title: American Automobile Association

text: As fuel prices rise, consumers often see increased marketing of fuel additives as a way to boost fuel economy. AAA has tested many of these products and has never found one that provides significant savings for consumers. AAA has warned consumers repeatedly against products that make such claims and encourages motorists to develop instead fuel-conserving driving habits, such as reducing the weight of the vehicle by removing unnecessary objects from the trunk, instituting smooth stops and starts, and reducing their speed.


title: American Automobile Association

text: It is generally understood that the benefits of fuel conservation for consumers include financial savings, improved road safety and a healthier environment. To assist motorists in becoming more conscious about saving fuel, AAA published its first Gas Watcher's Guide in the 1970s during the oil crisis. The annual guide provides information on a variety of factors that affect fuel economy, such as modifying driving behavior, keeping a vehicle well maintained, choosing the proper fuel, and choosing the most fuel-efficient vehicle for a family's needs.


title: American Automobile Association

text: Over the years, AAA has encouraged consumers to use public transportation by including these transportation options in its travel guidebooks. AAA has also called on government to invest adequately in a multi-modal transportation system that is widely accessible and affordable. In comments to the National Journal, AAA President and CEO Robert L. Darbelnet said that funding for high-speed rail from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act is a “drop in the bucket” of what is needed, and that those funds would be well spent if, going forward, additional sources of investment could be identified.


title: American Automobile Association

text: In addition to encouraging fuel efficiency and conservation, AAA and other organizations initiated National Car Care Month during the 1980s to publicize the fact that poorly maintained vehicles contribute to excessive energy consumption and air pollution. AAA works in cooperation with businesses, civic groups, the government and the media in promoting and coordinating this annual event, held each October.


title: American Automobile Association

text: In 1992, AAA launched a popular ecotourism promotion called Freedom's Way. With support from agencies such as the National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Environmental Protection Agency and others, AAA produced travel tips and public service messages encouraging travelers to help protect America's scenic areas and respect the environment. Topics included reducing congestion and pollution, conserving energy, disposing of litter and enjoying wildlife at a distance. The prevailing theme was that heavy use or abuse of a site damages the quality of the experience for everyone and sometimes even results in the closure of parks and recreation areas. The message was simple but effective.


title: American Automobile Association

text: In 2016, AAA introduced a new website focused on hybrid and electric vehicles, and offers mobile charging aid for stranded EVs, similar to fuel-starved piston cars.


title: American Automobile Association

text: AAA clubs have also been a part of the organization's century-long environmental advocacy efforts including:


title: American Automobile Association

text: Despite its work promoting environmental responsibility in the automotive and transportation arenas, AAA's lobbying positions have sometimes been perceived to be hostile to mass transit and environmental interests.


title: American Automobile Association

text: In 2006, the Automobile Club of Southern California worked against Prop. 87. The proposition would have established a "$4 billion program to reduce petroleum consumption (in California) by 25 percent, with research and production incentives for alternative energy, alternative energy vehicles, energy efficient technologies, and for education and training."


title: American Automobile Association

text: Daniel Becker, director of Sierra Club's global warming and energy program, described AAA as "a lobbyist for more roads, more pollution, and more gas guzzling." He observed that among other lobbying activities, AAA issued a press release critical of the Clean Air Act, stating that it would "threaten the personal mobility of millions of Americans and jeopardize needed funds for new highway construction and safety improvements." "AAA spokespeople have criticized open-space measures and opposed U.S. EPA restrictions on smog, soot, and tailpipe emissions." "The club spent years battling stricter vehicle-emissions standards in Maryland, whose air, because of emissions and pollution from states upwind, is among the nation's worst." , AAA continues to lobby against public transportation projects.


title: American Automobile Association

text: While AAA's work on behalf of motorists and travelers seems at odds sometimes with its environmental stance, awareness of the underlying issues has led to greater understanding. For instance, in 2009, AAA asked the EPA not to increase the allowable ethanol content in gasoline from 10 percent to 15 percent, citing several concerns affecting vehicle emissions, engine performance, system component damage, and vehicle warranty agreements, among others. AAA said that more research needed to be done on the potential harmful effects prior to increasing the ethanol content in fuel.


title: American Automobile Association

text: In another instance, AAA supported the overall goal of the Clean Air Act, but objected to several specific provisions in the legislation, requesting clarification of the proposed state inspection and maintenance program provision and asking that the implementation guidelines be fully evaluated prior to enactment. According to a Washington Times article, which referred to research by Energy & Environment Analysis Inc., tightening federal emissions standards had led to a role reversal for the automobile, making it less of a contributor to smog. Instead, stationary emission sources such as factories, as well as heavy and utility vehicles were more of a threat to air quality and would be appropriate targets in the battle against smog. "However, by primarily emphasizing vehicle regulations in the 1970s and ignoring gasoline regulations EPA actually caused fuels to become dirtier, effectively undermining a significant portion of any gains achieved through the tighter control of vehicles."


title: American Automobile Association

text: And more recently, although AAA supports the manufacture and use of hybrid vehicles, research by the British Columbia Automobile Association in 2010 shows that they do not result in significant financial savings for consumers, although they are often marketed that way.


title: American Automobile Association

text: In response to these concerns, several competing organizations have emerged, including Better World Club. These organizations generally provide similar roadside assistance, trip planning and other services, in an environmentally friendly manner. This includes discounts for fuel-efficient vehicles and donations to environmental organizations.


title: American Automobile Association

text: Also as a response to the critics, the California State Automobile Association, a branch of AAA, set up a booth at the San Francisco International Auto Show to raise awareness regarding plug-in hybrid vehicles.


title: Trafigura

text: Trafigura Group Pte. Ltd. is a Singaporean-based Swiss multinational commodity trading company founded in 1993 that trades in base metals and energy. It is the world's largest private metals trader and second-largest oil trader having built or purchased stakes in pipelines, mines, smelters, ports and storage terminals. The company operates through a complex network of over 100 subsidiaries across the world, with main operating offices in Geneva and Singapore.


title: Trafigura

text: Trafigura was formed by Claude Dauphin and Eric de Turckheim in 1993, but quickly split off from a group of companies managed by Marc Rich.


title: Trafigura

text: Trafigura has been named or involved in several scandals, particularly the 2006 Ivory Coast toxic waste dump, which left up to 100,000 people with skin rashes, headaches and respiratory problems. The company was also involved in the Iraq Oil-for-Food Scandal.


title: Trafigura

text: Trafigura Beheer BV was established as a private group of companies in 1993 by six founding partners: Claude Dauphin, Eric de Turckheim, Graham Sharp, Antonio Cometti, Daniel Posen and Mark Crandall.


title: Trafigura

text: Initially focused on three regional markets – South America (oil and minerals), Eastern Europe (metals) and Africa (oil) – Trafigura has since diversified and expanded globally.


title: Trafigura

text: In November 2013 it was announced that Tory peer and former leader of the House of Lords Baron Strathclyde, Thomas Galbraith would be joining Trafigura as a non-executive director. He had previously stood down from the board of the group’s hedge fund arm following the 2009 controversy over the Côte d'Ivoire incident.


title: Trafigura

text: Executive chairman Claude Dauphin and the last remaining founder in an executive position, owned less than 20 per cent of the group’s equity at his death in September 2015, while more than 700 senior managers control the rest.


title: Trafigura

text: In 2003 the group established its fund management subsidiary, Galena Asset Management. In 2010, Trafigura bought 8% of Norilsk Nickel.


title: Trafigura

text: On 24 May 2007 an explosion occurred in Sløvåg Gulen, Sogn og Fjordane, Norway in a tank owned by , that had severe environmental and health consequences for people living nearby. In 2008 the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation published the 50 min documentary "Dirty Cargo" disclosing what had happened in the small community prior to the explosion. The company Vest Tank was trying to neutralize the same kind of chemical waste that was dumped in Côte d'Ivoire when the explosion occurred. The owner of the waste was Trafigura, on whose behalf Vest Tank was working. Even so, Norwegian authorities did not prosecute Trafigura and the company was not accused of direct responsibility in the Vest Tank incident. Requests by Norwegian police to interview Trafigura employees were not granted by the company.


title: Trafigura

text: In February 2013 Trafigura invested $800 million in the Australian energy market, acquiring more than 250 petrol stations, two oil import terminals and five fuel depots in three separate acquisitions by its subsidiary Puma Energy. At the time, there was interest in Australia among energy traders due to a combination of rising demand and the closure of outdated, high-cost refineries. The same month, Trafigura joint venture DT Group partnered with Angola’s state oil firm Sonangol to form a new company, Sonaci DT Pte Ltd, to market Angola’s new liquefied natural gas (LNG) exports.


title: Trafigura

text: In March 2013, Trafigura announced a deal with South Sudan to export Dar Blend crude oil from Port Sudan. The agreement with South Sudan was a continuation of Trafigura's longtime presence in the Sudanese oil market and followed the resolution of a legal dispute between Sudan and South Sudan over transit fees and oil revenues.


title: Trafigura

text: In October 2013 Trafigura secured USD 1.5 billion in financing for an upfront loan to Russian oil producer OAO Rosneft. The prepayment facility, which provided a loan for advance payment for more than 10 million tons of products over five years, was the largest such deal ever completed by Trafigura.


title: Trafigura

text: A month later Trafigura signed an agreement with Dallas-based pipeline operator Energy Transfer Partners to transport crude oil and condensate via a partially converted 82-mile pipeline from the Eagle Ford oil field in McMullen County, Texas, to Trafigura’s deep-water terminal at Corpus Christi Bay, near the Gulf of Mexico.


title: Trafigura

text: In February 2014 Trafigura signed an agreement to acquire a 30% equity stake in the Jinchuan Group's newly established 400,000 tonnes-per-year copper smelter in Fangchengang, China.


title: Trafigura

text: In July 2014 Trafigura launched Lykos, an online platform in India to sell metals to small and medium-sized manufacturers in the country.


title: Trafigura

text: In September 2014 Trafigura completed the $860 million sale of an 80% stake in a Corpus Christi Texas oil storage terminal to Buckeye Partners LP.


title: Trafigura

text: In June 2015 Trafigura announced a 50:50 joint venture with Abu Dhabi investment company Mubadala Development Company—to invest in base metals mining. As part of the agreement Mubadala also acquired 50% of Trafigura's (Matsa) mining operation, which owns three mines in southern Spain that produce copper, zinc and lead concentrate ores. This followed a doubling of processing capacity at the company's MATSA mining operation in Andalusia, Spain, where two new satellite mines are also being developed.


title: Trafigura

text: In August 2015 it was reported that Trafigura subsidiary Impala Terminals is investing USD1 billion in Colombia to develop a new inland road, rail and river network connecting major coastal ports with Colombia's industrial heartland. The Magdalena River, which runs between Barrancabermeja inland and Barranquilla on the Atlantic coast, will allow transportation of crude oil and petroleum products, dry bulk, containerised and general cargo to and from inland Colombia.


title: Trafigura

text: In October 2016 it was announced that Trafigura and Russian investment group United Capital Partners would each take a 24 per cent stake in Essar Oil, which owns India’s second-biggest private refinery in the western state of Gujarat as well as a network of 2,700 filling stations.


title: Trafigura

text: Trafigura was criticised in December 2022 for handing out "more than $1.7bn (£1.4bn) to its top traders and shareholders after the energy crisis, fuelled by the war in Ukraine".


title: Trafigura

text: In 2008, the company had equity of more than $2 billion and a turnover of $73 billion that generated $440 million of profit.


title: Trafigura

text: In March 2010 Trafigura made its first venture into capital markets, issuing Euro 400m ($539m) in five-year Eurobonds.


title: Trafigura

text: The following month Trafigura listed its first perpetual subordinated bond on the Singapore Exchange (SGX) at a fixed rate of 7.625%. The issuance raised $500m in long-term capital that is treated as equity by international accounting rules, leaving existing shareholders undiluted.


title: Trafigura

text: By 2011, its revenue had increased to $121.5 billion and its profits to $1.11 billion, with profits falling 11% in 2012.


title: Trafigura

text: In 2013 as a consequence of the Singapore listing, Trafigura released financial statements for the first time, reporting Q1 profits of $216.1 million – up 3.2 per cent on the previous year. Revenue grew 7.9 per cent to USD 31.2 billion.


title: Trafigura

text: In March 2016, Trafigura closed a 46 million yen ($413 million) three-year loan, doubling the size of its 2014 Samurai loan.


title: Trafigura

text: Trafigura is the third-largest physical commodities trading group in the world behind Vitol and Glencore. Trafigura sources, stores, blends and transports raw materials including oil, refined petroleum products and non-ferrous metals (iron ore and coal).


title: Trafigura

text: Trade in non-ferrous and bulk commodities – mainly copper, lead and zinc concentrate, alumina, refined metals of copper, lead, zinc and aluminium as well as the iron ore and coal trading books – made up 13% of Trafigura’s overall trading turnover in 2016. The group traded 8.2 million tonnes of non-ferrous metal concentrates and 6.6 million tonnes of non-ferrous refined metal during the year. Overall volume across metals and minerals increased by 13% from 2015 to 59 million tonnes.


title: Trafigura

text: Trading volumes in oil and petroleum products totalled 4.3 million barrels a day in 2016, up 42% from 3 million barrels a day in 2015.


title: Trafigura

text: In October 2016 Trafigura sold five medium-range tankers to China’s Bank of Communications Financial Leasing Co, marking its exit from owning product tankers.


title: Trafigura

text: In support of its arbitrage-based business model, Trafigura ensures a degree of control over supply, storage and logistics through industrial subsidiaries: oil storage and distribution business Puma Energy, in which Trafigura holds a 49% interest.


title: Trafigura

text: Trafigura is involved in paper trading through its subsidiary Galena Asset Management, which was set up in 2003 to invest in commodity funds.


title: Trafigura

text: The company was named in the Iraq Oil-for-Food Scandal in connection with a Liberian-registered turbine tanker, "Essex", that had UN approval to load Iraqi crude at Iraq’s main export terminal at Mina al-Bakr. The tanker was chartered by Trafigura Beheer BV. According to her captain, Theofanis Chiladakis, the Essex was 'topped off' at least twice, with a total of 272,000 barrels of crude, after UN monitors had signed off the cargo.


title: Trafigura

text: This was on 13 May and 27 August 2001. Elf Aquitaine employees had first talked about this scheme in February 1998.


title: Trafigura

text: In February 2013, Trafigura Maritime Ventures Limited—the Malta based subsidiary of Trafigura Maritime Logistics PTE Limited based in Singapore—and the oil trading arm of Total became involved in an oil price fixing controversy that led them to both be barred from the tendering process at the Enemalta oil purchasing board. Between 1999 and 2012, Enemalta paid the two companies $3.2 billion for oil, accounting for 70% of the oil purchased by Enemalta in that time period.


title: Trafigura

text: In May 2015, the Financial Times reported that Trafigura has become a major exporter for Rosneft crude oil from Russia despite sanctions. The company has seen a surge for such exports, almost 9 million barrels of crude in April 2015, mostly for Asian markets, financed by pre-pay oil deals in form of short term loans that are not subject to sanctions. While some commodity traders have been cautious dealing with sanctioned companies, Trafigura, which works with a number of global banks financing the oil deals, has found a reliable partner in Rosneft for global business.


title: Trafigura

text: In 2016, the Swiss non-governmental organisation Public Eye published the results of its investigation showing how traders – especially Trafigura – prepare and sell "African quality" toxic fuel to Africa, containing high levels of sulphur that causes particulate matter pollution, damaging human health. Subsequently, Ghana reduced the maximum limit of sulphur in imported diesel fuel from 3000 to 50 parts per million, from March 2017 (the European limit is 10 parts per million). Trafigura stated that the report was "misconceived" as they only supply legal fuel and that it is up to governments to set fuel specifications.


title: Trafigura

text: In November 2018 Global Witness asked the UK's Serious Fraud Office and the US authorities to investigate alleged ties between the Brazilian Operation Car Wash scandal and three oil trading companies, one of which was Trafigura. Trafigura is keeping the allegations "under review" and affirms that it "is taking the allegations ... seriously", but has denied that its management knew that payments would be used to make improper payments to employees of Petrobras.


title: Trafigura

text: Some 18 months later, in May 2020, the "Guardian" reported Trafigura was under investigation by the US Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) for alleged corruption and market manipulation relating to oil trading. Subpoenas demand information going back at least four years relating to "manipulation and corruption involving oil products and trading". It was unclear if the CFTC investigation was related to Operation Car Wash.


title: Trafigura

text: The 2006 Ivory Coast toxic waste dump was a health crisis in Ivory Coast in which the "Probo Koala", a ship registered in Panama and chartered by Trafigura, hired a local contractor to offload waste in Abidjan after refusing to pay a €1,000 per cubic metre surcharge imposed by Amsterdam Port Services to discourage waste disposal in the Netherlands. The local contractor, Tommy, improperly dumped the waste materials at as many as 12 sites in and around the city of Abidjan in August 2006. The gas caused by the release of these chemicals is blamed by the UN and the government of Ivory Coast for the deaths of 17 and the injury of over 30,000 Ivorians, with injuries that ranged from mild headaches to severe burns of skin and lungs. Almost 100,000 Ivorians sought medical attention after prime minister Charles Konan Banny offered free medical care in Abidjan’s hospitals to the city’s residents.


title: Trafigura

text: Trafigura maintains that the substance dumped consisted of "slops", or waste water from washing the Probo Koala's tanks. An inquiry in the Netherlands, in late 2006, confirmed the substance to consist of more than 500 tonnes of a mix of fuel, hydrogen sulfide, and sodium hydroxide, known as caustic soda. After the start of the health crisis in Abidjan, the Probo Koala arrived at the port of Paldiski in Estonia where Trafigura permitted Dutch police onboard to conduct an investigation.


title: Trafigura

text: Trafigura denied any waste was transported from the Netherlands, saying that the substances contained only tiny amounts of hydrogen sulfide, and that the company did not know the substance was to be disposed of improperly. Trafigura officials, including Claude Dauphin and the company’s West Africa regional director, traveled to Abidjan to assist in the cleanup effort but were arrested and imprisoned by the Ivorian government. While its executives were being held, the company agreed to pay US$198 million for cleanup to the Ivorian government without admitting wrongdoing, and the Ivorian government pledged not to prosecute the company. Dauphin and his fellow executives were released following the settlement.


title: Trafigura

text: In 2008 a civil lawsuit in London was launched by almost 30,000 Ivorians against Trafigura. In May 2009 Trafigura announced it would sue the BBC for libel after its "Newsnight" program alleged the company had knowingly sought to cover up its role in the incident. In September 2009 "The Guardian" obtained and published internal Trafigura emails showing that the traders responsible knew how dangerous the chemicals were. Shortly afterwards Trafigura agreed to a settlement of £30 million (US$42.4 million) to settle the suit. In 2010 a Dutch court found Trafigura guilty of illegally exporting toxic waste from Amsterdam.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: John Graham "Mitch" Mitchell (9 July 194612 November 2008) was an English drummer and child actor, who was best known for his work in the Jimi Hendrix Experience for which he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992. He was inducted into the "Modern Drummer" Hall of Fame in 2009.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: Mitchell was born in Ealing, Middlesex, to Phyliss C (née Preston) and Thomas J Mitchell on 9 July 1946 (although several modern sources have incorrectly claimed that he was born in 1947). As a twelve year old, he had a leading role in the British film "Bottoms Up" (1960) with Jimmy Edwards. As a teenager he starred in a children's television programme, "Jennings at School" and also had a bit part in the 1963 film "Live It Up!" which starred Heinz Burt, David Hemmings and Steve Marriott.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: Mitchell became a musician through working at Jim Marshall's drum shop on Saturdays while still at school. Among drummers, his chief influences were Elvin Jones and Tony Williams. One of his first bands was the Soul Messengers, formed at the Ealing Club with saxophonist Terry Marshall, son of Jim Marshall.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: Early in his career, he gained considerable musical experience as a touring and session musician, working with Pete Nelson and the Travellers, Frankie Reid and the Casuals (1962), Johnny Harris and the Shades, the Pretty Things, Bill Knight & the Sceptres, the Riot Squad, and the Who as a session drummer while the band was in the process of replacing Doug Sandom with Keith Moon. In 1965, he also temporarily replaced Viv Prince as drummer in the Pretty Things.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: From December 1965 until October 1966, Mitchell was the drummer of Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames, appearing on their 1966 album "Sweet Things". In a 2015 interview, Fame recalled: "His main hero was jazz drummer Ronnie Stephenson and if you look at early film clips of Mitch, he had that Ronnie Stephenson look, the way he set his jaw. And he loved crashing around on the cymbals like Ronnie, but in my band I liked the arrangements pretty tight. When he started splashing around I'd say 'just play the hi-hat!'".


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: Mitchell auditioned for the Jimi Hendrix Experience on 6 October 1966 and was chosen over Aynsley Dunbar in a coin toss. Mitchell's fast, driving, jazz-influenced playing meshed well with Hendrix's open-ended, revolutionary approach to the electric guitar. He played on the three best-selling Experience studio albums, "Are You Experienced" (1967), "" (1968), and "Electric Ladyland" (1968).


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: Mitchell remained with Hendrix after the Experience broke up when Noel Redding quit in June 1969. He performed with Hendrix's expanded lineup at Woodstock (August 1969). Mitchell was replaced briefly with Buddy Miles for the "Band of Gypsys" album (1970), but rejoined Hendrix (with Billy Cox on bass) for the April–September 1970 the Cry of Love Tour. He recorded most of the material for the posthumously-released Hendrix studio albums "The Cry of Love" (1971) (also listed as a co-producer), "Rainbow Bridge" (1971), and "War Heroes" (1972).


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: Mitchell debuted with the Hendrix Experience playing a Premier drum kit in England and Europe in 1967. When the Experience came to the US for the Monterey Pop Music Festival in June 1967 Mitchell was playing that same set. Later in the summer, Mitchell switched to a Ludwig drum set and stayed with Ludwig through the rest of the year, 1967, and continued with Ludwig in 1968 and 1969. In 1970, Mitchell switched to a double-bass Gretsch Drums set, his last year with the Hendrix Experience. With the exception of the 1969 Woodstock Music Festival, during which he played a Rodgers Powertone snare drum, during his time with the JHE, Mitch played a Ludwig Supraphonic 400, a 5- by 14-inch metal snare drum. Much later, and until his untimely passing, he played DW drums.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: In December 1968, Mitchell played with the Dirty Mac, an impromptu band assembled for "The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus". Others included John Lennon as vocalist and rhythm guitarist "Winston Leg-Thigh"; Yoko Ono providing improvised primal screams; Eric Clapton as guitarist, and Keith Richards as bassist. The group recorded a cover of "Yer Blues" as well as a jam called "Whole Lotta Yoko". While working with Hendrix from late 1969 until early 1970, Mitchell also collaborated with the Jack Bruce and Friends band fronted by ex-Cream bassist/vocalist Jack Bruce, with keyboardist Mike Mandel and jazz-fusion guitarist and future the Eleventh House frontman Larry Coryell.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: After Hendrix' death, Mitchell finished production work with engineer Eddie Kramer on incomplete Hendrix recordings, resulting in the releases "The Cry of Love" and "Rainbow Bridge". In 1972, he teamed up with guitarists Mike Pinera and April Lawton to form Ramatam. They recorded the first of Ramatam's two albums and were an opening act for Emerson, Lake & Palmer at a number of concerts. Mitchell and Hendrix had been offered spots in the band Keith Emerson and Greg Lake were forming, but Carl Palmer got the drum position instead. Ramatam never achieved commercial success, and Mitchell left the act before their second album was released. He also performed in concerts with Terry Reid, Jack Bruce, and Jeff Beck as a substitute for drummer Cozy Powell. Mitchell drummed alongside John Halsey in the 1970s jam band Hinkley's Heroes, the only time he played alongside another drummer. In 1974, he auditioned for Paul McCartney's band Wings but lost the part to Geoff Britton in another coin toss.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: For the rest of the 1970s through to the 1990s, Mitchell, semi-retired and living in Europe, continued to perform and occasionally record. In 1986, Mitchell teamed up with jazz musician Greg Parker and made a music video session of Led Zeppelin's "Black Dog". He did session work on Junior Brown's "Long Walk Back" album and participated in various Hendrix-related recordings, videos, and interviews. In 1999, Mitchell was part of the Gypsy Sun Experience, along with former Hendrix bassist Billy Cox and guitarist Gary Serkin. He also appeared on Bruce Cameron's album "Midnight Daydream" that included Billy Cox, Buddy Miles and Jack Bruce.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: He spent his final days celebrating Hendrix's music on the 2008 Experience Hendrix Tour. For nearly four weeks the tour travelled on an 18-city tour of the US, finishing in Portland, Oregon. The tour also featured Billy Cox, Buddy Guy, Jonny Lang, Robby Krieger, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Eric Johnson, Cesar Rosas, David Hidalgo, Brad Whitford, Hubert Sumlin, Chris Layton, Eric Gales, and Mato Nanji. Five days after the tour ended, Mitchell died in his sleep on 12 November, in his room at the Benson Hotel in Portland of "natural causes". Mitchell had been in ill health for many years due to an immune system disorder and cancer. Mitchell had earlier bouts with extreme fatigue but had recovered from them after a few days rest in 2007 and 2008. But by the end of the 2008 show, Mitchell was playing only two or three songs and always with a backup drummer alongside. At his last concert in Portland, Oregon, Mitchell looked so weak that his drum technician and tour manager asked him to sit out the entire show. The drum tech filled in for him on the drums on this, the last show of the tour, and the last show of his life. After that last show of the 2008 "Experience Hendrix" tour, Mitchell had asked the "Experience Hendrix" tour with which he was touring to allow him to rest up a few days due to exhaustion. From Seattle, he had planned to return to his home in England. The tour manager respected Mitchell's request but had outspoken reservations about its wisdom. The tour manager's concern was validated when Mitchell died in his sleep that same night. Press reports that he died from alcohol-related problems are contradicted by Mitchell's health history and are not accurate. Mitchell was the last surviving member of the original Jimi Hendrix Experience.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: Queen drummer Roger Taylor has described Mitchell as his early role model. He said: "I still think listening to Mitch Mitchell, especially the early stuff with Hendrix, is just fantastic". Matt Sorum, drummer with the Cult, Guns N' Roses, and Velvet Revolver, has praised his "pure musicianship" and called him "one of the greatest drummers of all time".


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: In an interview with the Police drummer Stewart Copeland in the late 2000s, Copeland listed the Jimi Hendrix Experience debut album "Are You Experienced" as his favourite drum album of all time, and relates that as a child in school, he would walk around with drum beats in his head and wonder how Mitch Mitchell would carve out a rhythm were he to play that song.


title: Mitch Mitchell

text: For a more complete listing of Mitchell's recordings with Hendrix, see Jimi Hendrix discography and Jimi Hendrix posthumous discography.


title: Cecilia Hart

text: Cecilia Hart (February 19, 1948 – October 16, 2016), sometimes credited as Ceci Jones, was an American actress who played Stacey Erickson in the CBS police drama "Paris", which originally ran from 1979 until 1980. Hart co-starred with her future husband James Earl Jones in the series.


title: Cecilia Hart

text: A native of Cheyenne, Wyoming, and the daughter of an Army colonel and his wife, Hart moved to New York City to pursue an acting career. She appeared on Broadway in Tom Stoppard's play "Dirty Linen and New-Found-Land" from January to March 1977, winning the 1977 Theatre World Award. She appeared on Broadway in "The Heiress" (1976) and "Design for Living" (1984), and in "Othello" as a replacement "Desdemona" in March 1982. Hart starred opposite Paxton Whitehead in five plays before appearing together in "Bedroom Farce" at the Westport Country Playhouse in 2015. The production ran from August 25, 2015, through September 13, 2015.


title: Cecilia Hart

text: Hart married actor Bruce Weitz in 1971; they divorced in 1980. She married actor James Earl Jones in 1982; it was also his second marriage. They had one child, Flynn Earl Jones (born 1982), and were married until Hart's death.


title: Burt Munro

text: Herbert James "Burt" Munro ("Bert" in his youth; 25 March 1899 – 6 January 1978) was a motorcycle racer from New Zealand, famous for setting an under-1,000 cc world record, at Bonneville, on the 26th of August 1967. This record still stands; Munro was 68 and was riding a 47-year-old machine when he set his last record.


title: Burt Munro

text: Working from his home in Invercargill, he spent 20 years highly modifying his 1920 Indian motorcycle that he had bought that same year. Munro set his first New Zealand speed record in 1938 and later set seven more. He travelled to compete at the Bonneville Salt Flats, attempting to set world speed records. During his ten visits to the salt flats, he set three speed records, one of which still stands.


title: Burt Munro

text: His efforts, and success, are the basis of the film "The World's Fastest Indian" (2005), starring Anthony Hopkins, and an earlier 1971 short documentary film "Burt Munro: Offerings to the God of Speed", both directed by Roger Donaldson.


title: Burt Munro

text: Munro was born in 1899 to William Munro, a farmer and Lily Agnes Robinson in Invercargill. His twin sister died at birth and Munro grew up on a farm in Edendale, east of Invercargill. His grandfather was from northern Scotland and settled on a farm in Invercargill.


title: Burt Munro

text: Munro's interest in speed began at an early age, riding the family's fastest horse across the farm, despite the complaints of his father. Trips via train to the Invercargill port were a rare source of excitement, and the arrival of cars, motorcycles and aircraft added to Burt's eagerness to join the world outside his farm. As Munro's family discouraged his endeavours outside farm life, he became constantly bored with daily routine. At the outbreak of the First World War, he intended to go to war as soon as he was old enough, for a chance to see the world.


title: Burt Munro

text: Munro remained on the family farm until the end of the First World War, when his father sold the farm. At that time, Munro worked on the Otira Tunnel construction until recalled to work with his father on a newly purchased farm. After this he became a professional speedway rider, but returned home to the family farm at the start of the Great Depression. Finding work as a motorcycle salesman and mechanic, he raced motorcycles and rose to the top of the New Zealand motorcycle scene, racing on Oreti Beach and later in Melbourne, Australia.


title: Burt Munro

text: After the Second World War, Munro and his wife divorced, and he subsequently gave up work to reside in a lock-up garage.


title: Burt Munro

text: Munro's Indian Scout was an early model, the 627th Scout to leave the American factory. The bike had an original top speed of , but this did not satisfy Munro, so in 1926 he began to modify his beloved Indian.


title: Burt Munro

text: Munro's two greatest challenges while modifying his bike were his lack of money and that he worked full-time as a motorcycle salesman. He would often work overnight on his bikes (he had a 1936 Velocette MSS as well), then he would go to work in the morning, having had no sleep. Being of modest means, he would often make his own parts and tools instead of having them professionally built. He would cast parts in old tins, make his own barrels, pistons, flywheels, and such; his micrometer was an old spoke.


title: Burt Munro

text: In its final stages, the Indian's displacement was 950 cc (as built it was 600 cc) and was driven by a triple chain drive system.


title: Burt Munro

text: The "Munro Special," as Munro called his bike, is now owned by Neville Hayes, in New Zealand's South Island, and is on display at E Hayes & Sons, Invercargill. There is also a second motorcycle purported to be the original "Munro Special" in Te Papa Museum in Wellington.


title: Burt Munro

text: The Bonneville Salt Flats in northwestern Utah, US is known worldwide for its many miles of flat, compacted salt; perfect for testing speed machines. During Speed Week, usually in mid-late August, vehicle enthusiasts from around the world gather at Bonneville.


title: Burt Munro

text: Munro travelled to Bonneville ten times, the first time for "sightseeing" purposes. In the nine times he raced at Bonneville, Munro set three world records: in 1962, in 1966 and in 1967. He also once qualified at over , but that was an unofficial run and was not counted.


title: Burt Munro

text: Following the misspelling of his name in an American motorcycling magazine in 1957, Bert Munro changed his name to Burt.


title: Burt Munro

text: Munro and Florence Beryl Martyn were married in 1927 and had four children, June, Margaret, Gwen and John. They were divorced in 1947. A son of William Munro (?–1949) and Lily Agnes Munro (?–1967), he had two brothers and a sister. The accidental death of his older brother at the age of 13 had a profound effect on his life.


title: Burt Munro

text: Having suffered from angina since the late 1950s, Munro suffered a stroke in 1977, and was admitted to hospital. He found his coordination had diminished. Frustrated, but wanting his motorcycles to remain in Southland, he sold both machines to his friend, Norman Hayes, of E. Hayes & Sons.


title: Burt Munro

text: Munro died of natural causes on 6 January 1978, aged 78 years. He is buried at Invercargill's Eastern Cemetery, with his parents and brother.


title: Burt Munro

text: Burt Munro was the subject of a 2005 film, "The World's Fastest Indian", based on a composite of his Bonneville speed runs. This film depicts a determined old man who, despite facing many difficulties, travels from New Zealand to the USA to test run his motorcycle west of the Great Salt Lake. The disclaimer says: "While this motion picture is based upon historical events, certain characters names have been changed, some main characters are composites or invented and a number of incidents fictionalised."


title: Burt Munro

text: In March 2013, Indian Motorcycle announced that it was producing a custom-built streamliner named the "Spirit of Munro". The motorcycle was built to showcase the Thunder Stroke 111 engine to be used in one of the 2014 road models. The company said the "Spirit of Munro Scout" was a tribute to Munro's achievements with the Indian Scout and to all Indians of old.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: Kylie Cosmetics, LLC is an American cosmetics company founded by Kylie Jenner. The company began selling Kylie Lip Kits, a liquid lipstick and lip liner set, on November 30, 2015. Formerly known as Kylie Lip Kits, the company was renamed Kylie Cosmetics.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In 2018, "Forbes" reported the company was valued at $800 million, and in March 2019, valued the company at $900 million. Coty, Inc. bought a 51% controlling stake in the company for $600 million in November 2019, valuing the company at approximately $1.2 billion. However, in early 2020 "Forbes" reported—citing documentation from the Coty deal—that Kylie Cosmetics had overvalued itself.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In 2014, Kylie Jenner and her mother Kris Jenner founded the company and partnered with Seed Beauty, a retail and product development company co-founded by siblings, John and Laura Nelson. The company's first product Kylie Lip Kits, a liquid lipstick and lip liner, debuted on November 30, 2015. The first 15,000 lip kits were produced by Seed Beauty and funded by Jenner at a cost of $250,000 from her modelling earnings. The company was renamed to Kylie Cosmetics in February 2016 and production was increased to 500,000 kits. By the end of 2016, the company's total revenue was over $300 million.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: Jenner has described her decision to use her former insecurity about her lip size as inspiration for her brand, saying it's "one of the most authentic things I've done in my career".


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: Kylie Jenner has collaborated with several other celebrities on collections for Kylie Cosmetics. Some notable collaborations include Kim Kardashian, Khloe Kardashian, and Kourtney Kardashian. Most recently, Jenner has collaborated with her mother, Kris Jenner.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In November 2016, Kylie announced the very first Kylie Cosmetics collaboration called Koko X Kylie, where she teamed up with her sister, Khloe Kardashian.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In April 2017, Jenner announced her collaboration with her half-sister, Kim Kardashian, called KKW X Kylie. Kylie Cosmetics partnered with Kim Kardashian soon after the KKW release.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In May 2017, it was announced Koko X Kylie would be returning for a Part 2 of the half-sisters’ collaboration.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In a month long pop-up event in November 2017, seven TopShop stores across the US sold Kylie Cosmetics products. In November 2018, Kylie Cosmetics began selling their products at Ulta. Many attribute the brand's success to Jenner's cosmetically altered lips.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In April 2018, Jenner announced her Kylie Cosmetics collaboration with her oldest half-sister, Kourtney Kardashian, called Kourt X Kylie.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: On May 9, 2018, Kylie and Kris Jenner announced their collaboration called the Kris Kollection via Kylie's personal Instagram. The Mini Lip Set in the Kris Kollection, which includes eight mini liquid lipsticks, is aptly named “Momager”, a title in which Kris Jenner has personally taken on, and attempted to trademark, in recent years. In addition to the "Momager" Lip Kit, the Kris Kollection includes lip glosses and a four pan pressed powder highlight/blush palette, which has created a lot of controversy online with both good and bad reviews. The collection was released just in time for Mother's Day.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: On September 14, 2018, Kylie announced her new launch the Jordyn X Kylie collection, in celebration of her long term friendship Jordyn Woods. Kylie was said to have removed products from this collection after the fallout of their friendship from the Tristan Thompson and Jordyn scandal.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: On June 9, 2019, Kylie announced her collaboration with her half sister Khloé Kardashian for the third time.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In 2019, Kylie announced her collaboration with Oliver Rousteing the creative director for Balmain in the KylieXBalmain collection. Which launched on September 27 of that year.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: On June 26, 2020, Kylie Cosmetics released a collection called “Kendall By Kylie Cosmetics”. It was created by Kylie Jenner and her sister Kendall Jenner. It sold out within 24 hours. Kendall is the last Kardashian-Jenner sister to collaborate with Kylie.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In February 2018, Jenner released Kylie Cosmetics’ first non-collaborative collection: Weather. Jenner explained the collection is an ode to her daughter, Stormi, who inspired the collection and was born earlier that month.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In August 2019, Jenner released her Birthday Collection. This collection was for her 22nd birthday and included lip kits, an eyeshadow pallet, a face primer, matte lipsticks, jelly kylighters, an eyeliner, and many more products. This collection featured money themed packaging. Jenner took a portion of her earnings from her birthday collection and collaborated with Ellen DeGeneres to give away over $1 million. $750,000 went to a group of women in Florida who have a non-profit organization called Nest Of Love.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In February 2020 Kylie launch the Stormi collection, in celebration of her daughters second birthday. This launch included beauty products such as eyeshadow palettes, Kylie lip kits, and blush. The launch was a success and the products quickly sold out.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: Kylie is known for making appearances at pop-up shops which are located inside Topshops where she does meet-and-greets with fans. The locations are in Chicago, Illinois; Los Angeles, California; New York; Las Vegas, Nevada; Houston, Texas; Atlanta, Georgia; Miami, Florida


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In December 2015, Jenner's mother, Kris Jenner, partnered the company with Canadian e-commerce platform Shopify to outsource sales.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In May 2016, Kylie Cosmetics changed the packaging of its Lip Kits due to complaints of theft. Due to the easily recognizable packaging and high demand for the product at the time, some customers received empty boxes after having their products stolen in the mailing process. The original Kylie Lip Kit box was black with a white lip gloss drip design. In order to solve the theft issue, the boxes were changed to a basic black, and the recognizable lip gloss design was moved to the inside of the box.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In the April 2018 release of the Kourt X Kylie Collection, Kylie Cosmetics included eyeshadow palettes with brand new plastic packaging rather than the traditional cardboard packaging.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: Kylie Cosmetics heavily depends on social media for its marketing. In August 2018, Jenner had the most followed Snapchat account and 164 million Instagram followers, all of whom see her teases to past and future makeup releases.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: Kylie Cosmetics also advertises daily on Instagram with the verified account @kyliecosmetics. The Instagram account currently has 25.1 million followers. They share popular beauty influences reviews, sales, new products, and many photos of Jenner herself using the products. In November 2019, @kyliecosmetics on Instagram hit 22.4 million followers.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: While Jenner, or members of her family, often serve as the face of Kylie Cosmetics, the pair of lips that advertise the Lip Kits themselves belongs to beauty and lifestyle blogger Ashley Rosales. Before entering the beauty community, Ashley Rosales served in the United States Army as a mechanic. Jenner relies heavily on YouTube for marketing her launches. Jenner's YouTube channel has over 7.5 million subscribers. She often records "get ready with me" to promote her upcoming launches.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: Jenner revealed that she has enlisted her housekeeper and her boyfriend Travis Scott to model swatches of the makeup on their arms for social media advertisements.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: In an occurrence dubbed by Cosmopolitan Australia as the "Kylie makeup brush scandal of 2017", Jenner received backlash from fans, makeup gurus, and Internet users alike after Kylie Cosmetics launched a set of 16 luxury makeup brushes, priced at $360. After a few big-name YouTubers, including James Charles and Jeffree Star weighed in with their negative opinions on the price of the brush kit, Jenner responded via her personal Twitter, telling fans, "I hear you guys".


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: After the release of the concealer line, Skin Concealer, Kylie Cosmetics received negative feedback from Internet users who claimed the company was copying Rihanna’s makeup line, Fenty Beauty. Though the intention of the makeup line was to remain inclusive, it was assumed by some that Jenner was profiting from diversity by including 30 shades in her concealer line.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: It was also observed that all of the darker shades had red undertones, as explicitly described on the Kylie Cosmetics website, prompting the criticism that it did not cater to all skin types.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: The release of Kylie Cosmetics' March 2018 line of blushes sparked anger among some fans who thought that the names of some of the new products, such as "Barely Legal", "Virginity", "X Rated", and "Hot and Bothered", were too provocative, especially for Jenner's younger fans.


title: Kylie Cosmetics

text: On April 8, 2020, "Forbes" again named Jenner as the world's youngest "self made" billionaire, citing her net worth having increased to $1.2 billion. However, in May "Forbes" released a statement accusing Jenner of forging tax documents so she would appear as a billionaire. The publication also accused her of fabricating revenue figures for Kylie Cosmetics, citing documents Coty Inc (which had acquired a majority stake in Kylie Cosmetics) had released. The "Forbes" article concluded that Kylie Cosmetics was significantly smaller and less profitable than previously reported.


title: Camping

text: Camping is an outdoor activity involving overnight stays away from home, either without shelter or using basic shelter such as a tent, or a recreational vehicle. Typically, participants leave developed areas to spend time outdoors in more natural ones in pursuit of activities providing them enjoyment or an educational experience. The night (or more) spent outdoors distinguishes camping from day-tripping, picnicking, and other similarly short-term recreational activities.


title: Camping

text: Camping as a recreational activity became popular among elites in the early 20th century. With time, it grew in popularity among other socioeconomic classes. Modern campers frequent publicly owned natural resources such as national and state parks, wilderness areas, and commercial campgrounds. In a few countries, such as Sweden and Scotland, public camping is legal on privately held land as well. Camping is a key part of many youth organizations around the world, such as Scouting, which use it to teach both self-reliance and teamwork.


title: Camping

text: Camping describes a range of activities and approaches to outdoor accommodation. Survivalist and wild campers typically set off with as little as possible to get by. Other campers might use specialized camping gear designed to provide comfort, including their own power and heat sources as well as camping furniture. Camping may be combined with hiking, as in backpacking, and is often enjoyed in conjunction with other outdoor activities such as canoeing, kayaking, climbing, fishing, and hunting. Fastpacking involves both running and camping.


title: Camping

text: There is no universally held definition of what is and what is not camping. Just as with motels, which serve both recreational and business guests, the same campground may serve recreational campers, school field trips, migrant workers, and homeless at the same time. Fundamentally, it reflects a combination of "intent" and the nature of activities involved. A children's summer camp with dining hall meals and bunkhouse accommodations may have "camp" in its name but fails to reflect the spirit and form of "camping" as it is broadly understood. Similarly, a homeless person's lifestyle may involve many common camping activities, such as sleeping out and preparing meals over a fire but fails to reflect the elective nature and pursuit of spirit rejuvenation that are an integral aspect of camping. Likewise, cultures with itinerant lifestyles or lack of permanent dwellings cannot be said to be "camping" as this is considered their way of life.


title: Camping

text: The history of recreational camping is often traced back to Thomas Hiram Holding, a British travelling tailor, but it was actually first popularised in the UK on the river Thames. By the 1880s, large numbers of visitors took part in the pastime, which was connected to the late Victorian craze for pleasure boating. Although Thomas Hiram Holding is often seen as the father of modern camping in the UK, he was responsible for popularising a different type of camping in the early twentieth century. He experienced the activity in his youth, when he had spent much time with his parents traveling across the American prairies. Later he embarked on a cycling and camping tour with some friends across Ireland. His book on his Ireland experience, "Cycle and Camp in Connemara" led to the formation of the first camping group in 1901, the Association of Cycle Campers, later to become the Camping and Caravanning Club. He wrote "The Campers Handbook" in 1908, so that he could share his enthusiasm for the great outdoors with the world.


title: Camping

text: Possibly the first commercial camping ground in the world was Cunningham's camp, near Douglas, Isle of Man, which opened in 1894. In 1906, the Association of Cycle Campers opened its first own camping site, in Weybridge. By that time the organization had several hundred members. In 1910 the Association was merged into the National Camping Club. Although the First World War was responsible for a certain hiatus in camping activity, the association received a new lease of life after the war when Sir Robert Baden-Powell (founder of the Boy Scouts movement) became its president in 1919.


title: Camping

text: In the US, camping may be traced to William Henry Harrison Murray's 1869 publication of "Camp-Life in the Adirondacks" resulting in a flood of visitors to the Adirondacks that summer.


title: Camping

text: During the early twentieth century, the popularity of camping in the United States grew as a result of the publicity created by The Vagabonds: Henry Ford, Thomas Edison, John Burroughs, and Harvey S. Firestone. This group of famous American businessmen, inventors, and authors traveled for a period of ten years to different states where their trips were highly documented by press from across the country. Oftentimes "...these rough and tumble pioneers would drive toward the Adirondacks and essentially live off the land, camping at farms and buying food along the way just like ordinary Americans out for a holiday on the road."


title: Camping

text: The International Federation of Camping Clubs (Fédération Internationale de Camping et de Caravanning) was founded in 1932, with national clubs from many countries affiliating with it. By the 1960s, camping had become an established family holiday standard, and today campsites are widespread across Europe and North America.


title: Camping

text: Different types of camping may be named after their form of transportation, such as canoe camping, car camping, RVing, and backpacking, including ultralight backpacking.


title: Camping

text: Camping is also labeled by lifestyle: Glamping (glamorous camping) combines camping with the luxury and amenities of a home or hotel, and has its roots in the early 1900s European and American safaris in Africa. Workamping allows campers to trade their labor variously for discounts on campsite fees, campground utilities, and even some degree of pay. Migrant camps are formed not for recreation, but as a temporary housing arrangement. Campgrounds for custom harvesters in the United States may include room to park combines and other large farm equipment.


title: Camping

text: Camping is also popular at air shows, notably at the Oshkosh air show where people often camp in a small tent under their aircraft's wing.


title: Camping

text: The equipment used in camping varies with by intended activity. For instance, in survival camping the equipment consists of small items which have the purpose of helping the camper in providing food, heat and safety. The equipment used in this type of camping must be lightweight and it is restricted to the mandatory items. Other types of camping such as winter camping involve having specially designed equipment in terms of tents or clothing which is strong enough to protect the camper's body from the wind and cold.


title: Camping

text: Survival camping involves certain items that campers are recommended to have with them in case something goes wrong and they need to be rescued. A survival kit includes mandatory items which are small and must fit in one's pocket or which otherwise could be carried on one's person. This kit is useless in these circumstances if it is kept in the backpack that is left in camp. Such a kit should include a small metal container which can be used to heat water over a campfire, a small length of duct tape which can prove useful in many situations, and an emergency space blanket. These blankets are specially designed to occupy minimal space and are perfect for making emergency shelters, keeping the camper warm. Also because of the aluminum-like color this blanket is reflective which means it can be easily seen from an aircraft. Candle stubs are good in starting a fire as well as in warming an enclosed space. One or two band-aids are mandatory in this type of camping. Any camper, and not only the survival ones, need waterproof matches or a lighter and a large safety pin or fish hook which can be used in fishing. Rubber gloves, antiseptic wipes, tinfoil, jackknife, or halazone tablets (which purify the water) are also to be included into a survival kit. Although these seem too many items to be carried on one person, they are in fact small, lightweight and definitely useful.


title: Camping

text: Winter camping can be dangerous without respecting the basic rules when it comes to this particular activity.


title: Camping

text: Much of the remaining needed camping equipment is commonly available in the home, including: dishes, pots, and pans; however, many people opt not to use their home items, but instead utilize equipment better tailored for camping. These amenities include heavy plastic tableware and salt and pepper shakers with tops that close in order to shelter the shakers from rain. Old kitchen gear purchased from thrift stores or garage sales may also be used in place of home items as an alternative to buying specialized (and more expensive) camping equipment. Backpackers use lightweight and portable equipment.


title: Camping

text: Campers span a broad range of age, ability, and ruggedness, and campsites are designed in many ways as well. Many campgrounds have sites with facilities such as fire rings, barbecue grills, utilities, shared bathrooms and laundry, as well as access to nearby recreational facilities, however, not all campsites have similar levels of development. Campsites can range from a patch of dirt, to a level, paved pad with sewer and electricity with many public and private campgrounds also offering cabin options. (For more information on facilities, see the campsite and RV park articles.)


title: Camping

text: Other vehicles used for camping include motorcycles, touring bicycles, boats, canoes, pack animals, and even bush planes; although backpacking on foot is a popular alternative.


title: Camping

text: Tent camping sites often cost less than campsites with full amenities, and most allow direct access by car. Some "walk-in" sites lie a short walk away from the nearest road, but do not require full backpacking equipment. Those who seek a rugged experience in the outdoors prefer to camp with only tents, or with no shelter at all ("under the stars").


title: Camping

text: According to an infographic produced by Red Rover Camping and based on data from the 2014 American Camper Report published by the Coleman Company, Inc. and the Outdoor Foundation, camping in the United States is gaining popularity after a fall of 4.2 million participants from 2011 to 2012.


title: Camping

text: According to data provided by the Great British Tourism Survey conducted by Visit England, almost 4.5 million camping and caravanning holidays were taken by British residents during the first half of 2015, for an average of 3.7 nights. As in the United States, camping is gaining popularity, with an 8% increase in trips compared to the same period in 2014. The Caravan Club and the Camping and Caravanning Club represent UK campers.


title: Camping

text: Data collected by the Fédération Nationale De L'Hôtellerie De Plein Air (FNHPA) shows that around 113 million nights were taken at French campsites in 2015, which was up by 3.9% on the same period in 2014. French holidaymakers took 77 million of these, and the rest was made up of other nationalities, the majority of whom were Dutch, German and UK tourists. The French Government hopes to have 100 million tourists each year by 2030. The most popular region for camping is Languedoc and Roussillon with around 19,331,663 nights spent at campsites during 2015, whilst the department with the most campsites is the Vendée.


title: Camping

text: Canada is a country that has four different seasons throughout the year. In this day and age, with the proper camping equipment, it is possible to camp all over Canada all year around. At the end of the 19th century, Canada started establishing areas all over the territory to be later named "National Parks". These days, the parks are now known for being some of the most popular campgrounds in the country. But it wasn't always accessible to everyone. In Canada, before the 1910s, camping was reserved only for men. The first camping ground to be established in a National Park in Canada was in 1964 at the Lake Louise.


title: Camping

text: According to data by a study made by Camping Québec in 2016, 20% of the province of Québec did go camping, that being about 1,600,000 people. In the same research, the study has shown that a certain 8 % of those campers were strangers. The popularity of camping in Canada is not only for locals, but also for travelers. About 34 % of the camp fanatics in Québec are camping on either National Parks or Provincials Parks.


title: Camping

text: Camping on open land, regardless of ownership, is legal in a few countries, including Sweden and Scotland. In Sweden, a right of public access – allowing outdoor recreational activity on privately held wilderness – is enshrined in the constitution. Large groups, however, must obtain the landowner's permission. In Scotland, people may camp on most unenclosed land, whether state- or privately owned. There is however a "leave-no-trace" policy and a common-law outdoor-access code.


title: Six Degrees of Separation (film)

text: Six Degrees of Separation is a 1993 American comedy-drama film released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and directed by Fred Schepisi, adapted from John Guare's Pulitzer Prize-nominated 1990 play of the same name.


title: Six Degrees of Separation (film)

text: The plot of the film was inspired by the real-life story of David Hampton, a con man and robber who convinced a number of people in the 1980s that he was the son of actor Sidney Poitier. In October 1983, Hampton came to the New York apartment of Inger McCabe Elliott and her husband Osborn Elliott, who allowed him to spend the night in the apartment. The next morning, Inger found Hampton in bed with another man and later called the police. The Elliotts told their friend, writer John Guare, the story, which inspired him to write the play years later.


title: Six Degrees of Separation (film)

text: Fifth Avenue socialite Ouisa Kittredge and her art dealer husband Flan are parents of "two at Harvard and a girl at Groton". However, the narrow world inhabited by the Kittredges and their public status as people interested in the arts make them easy prey for Paul. A skillful con-artist, Paul mysteriously appears at their door one night, injured and bleeding, claiming to be a close college friend of their Ivy League kids, as well as the son of Sidney Poitier.


title: Six Degrees of Separation (film)

text: Ouisa and Flan are much impressed by Paul's fine taste, keen wit, articulate literary expositions and surprising culinary skill. His appealing facade soon has the Kittredges putting him up, lending him money and taking satisfaction in his praise for their posh lifestyle. Paul's scheme continues until, after he brings home a hustler, his actual indigence is revealed. The shocked Kittredges kick him out when it is revealed that they are but the most recent victims of the duplicity with which Paul has charmed his way into many upper-crust homes along the Upper East Side.


title: Six Degrees of Separation (film)

text: Paul's schemes become highbrow-legend, anecdotal "onaccounta", which are bantered about at their cocktail parties. In the end, Paul has a profound effect on the many individuals who encounter him, linking them in their shared experience.


title: Six Degrees of Separation (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a approval rating based on reviews, with an average score of and a consensus: "Though it betrays its theatrical roots, "Six Degrees of Separation" largely succeeds thanks to astute direction and fine performances–particularly from an against-type Will Smith."


title: Major Payne

text: Major Payne is a 1995 American military comedy film directed by Nick Castle and starring Damon Wayans, who wrote with Dean Lorey and Gary Rosen. The film co-stars Karyn Parsons, Steven Martini and Michael Ironside. It is a loose remake of the 1955 film "The Private War of Major Benson", starring Charlton Heston. "Major Payne" was released in the United States on March 24 and grossed $30 million. Wayans plays a military officer who, after being discharged, attempts to lead a dysfunctional group of youth cadets to victory in a competition.


title: Major Payne

text: Major Benson Winifred Payne, a battle hardened Marine, returns from a successful drug raid in South America to find out that he has been passed over for promotion. Payne receives an honorable discharge and tries to adjust to civilian life but ends up being arrested. His former commander gets him out of jail and secures him a position back in the military.


title: Major Payne

text: Payne is sent to Madison Preparatory School in Virginia and is given command of the ROTC students. The cadets are a disorderly group of delinquents and outcasts who have placed last in the Virginia Military Games for eight straight years. Payne immediately takes a hard stance with the cadets and asserts his authority. He shaves the cadets bald and moves them out of their dorms and into a dilapidated barracks. Payne's harsh punishments and lack of empathy for the cadets lead to friction with school counselor Emily Walburn, who tries to soften Payne's approach.


title: Major Payne

text: The cadets, encouraged by the rebellious Alex Stone, make several attempts to sabotage Payne and drive him out of the school. Stone and the cadets hire a biker to assault Payne, in the aftermath Payne makes Stone the squad leader. Things come to a head and Payne offers to quit if the cadets can steal him the Military Games trophy from Wellington Academy. Payne tips off the Wellington cadets and they ambush the Madison cadets and beat them severely. Stone confronts Payne and realizes that he wants to earn the trophy, Payne offers to train him to win it. The cadets begin working hard and training for the Military Games. They develop into a unified squad, and Payne tells them that they have graduated the program and are fit to compete in the games.


title: Major Payne

text: Before the games, Payne is asked to return to the Marines to fight in Bosnia. He eagerly accepts the new posting but his deployment means he will miss the Military Games. As Payne waits for a train to depart he daydreams about being in a family with Emily and Tiger. The cadets don't want to participate in the Games without Payne, but Alex convinces them to do it. At the games, the boys hold their own until Alex injures his ankle and is unable to participate in the final event. The Madison cadets angrily fight with the Wellington cadets. The fight is broken up, and the judges deliberate having Madison disqualified.


title: Major Payne

text: Payne refuses his new posting and commission and shows up at the last minute. He smooths things over with the judges and tells Tiger to lead Madison in the final event, a drill competition. The group executes an unorthodox but entertaining routine which wins them the trophy. On the first day of the new school year Madison displays the Military Games trophy, along with another one won by Alex. Payne resumes being an instructor, having married Emily and adopted Tiger. Stone resumes his role as a squad leader. Payne has softened a bit, attempting to befriend the new recruits. When a disrespectful blind cadet shows up with his service dog, Payne shaves both him and his dog bald with his field knife and laughs.


title: Major Payne

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 29% based on 14 reviews. Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "While "Major Payne" is too predictable for most adults, it's an ideal entertainment for youthful audiences that allows Damon Wayans to be at his best in a dream part." Caryn James of "The New York Times" wrote, "Though the movie is rarely more clever than its title, Mr. Wayans gives the dark cartoonish comedy an irreverent edge."


title: Major Payne

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" rated it 3/4 stars and called it a smart and funny satire of military films:The key to this kind of comedy is to go all the way with it, and Wayans creates a comic character out of narrowness, obsession, and blind commitment. Of course the arc of the storyline is familiar; we know the pretty teacher will soften him, and that he will grow fond of the cadets, and no prizes for guessing who wins the big all-Virginia ROTC ["sic"] competition... Wayans is one of the most talented comic actors around, especially when he lets go and swings for the fences.


title: Major Payne

text: The film debuted at number 2 at the US box office behind "Outbreak" with a gross of $7 million on its opening weekend. "Major Payne" went on to gross $30.1 million worldwide.


title: Personality psychology

text: Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that examines personality and its variation among individuals. It aims to show how people are individually different due to psychological forces. Its areas of focus include:


title: Personality psychology

text: "Personality" is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by an individual that uniquely influences their environment, cognition, emotions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. The word "personality" originates from the Latin "persona", which means "mask".


title: Personality psychology

text: Personality also pertains to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments, and behaviors persistently exhibited over time that strongly influences one's expectations, self-perceptions, values, and attitudes. Personality also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress. Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to study personality: the nomothetic and the idiographic. "Nomothetic psychology" seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization or the trait of extraversion. "Idiographic psychology" is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual.


title: Personality psychology

text: The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology, with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional (trait) perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, evolutionary, and social learning perspective. Many researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. Research in this area is empirically driven – such as dimensional models, based on multivariate statistics such as factor analysis – or emphasizes theory development, such as that of the psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical psychology.


title: Personality psychology

text: Many of the ideas conceptualized by historical and modern personality theorists stem from the basic philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of art, science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. The following five categories are some of the most fundamental philosophical assumptions on which theorists disagree:


title: Personality psychology

text: Personality type refers to the psychological classification of people into different classes. Personality types are distinguished from personality traits, which come in different degrees. There are many theories of personality, but each one contains several and sometimes many sub theories. A "theory of personality" constructed by any given psychologist will contain multiple relating theories or sub theories often expanding as more psychologists explore the theory. For example, according to type theories, there are two types of people, introverts and extroverts. According to trait theories, introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension with many people in the middle. The idea of psychological types originated in the theoretical work of Carl Jung, specifically in his 1921 book "Psychologische Typen" ("Psychological Types") and William Marston.


title: Personality psychology

text: Building on the writings and observations of Jung during World War II, Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine C. Briggs, delineated personality types by constructing the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator. This model was later used by David Keirsey with a different understanding from Jung, Briggs and Myers. In the former Soviet Union, Lithuanian Aušra Augustinavičiūtė independently derived a model of personality type from Jung's called socionics. Later on many other tests were developed on this model e.g. Golden, PTI-Pro and JTI.


title: Personality psychology

text: Theories could also be considered an "approach" to personality or psychology and is generally referred to as a model. The model is an older and more theoretical approach to personality, accepting extroversion and introversion as basic psychological orientations in connection with two pairs of psychological functions:


title: Personality psychology

text: Briggs and Myers also added another personality dimension to their type indicator to measure whether a person prefers to use a judging or perceiving function when interacting with the external world. Therefore, they included questions designed to indicate whether someone wishes to come to conclusions (judgement) or to keep options open (perception).


title: Personality psychology

text: This personality typology has some aspects of a trait theory: it explains people's behavior in terms of opposite fixed characteristics. In these more traditional models, the sensing/intuition preference is considered the most basic, dividing people into "N" (intuitive) or "S" (sensing) personality types. An "N" is further assumed to be guided either by thinking or feeling and divided into the "NT" (scientist, engineer) or "NF" (author, humanitarian) temperament. An "S", in contrast, is assumed to be guided more by the judgment/perception axis and thus divided into the "SJ" (guardian, traditionalist) or "SP" (performer, artisan) temperament. These four are considered basic, with the other two factors in each case (including always extraversion/introversion) less important. Critics of this traditional view have observed that the types can be quite strongly stereotyped by professions (although neither Myers nor Keirsey engaged in such stereotyping in their type descriptions), and thus may arise more from the need to categorize people for purposes of guiding their career choice. This among other objections led to the emergence of the five-factor view, which is less concerned with behavior under work conditions and more concerned with behavior in personal and emotional circumstances. (The MBTI is not designed to measure the "work self", but rather what Myers and McCaulley called the "shoes-off self.")


title: Personality psychology

text: Type A and Type B personality theory: During the 1950s, Meyer Friedman and his co-workers defined what they called Type A and Type B behavior patterns. They theorized that intense, hard-driving Type A personalities had a higher risk of coronary disease because they are "stress junkies." Type B people, on the other hand, tended to be relaxed, less competitive, and lower in risk. There was also a Type AB mixed profile.


title: Personality psychology

text: John L. Holland's "RIASEC" vocational model, commonly referred to as the "Holland Codes", stipulates that six personality types lead people to choose their career paths. In this circumplex model, the six types are represented as a hexagon, with adjacent types more closely related than those more distant. The model is widely used in vocational counseling.


title: Personality psychology

text: Eduard Spranger's personality-model, consisting of six (or, by some revisions, 6 +1) basic types of "value attitudes", described in his book "Types of Men" ("Lebensformen"; Halle (Saale): Niemeyer, 1914; English translation by P. J. W. Pigors - New York: G. E. Stechert Company, 1928).


title: Personality psychology

text: The Enneagram of Personality, a model of human personality which is principally used as a typology of nine interconnected personality types. It has been criticized as being subject to interpretation, making it difficult to test or validate scientifically.


title: Personality psychology

text: Perhaps the most ancient attempt at personality psychology is the personality typology outlined by the Indian Buddhist Abhidharma schools. This typology mostly focuses on negative personal traits (greed, hatred, and delusion) and the corresponding positive meditation practices used to counter those traits.


title: Personality psychology

text: Psychoanalytic theories explain human behavior in terms of the interaction of various components of personality. Sigmund Freud was the founder of this school of thought. He drew on the physics of his day (thermodynamics) to coin the term psychodynamics. Based on the idea of converting heat into mechanical energy, Freud proposed psychic energy could be converted into behavior. His theory places central importance on dynamic, unconscious psychological conflicts.


title: Personality psychology

text: Freud divides human personality into three significant components: the id, ego and super-ego. The id acts according to the "pleasure principle", demanding immediate gratification of its needs regardless of external environment; the ego then must emerge in order to realistically meet the wishes and demands of the id in accordance with the outside world, adhering to the "reality principle". Finally, the superego (conscience) inculcates moral judgment and societal rules upon the ego, thus forcing the demands of the id to be met not only realistically but morally. The superego is the last function of the personality to develop, and is the embodiment of parental/social ideals established during childhood. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of these three components.


title: Personality psychology

text: The channeling and release of sexual (libidal) and aggressive energies, which ensues from the "Eros" (sex; instinctual self-preservation) and "Thanatos" (death; instinctual self-annihilation) drives respectively, are major components of his theory. It is important to note that Freud's broad understanding of sexuality included all kinds of pleasurable feelings experienced by the human body.


title: Personality psychology

text: Freud proposed five psychosexual stages of personality development. He believed adult personality is dependent upon early childhood experiences and largely determined by age five. Fixations that develop during the infantile stage contribute to adult personality and behavior.


title: Personality psychology

text: One of Sigmund Freud's earlier associates, Alfred Adler, agreed with Freud that early childhood experiences are important to development, and believed birth order may influence personality development. Adler believed that the oldest child was the individual who would set high achievement goals in order to gain attention lost when the younger siblings were born. He believed the middle children were competitive and ambitious. He reasoned that this behavior was motivated by the idea of surpassing the firstborn's achievements. He added, however, that the middle children were often not as concerned about the glory attributed to their behavior. He also believed the youngest would be more dependent and sociable. Adler finished by surmising that an only child loves being the center of attention and matures quickly but in the end fails to become independent.


title: Personality psychology

text: Heinz Kohut thought similarly to Freud's idea of transference. He used narcissism as a model of how people develop their sense of self. Narcissism is the exaggerated sense of self in which one is believed to exist in order to protect one's low self-esteem and sense of worthlessness. Kohut had a significant impact on the field by extending Freud's theory of narcissism and introducing what he called the 'self-object transferences' of mirroring and idealization. In other words, children need to idealize and emotionally "sink into" and identify with the idealized competence of admired figures such as parents or older siblings. They also need to have their self-worth mirrored by these people. Such experiences allow them to thereby learn the self-soothing and other skills that are necessary for the development of a healthy sense of self.


title: Personality psychology

text: Another important figure in the world of personality theory is Karen Horney. She is credited with the development of "Feminist Psychology". She disagrees with Freud on some key points, one being that women's personalities are not just a function of "Penis Envy", but that girl children have separate and different psychic lives unrelated to how they feel about their fathers or primary male role models. She talks about three basic Neurotic needs "Basic Anxiety", "Basic Hostility" and "Basic Evil". She posits that to any anxiety an individual experiences they would have one of three approaches, moving toward people, moving away from people or moving against people. It is these three that give us varying personality types and characteristics. She also places a high premium on concepts like Overvaluation of Love and romantic partners.


title: Personality psychology

text: Behaviorists explain personality in terms of the effects external stimuli have on behavior. The approaches used to evaluate the behavioral aspect of personality are known as behavioral theories or learning-conditioning theories. These approaches were a radical shift away from Freudian philosophy. One of the major tenets of this concentration of personality psychology is a strong emphasis on scientific thinking and experimentation. This school of thought was developed by B. F. Skinner who put forth a model which emphasized the mutual interaction of the person or "the organism" with its environment. Skinner believed children do bad things because the behavior obtains attention that serves as a reinforcer. For example: a child cries because the child's crying in the past has led to attention. These are the "response", and "consequences". The response is the child crying, and the attention that child gets is the reinforcing consequence. According to this theory, people's behavior is formed by processes such as operant conditioning. Skinner put forward a "three term contingency model" which helped promote analysis of behavior based on the "Stimulus - Response - Consequence Model" in which the critical question is: "Under which circumstances or antecedent 'stimuli' does the organism engage in a particular behavior or 'response', which in turn produces a particular 'consequence'?"


title: Personality psychology

text: Richard Herrnstein extended this theory by accounting for attitudes and traits. An attitude develops as the response strength (the tendency to respond) in the presences of a group of stimuli become stable. Rather than describing conditionable traits in non-behavioral language, response strength in a given situation accounts for the environmental portion. Herrstein also saw traits as having a large genetic or biological component, as do most modern behaviorists.


title: Personality psychology

text: Ivan Pavlov is another notable influence. He is well known for his classical conditioning experiments involving dogs, which led him to discover the foundation of behaviorism.


title: Personality psychology

text: In cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions (e.g. expectations) about the world, especially those about other people. Cognitive theories are theories of personality that emphasize cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging.


title: Personality psychology

text: Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist suggested the forces of memory and emotions worked in conjunction with environmental influences. Bandura was known mostly for his "Bobo doll experiment". During these experiments, Bandura video taped a college student kicking and verbally abusing a bobo doll. He then showed this video to a class of kindergarten children who were getting ready to go out to play. When they entered the play room, they saw bobo dolls, and some hammers. The people observing these children at play saw a group of children beating the doll. He called this study and his findings observational learning, or modeling.


title: Personality psychology

text: Early examples of approaches to cognitive style are listed by Baron (1982). These include Witkin's (1965) work on field dependency, Gardner's (1953) discovering people had consistent preference for the number of categories they used to categorise heterogeneous objects, and Block and Petersen's (1955) work on confidence in line discrimination judgments. Baron relates early development of cognitive approaches of personality to ego psychology. More central to this field have been:


title: Personality psychology

text: Various scales have been developed to assess both attributional style and locus of control. Locus of control scales include those used by Rotter and later by Duttweiler, the Nowicki and Strickland (1973) Locus of Control Scale for Children and various locus of control scales specifically in the health domain, most famously that of Kenneth Wallston and his colleagues, The Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale. Attributional style has been assessed by the Attributional Style Questionnaire, the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire, the Attributions Questionnaire, the Real Events Attributional Style Questionnaire and the Attributional Style Assessment Test.


title: Personality psychology

text: Recognition that the tendency to believe that hard work and persistence often results in attainment of life and academic goals has influenced formal educational and counseling efforts with students of various ages and in various settings since the 1970s research about achievement. Counseling aimed toward encouraging individuals to design ambitious goals and work toward them, with recognition that there are external factors that may impact, often results in the incorporation of a more positive achievement style by students and employees, whatever the setting, to include higher education, workplace, or justice programming.


title: Personality psychology

text: Walter Mischel (1999) has also defended a cognitive approach to personality. His work refers to "Cognitive Affective Units", and considers factors such as encoding of stimuli, affect, goal-setting, and self-regulatory beliefs. The term "Cognitive Affective Units" shows how his approach considers affect as well as cognition.


title: Personality psychology

text: Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory (CEST) is another cognitive personality theory. Developed by Seymour Epstein, CEST argues that humans operate by way of two independent information processing systems: experiential system and rational system. The experiential system is fast and emotion-driven. The rational system is slow and logic-driven. These two systems interact to determine our goals, thoughts, and behavior.


title: Personality psychology

text: Personal construct psychology (PCP) is a theory of personality developed by the American psychologist George Kelly in the 1950s. Kelly's fundamental view of personality was that people are like naive scientists who see the world through a particular lens, based on their uniquely organized systems of construction, which they use to anticipate events. But because people are naive scientists, they sometimes employ systems for construing the world that are distorted by idiosyncratic experiences not applicable to their current social situation. A system of construction that chronically fails to characterize and/or predict events, and is not appropriately revised to comprehend and predict one's changing social world, is considered to underlie psychopathology (or mental illness.)


title: Personality psychology

text: From the theory, Kelly derived a psychotherapy approach and also a technique called "The Repertory Grid Interview" that helped his patients to uncover their own "constructs" with minimal intervention or interpretation by the therapist. The repertory grid was later adapted for various uses within organizations, including decision-making and interpretation of other people's world-views.


title: Personality psychology

text: Humanistic psychology emphasizes that people have free will and that this plays an active role in determining how they behave. Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective experiences of persons as opposed to forced, definitive factors that determine behavior. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were proponents of this view, which is based on the "phenomenal field" theory of Combs and Snygg (1949). Rogers and Maslow were among a group of psychologists that worked together for a decade to produce the "Journal of Humanistic Psychology". This journal was primarily focused on viewing individuals as a whole, rather than focusing solely on separate traits and processes within the individual.


title: Personality psychology

text: Robert W. White wrote the book "The Abnormal Personality" that became a standard text on abnormal psychology. He also investigated the human need to strive for positive goals like competence and influence, to counterbalance the emphasis of Freud on the pathological elements of personality development.


title: Personality psychology

text: Maslow spent much of his time studying what he called "self-actualizing persons", those who are "fulfilling themselves and doing the best they are capable of doing". Maslow believes all who are interested in growth move towards self-actualizing (growth, happiness, satisfaction) views. Many of these people demonstrate a trend in dimensions of their personalities. Characteristics of self-actualizers according to Maslow include the four key dimensions:


title: Personality psychology

text: Maslow and Rogers emphasized a view of the person as an active, creative, experiencing human being who lives in the present and subjectively responds to current perceptions, relationships, and encounters. They disagree with the dark, pessimistic outlook of those in the Freudian psychoanalysis ranks, but rather view humanistic theories as positive and optimistic proposals which stress the tendency of the human personality toward growth and self-actualization. This progressing self will remain the center of its constantly changing world; a world that will help mold the self but not necessarily confine it. Rather, the self has opportunity for maturation based on its encounters with this world. This understanding attempts to reduce the acceptance of hopeless redundancy. Humanistic therapy typically relies on the client for information of the past and its effect on the present, therefore the client dictates the type of guidance the therapist may initiate. This allows for an individualized approach to therapy. Rogers found patients differ in how they respond to other people. Rogers tried to model a particular approach to therapy – he stressed the reflective or empathetic response. This response type takes the client's viewpoint and reflects back their feeling and the context for it. An example of a reflective response would be, "It seems you are feeling anxious about your upcoming marriage". This response type seeks to clarify the therapist's understanding while also encouraging the client to think more deeply and seek to fully understand the feelings they have expressed.


title: Personality psychology

text: Biology plays a very important role in the development of personality. The study of the biological level in personality psychology focuses primarily on identifying the role of genetic determinants and how they mold individual personalities. Some of the earliest thinking about possible biological bases of personality grew out of the case of Phineas Gage. In an 1848 accident, a large iron rod was driven through Gage's head, and his personality apparently changed as a result, although descriptions of these psychological changes are usually exaggerated.


title: Personality psychology

text: In general, patients with brain damage have been difficult to find and study. In the 1990s, researchers began to use electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), and more recently functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which is now the most widely used imaging technique to help localize personality traits in the brain.


title: Personality psychology

text: Ever since the Human Genome Project allowed for a much more in depth comprehension of genetics, there has been an ongoing controversy involving heritability, personality traits, and environmental vs. genetic influence on personality. The human genome is known to play a role in the development of personality.


title: Personality psychology

text: Previously, genetic personality studies focused on specific genes correlating to specific personality traits. Today's view of the gene-personality relationship focuses primarily on the activation and expression of genes related to personality and forms part of what is referred to as behavioural genetics. Genes provide numerous options for varying cells to be expressed; however, the environment determines which of these are activated. Many studies have noted this relationship in varying ways in which our bodies can develop, but the interaction between genes and the shaping of our minds and personality is also relevant to this biological relationship.


title: Personality psychology

text: DNA-environment interactions are important in the development of personality because this relationship determines what part of the DNA code is actually made into proteins that will become part of an individual. While different choices are made available by the genome, in the end, the environment is the ultimate determinant of what becomes activated. Small changes in DNA in individuals are what leads to the uniqueness of every person as well as differences in looks, abilities, brain functioning, and all the factors that culminate to develop a cohesive personality.


title: Personality psychology

text: Cattell and Eysenck have proposed that genetics have a powerful influence on personality. A large part of the evidence collected linking genetics and the environment to personality have come from twin studies. This "twin method" compares levels of similarity in personality using genetically identical twins. One of the first of these twin studies measured 800 pairs of twins, studied numerous personality traits, and determined that identical twins are most similar in their general abilities. Personality similarities were found to be less related for self-concepts, goals, and interests.


title: Personality psychology

text: Twin studies have also been important in the creation of the five factor personality model: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Neuroticism and extraversion are the two most widely studied traits. Individuals scoring high in trait extraversion more often display characteristics such as impulsiveness, sociability, and activeness. Individuals scoring high in trait neuroticism are more likely to be moody, anxious, or irritable. Identical twins, however, have higher correlations in personality traits than fraternal twins. One study measuring genetic influence on twins in five different countries found that the correlations for identical twins were .50, while for fraternal they were about .20. It is suggested that heredity and environment interact to determine one's personality.


title: Personality psychology

text: Charles Darwin is the founder of the theory of the evolution of the species. The evolutionary approach to personality psychology is based on this theory. This theory examines how individual personality differences are based on natural selection. Through natural selection organisms change over time through adaptation and selection. Traits are developed and certain genes come into expression based on an organism's environment and how these traits aid in an organism's survival and reproduction.


title: Personality psychology

text: Polymorphisms, such as sex and blood type, are forms of diversity which evolve to benefit a species as a whole. The theory of evolution has wide-ranging implications on personality psychology. Personality viewed through the lens of evolutionary biology places a great deal of emphasis on specific traits that are most likely to aid in survival and reproduction, such as conscientiousness, sociability, emotional stability, and dominance. The social aspects of personality can be seen through an evolutionary perspective. Specific character traits develop and are selected for because they play an important and complex role in the social hierarchy of organisms. Such characteristics of this social hierarchy include the sharing of important resources, family and mating interactions, and the harm or help organisms can bestow upon one another.