title: Abductive reasoning

text: At the methodeutical level Peirce held that a hypothesis is judged and selected for testing because it offers, via its trial, to expedite and economize the inquiry process itself toward new truths, first of all by being testable and also by further economies, in terms of cost, value, and relationships among guesses (hypotheses). Here, considerations such as probability, absent from the treatment of abduction at the critical level, come into play. For examples:


title: Abductive reasoning

text: Peirce indicated that abductive reasoning is driven by the need for "economy in research"—the expected fact-based productivity of hypotheses, prior to deductive and inductive processes of verification. A key concept proposed by him in this regard is "uberty"—the expected fertility and pragmatic value of reasoning. This concept seems to be gaining support via association to the Free Energy Principle.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: Gilbert Harman is a professor of philosophy at Princeton University. Harman's 1965 account of the role of "inference to the best explanation" – inferring the existence of that which we need for the best explanation of observable phenomena – has been very influential.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: Stephen Jay Gould, in answering the Omphalos hypothesis, claimed that only hypotheses that can be proved incorrect lie within the domain of science and only these hypotheses are good explanations of facts worth inferring to.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: Applications in artificial intelligence include fault diagnosis, belief revision, and automated planning. The most direct application of abduction is that of automatically detecting faults in systems: given a theory relating faults with their effects and a set of observed effects, abduction can be used to derive sets of faults that are likely to be the cause of the problem.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: Abduction can also be used to model automated planning. Given a logical theory relating action occurrences with their effects (for example, a formula of the event calculus), the problem of finding a plan for reaching a state can be modeled as the problem of abducting a set of literals implying that the final state is the goal state.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: In intelligence analysis, analysis of competing hypotheses and Bayesian networks, probabilistic abductive reasoning is used extensively. Similarly in medical diagnosis and legal reasoning, the same methods are being used, although there have been many examples of errors, especially caused by the base rate fallacy and the prosecutor's fallacy.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: Belief revision, the process of adapting beliefs in view of new information, is another field in which abduction has been applied. The main problem of belief revision is that the new information may be inconsistent with the prior web of beliefs, while the result of the incorporation cannot be inconsistent. The process of updating the web of beliefs can be done by the use of abduction: once an explanation for the observation has been found, integrating it does not generate inconsistency.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: This use of abduction is not straightforward, as adding propositional formulae to other propositional formulae can only make inconsistencies worse. Instead, abduction is done at the level of the ordering of preference of the possible worlds. Preference models use fuzzy logic or utility models.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: In the philosophy of science, abduction has been the key inference method to support scientific realism, and much of the debate about scientific realism is focused on whether abduction is an acceptable method of inference.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: In historical linguistics, abduction during language acquisition is often taken to be an essential part of processes of language change such as reanalysis and analogy.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: In applied linguistics research, abductive reasoning is starting to be used as an alternative explanation to inductive reasoning, in recognition of anticipated outcomes of qualitative inquiry playing a role in shaping the direction of analysis. It is defined as "The use of an unclear premise based on observations, pursuing theories to try to explain it" (Rose et al., 2020, p. 258)


title: Abductive reasoning

text: In anthropology, Alfred Gell in his influential book "Art and Agency" defined abduction (after Eco) as "a case of synthetic inference 'where we find some very curious circumstances, which would be explained by the supposition that it was a case of some general rule, and thereupon adopt that supposition. Gell criticizes existing "anthropological" studies of art for being too preoccupied with aesthetic value and not preoccupied enough with the central anthropological concern of uncovering "social relationships", specifically the social contexts in which artworks are produced, circulated, and received. Abduction is used as the mechanism for getting from art to agency. That is, abduction can explain how works of art inspire a "sensus communis:" the commonly held views shared by members that characterize a given society.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: The question Gell asks in the book is, "how does it initially 'speak' to people?" He answers by saying that "No reasonable person could suppose that art-like relations between people and things do not involve at least some form of semiosis." However, he rejects any intimation that semiosis can be thought of as a language because then he would have to admit to some pre-established existence of the "sensus communis" that he wants to claim only emerges afterwards out of art. Abduction is the answer to this conundrum because the tentative nature of the abduction concept (Peirce likened it to guessing) means that not only can it operate outside of any pre-existing framework, but moreover, it can actually intimate the existence of a framework. As Gell reasons in his analysis, the physical existence of the artwork prompts the viewer to perform an abduction that imbues the artwork with intentionality. A statue of a goddess, for example, in some senses actually becomes the goddess in the mind of the beholder; and represents not only the form of the deity but also her intentions (which are adduced from the feeling of her very presence). Therefore, through abduction, Gell claims that art can have the kind of agency that plants the seeds that grow into cultural myths. The power of agency is the power to motivate actions and inspire ultimately the shared understanding that characterizes any given society.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: In formal methods logic is used to specify and prove properties of computer programs. Abduction has been used in mechanized reasoning tools to increase the level of automation of the proof activity.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: A technique known as bi-abduction, which mixes abduction and the frame problem, was used to scale reasoning techniques for memory properties to millions of lines of code; logic-based abduction was used to infer pre-conditions for individual functions in a program, relieving the human of the need to do so. It led to a program-proof startup company which was acquired by Facebook, and the Infer program analysis tool which led to thousands of bugs being prevented in industrial codebases.


title: Abductive reasoning

text: In addition to inference of function preconditions, abduction has been used to automate inference of invariants for program loops, inference of specifications of unknown code, and in synthesis of the programs themselves.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: Leisha Hailey (born July 11, 1971) is an American actress and musician known for playing Alice Pieszecki in the Showtime Networks series "The L Word" and "". Hailey first came to the public's attention as a musician in the pop duo The Murmurs and has continued her music career as part of the band Uh Huh Her.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: Currently, Hailey works as Alice in "The L Word: Generation Q" and hosts podcast "PANTS" with fellow "L Word" star and close friend, Kate Moennig.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: At 17, she came out as lesbian before moving to New York City to attend the American Academy of Dramatic Arts.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: With her Academy classmate Heather Grody, she formed the pop duo The Murmurs in 1991. In the 1990s, they released several albums and toured on the Lilith Fair. In 2001, Hailey and Grody changed their name to Gush. The group disbanded when Hailey was cast in "The L Word". In 2005, Hailey founded Marfa Records.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: In July 2007, Uh Huh Her, an electropop duo consisting of Hailey and Camila Grey, released an EP entitled "I See Red"; over a year later they released their first album "Common Reaction".


title: Leisha Hailey

text: Hailey also co-wrote the Shakira hit song "Don't Bother" for her 2005 hit album "Oral Fixation Vol. 2".


title: Leisha Hailey

text: Hailey's television debut was in 1996 when she played a struggling musician on an episode of "Boy Meets World". Her first major film role was in the 1997 movie "All Over Me".


title: Leisha Hailey

text: From 2004 to 2009, she starred as Alice Pieszecki, a journalist, television, and radio show host, on "The L Word". At the beginning of the series, Hailey's character identified as bisexual. By the end of the series, specifically in season 5, her character dated mostly women.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: In September 2008, Showtime announced Hailey would star in "The Farm", a "pilot presentation spinoff" of "The L Word", to be written and produced by Ilene Chaiken, creator and executive producer of "The L Word". It was announced in April 2009 that the show would not be picked up by Showtime.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: Hailey's award-winning indie film "La Cucina" premiered on Showtime in December 2009, where she plays a straight pregnant newlywed.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: Hailey has appeared in several Yoplait yogurt commercials as well as a BMW commercial. In April 2008, Hailey was named spokesperson for Olivia Cruises, a travel company which sells cruises and resort vacations marketed towards lesbian customers. She also stars in the psychological thriller Fertile Ground.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: In 2015, Hailey appeared in an episode of long-running The CW show "Supernatural" as Amelia Novak, the estranged wife of Jimmy Novak (human vessel of the angel Castiel, played by Misha Collins.)


title: Leisha Hailey

text: In 2007, Hailey was named the sexiest woman in the AfterEllen Hot 100 list compiled by AfterEllen.com.


title: Leisha Hailey

text: Hailey dated k.d. lang for nearly five years until breaking up in 2001. She also had a relationship with Nina Garduno from 2004 to 2010. From 2011 to 2016, she was dating her bandmate Camila Grey. In 2011, the couple were involved in a dispute with Southwest Airlines, after being ejected from a flight for arguing with a flight attendant who asked them to stop kissing. She is currently in a relationship with actress Kim Dickens.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: Molecular gastronomy is the scientific approach of nutrition from primarily the perspective of chemistry. The composition (molecular structure), properties (mass, viscosity, etc) and transformations (chemical reactions, reactant products) of an ingredient are addressed and utilized in the preparation and appreciation of the ingested products. It is a branch of food science that approaches the preparation and enjoyment of nutrition from the perspective of a scientist at the scale of atoms, molecules, and mixtures.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: Nicholas Kurti, Hungarian physicist, and Hervé This, at the INRA in France, coined "Molecular and Physical Gastronomy" in 1988. While there are those who label others' work as gastronomy, there is a population of chefs who identify as autonomous individuals in their field as chefs.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: There are many branches of food science that study different aspects of food, such as safety, microbiology, preservation, chemistry, engineering and physics. Until the advent of molecular gastronomy, there was no branch dedicated to studying the chemical processes of cooking in the home and in restaurants. Food science has primarily been concerned with industrial food production and, while the disciplines may overlap, they are considered separate areas of investigation.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: The creation of the discipline of molecular gastronomy was intended to bring together what had previously been fragmented and isolated investigations into the chemical and physical processes of cooking into an organized discipline within food science, to address what the other disciplines within food science either do not cover, or cover in a manner intended for scientists rather than cooks.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: The term "molecular and physical gastronomy" was coined in 1988 by Hungarian physicist Nicholas Kurti and French physical chemist Hervé This. In 1992, it became the title for a set of workshops held in Erice, Italy (originally titled "Science and Gastronomy") that brought together scientists and professional cooks for discussions about the science behind traditional cooking preparations. Eventually, the shortened term "molecular gastronomy" became the name of the approach, based on exploring the science behind traditional cooking methods.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: Kurti and This considered the creation of a formal discipline around the subjects discussed in the meetings. After Kurti's death in 1998, the name of the Erice workshops were changed by This to "The International Workshop on Molecular Gastronomy 'N. Kurti'". This remained the sole director of the subsequent workshops from 1999, and continued his research in the field of molecular gastronomy at the Inra-AgroParisTech International Centre for Molecular Gastronomy, remaining in charge of organizing the international meetings.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: The idea of using techniques developed in chemistry to study food is not a new one, for instance the discipline of food science has existed for many years. Kurti and This acknowledged this fact and though they decided that a new, organized and specific discipline should be created within food science that investigated the processes in regular cooking (as food science was primarily concerned with the nutritional properties of food and developing methods to process food on an industrial scale), there are several notable examples throughout history of investigations into the science of everyday cooking recorded as far as back to 18th century.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: The concept of molecular gastronomy was perhaps presaged by Marie-Antoine Carême, one of the most famous French chefs, who said in the early 19th century that when making a food stock "the broth must come to a boil very slowly, otherwise the albumin coagulates, hardens; the water, not having time to penetrate the meat, prevents the gelatinous part of the osmazome from detaching itself."


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: In 1943 the University of Chicago Press published a book titled "Food Chemistry and Cookery" by the then University of Chicago Associate Professor of Home Economics Evelyn G. Halliday and University of Minnesota Associate Professor of Home Economics Isabel T. Noble. In the foreword of the 346-page book, the authors state that, "The main purpose of this book is to give an understanding of the chemical principles upon which good practices in food preparation and preservation are based."


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: The book includes chapters such as "The Chemistry of Milk", "The Chemistry of Baking Powders and Their Use in Baking", "The Chemistry of Vegetable Cookery" and "Determination of Hydrogen Ion Concentration" and contains numerous illustrations of lab experiments including a "Distillation Apparatus for Vegetable Samples" and a "Pipette for Determining the Relative Viscosity of Pectin Solutions". The professors had previously published "The Hows and Whys of Cooking" in 1928.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: In 1932, Belle Lowe, then the professor of Food and Nutrition at Iowa State College, published a book titled "Experimental Cookery: From The Chemical And Physical Standpoint" which became a standard textbook for home economics courses across the United States. The book is an exhaustively researched look into the science of everyday cooking referencing hundreds of sources and including many experiments. At a length of over 600 pages with section titles such as "The Relation Of Cookery To Colloidal Chemistry", "Coagulation Of Proteins", "The Factors Affecting The Viscosity Of Cream And Ice Cream", "Syneresis", "Hydrolysis Of Collagen" and "Changes In Cooked Meat And The Cooking Of Meat", the volume rivals or exceeds the scope of many other books on the subject, at a much earlier date.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: Though rarely credited, the origins of the Erice workshops (originally entitled "Science and Gastronomy") can be traced back to cooking teacher Elizabeth Cawdry Thomas, who studied at Le Cordon Bleu in London and ran a cooking school in Berkeley, California. The one-time wife of a physicist, Thomas had many friends in the scientific community and an interest in the science of cooking. In 1988, while attending a meeting at the Ettore Majorana Center for Scientific Culture in Erice, Thomas had a conversation with Professor Ugo Valdrè of the University of Bologna, who agreed with her that the science of cooking was an undervalued subject, and encouraged Kurti to organize a workshop at the Ettore Majorana Center. However nothing happened until Kurti met Hervé This: both approached the director of the Ettore Majorana center, physicist Antonino Zichichi, who liked the idea. They invited the food science writer Harold McGee to join them as invited co-director of the first workshops in 1992.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: University of Oxford physicist Nicholas Kurti advocated applying scientific knowledge to culinary problems. He was one of the first television cooks in the UK, hosting a black-and-white television show in 1969 entitled "The Physicist in the Kitchen", where he demonstrated techniques such as using a syringe to inject hot mince pies with brandy in order to avoid disturbing the crust. That same year, he held a presentation for the Royal Society of London (also entitled "The Physicist in the Kitchen") in which he stated:


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: Kurti demonstrated making meringue in a vacuum chamber, the cooking of sausages by connecting them across a car battery, the digestion of protein by fresh pineapple juice, and a reverse baked alaska—hot inside, cold outside—cooked in a microwave oven. Kurti was also an advocate of low temperature cooking, repeating 18th century experiments by British scientist Benjamin Thompson by leaving a lamb joint in an oven at . After 8.5 hours, both the inside and outside temperature of the lamb joint were around , and the meat was tender and juicy.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: With his wife Giana, Kurti edited an anthology on food and science by fellows and foreign members of the Royal Society.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: Hervé This started collecting "culinary precisions" (old kitchen wives' tales and cooking tricks) the 24th of March 1980, and started testing these precisions to see which held up; his collection eventually numbered some 25,000. In 1995, he received a PhD in Physical Chemistry of Materials, for which he wrote his thesis on "La gastronomie moléculaire et physique" (molecular and physical gastronomy). He served as an adviser to the French minister of education, lectured internationally, and was invited to join the lab of Nobel-winning molecular chemist Jean-Marie Lehn. This has published several books in French, four of which have been translated into English, including "Molecular Gastronomy: Exploring the Science of Flavor", "Kitchen Mysteries: Revealing the Science of Cooking", "Cooking: The Quintessential Art", and "Building a Meal: From Molecular Gastronomy to Culinary Constructivism".


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: He currently publishes a series of essays in French, and hosts free monthly seminars on molecular gastronomy at the INRA in France. He gives free and public seminars on molecular gastronomy every month, and annually gives a public and free course on molecular gastronomy. Hervé This also authors a website and a pair of blogs on the subject in French, and publishes monthly collaborations with French chef Pierre Gagnaire on Gagnaire's website.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: The objectives of molecular gastronomy, as defined by Hervé This, are seeking for the mechanisms of culinary transformations and processes (from a chemical and physical point of view) in three areas:


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: The original fundamental objectives of molecular gastronomy were defined by This in his doctoral dissertation as:


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: Hervé This later recognized points 3, 4, and 5 as being not entirely scientific endeavors (more application of technology and educational), and has revised the list.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the term started to be used to describe a new style of cooking in which some chefs began to explore new possibilities in the kitchen by embracing science, research, technological advances in equipment and various natural gums and hydrocolloids produced by the commercial food processing industry. It has since been used to describe the food and cooking of a number of famous chefs, though many of them do not accept the term as a description of their style of cooking.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: Chefs who are often associated with molecular gastronomy because of their embrace of science include Heston Blumenthal, Grant Achatz, Ferran Adrià, José Andrés, Marcel Vigneron, Homaro Cantu, Michael Carlson, Wylie Dufresne, and Adam Melonas.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: Despite their central role in the popularisation of science-based cuisine, both Adria and Blumenthal have expressed their frustration with the common mis-classification of their food and cooking as "molecular gastronomy", On 10 December 2006 Blumenthal and Harold McGee published a 'Statement on the "New Cookery" in the Observer in order to summarise what they saw as the central tenets of modern cuisine. Ferran Adria of El Bulli and Thomas Keller of the French Laundry and Per Se signed up to this and together released a joint statement in 2006 clarifying their approach to cooking, stating that the term "molecular gastronomy" was coined in 1992 for a single workshop that did not influence them, and that the term does not describe any style of cooking.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: In February 2011, Nathan Myhrvold published the "Modernist Cuisine", which led many chefs to further classify molecular gastronomy versus modernist cuisine. Myhrvold believes that his cooking style should not be called molecular gastronomy.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: The term "molecular gastronomy" was originally intended to refer only to the scientific investigation of cooking, though it has been adopted by a number of people and applied to cooking itself or to describe a style of cuisine.


title: Molecular gastronomy

text: No singular name has ever been applied in consensus, and the term "molecular gastronomy" continues to be used often as a blanket term to refer to any and all of these things—particularly in the media. Ferran Adrià hates the term "molecular gastronomy" and prefers 'deconstructivist' to describe his style of cooking. A 2006 open letter by Ferran Adria, Heston Blumenthal, Thomas Keller and Harold McGee published in "The Times" used no specific term, referring only to "a new approach to cooking" and "our cooking".


title: Flail (weapon)

text: A flail is a weapon consisting of a striking head attached to a handle by a flexible rope, strap, or chain. The chief tactical virtue of the flail was its capacity to strike around a defender's shield or parry. Its chief liability was a lack of precision and the difficulty of using it in close combat, or closely-ranked formations.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: There are two broad types of flail: a long, two-handed infantry weapon with a cylindrical head, and a shorter weapon with a round metal striking head. The longer cylindrical-headed flail is a hand weapon derived from the agricultural tool of the same name, commonly used in threshing. It was primarily considered a peasant's weapon, and while not common, they were deployed in Germany and Central Europe in the later Late Middle Ages. The smaller, more spherical-headed flail appears to be even less common; it appears occasionally in artwork from the 15th century onward, but many historians have expressed doubts that it ever saw use as an actual military weapon.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: In the Late Middle Ages, a particular type of flail appears in several works being used as a weapon, which consists of a very long shaft with a hinged, roughly cylindrical striking end. In most cases, these are two-handed agricultural flails, which were sometimes employed as an improvised weapon by peasant armies conscripted into military service or engaged in popular uprisings. For example, in the 1420–1497 period, the Hussites fielded large numbers of peasant foot soldiers armed with this type of flail.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: Some of these weapons featured anti personnel studs or spikes embedded in the striking end, or are shown being used by armored knights, suggesting they were made or at least modified specifically to be used as weapons. Such modified flails were used in the German Peasants' War in the early 16th century. Several German martial arts manuals or "Fechtbücher" from the 15th, 16th and 17th century feature illustrations and lessons on how to use the peasant flail (with or without spikes) or how to defend against it when attacked.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: The other type of European flail is a shorter weapon consisting of a wooden haft connected by a chain, rope, or leather to one or more striking ends. The "kisten", with a non-spiked head and a leather connection to the haft, is attested in the 10th century in the territories of the Rus', probably being adopted from either the Avars or Khazars. This weapon spread into central and eastern Europe in the 11th–13th centuries. The medieval military flail ( in French and in German), then, might typically have consisted of a wooden shaft joined by a length of chain to one or more iron-shod wooden bars, or it may have been a ("chain morning star") with one or more metal balls or morning star in the place of the wooden bars.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: Artwork from the 15th century to the early 17th century shows most of these weapons having handles longer than 3 ft and being wielded with two hands, but a few are shown used in a single hand or with a haft too short to be used two-handed.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: Despite being very common in fictional works such as cartoons, films and role-playing games as a "quintessential medieval weapon", historical information about flails other than the kisten or derivatives of the peasant flail is somewhat scarce. Some doubt they were used as weapons at all due to the few genuine specimens as well as the unrealistic way they are depicted in art.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: Waldman (2005) documented several likely authentic examples of the ball-and-chain flail from private collections as well as several restored illustrations from German, French, and Czech sources. Nonetheless, he states that the scarcity of artifacts and artistic depictions, combined with the almost complete lack of text references, suggests they were relatively rare weapons and never saw widespread use. One of the reasons was the hazard the weapon posed to its wielder, especially the varieties with long chains and short handles. A missed swing would still retain momentum, and, even if a blow were struck, there may have been a long time before the user could ready another swing.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: In Asia, short flails originally employed in threshing rice were adapted into weapons such as the nunchaku or three-section staff. In China a very similar weapon to the long-handled peasant flail is known as the two-section staff, and Korea has a weapon called a pyeongon. In Japan, there is also a version of the smaller ball-on-a-chain flail called a chigiriki.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, the long-handled flail is found in use in India. An example held in the Pitt Rivers Museum has a wooden ball-shaped head studded with iron spikes. Another in the Royal Armouries collection has two spiked iron balls attached by separate chains.


title: Flail (weapon)

text: The knout, a whip or scourge formerly used in Russia for the punishment of criminals, was the descendant of the flail. It was manufactured in many forms, and its effect was so severe that few of those who were subjected to its full force survived the punishment. The Emperor Nicholas I substituted for the knout a milder whip.


title: Original Six

text: The Original Six () are the teams that comprised the National Hockey League (NHL) between 1942 and 1967. The six teams are the Boston Bruins, Chicago Black Hawks, Detroit Red Wings, Montreal Canadiens, New York Rangers, and Toronto Maple Leafs. After serving as the league's only teams for 25 seasons, they were joined by six new franchises in the 1967 NHL expansion.


title: Original Six

text: Contrary to the name, the Canadiens and Maple Leafs are the only charter members of the NHL. Despite this, the six are considered a traditional set for joining the league by 1926 and being the NHL's oldest active franchises.


title: Original Six

text: The Original Six have the most combined Stanley Cup titles among NHL franchises; the Canadiens hold the most wins at 24. The Maple Leafs, who won the last Stanley Cup of the Original Six era, are the only Original Six franchise to have not returned to the Stanley Cup since the 1967 expansion.


title: Original Six

text: The NHL consisted of ten teams during the 1920s, but the league experienced a period of retrenchment during the Great Depression, losing the Pittsburgh Pirates/Philadelphia Quakers, Ottawa Senators/St. Louis Eagles, and Montreal Maroons in succession to financial pressures. The New York/Brooklyn Americans—one of the league's original expansion franchises, along with the Bruins and Maroons—lasted longer, but played as wards of the league from 1936 onward. World War II and its own economic strains severely depleted the league's Canadian player base, since Canada entered the war in September 1939 and many players left for military service. The Americans suspended operations in the fall of 1942, leaving the NHL with just six teams.


title: Original Six

text: Despite various outside efforts to initiate expansion after the war, including attempted revivals of the Maroons and Americans franchises, the league's membership would remain at six teams for the next 25 seasons.


title: Original Six

text: The Original Six era has been criticized for having a playoff system that was too easy, since the top four teams in the regular season advanced to the playoffs. At least, the playoff system was too easy for the top three teams in the league, i.e. Montreal, Toronto, and Detroit. The standings were very static. Montreal only missed the playoffs once between 1943 and 1967 (in 1948) while Toronto missed the post-season four times and Detroit missed three times, leaving the three remaining teams to compete for the final playoff berth. Montreal won ten of the 25 Stanley Cups awarded during the Original Six era; Toronto won nine, and Detroit won five. Chicago won only one Stanley Cup during this era, in 1961, while Boston and New York won no Cups.


title: Original Six

text: It was not a coincidence that two of the dominant teams were based in Canada, and the third was based in a U.S. city which borders Canada. The league had a rule that gave each team exclusive rights to negotiate contracts with promising local players within 50 miles of its home ice. If a player was not within the 50-mile limit, that player was free to field offers from any team. Once a player agreed to an NHL sponsorship-level contract, the NHL club could assign him to its sponsored junior squad – its "sponsorship list".


title: Original Six

text: Since Toronto and Montreal's metropolitan areas contained abundant hockey prospects, this put them at a major recruiting advantage over Boston, New York, and Chicago, which had very few such prospects in their territories. Detroit had Southwestern Ontario as part of its territory; thus it did not have the major advantage of the Canadian teams but was better positioned than the other American ones.


title: Original Six

text: In practice, all six teams recruited players from Canada by sponsoring minor league, junior, and amateur teams. As a result, the league was almost entirely composed of Canadians who had come up through the junior and minor pro leagues. The league boasted a small amount of good American players during the 1940s including All-Star goalkeepers Frank Brimsek and Mike Karakas, defenseman John Mariucci, and forward Cully Dahlstrom. At the beginning of the Original Six era, the Chicago Black Hawks were owned by Major Frederic McLaughlin, a fiercely patriotic man who tried to stock his roster with as many American players as possible. However, he died in 1944, and his estate sold the team to a group controlled by the Norris family, who also owned the Red Wings. After that time, the Black Hawks had only a few U.S.-born players, just like the other U.S.-based teams. The Canadian teams had very few. The only American-born Maple Leaf during the entire era was Gerry Foley who was born in Ware, Massachusetts but grew up in Garson, Ontario, and played just four games for Toronto (although he played two full seasons for the New York Rangers). The Canadiens' only American-born skater was Norm Dussault, a forward who was born in Springfield, Massachusetts but grew up in Sherbrooke, Quebec. An American goalie named John Aiken also played exactly half a game for the Habs on March 13, 1958: he was a Boston Bruins team employee who filled in for his team's opponent as an emergency replacement when Jacques Plante was injured during the second period of a game at the Boston Garden. Detroit born Charlie Burns' family moved to Toronto when he was a child; he was a four-year regular with Detroit and Boston from 1958 to 1963.


title: Original Six

text: Very few all American-developed NHL players emerged in the 1950s and 1960s. Tommy Williams was the only American citizen to play regularly. Both Williams and Mariucci complained about anti-American bias, and U.S. Olympic team stars John Mayasich and Bill Cleary turned down offers from NHL teams. Although there were several European-born players (e.g., Slovakian-born Hall of Famer Stan Mikita) who immigrated to Canada as children, the only European-born and trained player of the era was Sweden's Ulf Sterner, who briefly played for the Rangers in 1965. The league's first black player, Willie O'Ree, came up during this era, playing for the Boston Bruins between 1958 and 1961, although he turned out to be the only black player until the 1970s.


title: Original Six

text: After World War II, all six NHL owners consistently rejected any bids for expansion. In the eyes of many observers, the criteria for entry was changed every time with a desire to defeat any such bid. They also reneged on promises to allow the still-extant but dormant Maroons and Americans franchises to re-activate.


title: Original Six

text: This phenomenon had the impact of limiting player movement, and as a result the Original Six rosters were very static. Until the lengthening of careers in the 1980s, only one 20-year player in NHL history, Larry Robinson, started his career after 1964, and it is generally accepted that the weakest Calder Trophy winners (Rookies of the Year) of all time were selected in the 1950s and 1960s.


title: Original Six

text: The league tolerated monopolistic practices by the owners. At one point, for instance, Red Wings owner James E. Norris effectively owned the Black Hawks as well and was also the largest stockholder in the Rangers. He also had significant influence over the Bruins by way of mortgages extended to the team to help keep it afloat during the Depression. This led some critics to joke that NHL stood for "Norris House League."


title: Original Six

text: The control of owners over their teams was absolute. Players who got on the wrong side of their team owner were often harshly punished, either by being traded out of town or sent to the minors. An example of this is the case of bruising Red Wings forward Ted Lindsay who, after agitating for a players' union, was sent to the last-place Black Hawks. Norris' conglomerate did not invest in Boston, Chicago, and New York; these teams mostly just filled dates for the Norris arenas. A measure of the dominance of Detroit, Montreal, and Toronto in the era can be seen in that between the Bruins' Stanley Cup wins in 1941 and 1970, every single Cup (save for Chicago in 1961) was won by the Red Wings, the Canadiens, or the Maple Leafs, and those three teams failed to make the playoffs only eight times combined in the era.


title: Original Six

text: Labour conditions for the players were also poor. Players' medical bills were paid for only two months after an injury. Moreover, whenever players were sent to the minors, they not only had their salaries cut, but their relocation costs were not covered. The players were also not paid for off-season promotions, and did not share in the funds of promotions such as trading cards as was done in baseball. In the earlier era, players were allowed to play other sports, such as lacrosse, for money in the off-season, but this was disallowed in the standard Original Six-era contract. Players were signed as early as 16, binding them to one of the teams, who then directed their development.


title: Original Six

text: The pension plan, formed in 1946, while ostensibly for the players' benefit, was kept secret, hiding large amounts of money under the control of the owners. The pension plan was only exposed in 1989 when it was found that a $25 million surplus existed. The stark labor conditions led to several players' disputes, including a 1957 antitrust action and attempted union formation, and subsequent actions in the early 1960s by Toronto players Bob Baun and Carl Brewer, leading to the 1967 formation of the NHL Players Association.


title: Original Six

text: As more conservative owners left the NHL, a younger guard that was more receptive to expansion came into the league. By 1963, when Rangers governor William M. Jennings first introduced to his peers the idea of expanding the NHL, Major League Baseball and the National Football League were adding teams, while the American Football League was becoming an attractive alternative to the NFL. Jennings proposed that the NHL add two new teams on the American West Coast for the 1964–65 season, basing his argument on concerns that the Western Hockey League intended to operate as a major league in the near future and possibly compete against the NHL for talent; he also hoped that a West Coast presence would make the NHL truly national and improve the league's chances of returning to national television in the United States (its broadcast deal with CBS expired in 1960). While the governors did not agree to Jennings' proposal, the topic of expansion arose every time the owners met from then on out. In 1965, the league decided to double in size by adding six teams, and in February 1966, expansion franchises were awarded to Los Angeles, Minnesota, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, and the San Francisco-Oakland area. The six new clubs would begin play in the 1967–68 season. Thus, with Toronto's six-game victory over Montreal in the 1967 Stanley Cup Finals, the Original Six era came to a close.


title: Original Six

text: The first dozen seasons (1967–68 through 1978–79) of the Expansion Era saw continued dominance by Original Six teams, including the Bobby Orr-led Bruins of the early 1970s and the Canadiens dynasty at the end of that decade. Expansion teams, by comparison, were not as dominant during that same time period. During those dozen seasons, only one expansion team hoisted the Cup (the Philadelphia Flyers, in 1974 and 1975), and only one Stanley Cup Finals series featured two expansion teams (the Flyers' 1975 win over the Buffalo Sabres). By the early 1980s – after further expansion, a merger with the WHA, and changes in conference/division alignment and playoff structure – expansion teams began reaching clear parity with the Original Six. Indeed, the 1979 Stanley Cup Finals between the Canadiens and Rangers would be the last Final featuring any Original Six team until 1986 (when the Canadiens claimed the Cup) as well as the last all-Original Six Final until Chicago's win over Boston in 2013. That same year, all six Original Six teams made the playoffs for the first time since 1996. Since the dawn of the Expansion Era, every Original Six team has won the Cup at least once except for Toronto, which has the longest active Cup drought in the NHL.


title: Original Six

text: Since the expansion, the Montreal Canadiens have twice won the Cup by defeating other Original Six clubs in every series the playoffs, in 1978 (beating Detroit, Toronto, and Boston) and 1979 (beating Toronto, Boston, and New York). Also, the 1992 Pittsburgh Penguins are the only team to also win the Cup after beating three of the Original Six (New York and Boston in the Wales Conference playoffs, and Chicago in the finals). Twice, the Eastern Conference champion beat two Original Six teams before being defeated by another in the Stanley Cup Final – the 2002 Carolina Hurricanes (beat Montreal and Toronto, lost to Detroit) and 2010 Philadelphia Flyers (beat Boston and Montreal, lost to Chicago). In 2013, the League moved the Red Wings to the Eastern Conference, leaving Chicago as the only Original Six team in the West. In 2015, the Tampa Bay Lightning became the first team to face only Original Six franchises in the four-round playoff era, beating Detroit, Montreal, and New York in the Eastern playoffs before falling in the finals to Chicago.


title: Original Six

text: The last active player from the Original Six era was Wayne Cashman who retired with the Boston Bruins in 1983. The final active player and official in any on-ice capacity for the league was linesman John D'Amico, who retired at the end of the 1986-87 season.


title: Original Six

text: According to "Forbes" in 2015, five of the Original Six teams are the top five most valuable NHL clubs: the Rangers at approximately $1.2 billion, the Canadiens at $1.18 billion, the Maple Leafs at $1.15 billion, the Blackhawks at $925 million, and the Bruins at $750 million. The Red Wings rank eighth at $600 million.


title: Gavin Creel

text: Gavin James Creel (born April 18, 1976) is an American actor, singer, and songwriter best known for his work in musical theater. Creel made his Broadway debut in 2002 in the leading role of Jimmy in "Thoroughly Modern Millie" before starring as Claude in the 2009 Broadway revival of "Hair", both Tony Award-nominated performances. From 2012–2015, he starred as Elder Price in "The Book of Mormon"; he received a Laurence Olivier Award for originating the role in the West End version of the musical and has played the role in the US National Tour and on Broadway. In 2017, he received a Tony Award for his performance as Cornelius Hackl in Broadway's "Hello, Dolly!."


title: Gavin Creel

text: Other stage credits of his include "La Cage aux Folles" (2004), "She Loves Me" (2016), "Waitress" (2019), and "Into the Woods" (2022) on Broadway, "Mary Poppins" (2006) and "Waitress" (2020) in the West End, and the national tours of "Fame" (1998), "Flashdance" (2012). Primarily a theater actor, his most notable screen acting role is as Bill in "Eloise at the Plaza" and its Christmas-themed sequel.


title: Gavin Creel

text: Creel was born in Findlay, Ohio. He attended Findlay High School, graduating in 1994. He received his Bachelor of Fine Arts in musical theatre at the University of Michigan School of Music, Theatre & Dance in 1998.


title: Gavin Creel

text: Creel began his professional career in regional theater. Some of his earliest credits are as part of the resident cast of Pittsburgh CLO, a repertory theater, for their 1997 and 1998 seasons; mostly ensemble roles, some of his eight productions there included "Kiss Me Kate", "La Cage aux Folles""," and "On the Town". Other stock theater credits around this time include productions in Massachusetts and New York state.


title: Gavin Creel

text: Following college graduation, Creel played Nick Piazza in the opening cast of 1998 national tour of "Fame". In 1998–1999, the tour performed in cities including Toronto, Washington, D.C., and Chicago. Following the tour, he continued to perform in regional theater before moving to New York City in the early 2000s. In 2001, he was the swing in the original off-Broadway production of "." He also took part in the 2001 workshop of "Spring Awakening".


title: Gavin Creel

text: In 2002, Creel made his Broadway debut in the original production "Thoroughly Modern Millie," originating the role of Jimmy Smith opposite Sutton Foster's Millie Dillmount. A breakthrough performance, he was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical. Following his departure from the show in April 2003, he performed in the original Chicago production of Stephen Sondheim's "Road Show", then titled "Bounce", recorded the original cast album for "Bright Lights, Big City", among other productions and workshops. Of note, he made his screen acting debut in the 2003 film "Eloise at the Plaza" and its follow-up "Eloise at Christmastime" as Bill.


title: Gavin Creel

text: He returned to Broadway in 2004 in the revival "La Cage aux Folles". He played Jean-Michel throughout the production. In 2006, he made his West End debut in "Mary Poppins." He replaced Bert in the original production. Also in 2006, he released his debut studio album "Goodtimenation."


title: Gavin Creel

text: He returned to Broadway in 2009 in the revival of "Hair". For his starring role of Claude, he received his second Tony Award nomination for Best Actor in a Musical. He and the rest of the cast performed in London through 2010 when the production transferred to the West End. Following "Hair", he starred in the world premiere of "Prometheus Bound" and the original US tour of the "Flashdance" musical; the national tour was expected to function as a pre-Broadway production but did not transfer.


title: Gavin Creel

text: From 2012 until 2015, Creel starred in a series of productions of "The Book of Mormon". He first starred as Elder Price in the First National Tour of the show in 2012. He subsequently originated the role in the musical's original West End production; for this performance, he was awarded Best Actor in a Musical at the 2014 Laurence Olivier Award, the most prestigious theatrical awards in the United Kingdom. Following his West End run, he returned to the touring production for a number of months before joining the Broadway cast in 2015.


title: Gavin Creel

text: Creel played the suave salesman Steven Kodaly, opposite Jane Krakowski, in the 2016 Broadway revival of "She Loves Me". The show was a critical success and the production became the first Broadway show ever to be live-streamed. Since then, the recording has been part of the PBS series "Great Performances".


title: Gavin Creel

text: In 2017, he began playing Cornelius Hackl in the Broadway revival of "Hello, Dolly!" starring Bette Midler. For his role, Creel was awarded the 2017 Tony Award for Best Actor in a Featured Role in a Musical.


title: Gavin Creel

text: In 2019, Creel assumed the role of Dr. Pomatter in the Broadway production of "Waitress". He subsequently played the role in the West End production of the musical starring alongside Sara Bareilles.


title: Gavin Creel

text: In 2021, Creel appeared in two episodes of "American Horror Stories" opposite Matt Bomer and Sierra McCormick on FX on Hulu.


title: Gavin Creel

text: Also in 2021, Creel performed in a self-described 'concert-cal' called Walk on Through: Confessions of a Museum Novice, for which Creel was commissioned to write and perform the book, music, and lyrics by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Creel has spoken at length on various podcasts about working on this piece before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Gavin Creel

text: In 2022, Creel appeared as The Wolf and Cinderella's Prince in the New York City Center Encores! production and subsequent Broadway revival of "Into the Woods". He will reprise the role in the 2023 national tour.


title: Gavin Creel

text: Creel is gay. He is a regular on the LGBT RFamilyVacations cruise with Rosie O'Donnell. He is also one of the founders, with Rory O'Malley and Jenny Kanelos, of Broadway Impact, an LGBT activist group that mobilized the New York theatre community in the pursuit of marriage equality. He is an alumnus of Findlay First Edition Show Choir.


title: Marty Friedman

text: Marty Friedman (born December 8, 1962) is an American guitarist, best known for his tenure as the lead guitarist for thrash metal band Megadeth from 1990 to 2000. He is also known for playing alongside Jason Becker in Cacophony from 1986 until 1989, as well as his 13 solo albums and tours. Friedman has resided in Tokyo, Japan since 2003, where he has appeared on over 700 Japanese television programs such as "Rock Fujiyama", "Hebimeta-san", "Kōhaku Uta Gassen" and "Jukebox English". He has released albums with several record labels, including Avex Trax, Universal, EMI, Prosthetic, and Shrapnel Records.


title: Marty Friedman

text: At the age of 14, after attending a KISS concert, Friedman took up the guitar, and is largely self-taught. He rushed to form a band and started playing original songs, the reason being that originals are easier to play than covers. "Because," he says, "even if you screw up, you just claim that the song is written like that and no one can challenge you." The mother of one of Friedman's friends ran an event center with a two-level stage, and Friedman and his friends used it as a rehearsal space. Soon word spread about their band, and, since they were in a rural area, people would come from miles around to socialize and listen to music. "Rehearsals" very quickly became live shows. Friedman formed and played lead guitar in several other bands, including Deuce, Hawaii (which had previously been called Vixen), and notably Cacophony. Cacophony featured neoclassical metal elements and synchronized twin guitar harmonies and counterpoints shared with guitarist Jason Becker. He played guitar on the 1987 album "It Won't Be Long" by Christian rock band Shout. In 1988, he recorded demos for Jet Red that eventually were released as bonus tracks on the 2009 Jet Red release "Flight Plan". In August 1988, he released his first solo album, "Dragon's Kiss".


title: Marty Friedman

text: When Cacophony disbanded in 1989, Friedman auditioned for the thrash metal band Megadeth after a tip from his friend Bob Nalbandian. Friedman officially joined Megadeth in February 1990. Friedman's audition can be seen on the Megadeth DVD "Arsenal of Megadeth". The first album he recorded with them was "Rust in Peace" which was released on September 24, 1990. "Rust in Peace" was certified platinum by the RIAA in 1994 and was nominated for the Best Metal Performance Grammy at the 33rd Grammy Awards.


title: Marty Friedman

text: Friedman further developed his style of playing exotic scale solos from the Cacophony era, and integrated it into the music of Megadeth. In July 1992, Megadeth released "Countdown to Extinction", which was a more commercial album, aimed at a wider audience, and sold double platinum. Friedman played on Megadeth's further releases "Youthanasia" (1994), "Cryptic Writings" (1997), and "Risk" (1999). After a total of five studio albums with Megadeth, in December 1999 Friedman announced his departure from Megadeth. His last show with them was on January 14, 2000. Friedman later stated that he got tired of "holding the flag" for traditional metal and felt that he could not evolve as a musician. In an interview with Ultimate-Guitar.com in March 2007, Friedman claimed that he wanted Megadeth to move towards a more aggressive sound and that he'd rather have been playing straight pop music than the pop-influenced metal Megadeth was playing at the time. During Friedman's time in the band, they sold over ten million albums worldwide.


title: Marty Friedman

text: During his time in Megadeth, Friedman released three solo albums between 1992 and 1996, which featured Megadeth bandmate Nick Menza on drums.


title: Marty Friedman

text: Friedman appeared on the Tourniquet albums "Where Moth and Rust Destroy" (2003) and "Antiseptic Bloodbath" (2012), and Tourniquet drummer Ted Kirkpatrick's solo album "Onward to Freedom"


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2003, Friedman collaborated with Nanase Aikawa on her third mini album R.U.O.K. In 2021 he toured with Aikawa on her 25th anniversary concert tour.


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2009, Friedman collaborated with Ema Gelotte and Tinna Karlsdotter from "All Ends" as the lead guitarist for the song "With Me" which was featured in the game, "Sonic and the Black Knight". In 2010, Friedman launched a record label under Avex Group, called Gokukara Records.


title: Marty Friedman

text: In February 2010, during C. J. Ramone's Japan tour, he made a guest appearance on guitar for "California Sun", a cover song previously released by The Ramones on their 1977 album, "Leave Home".


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2011, Friedman collaborated with Japanese idol group Momoiro Clover Z, providing guitar for their song "Mōretsu Uchū Kōkyōkyoku Dai 7 Gakushō "Mugen no Ai"", which would become a hit in 2012.


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2011, Friedman also worked with Ayanocozey Show to make the song SAMURAI STRONG STYLE, theme of the Tokusatsu movie "" The catchphrase for the movie is . Friedman and Ayanocozey had previously worked together when they joined the Japanese promotional super-group FANTA, releasing the 2010 single "Fantastic Love". Friedman stood for the "F" in FANTA, Ayanocozey stood for the first "A", and the other members of the group made up the other letters.


title: Marty Friedman

text: Friedman recorded with Daniel Tompkins of Tesseract in Tompkins' band Skyharbor's debut album, . At the end of 2012, a full album containing heavy metal covers of Momoiro Clover Z's songs was also released by a band named "Metal Clone X". Although band members remained anonymous, Friedman was cited as label producer and arranger.


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2013, Friedman released his first library of guitar loops on LoopArtists. Friedman recorded collections of clean-tone, high gain lead and rhythm guitar loops that are intended for use in a production and remix environment. Friedman has been doing concert tours for the "Bravely Default" original soundtrack in 2013 as well as the Budokan concert tours among others. In combination with these tours he has also released his new album "Inferno" in 2014 which he is now touring across Europe going to places such as Norway, Poland, Netherlands and Germany.


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2014, Friedman collaborated again with Momoiro Clover Z, providing the guitar track for their single "Moon Pride". The song was also used as the opening theme music for the television series "Sailor Moon Crystal", which premiered in July that year.


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2018, he collaborated with Man with a Mission's Jean-Ken Johnny, KenKen, and Kōji Fujimoto for the song "The Perfect World," which was used as main theme for the Netflix original anime series "B: The Beginning".


title: Marty Friedman

text: Friedman appears on Japanese television and is also a contributing columnist to Japanese music magazines and national newspapers. Speaking Japanese, he became a regular member of the cast of TXN's musical TV program "Hebimeta-san" (ヘビメタさん) (anglicized as "Mr. Heavy-Metal") with Japanese idol Yoko Kumada until the show came to an end in 2005. Friedman had his own heavy metal TV program called "Rock Fujiyama" alongside Shelly, Ken Ayugai (Kenny Guy), Yorimasa Hisatake (Rock Ninja Yorimasa) and ex-Scanch member Rolly Teranishi from April 2006 until March 2007. From November till December 2005, he toured with singer Ami Suzuki on her "Suzuki Ami Around the World" live house tour, which took place in Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya.


title: Marty Friedman

text: Friedman was featured on "Jukebox", a television program in which Friedman and two Japanese people translate the lyrics of various English songs into understandable Japanese. He has also made guest appearances on the television programs "Eigo de Shabera Night" and "Tamori Club".


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2008, Friedman played the role of Paul Weinberg, an English language teacher, in Isshin Inudou's "Gou-Gou Datte Neko de Aru".


title: Marty Friedman

text: Friedman was a guest star in the Adult Swim original "Metalocalypse" by playing driving teacher Mr. Gojira. He has appeared on Cool Japan several times as a music expert.


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2009, Friedman appeared on "The Quiz Show", a Japanese TV drama starring Sho Sakurai as a guest professor. On January 4, 2014, Friedman took part in New Japan Pro-Wrestling's Wrestle Kingdom 8 in Tokyo Dome event, playing Hiroshi Tanahashi to the arena.


title: Marty Friedman

text: Shortly after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Friedman began auctioning off a great variety of his musical equipment and paraphernalia that he used as a member of Megadeth and Cacophony, including some of the earliest productions of Jackson Kelly guitars and his signature Carvin V220.


title: Marty Friedman

text: In 2018, Friedman confirms that his hair is genuinely curly but hates it; he prefers to have it straight.


title: Marty Friedman

text: Friedman is known for his improvisation and for fusing Eastern music with Western music and other styles, such as neoclassical, thrash metal and later progressive rock. When playing, he often uses arpeggiated chords and various customized scales and arpeggios, some of which relate to Asian (Chinese and Japanese), Middle Eastern and other exotic scales, which are different from the typical minor/major pentatonic and seven modes based on the Major scale.


title: Marty Friedman

text: As a right-handed guitarist, Friedman has an unorthodox picking technique; the angle in which his hand is clenched goes against the conventional palm mute frequently used by right-handed players in metal music. He also frequently utilizes upstrokes as opposed to downstrokes, especially on the B and high E strings. Rather than strictly picking from his elbow or wrist, Friedman will also pick moving his fingers—a technique known as "circle picking".


title: Marty Friedman

text: Friedman is critical of being called a shredder. He opined that the term is "a guy who plays fast meaningless shit all the time. Shredders are the guys in your friend’s basement who play insanely fast, and it just looks so mind-blowing and amazingly cool with their fingers flying all around the neck, but if you close your eyes and actually listen, what you hear is a pile of shit. You all know what I’m talking about."


title: Norman Jewison

text: Norman Frederick Jewison (born July 21, 1926) is a retired Canadian film and television director, producer, and founder of the Canadian Film Centre.


title: Norman Jewison

text: He has directed numerous feature films and has been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director three times in three separate decades for "In the Heat of the Night" (1967), "Fiddler on the Roof" (1971) and "Moonstruck" (1987). Other highlights of his directing career include "The Cincinnati Kid" (1965), "The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming" (1966), "The Thomas Crown Affair" (1968), "Jesus Christ Superstar" (1973), "Rollerball" (1975), "F.I.S.T." (1978), "...And Justice for All" (1979), "A Soldier's Story" (1984), "Agnes of God" (1985), "Other People's Money" (1991), "The Hurricane" (1999), and "The Statement" (2003).


title: Norman Jewison

text: Jewison has addressed social and political issues throughout his filmmaking career, often making controversial or complicated subjects accessible to mainstream audiences. He has won accolades around the world, including numerous Golden Globe nominations, a BAFTA Award, the Silver Bear for Best Director at the Berlin Film Festival, Lifetime Achievement Awards from both the Directors Guild of Canada and America, and the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award at the 71st annual Academy Awards.


title: Norman Jewison

text: In 2003, Jewison received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement for his multiple contributions to the film industry in Canada.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Jewison was born in Toronto, Ontario, the son of Dorothy Irene (née Weaver) and Percy Joseph Jewison (1890–1974), who managed a convenience store and post office. He attended Kew Beach School and Malvern Collegiate Institute, and while growing up in the 1930s displayed an aptitude for performing and theatre. He is often mistaken for being Jewish due to his surname and direction of "Fiddler on the Roof", but Jewison and his family are Protestants of English descent. He served in the Royal Canadian Navy (1944–1945) during World War II, and after being discharged travelled in the American South, where he encountered segregation, an experience that influenced his later work.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Jewison attended Victoria College in the University of Toronto, graduating with a B.A. in 1949. As a student, he was involved in writing, directing and acting in various theatrical productions, including the All-Varsity Revue in 1949. Following graduation, he moved to London, where he worked sporadically as a script writer for a children's TV program and bit part actor for the BBC, while supporting himself with odd jobs. Out of work in Britain in late 1951, he returned to Canada to become a production trainee at CBLT in Toronto, which was preparing for the launch of CBC Television.


title: Norman Jewison

text: When CBC Television went on the air in the fall of 1952, Jewison was an assistant director. During the next seven years he wrote, directed, and produced a wide variety of musicals, comedy-variety shows, dramas, and specials, including "The Big Revue", "Showtime" and "The Barris Beat". In 1953 he married Margaret Ann "Dixie" Dixon, a former model. They had three children – Michael, Kevin, and Jennifer – who all pursued careers in the entertainment industry.


title: Norman Jewison

text: In 1958 Jewison was recruited to work for NBC in New York, where his first assignment was "Your Hit Parade", followed by "The Andy Williams Show". The success of these shows led to directing specials featuring performers such as Harry Belafonte, Jackie Gleason, and Danny Kaye. The television production that proved pivotal to Jewison's career was the Judy Garland "comeback" special that aired in 1961, which included Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin, and led to a weekly show that Jewison was later called in to direct. Visiting the studio during rehearsal for the special, actor Tony Curtis suggested to Jewison that he should direct a feature film. It was not until the early 1990s that he branched back into television, starting with producing the TNT biographical film ""Geronimo"" (1993).


title: Norman Jewison

text: Jewison's career as a film director began when Tony Curtis' film production company, Curtleigh Productions, hired him to direct the comedy "40 Pounds of Trouble" in February 1962. The film was financed and distributed by Universal-International Pictures and was the first motion picture ever filmed at Disneyland. Curtleigh Productions' contract with Jewison had a negotiable option for further films if the initial picture was successful. In early October 1962, Jewison formed his own independent film production company, SImkoe Productions, and signed a two-picture deal with Curtis' new film production company, Curtis Enterprises, as well as an additional two-picture deal with Universal-International Pictures.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Although the two pictures for Curtis Enterprises were not made, both films for Universal-International Pictures were. He made two comedies starring Doris Day: "The Thrill of It All", released in 1963 and co-starring James Garner, and "Send Me No Flowers", released in 1964 and co-starring Rock Hudson. After another comedy, "The Art of Love" (1965), Jewison was determined to escape from the genre and tackle more demanding projects.


title: Norman Jewison

text: His breakthrough film proved to be "The Cincinnati Kid" (1965), a drama starring Steve McQueen, now considered one of the finest movies made about gambling, and Jewison considers it one of his personal favourites because it was his first challenging drama. This success was followed in 1966 by a satire on Cold War paranoia, "The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming"; it was the first film Jewison also produced, and it was nominated for four Academy Awards, including Best Picture. He felt that doing "a plea for coexistence, or the absurdity of international conflict was important right at that moment". While reaction to "Russians" was positive, Jewison was labeled as "a Canadian pinko" by right-wing commentators.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Continuing the string of successes was one of the films that has become closely identified with its director, "In the Heat of the Night" (1967), a crime drama set in a racially divided Southern town and starring Sidney Poitier and Rod Steiger, which won five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, while Jewison was nominated for Best Director. While he was filming, Robert Kennedy told Jewison that this could be "a very important film. Timing is everything". Kennedy reminded Jewison of that prediction a year and a half later when he presented him with the Critics' Choice Movie Award for best drama.


title: Norman Jewison

text: As a follow-up he directed and produced another film with McQueen, using innovative multiple screen images in the crime caper "The Thomas Crown Affair" (1968). From that point Jewison produced all feature films he directed, often with associate Patrick Palmer, and he also acted as producer for films directed by others, beginning with his former film editor Hal Ashby's directorial debut "The Landlord" (1970). After the completion of the period comedy "Gaily, Gaily" (1969), Jewison, having become disenchanted with the political climate in the United States, moved his family to England.


title: Norman Jewison

text: At Pinewood Studios northwest of London, and on location in Yugoslavia, he worked on the musical "Fiddler on the Roof" (1971, re-issued 1979), which won three Oscars and was nominated for five others, including Best Picture and Director. During the filming of "Fiddler", Jewison was also the subject of the 1971 National Film Board of Canada documentary, "Norman Jewison, Filmmaker", directed by Douglas Jackson.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Jewison's next project was the musical "Jesus Christ Superstar" (1973), based on the Broadway musical written by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice. It was filmed in Israel, where Jewison also produced the western "Billy Two Hats" (1974), starring Gregory Peck. "Superstar", controversial for its treatment of a religious subject, was followed by another movie that sparked critical debate, this time over violence. "Rollerball" (1975) is set in the near future when corporations rule the world and entertainment is centred around a deadly game. The next film he directed, the labour union drama "F.I.S.T." (1978), loosely based on the life of Jimmy Hoffa, also provided some controversy, this time regarding the screenwriting credit. Screenwriter Joe Eszterhas was unhappy to share the screenwriting credit with the film's star Sylvester Stallone, as he felt that Stallone's input had been minor, while Stallone claimed to have basically rewritten the whole script.


title: Norman Jewison

text: In 1978 Jewison returned to Canada, settling in the Caledon area in Ontario and establishing a farm that produced prizewinning cattle. Operating from a base in Toronto, as well as one maintained in California, he directed high-profile actors Al Pacino in "...And Justice for All" (1979), and Burt Reynolds and Goldie Hawn in the romantic comedy "Best Friends" (1982), and he produced "The Dogs of War" (1981) and "Iceman" (1984).


title: Norman Jewison

text: During this period Jewison also produced the 53rd Annual Academy Awards (1981), which was slated to air the day President Ronald Reagan was shot and had to be rescheduled. Revisiting the theme of racial tension that had characterized "In the Heat of the Night", Jewison's "A Soldier's Story" (1984), based on a Pulitzer Prize winning play, was nominated for three Academy Awards, including Best Picture. His next film was also based on a successful play. "Agnes of God" (1985), set in a Quebec convent, starred Jane Fonda, Meg Tilly and Anne Bancroft; it received three Academy Award nominations. In 1986, he then discontinued the agreement with film producer Columbia Pictures, citing the behavior British filmmaker and head of production David Puttnam had. After a falling out with Columbia, his Yorktown Productions company was moved to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer for a three-year agreement to direct, produce and develop pictures from the studio, and gives MGM the right of first refusal on films he wishes to make.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Jewison's next film proved to be one of the most popular romantic films ever made. "Moonstruck" (1987), starring Cher, was a box office hit that garnered three Academy Awards, including Best Actress for Cher. Jewison also received his third Best Director nomination.


title: Norman Jewison

text: For the next decade Jewison continued to direct feature films released by major studios: "In Country" (1989), a drama concerned with Vietnam veterans and the daughter of a war casualty; "Other People's Money" (1991), a social comedy about greed in the 1980s; "Only You" (1994), a romantic comedy set in Italy; and "Bogus" (1996), a fantasy about a young boy and his imaginary friend. He also served as producer for the film "January Man" (1989), executive producer for the Canadian movie "Dance Me Outside", and branched back into television both as director and producer, including the series "The Rez" (1996–1998).


title: Norman Jewison

text: "The Hurricane" (1999) was Jewison's third film to explore the effects of racism, telling the story of boxer Rubin "Hurricane" Carter, who had been falsely convicted for a triple murder in New Jersey during the mid-1960s. Denzel Washington won a Golden Globe and was nominated for an Oscar for his portrayal of Carter. In 1999 Jewison's work was recognized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences when he was given the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for lifetime achievement.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Jewison continued directing and producing up until his last film to be released, the 2003 thriller "The Statement", based on a novel by Brian Moore starring Michael Caine. That same year his autobiography "This Terrible Business Has Been Good to Me" was published, expressing the enthusiasm, conviction and creative passion that have sustained his career.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Jewison's commitment and contribution to film in Canada is evidenced by his creation of the Canadian Centre for Advanced Film Studies in 1986, which opened in 1988 as an advanced film school on Windfields Estate in Toronto, Ontario. Later renamed the Canadian Film Centre (CFC).More than 1700 alumni and 100 alumni companies have come out of CFC's programs to date, including:


title: Norman Jewison

text: CFC has helped incubate and/or develop groundbreaking original content including hit television series "Orphan Black" (from creators Graeme Manson and John Fawcett, CFC alumni), the award-winning first feature "Closet Monster" (from writer/director alumnus Stephen Dunn (director)), and internationally award-winning documentary feature "Stories We Tell" (from director and CFC alumna Sarah Polley).


title: Norman Jewison

text: Additionally, feature films such as "Rhymes for Young Ghouls" (director Jeff Barnaby), "Cube" (director Vincenzo Natali), and "Rude" (director Clement Virgo) have been developed and produced through CFC Features.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Each year in Los Angeles, Norman Jewison bestows the CFC Award for Creative Excellence to CFC alumni in recognition of their outstanding work and contributions to the screen-based entertainment industry. Jewison presented the inaugural award to CFC alumna Semi Chellas ("Mad Men") in 2014, to Graeme Manson and John Fawcett ("Orphan Black") in 2015, and to Don McKellar ("The Red Violin", "Highway 61") in 2016.


title: Norman Jewison

text: The Thalberg award was one of many honours Jewison has been awarded, including Honorary Degrees from Trent, Western Ontario and the University of Toronto, and he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada in 1992. Also in 1992, Jewison received the Ramon John Hnatyshyn Award for Voluntarism in the Performing Arts, a companion award of the Governor General's Performing Arts Awards, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Jewison has been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director three times in three separate decades for "In the Heat of the Night" (1967), "Fiddler on the Roof" (1971) and "Moonstruck" (1987). He has also won the prestigious Silver Bear for Best Director at the Berlin Film Festival and has earned Lifetime Achievement Awards from the Directors Guilds of both Canada and America. He has also won a BAFTA Award.


title: Norman Jewison

text: In addition, he has received numerous tributes at Canadian and international film festivals and retrospectives, and has been given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and Canada's Walk of Fame. A park in downtown Toronto was named after him in 2001. In 2003, Jewison received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement for his lifetime contribution to film in Canada.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Norman Jewison and Margaret Ann Dixon married on July 11, 1953. She died on November 26, 2004, the day following her 74th birthday, in Orangeville, Ontario, from undisclosed causes. They have three children and five grandchildren.


title: Norman Jewison

text: In recognition of his contributions to the arts, as well as his sustained support, Jewison was installed as Chancellor of Victoria University in the University of Toronto in 2004; he held the position until October 2010.


title: Norman Jewison

text: In 2010 Blake Goldring donated $1,000,000 to Victoria University at the University of Toronto to establish a specialized first-year liberal arts program in Jewison's name. The program began in September 2011 welcoming fewer than 30 select students into Norman Jewison Stream for Imagination and the Arts. Goldring is a 1981 graduate of the school.


title: Norman Jewison

text: On January 30, 2010, Jewison received a lifetime achievement award from the Directors Guild of America at the 62nd Annual DGA Awards, held at the Century Plaza in Los Angeles.


title: Norman Jewison

text: Also in 2010, Jewison married Lynne St. David, whom he had begun dating in 2008. Her married name is Lynne St. David-Jewison.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: A Man Called Ove (, ) is a Swedish comedy-drama film written and directed by Hannes Holm and based on the 2012 novel of the same name by Fredrik Backman. In the leading role as Ove is Rolf Lassgård.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: The film was theatrically released in Sweden on 25 December 2015. It was nominated for six awards, winning two, at the 51st Guldbagge Awards in 2016. At the 89th Academy Awards, it was nominated for Best Foreign Language Film and Best Makeup and Hairstyling.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: 60-year-old widower Ove Lindahl lives in a townhouse neighborhood, where he used to be the chairman of the neighborhood association, until he was replaced by Rune, his former friend. Rune is now paralysed after having a stroke, and being cared for by his wife, Anita. Ove is depressed after his wife, Sonja, a schoolteacher, died from cancer six months previously. Having worked at the same company for 43 years, he is pushed into retiring. His attempts to hang himself are repeatedly interrupted by Iranian immigrant Parvaneh, her Swedish husband Patrick and their two children, who are moving into the house across the street.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: During another suicide attempt, Ove flashes back to his childhood. His mother died when he was a child, leaving him alone with his quiet father, a mechanic at the train company. His father shared his knowledge of engines with Ove, who had a part-time job at the train yard. Having done particularly well at his exams, he reports his results to his father, who is so anxious to spread the news that he fails to take care and is hit by a train and killed.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: During another attempt to kill himself, this time by carbon monoxide poisoning, Ove is sitting in his running car in a garage, and again recollects the past, when he began working at the train company. Two men from the local council, whom Ove dubs "The Whiteshirts", arrive at young Ove's home and declare it should be demolished. Ove instead fixes the house. His neighbors' home catches fire one night, and Ove saves two people, but sparks from the fire cause his own home to burn, and The Whiteshirts prevent the fire from being tackled because they plan to demolish it in any case. With nowhere to go, Ove sleeps in a train at work; he wakes to find a young woman, Sonja, sitting across from him. He is smitten with her and returns to the same early train each morning. After three weeks, he finds her again, and they begin dating. She encourages him to return to school, and he earns a degree in engineering.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: Ove's attempt to kill himself is interrupted by Parvaneh banging on the garage door, wanting a lift to the hospital because her husband has had an accident. Ove takes care of Parvaneh and Patrick's two daughters, Sepideh and Nasanin, while they are there, and is made to sit outside after he causes a scene. Later, Ove goes to the train station, planning to jump in front of a train. However, when a man on the platform faints and falls onto the tracks, Ove jumps down and rescues him. Parvaneh asks Ove to teach her how to drive, and he eventually agrees. He also takes in a stray cat which he had previously found an annoyance. He tells Parvaneh about his past friendship with Rune, and how they worked together to establish rules and order, with Ove chairman of the neighborhood association board and Rune the deputy chair. They grew apart over the years, largely because of Rune's preference for Volvo cars and Ove's for Saab, until Rune organized a "coup" and replaced Ove as chairman. He also begins to bond with his new cat. He repairs a bike he confiscated from a neighborhood teen, Adrian, and returns it to Adrian who works at a kebab shop with another youth, called Mirsad. Ove notices Mirsad's eye make-up and wonders if he is "one of those gays", but does not shun him.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: Despite his improved relations with his neighbors, Ove has an altercation with two "Whiteshirts" who are attempting to force Rune into a nursing home. Ove then tries to commit suicide using a shotgun, but is interrupted by Adrian and Mirsad ringing his doorbell. Adrian says Mirsad had been kicked out of his house after coming out to his family and needs a place to stay. Ove reluctantly invites Mirsad in. Later, Ove tells Parvaneh how Sonja, when pregnant, wanted to go on vacation before the baby arrived. She and Ove traveled on a tour bus to Spain, but on the journey home, the bus crashed. Sonja lost the baby and was reliant on a wheelchair, which made her unable to take up a job as a teacher. When the local authorities ignored Ove's pleas to build a wheelchair ramp, he went to the school during the night and installed one.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: Ove collapses and is taken to the hospital, where he lists Parvaneh as his next of kin. Parvaneh is told that her "father" has an enlarged heart but will survive. Laughing, she tells Ove he is terrible at dying, before herself going into labor and delivering a boy. Ove gives gifts to Parvaneh's daughters, who refer to him as grandpa. Several months later, Parvaneh wakes to a winter storm and looks out of the window to see that Ove's drive hasn't been cleared and Ove is not up at his usual time. Parvaneh and Patrick run to Ove's house to find that he has died in his sleep. Ove, having found peace, has left strict instructions for his funeral; the service is packed with neighbors. The film ends with Ove waking on the train where he first met Sonja, to find her there waiting for him.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 91% based on 117 reviews, with an average rating of 7.22/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""A Man Called Ove"s winsome sincerity — and Rolf Lassgård's affectingly flinty performance in the title role — keep it from succumbing to excess sentimentality." On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 70 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: "The Washington Post", "Chicago Tribune" and "Rogerebert.com" gave positive reviews. Reviewers have noted that while elements and formulas are familiar from films such as "St. Vincent" and "Gran Torino", "A Man Called Ove" is well made and capable of bringing real tears to the audience's eyes.


title: A Man Called Ove (film)

text: A US remake will be produced by Tom Hanks, who also will star in the film. In January 2022, it was announced that the film, titled "A Man Called Otto", would be directed by Marc Forster, with David Magee writing the screenplay. Filming is expected to begin in February 2022 in Pittsburgh with Mariana Treviño, Rachel Keller and Manuel Garcia-Rulfo co-starring alongside Hanks. In February 2022, Sony Pictures acquired worldwide distribution rights to the film for $60 million, the highest ever paid for a film at the European Film Market, and set it for a Christmas 2022 release.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: The Triple Crown of Motorsport is an unofficial motorsport achievement, often regarded as winning three of the most prestigious motor races in the world in one's career:


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: Graham Hill is the only driver to have completed the Triple Crown. 19 drivers in motorsports history have competed in all three legs of the Triple Crown and have won at least one of the events. Juan Pablo Montoya and Fernando Alonso are the only active drivers to have won two of the three events, needing to win the 24 Hours of Le Mans and Indianapolis 500 respectively.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: An earlier definition, as espoused by Triple Crown winner Graham Hill, and Jacques Villeneuve replaces the Monaco Grand Prix with the Formula One World Championship; Graham Hill is also the only driver to have accomplished this, winning the F1 Drivers' Title in 1962 and 1968.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: Triple Crown in endurance racing features Le Mans and has added the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 12 Hours of Sebring. This crown has been won by several drivers, namely A. J. Foyt, Hans Herrmann, Jackie Oliver, Al Holbert, Hurley Haywood, Mauro Baldi, Andy Wallace, Marco Werner and Timo Bernhard. Many drivers have come close to winning the crown with 2nd-place finishes in the third event, such as Ken Miles (who was famously denied the win by a technicality at the 1966 24 Hours of Le Mans), Mario Andretti (Le Mans 1995) and Allan McNish (Daytona 2012).


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: In the period of 1971–1989, Indy car racing contested their own Triple Crown. From 1971 to 1980 it consisted of the three 500-mile events on the calendar: the Indianapolis 500, Pocono 500, and California 500. Al Unser (1978) is the only driver to win all three in the same season. Ontario Motor Speedway was closed in 1980, and the California 500 was replaced with the Michigan 500. The triple crown continued through 1989, after which the Pocono race was discontinued. No driver won all three events during the 1980s.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: The IndyCar Triple Crown was revived in 2013, with the 1971–80 format of the Indianapolis 500 (in May), Pocono IndyCar 400 (in July), and the MAVTV 500 (in October, held at Fontana). A $1 million bonus prize is offered for any driver to win all three races.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: For 2014, Pocono returned to the 500-mile format, Fontana was moved to the season ending race in August and all three events awarded double championship points. Since the California 500's return under IndyCar sanction, it has been a night race.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: In 2015, Fontana moved to July, while Pocono was the penultimate race of the season in August. Fontana was removed from the IndyCar calendar after 2015, and Pocono was removed from the IndyCar calendar after 2019


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: Of all variations of the IndyCar Triple Crown, only five drivers have achieved the feat over their career, with Al Unser the only one to achieve it in a single season.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: The term is often used during the season in the National Hot Rod Association to refer to its three most prestigious races, the Winternationals, the U.S. Nationals, and the Finals. The Winternationals is the event that kicks off the NHRA season, held during the second weekend in February, the U.S. Nationals is often called ""The oldest, richest, and most prestigious race in the NHRA"," and carries the largest purse of any event on the schedule, and the Auto Club Finals at Pomona are held to mark the end of the NHRA season.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: Both the Winternationals, and the Auto Club Finals are held on the same track, Auto Club Raceway at Pomona, while the U.S. Nationals has been held at Lucas Oil Raceway in Indianapolis since 1961 (prior to that, the race was held on a now demolished track in Detroit). By far, the person with the most Triple Crown wins in his division is 16-time funny car champion John Force.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: A. J. Foyt and Mario Andretti are the only drivers to have won both the Indianapolis 500 and the Daytona 500. Both drivers also won the 24 Hours of Daytona and 12 Hours of Sebring. Foyt won four editions of the Indianapolis 500, and collected seven open-wheel titles and a 24 Hours of Le Mans win. Mario Andretti won three editions of the 12 Hours of Sebring, the 1969 Indianapolis 500, and also won four open-wheel titles, a Formula One world championship, and a class win and 2nd overall finish at the 24 Hours of Le Mans.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: In Australia, a driver is said to have achieved the "Triple Crown" if they win the Sandown 500, the Bathurst 1000 and the Supercars Championship (formerly the Australian Touring Car Championship) in the same year. Only two drivers have achieved this feat: Peter Brock in 1978 and 1980 and Craig Lowndes in 1996.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: , the only active drivers who have won two legs of the Triple Crown are Juan Pablo Montoya and Fernando Alonso. Both have won the Monaco Grand Prix (Montoya in 2003 and Alonso in 2006 and 2007). Montoya won the Indianapolis 500 twice (2000 and 2015) while Alonso has won the 24 Hours of Le Mans twice in 2018 and 2019 and competed in 2017's Indy 500, but retired on Lap 179 of 200 due to engine failure, after having led 27 laps. Alonso also entered the 2019 Indy 500 but failed to qualify for the race. In the 2020 Indy 500 Alonso finished 21st. Montoya entered the 2020 24 Hours of Le Mans, qualifying 21st and retiring due to an engine issue. Montoya again entered the 2021 24 Hours of Le Mans, qualified 18th overall and finished 15th, winning the LMP2 Pro-Am cup with Ben Hanley and Henrik Hedman.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: Events which make up the usual (Indy 500 / Le Mans 24hr / Monaco GP) and the alternative (Indy 500 / Le Mans 24hr / F1 WDC) definitions are included below.


title: Triple Crown of Motorsport

text: The drivers listed below have completed two of the three legs for either version of the Triple Crown.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: Stavros Spyrou Niarchos (, ; 3 July 1909 – 15 April 1996) was a Greek billionaire shipping tycoon. Starting in 1952, he had the world's biggest supertankers built for his fleet. Propelled by both the Suez Crisis and increasing demand for oil, he and rival Aristotle Onassis became giants in global petroleum shipping.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: Niarchos was also a noted thoroughbred horse breeder and racer, several times the leading owner and number one on the French breed list.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: Stavros was born in Athens to a wealthy family, son of Spyros Niarchos and his wife, Eugenie Koumantaros, a rich heiress. His great-great-grandfather, Philippos Niarchos, a Greek shipping agent in Valletta, had married a Maltese woman, a daughter from a noble family in Malta, whose younger offspring had migrated to Greece to base themselves in a merchant business from Malta.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: His parents were naturalized Americans who had owned a department store in Buffalo, New York, before returning to Greece, three months prior to his birth. They returned to Buffalo for a brief time and the young Stavros attended the Nardin Academy grammar school. They returned permanently to Greece and Stavros studied in the city's best private school before starting university. He studied law at the University of Athens, after which he went to work for his maternal uncles in the Koumantaros family's grain business. During this period, he became involved in shipping by convincing his uncles their firm would be more profitable if it owned its own ships.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: Niarchos was a naval officer in World War II, during which time part of the trade fleet he had developed with his uncle was destroyed. He used about two million dollars in insurance settlement to build a new fleet. His most famous asset was the yacht "Atlantis", currently known as "Issham al Baher" after having been gifted to King Fahd of Saudi Arabia.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: He then founded Niarchos Ltd., an international shipping company that at one time operated more than 80 tankers worldwide. He and Aristotle Onassis were great shipping rivals. In 1952, high-capacity oil supertankers were built for the competing Niarchos and Onassis fleets, who both claimed to own the largest tanker in the world. In 1955, Vickers Armstrongs Shipbuilders Ltd launched the . Then the world's largest supertanker, it was named after Niarchos's second son, Spyros, born earlier that year.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: In 1956, the Suez Canal Crisis considerably increased the demand for the type of large-tonnage ships that Niarchos owned. Business flourished and he became a billionaire.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: From the late 1970s until his death, he was linked to Princess Firyal of Jordan. He was also said to be linked to Princess Maria Gabriella of Savoy.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: Niarchos died in 1996, in Zurich. He is buried in the family tomb in the Bois-de-Vaux Cemetery in Lausanne. At his death, his fortune was estimated to be worth $12 billion. When Niarchos died, he left 20% of his fortune to a charitable trust to be established in his name and the other part to his three sons and daughter Maria by his marriage to Greek shipping heiress Eugenia Livanos, a nephew, and a great nephew. He notably excluded Elena Ford his daughter by his ex-wife Charlotte from his will. She sued the estate in both Swiss and Greek courts for her 1/10th share estimated to be worth £700 million.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: Niarchos began investing in thoroughbred horse racing in the early 1950s and won his first stakes race with Pipe of Peace at the Middle Park Stakes. After leaving the business for roughly two decades he came back in the 1970s and eventually put together a highly successful stable of racehorses that competed in France and the United Kingdom. He acquired the Haras de Fresnay-le-Buffard horse breeding farm in Neuvy-au-Houlme, France and Oak Tree Farm in Lexington, Kentucky where in 1984 he bred his most successful horse, Miesque. Niarchos was the leading owner in France twice (1983, 1984) and topped the breeders' list there three times (1989, 1993, 1994). His prize horses were all trained by François Boutin, whose skill was a vital element of Niarchos's success in the field.


title: Stavros Niarchos

text: After his death in 1996, his daughter Maria Niarchos-Gouazé took charge of racing operations. She too was successful, her colt Bago winning France's most important race, the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe, in 2004, and her filly Divine Proportions capturing the 2005 Prix de Diane by winning 9 out of her 10 races until a serious tendon injury cut the horse's racing career short.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: The Malayo-Polynesian languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages, with approximately 385.5 million speakers. The Malayo-Polynesian languages are spoken by the Austronesian peoples outside of Taiwan, in the island nations of Southeast Asia (Indonesian and Philippine Archipelago) and the Pacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continental Asia in the areas near the Malay Peninsula. Cambodia, Vietnam and the Chinese island Hainan serve as the northwest geographic outlier. Malagasy, spoken in the island of Madagascar off the eastern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, is the furthest western outlier. The languages spoken south-westward from central Micronesia until Easter Island are sometimes referred to as the Polynesian languages.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: Many languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family show the strong influence of Sanskrit and Arabic, as the western part of the region has been a stronghold of Hinduism, Buddhism, and, later, Islam.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: Two morphological characteristics of the Malayo-Polynesian languages are a system of affixation and reduplication (repetition of all or part of a word, such as "wiki-wiki)" to form new words. Like other Austronesian languages, they have small phonemic inventories; thus a text has few but frequent sounds. The majority also lack consonant clusters. Most also have only a small set of vowels, five being a common number.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: All major and official Austronesian languages belong to the Malayo-Polynesian subgroup. Malayo-Polynesian languages with more than five million speakers are: Indonesian, Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, Tagalog, Malagasy, Cebuano, Madurese, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, and Minangkabau.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: Among the remaining more than 1,000 languages, several have national/official language status, e.g. Tongan, Samoan, Māori, Gilbertese, Fijian, Hawaiian, Palauan, and Chamorro.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: The term "Malayo-Polynesian" was originally coined in 1841 by Franz Bopp as the name for the Austronesian language family as a whole, and until the mid-20th century (after the introduction of the term "Austronesian" by Wilhelm Schmidt in 1906), "Malayo-Polynesian" and "Austronesian" were used as synonyms. The current use of "Malayo-Polynesian" denoting the subgroup comprising all Austronesian languages outside of Taiwan was introduced in the 1970s, and has eventually become standard terminology in Austronesian studies.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: In spite of a few features shared with the Eastern Formosan languages (such as the merger of proto-Austronesian *t, *C to /t/), there is no conclusive evidence that would link the Malayo-Polynesian languages to any one of the primary branches of Austronesian on Taiwan.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: Malayo-Polynesian consists of a large number of small local language clusters, with the one exception being Oceanic, the only large group which is universally accepted; its parent language Proto-Oceanic has been reconstructed in all aspects of its structure (phonology, lexicon, morphology and syntax). All other large groups within Malayo-Polynesian are controversial.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: The most influential proposal for the internal subgrouping of the Malayo-Polynesian languages was made by Robert Blust who presented several papers advocating a division into two major branches, viz. Western Malayo-Polynesian and Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian is widely accepted as a subgroup, although some objections have been raised against its validity as a genetic subgroup. On the other hand, Western Malayo-Polynesian is now generally held (including by Blust himself) to be an umbrella term without genetic relevance. Taking into account the Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian hypothesis, the Malayo-Polynesian languages can be divided into the following subgroups (proposals for larger subgroups are given below):


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: The position of the recently rediscovered Nasal language (spoken on Sumatra) is unclear; it shares features of lexicon and phonology with both Lampung and Rejang.


title: Malayo-Polynesian languages

text: Edwards (2015) argues that Enggano is a primary branch of Malayo-Polynesian. However, this is disputed by Smith (2017), who considers Enggano to have undergone significant internal changes, but to have once been much more like other Sumatran languages in Sumatra.