify records pertaining to American covert operations during the Cold War.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: In 1996, the US House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence issued a Congressional report estimating that: "Hundreds of employees on a daily basis are directed to break extremely serious laws in countries around the world in the face of frequently sophisticated efforts by foreign governments to catch them. A safe estimate is that several hundred times every day (easily 100,000 times a year) DO officers engage in highly illegal activities (according to foreign law) that not only risk political embarrassment to the U.S. but also endanger the freedom if not lives of the participating foreign nationals and, more than occasionally, of the clandestine officer himself."


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: In this same document, the committee wrote, "Considering these facts and recent history, which has shown that the [Director of the Central Intelligence Agency], whether he wants to or not, is held accountable for overseeing the [Clandestine Service], the DCI must work closely with the Director of the CS and hold him fully and directly responsible to him."


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Soon after Deutch's departure from the CIA in 1996 it was revealed that classified materials had been kept on several of Deutch's laptop computers designated as unclassified. In January 1997, the CIA began a formal security investigation of the matter. Senior management members at the CIA declined to fully pursue the security breach. More than two years after his departure, the matter was referred to the Department of Justice, where Attorney General Janet Reno declined to prosecute. She did, however, recommend an investigation to determine whether Deutch should retain his security clearance. Clinton issued a presidential pardon on his last day in office.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: George Tenet was appointed the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence in July 1995. After John Deutch's abrupt resignation in December 1996, Tenet served as acting director until he was officially appointed the position on July 11, 1997, after a unanimous confirmation vote in the Senate. This had been followed by the withdrawal of Anthony Lake, whose nomination had been blocked by Republicans in the Senate. While the Director of Central Intelligence has typically been replaced by an incoming administration ever since President Jimmy Carter replaced DCI George H. W. Bush, Tenet served past the end of the Clinton administration and through the first term of George W. Bush.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Tenet embarked on a mission to regenerate the CIA, which had fallen on hard times since the end of the Cold War. The number of new trainee agents recruited each year had fallen to an all-time low, a 25-percent decline from the Cold War peak. Tenet appealed to the original mission of the agency, which had been to "prevent another Pearl Harbor". The problem was to foresee where danger might come from in the post–Cold War world. Tenet focused on potential problems such as "the transformation of Russia and China", "rogue states" like North Korea, Iran, and Iraq, and terrorism.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: In 1999, Tenet put forward a grand "Plan" for dealing with the al-Qaeda organization. This effort supposedly put the CIA in a better position to respond after the September 11, 2001, attacks. As Tenet expressed it in his book,


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: How could [an intelligence] community without a strategic plan tell the President of the United States just four days after 9/11 how to attack the Afghan sanctuary and operate against al-Qaeda in ninety-two countries around the world?


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: On September 15, 2001, Tenet presented the Worldwide Attack Matrix, a blueprint for what became known as the War On Terror. He proposed firstly to send CIA teams into Afghanistan to collect intelligence on, and mount covert operations against, al-Qaeda and the Taliban. The teams would act jointly with military Special Operations units. "President Bush later praised this proposal, saying it had been a turning point in his thinking."


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: After the September 11, 2001, attacks, many observers criticized the American Intelligence Community for numerous "intelligence failures" as one of the major reasons why the attacks were not prevented. In August 2007, part of a secret report written by the CIA Inspector General was made public (originally written in 2005 but kept secret). Its 19-page summary states that Tenet knew the dangers of Al Qaeda well before September 2001, but that the leadership of the CIA did not do enough to prevent any attacks. Tenet reacted to the publication of this report by calling it "flat wrong".


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Bob Woodward, in his book "Plan of Attack", wrote that Tenet privately lent his personal authority to the intelligence reports about weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) in Iraq. At a meeting on December 12, 2002, he assured Bush that the evidence against Saddam Hussein amounted to a "slam dunk case". After several months of refusing to confirm this statement, Tenet later stated that this remark was taken out of context. (Tenet indicated that the comment was made pursuant to a discussion about how to convince the American people to support invading Iraq, and that, in his opinion, the best way to convince the people would be by explaining the dangers posed by Iraq's WMD i.e., the public relations sale of the war via the WMD, according to Tenet, would be a "slam dunk".) The search following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by American, British, and other international forces yielded no stockpiles of nuclear WMDs in Iraq, except for tens of thousands of chemical shells found stacked from floors to ceilings in every room of what was putatively a school building in the Anbar province. Tenet and his Director of Operations resigned at about this same time, and it has been suggested these resignations were in penance over the WMD issue in Iraq.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: During his junior year at Yale, Porter Goss was recruited by the CIA. He spent much of the 1960s—roughly from 1960 until 1971—working for the Directorate of Operations, the clandestine services of the CIA. There he first worked in Latin America and the Caribbean and later in Europe. The full details are not known due to the classified nature of the CIA, but Goss has said that he had worked in Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Mexico. Goss, who has said that he has recruited and trained foreign agents, worked in Miami for much of the time. Goss was involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, telling "The Washington Post" in 2002 that he had done some "small-boat handling" and had "some very interesting moments in the Florida Straits."


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: He served in Congress for 16 years, as a Republican House member from Florida, until his appointment as Director of the CIA. While in the House, Goss consistently and emphatically defended the CIA and supported strong budget increases for the agency, even during a time of tight budgets and Clintonian slashes to other parts of the intelligence budgets. In mid-2004, Goss took a very strong position, during what had already been announced as his last congressional term, urging specific reforms and corrections in the way the CIA carried out its activities, lest it become "just another government bureaucracy."


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: After growing pressure, Congress established the Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001, a joint inquiry of the two intelligence committees, led by Goss and Senator Bob Graham. Goss and Graham made it clear that their goal was not to identify specific wrongdoing: Graham said the inquiry would not play "the blame game about what went wrong from an intelligence perspective", and Goss said, "This is not a who-shall-we-hang type of investigation. It is about where are the gaps in America's defense and what do we do about it type of investigation." The inquiry's final report was released in December 2002 and focused entirely on the CIA and FBI's activities, including no information on the White House's activities. Ray McGovern, a 27-year veteran of the CIA and a frequent commentator on intelligence issues, believed the report showed that Goss gave "clear priority to providing political protection for the president" when conducting the inquiry. Goss chiefly blamed President Bill Clinton for the recent CIA failures. He confided in a reporter: "The one thing I lose sleep about is thinking what could I have done better, how could I have gotten more attention on this problem sooner." When asked whether he ever brought up his concerns with the administration, Goss claimed he had met three times with Clinton to discuss "certain problems". The upshot? "He was patient and we had an interesting conversation but it was quite clear he didn't value the intelligence community to the degree President Bush does."


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Goss was nominated to become the new director on August 10, 2004. The appointment was challenged by some prominent Democrats. Sen. John D. Rockefeller IV (D-WV), vice chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee, expressed concerns that Goss was too politically partisan, given his public remarks against Democrats while serving as chairman of the House Intelligence Committee. Another Democratic member of the committee, Ron Wyden (D-OR), expressed concerns that given Goss's history within and ties to the CIA, he would be too disinclined to push for institutional change. In an interview carried out by Michael Moore's production company on March 3, 2004, Goss described himself as "probably not qualified" for a job within the CIA, because the language skills the agency now seeks are not languages he speaks and because the people applying today for positions within the CIA's four directorates have such keen technical and analytic skills, which he did not have when he applied to the agency in the early 1960s.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: He brought with him five personal staff that were to implement change that became unpopular with CIA professionals. Steve Kappes—the Director of Operations—and his subordinates including Michael Sulick, Kappes's then-deputy, resigned early in Goss's tenure. Although Kappes came back to a responsible position, it has been reported that he quit the agency rather than carry out a request by Goss to reassign Michael Sulick. Following Goss's departure, both Kappes and Sulick have returned to positions of higher authority in the US Intelligence Community. Kappes is the Deputy Director of the CIA and Sulick was appointed Director of the National Clandestine Service on September 14, 2007.


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: Speculations on the reason for his departure include a desire to have military agency heads, or, perhaps more likely,


title: Director of Central Intelligence

text: For many analysts, Goss' departure was inevitable, given the widespread perception that the White House had lost confidence in his ability to reorganise the CIA. Goss' departure appears to have been due, at least in part, to his repeated clashes with John Negroponte who was appointed in 2005 as the US Director of National Intelligence, a new post created to co-ordinate all 16 of the US intelligence agencies in the aftermath of the Al-Qaeda attacks.


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: Jonathan Stevens Jackson (born May 11, 1982) is an American actor, musician, and author. He is best known for his role as Lucky Spencer in the television soap opera "General Hospital" (1993–1999, 2009–2011, 2015), which won him five Daytime Emmy Awards. He is also known for his roles in the films "The Deep End of the Ocean" (1999), "Tuck Everlasting" (2002), "" (2004), and "Riding the Bullet" (2004), as well as the television series "Nashville" (2012–2018), for which he received a Critics' Choice Television Award nomination.


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: Jackson was born in Orlando, Florida, the son of Jeanine (née Sharp), an amateur ventriloquist and businesswoman, and Dr. Rick "Ricky Lee" Jackson, a family physician, country musician and Congressional candidate in the state of Washington. Jackson was raised in Battle Ground, Washington, with his brother Richard Lee Jackson, now an actor and musician, and his sister Candice Jackson, now a lawyer, author, and official in the Trump administration. Jonathan attended Meadow Glade Elementary School.


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: In 1991, Jackson's family took a trip to Universal Studios Hollywood, where both Richard and Jonathan decided to pursue acting. The brothers took acting lessons in nearby Portland, Oregon, before moving part-time to Burbank, California with their mother in 1993. After doing various commercials, within six months Jackson won a role on the ABC Daytime soap opera "General Hospital". Jackson continued his studies as he worked, graduating high school at age 16.


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: Jackson's first notable role was Lucky Spencer on "General Hospital", a role he first played from 1993 to 1999. Jackson won numerous awards for his work as Lucky. He was nominated for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series six times, winning first in 1995, and again in 1998 and 1999, making him the record holder for both nominations and wins for the Younger Actor category. He also won Soap Opera Digest Awards in 1995 and 1999. He was nominated for Young Artist Awards in 1996, 1997 and 1999. He won "The Hollywood Reporter"'s YoungStar Award in 1995, 1997, 1998 and 1999 and was nominated in 2000. Jackson also became a popular "teen heartthrob" among fans, featured on fan magazines such as "Tiger Beat" and garnering many fan clubs and internet fansites. In 1999, he was named one of "People" magazine's 50 most beautiful people.


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: While working at "General Hospital", Jackson starred in his first feature film "Camp Nowhere", as Morris "Mud" Himmel in 1994. Also during this time he starred in made-for-television films "Prisoner of Zenda, Inc." and "The Legend of the Ruby Silver", and made a guest appearance during Season 5 of the ABC sitcom "Boy Meets World". In 1999, Jackson filmed "The Deep End of the Ocean" shortly before leaving "General Hospital," starring opposite Michelle Pfeiffer. "Deep End" director Ulu Grosbard spoke of Jackson as "an enormously gifted actor. He brought a weight and a presence and chemistry with Michelle from the beginning. He's only 15 years old and he is a very serious actor who has both concentration and humor." Pfeiffer added, "When Jonathan and I read together, it was like he was my own son. And we just went at each other in only this way that a mother and son could do. His reading was exhilarating." Jackson was nominated for YoungStar Awards in 1997 for "Prisoner of Zenda, Inc." and 1999 for "The Deep End of the Ocean".


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: In December 1999, "Newsweek" magazine reported Jackson was likely to be taking on the role of Anakin Skywalker in "". However, he was soon dropped from the running, and publications speculated the prior publicity had hurt his chances due to creator George Lucas' preference for privacy. Jackson continued his film career in 2000 with the independent film "True Rights" and the ABC television movie "Trapped in a Purple Haze". Jackson also wrote and directed a short film with his brother Richard entitled "Crystal Clear", which won Best Dramatic Short Film and the Coen Brothers Award for Duo-Filmmaking at the Brooklyn Film Festival. In 2002, Jackson played one of his most well-known film roles as Jesse Tuck in "Tuck Everlasting", which he filmed simultaneously with "Insomnia". In 2004, Jackson filmed "", and "Riding the Bullet". From 2008 through 2009, he had a recurring role as in the hit Fox TV show "", playing the father of before the show was cancelled.


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: On September 29, 2009, it was announced that Jackson would return to "General Hospital" on October 27 to reprise the role of Lucky Spencer. In 2011, Jackson won his fourth Daytime Emmy and first Outstanding Supporting Actor Award. On November 7, 2011, it was announced that Jackson had decided to leave "General Hospital" and his final airdate was on December 23, 2011. His character is not planned to be recast or killed off, leaving the door open for Jackson to return with the show in the future. In 2012, Jackson won his fifth Daytime Emmy and second consecutive win for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series.


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: In 2012, he got the role of singer-songwriter Avery Barkley in the ABC drama "Nashville". Along with the rest of the cast, Jonathan sang and played the guitar himself on the series.


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: As a child, Jackson took guitar lessons and taught himself to play the piano. Growing up he had an evolving band with various family members. In 2000, the band included his brother, uncle and father and was named "Scarlet Road". By 2002, Jonathan and his brother Richard had named their group "Jono and the Rock".


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: The ensemble morphed into Enation, where Jackson is the frontman, playing guitar, vocals and writing most of the songs. Other band members include Jonathan's brother Richard (drums), and their friend Jonathan Thatcher (bass, previously of Delirious?)


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: The band has released several albums and their song "Feel This" became a Top 10 hit on the iTunes national Rock Charts after it was featured on the CW television drama series "One Tree Hill". Enation's songs have also been featured on "Riding the Bullet", and "General Hospital".


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: As well as performing as singer, guitarist & piano Jackson also wrote the song "The Morning of the Rain" featured on episode 7 and 19 of the first season of "Nashville". Enation have also landed on the "Billboard" Top 10 ("Live From Nashville" DVD, #9) and have garnered numerous radio and TV appearances including live performances on "The View" and VH1's "Big Morning Buzz Live".


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: In June 2020, Jackson recorded a song dedicated to the Hilandar and Serbian Orthodox monasteries in Kosovo.


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: In the spring of 2012, Jackson released a book of poetry under the pen name J. S. Jackson, titled "Book of Solace and Madness." In June 2012, he discussed his yet-to-be-released book entitled "Acting in the Spirit," which would discuss the connection between his Eastern Orthodox Christian faith and his acting career. In November 2014, Jackson released "The Mystery of Art: Becoming an Artist in the Image of God".


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: At age 20, Jackson married former "General Hospital" actress Lisa Vultaggio on June 21, 2002. Jackson told the "Chicago Sun-Times", "Some people thought we were a little young to get married. But we didn't see the need to wait. When it's right, it's right." The couple moved to Jackson's hometown of Battle Ground, Washington, to raise their family. They have three children: Caleb (born June 21, 2003), Adora (born in the summer of 2005), and Titus Gabriel (born October 7, 2010).


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: The son of Seventh-day Adventist parents, Jackson was raised as a non-denominational Christian and has always been vocal about his faith. As part of his belief system, as a teen Jackson chose not to drink or do drugs. Jackson was also a proponent of abstinence from premarital sex. Jackson also often thanked God during his award acceptance speeches. While Jackson was working on "General Hospital", he and his family held a home church in Burbank which various cast members attended, including Jackson's future wife Lisa Vultaggio. Jackson explained how his beliefs affected his choice of acting roles in an interview with "Entertainment Weekly" in 1999, "I won't get involved with a movie that's a direct slap in the face of God. [...] I'm an actor, so I have to play people who believe differently than me. I would be willing to play a character that was completely unbelieving and anti-God, just as long as that wasn't the message of the whole movie."


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: In 2002, Jackson participated in the DKNY-sponsored "What's Your Anti-Drug?" campaign, posing for the 2003 calendar featured in "Cosmogirl" magazine, stating that his anti-drug was faith. In 2012, Jackson and his family were baptized into the Eastern Orthodox Church. Jackson cited a trip to Romania and Rome that first brought his attention to learning about the history of Christianity. In his acceptance speech for his 2012 Daytime Emmy Award, he thanked the Holy Trinity as well as the monks on Orthodox monastic enclave Mount Athos. Jackson later explained in an interview, "These people [are] dedicating their lives to prayer, and not just praying for themselves, but truly praying for all of us. And then the thought kind of crossed my mind: with all the destruction, chaos and insanity that goes on in this world, if their prayers weren't happening, what would this world be like? I felt, personally, like I just wanted to thank them because I really believe that their prayers mean a lot."


title: Jonathan Jackson (actor)

text: As of September 18, 2020, "OrthoChristian.com" reports that Jackson had moved to Ireland to help support a new monastery being founded by the Romanian Orthodox Metropolis of Southern and Western Europe. He explains in the interview, "It’s the main reason I moved, I have been praying for years for an Orthodox monastery to be founded in Ireland."


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Tibet was a "de facto" independent state between the collapse of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty in 1912 and its annexation by the People's Republic of China in 1951.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The Tibetan Ganden Phodrang regime was a protectorate of the Qing dynasty until 1912. When the provisional government of the Republic of China was formed, it received an imperial edict giving it control over all the territories of the Qing dynasty. However, it was unable to assert any authority in Tibet. The Dalai Lama declared that Tibet's relationship with China ended with the fall of the Qing dynasty and proclaimed independence. Tibet and Outer Mongolia also signed a treaty proclaiming mutual recognition of their independence from China. With its proclamation of independence and conduct of its own internal and external affairs in this period, Tibet is regarded as a ""de facto" independent state" as per international law, although its independence was not formally recognized by any foreign power.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: After the 13th Dalai Lama's death in 1933, a condolence mission sent to Lhasa by the Kuomintang-ruled Nationalist government to start negotiations about Tibet's status was allowed to open an office and remain there, although no agreement was reached.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The era ended after the Nationalist government of the Republic of China lost the civil war against the Chinese Communist Party, when the People's Liberation Army entered Tibet in 1950 and the Seventeen Point Agreement was signed to reaffirm China's sovereignty over Tibet the following year.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Tibet came under the rule of the Qing dynasty of China in 1720 after the Qing expelled the forces of the Dzungar Khanate. But by the end of the 19th century, the Chinese authority in Tibet was no more than symbolic. Following the Xinhai Revolution in 1911–1912, Tibetan militia launched a surprise attack on the Qing garrison stationed in Tibet after the Xinhai Lhasa turmoil. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, the Qing officials in Lhasa were then forced to sign the "Three Point Agreement" for the surrender and expulsion of Qing forces in central Tibet. In early 1912, the Government of the Republic of China replaced the Qing dynasty as the government of China and the new republic asserted its sovereignty over all the territories of the previous dynasty, which included 22 Chinese provinces, Tibet and Outer Mongolia. This claim was provided for in the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor signed by the Empress Dowager Longyu on behalf of the six-year-old Xuantong Emperor: "...the continued territorial integrity of the lands of the five races, Manchu, Han, Mongol, Hui, and Tibetan into one great Republic of China" (...). The Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China adopted in 1912 specifically established frontier regions of the new republic, including Tibet, as integral parts of the state.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Following the establishment of the new Republic, China's provisional President Yuan Shikai sent a telegram to the 13th Dalai Lama, restoring his earlier titles. The Dalai Lama spurned these titles, replying that he "intended to exercise both temporal and ecclesiastical rule in Tibet." In 1913, the Dalai Lama, who had fled to India when the Qing sent a military expedition to establish direct Chinese rule over Tibet in 1910, returned to Lhasa and issued a proclamation that stated that the relationship between the Chinese emperor and Tibet "had been that of patron and priest and had not been based on the subordination of one to the other." "We are a small, religious, and independent nation," the proclamation stated.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In January 1913, Agvan Dorzhiev and three other Tibetan representatives signed a treaty between Tibet and Mongolia in Urga, proclaiming mutual recognition and their independence from China. The British diplomat Charles Bell wrote that the 13th Dalai Lama told him that he had not authorized Agvan Dorzhiev to conclude any treaties on behalf of Tibet. Because the text was not published, some initially doubted the existence of the treaty, but the Mongolian text was published by the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in 1982.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1913–1914, a conference was held in Simla between the UK, Tibet, and the Republic of China. The British suggested dividing Tibetan-inhabited areas into an Outer and an Inner Tibet (on the model of an earlier agreement between China and Russia over Mongolia). Outer Tibet, approximately the same area as the modern Tibet Autonomous Region, would be autonomous under Chinese suzerainty. In this area, China would refrain from "interference in the administration." In Inner Tibet, consisting of eastern Kham and Amdo, China would have rights of administration and Lhasa would retain control of religious institutions.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: When negotiations broke down over the specific boundary between Inner and Outer Tibet, the boundary of Tibet defined in the Convention also included what came to be known as the McMahon Line, which delineated the Tibet-India border, in the Assam Himalayan region. The boundary included in India the Tawang tract, which had been under indirect administration of Tibet via the control of the Tawang monastery.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The Simla Convention was initialled by all three delegations, but was immediately rejected by Beijing because of dissatisfaction with the boundary between Outer and Inner Tibet. McMahon and the Tibetans then signed the document as a bilateral accord with a note denying China any of the rights under the Convention until it signed. The British Government initially rejected McMahon's bilateral accord as being incompatible with the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The 1907 Anglo-Russian Treaty, which had earlier caused the British to question the validity of Simla, was renounced by the Russians in 1917 and by the Russians and British jointly in 1921. Tibet, however, altered its position on the McMahon Line in the 1940s. In late 1947, the Tibetan government wrote a note presented to the newly independent Indian Ministry of External Affairs laying claims to Tibetan districts south of the McMahon Line. According to Alastair Lamb, by refusing to sign the Simla documents, the Chinese Government had escaped giving any recognition to the McMahon Line.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Since the expulsion of the Amban from Tibet in 1912, communication between Tibet and China had taken place only with the British as mediator. Direct communications resumed after the 13th Dalai Lama's death in December 1933, when China sent a "condolence mission" to Lhasa headed by General Huang Musong.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Soon after the 13th Dalai Lama died, according to some accounts, the Kashag reaffirmed its 1914 position that Tibet remained nominally part of China, provided Tibet could manage its own political affairs. In his essay "Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation" published by the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives at Dharamsala, S.L. Kuzmin cited several sources indicating that the Tibetan government had not declared Tibet a part of China, despite an intimation of Chinese sovereignty made by the Kuomintang government. Since 1912 Tibet had been "de facto" independent of Chinese control, but on other occasions it had indicated willingness to accept nominal subordinate status as a part of China, provided that Tibetan internal systems were left untouched, and provided China relinquished control over a number of important ethnic Tibetan areas in Kham and Amdo. In support of claims that China's rule over Tibet was not interrupted, China argues that official documents showed that the National Assembly of China and both chambers of parliament had Tibetan members, whose names had been preserved all along.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: China was then permitted to establish an office in Lhasa, staffed by the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission and headed by Wu Zhongxin (Wu Chung-hsin), the commission's director of Tibetan Affairs,


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: which Chinese sources claim was an administrative body—but the Tibetans claim that they rejected China's proposal that Tibet should be a part of China, and in turn demanded the return of territories east of the Drichu (Yangtze River). In response to the establishment of a Chinese office in Lhasa, the British obtained similar permission and set up their own office there.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The 1934 Khamba Rebellion led by Pandastang Togbye and Pandatsang Rapga broke out against the Tibetan Government during this time, with the Pandatsang family leading Khamba tribesmen against the Tibetan Army.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1935, Lhamo Dhondup was born in Amdo in eastern Tibet and recognized by all concerned as the incarnation of the 13th Dalai Lama. On 26 January 1940, the Regent Reting Rinpoche requested the Chinese Government to exempt Lhamo Dhondup from lot-drawing process using Golden Urn to become the 14th Dalai Lama, and the Chinese government agreed. After a ransom of 400,000 silver dragons had been paid by Lhasa to the Hui Muslim warlord Ma Bufang, who ruled Qinghai (Chinghai) from Xining, Ma Bufang released him to travel to Lhasa in 1939. He was then enthroned by the Ganden Phodrang government at the Potala Palace on the Tibetan New Year.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The People's Republic of China claims that the Kuomintang Government 'ratified' the current 14th Dalai Lama, and that Kuomintang representative General Wu Zhongxin presided over the ceremony; both the ratification order of February 1940 and the documentary film of the ceremony still exist intact. Wu Zhongxin (along with other foreign representatives) was present at the ceremony.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The British Representative Sir Basil Gould who was present at the ceremony disputes the Chinese claim to have presided over it. He criticised the Chinese account as follows:


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Tibetan author Nyima Gyaincain wrote that based on Tibetan tradition, there was no such thing as presiding over an event, and wrote that the word "主持 (preside or organize)" was used in many places in communication documents. The meaning of the word was different than what we understand today. He added that Wu Zhongxin spent a lot of time and energy on the event, his effect of presiding over or organizing the event was very obvious.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1942, the U.S. government told the government of Chiang Kai-shek that it had never disputed Chinese claims to Tibet. In 1944, the USA War Department produced a series of seven documentary films on Why We Fight; in the sixth series, The Battle of China, Tibet is incorrectly called a province of China. (The official name is Tibet Area, and it's not a province.) In 1944, during World War II, two Austrian mountaineers, Heinrich Harrer and Peter Aufschnaiter, came to Lhasa, where Harrer became a tutor and friend to the young Dalai Lama, giving him sound knowledge of Western culture and modern society, until Harrer chose to leave in 1949.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Tibet established a Foreign Office in 1942, and in 1946 it sent congratulatory missions to China and India (related to the end of World War II). The mission to China was given a letter addressed to Chinese President Chiang Kai-shek which states that, "We shall continue to maintain the independence of Tibet as a nation ruled by the successive Dalai Lamas through an authentic religious-political rule." The mission agreed to attend a Chinese constitutional assembly in Nanjing as observers.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Under orders from the Kuomintang government of Chiang Kai-shek, Ma Bufang repaired the Yushu airport in 1942 to deter Tibetan independence. Chiang also ordered Ma Bufang to put his Muslim soldiers on alert for an invasion of Tibet in 1942.Ma Bufang complied, and moved several thousand troops to the border with Tibet. Chiang also threatened the Tibetans with bombing if they did not comply.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1947, Tibet sent a delegation to the Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi, India, where it represented itself as an independent nation, and India recognised it as an independent nation from 1947 to 1954. This may have been the first appearance of the Tibetan national flag at a public gathering.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: André Migot, a French doctor who travelled for many months in Tibet in 1947, described the complex border arrangements between Tibet and China, and how they had developed:


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1947–49, Lhasa sent a trade mission led by Finance Minister Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa to India, China, Hong Kong, the US, and the UK. The visited countries were careful not to express support for the claim that Tibet was independent of China and did not discuss political questions with the mission. These Trade Mission officials entered China via Hong Kong with their newly issued Tibetan passports that they applied at the Chinese Consulate in India and stayed in China for three months. Other countries did, however, allow the mission to travel using passports issued by the Tibetan government. The U.S. unofficially received the Trade Mission. The mission met with British Prime Minister Clement Attlee in London in 1948.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1949, seeing that the Communists were gaining control of China, the Kashag government expelled all Chinese officials from Tibet despite protests from both the Kuomintang and the Communists. On 1 October 1949, the 10th Panchen Lama wrote a telegraph to Beijing, expressing his congratulations for the liberation of northwest China and the establishment of People's Republic of China, and his excitement to see the inevitable liberation of Tibet. The Chinese Communist government led by Mao Zedong which came to power in October lost little time in asserting a new Chinese presence in Tibet. In June 1950 the British government stated in the House of Commons that His Majesty's Government "have always been prepared to recognise Chinese suzerainty over Tibet, but only on the understanding that Tibet is regarded as autonomous". In October 1950, the People's Liberation Army entered the Tibetan area of Chamdo, defeating sporadic resistance from the Tibetan Army. In 1951, representatives of the Tibetan authorities, headed by Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme, with the Dalai Lama's authorization, participated in negotiations in Beijing with the Chinese government. It resulted in the Seventeen Point Agreement which affirmed China's sovereignty over Tibet. The agreement was ratified in Lhasa a few months later. China described the entire process as the "peaceful liberation of Tibet".


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: After the 13th Dalai Lama had assumed full control over Tibet in the 1910s, he began to build up the Tibetan Army with support from the United Kingdom, which provided advisors and weapons. This army was supposed to be large and modern enough to not just defend Tibet, but to also conquer surrounding regions like Kham which were inhabited by Tibetan peoples. The Tibetan Army was constantly expanded during the 13th Dalai Lama's reign, and had about 10,000 soldiers by 1936. These were adequately armed and trained infantrymen for the time, though the army almost completely lacked machine guns, artillery, planes and tanks. In addition to the regular army, Tibet also made use of great numbers of poorly armed village militias. Considering that it was usually outgunned by their opponents, the Tibetan Army performed relatively well against various Chinese warlords in the 1920s and 1930s. Overall, the Tibetan soldiers proved to be "fearless and tough fighters" during the Warlord Era.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Despite this, the Tibetan Army was wholly inadequate to resist the People's Liberation Army (PLA) during the Chinese invasion of 1950. It consequently disintegrated and surrendered without much resistance.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Tibet created its own postal service in 1912. It printed its first postage stamps in Lhasa and issued them in 1912. It issued telegraph stamps in 1950.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The division of China into military cliques kept China divided, and the 13th Dalai Lama ruled but his reign was marked with border conflicts with Han Chinese and Muslim warlords, which the Tibetans lost most of the time. At that time, the government of Tibet controlled all of Ü-Tsang (Dbus-gtsang) and western Kham (Khams), roughly coincident with the borders of the Tibet Autonomous Region today. Eastern Kham, separated by the Yangtze River, was under the control of Chinese warlord Liu Wenhui. The situation in Amdo (Qinghai) was more complicated, with the Xining area controlled after 1928 by the Hui warlord Ma Bufang of the family of Muslim warlords known as the Ma clique, who constantly strove to exert control over the rest of Amdo (Qinghai). Southern Kham along with other parts of Yunnan belonged to the Yunnan clique from 1915 till 1927, then to Governor and warlord Long (Lung) Yun until near the end of the Chinese Civil War, when Du Yuming removed him under the order of Chiang Kai-shek. Within territory under Chinese control, war was being waged against Tibetan rebels in Qinghai during the Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1918, Lhasa regained control of Chamdo and western Kham. A truce set the border at the Yangtze River. At this time, the government of Tibet controlled all of Ü-Tsang and Kham west of the Yangtze River, roughly the same borders as the Tibet Autonomous Region has today. Eastern Kham was governed by local Tibetan princes of varying allegiances. Qinghai was controlled by ethnic Hui and pro-Kuomintang warlord Ma Bufang. In 1932 Tibet invaded Qinghai, attempting to capture southern parts of Qinghai province, following contention in Yushu, Qinghai over a monastery in 1932. Ma Bufang's Qinghai army defeated the Tibetan armies.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: During the 1920s and 1930s, China was divided by civil war and occupied with the anti-Japanese war, but never renounced its claim to sovereignty over Tibet, and made occasional attempts to assert it.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1932, the Muslim Qinghai and Han-Chinese Sichuan armies of the National Revolutionary Army led by Ma Bufang and Liu Wenhui defeated the Tibetan Army in the Sino-Tibetan War when the 13th Dalai Lama tried to seize territory in Qinghai and Xikang. They warned the Tibetans not to dare cross the Jinsha river again. A truce was signed, ending the fighting. The Dalai Lama had cabled the British in India for help when his armies were defeated, and started demoting his Generals who had surrendered.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui led by General Ma Bufang massacred their fellow Muslim Kazakhs, until there were 135 of them left.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: From Northern Xinjiang over 7,000 Kazakhs fled to the Tibetan-Qinghai plateau region via Gansu and were wreaking massive havoc so Ma Bufang solved the problem by relegating the Kazakhs into designated pastureland in Qinghai, but Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs in the region continued to clash against each other.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs 400 miles east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1934, 1935, 1936–1938 from Qumil Eliqsan led the Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu and the amount was estimated at 18,000, and they entered Gansu and Qinghai.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: In 1951, the Uyghur Yulbars Khan was attacked by Tibetan troops as he fled Xinjiang to reach Calcutta.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The anti-communist American CIA agent Douglas Mackiernan was killed by Tibetan troops on 29 April 1950.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Traditional Tibetan society consisted of a feudal class structure, which was one of the reasons the Chinese Communist Party claims that it had to liberate Tibet and reform its government.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: The 13th Dalai Lama had reformed the pre-existing serf system in the first decade of the 20th century, and by 1950, slavery itself had probably ceased to exist in central Tibet, though perhaps persisting in certain border areas. Slavery did exist, for example, in places like the Chumbi Valley, though British observers like Charles Bell called it 'mild', and beggars ("ragyabas") were endemic. The pre-Chinese social system however was rather complex.


title: Tibet (1912–1951)

text: Estates ("shiga"), roughly similar to the English manorial system, were granted by the state and were hereditary, though revocable. As agricultural properties they consisted of two kinds: land held by the nobility or monastic institutions (demesne land), and village land (tenement or villein land) held by the central government, though governed by district administrators. Demesne land consisted on average of one-half to three-quarters of an estate. Villein land belonged to the estates, but tenants normally exercised hereditary usufruct rights in exchange for fulfilling their corvée obligations. Tibetans outside the nobility and the monastic system were classified as serfs, but two types existed and functionally were comparable to tenant farmers. Agricultural serfs, or "small smoke" ("düchung"), were bound to work on estates as a corvée obligation ("ula") but they had title to their own plots, owned private goods, were free to move about outside the periods required for their tribute labor, and were free of tax obligations. They could accrue wealth and on occasion became lenders to the estates themselves, and could sue the estate owners: village serfs ("tralpa") were bound to their villages but only for tax and corvée purposes, such as road transport duties ("ula"), and were only obliged to pay taxes. Half of the village serfs were man-lease serfs ("mi-bog"), meaning that they had purchased their freedom. Estate owners exercised broad rights over attached serfs, and flight or a monastic life was the only venue of relief. Yet no mechanism existed to restore escaped serfs to their estates, and no means to enforce bondage existed, though the estate lord held the right to pursue and forcibly return them to the land.