title: A Plague Tale: Requiem

text: "Requiem" was developed by French video game development company Asobo Studio. Similar to the first game, the game is set in Medieval France in the 14th century. To ensure the authenticity of the locations, the team collaborated with Roxane Chila, a doctor in Medieval History, and browsed both Wikipedia and other specialized websites for additional information. They also drew inspirations from the personal experiences of some of their team members. The team decided early on that the game would have a different colour palette when compared with its predecessor. As a result, the setting of the game was moved from the gloomy, war-torn Aquitaine to Provence, which is more colorful and vibrant. According to lead writer Sébastien Renard, this created a "sharper contrast between the harsh reality of the medieval setting, in which terrible events are happening, and beautiful, sometimes uncharted environments". To create additional opportunities for puzzle-solving, the game introduces several new locations including harbours and marketplaces, in "Requiem".


title: A Plague Tale: Requiem

text: "A Plague Tale: Requiem" was announced by Asobo Studio and publisher Focus Entertainment during Microsoft's E3 2021 press conference. The game competed for the Tribeca Games Award and was included as an official selection. The game was released on October 18, 2022 for Windows, PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S. The release of a new generation of consoles allowed the game to render more than 300,000 rats at once. A cloud-only version was also be released for Nintendo Switch on the same day.


title: A Plague Tale: Requiem

text: "A Plague Tale: Requiem" received "generally favorable reviews" from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: A Plague Tale: Requiem

text: It was the fifth best-selling video game in the United Kingdoms in its week of release. On November 4, 2022, Focus Entertainment announced that the game had sold more than 1 million copies.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The Tibetan Empire (, ; ) was an empire centered on the Tibetan Plateau, formed as a result of imperial expansion under the Yarlung dynasty heralded by its 33rd king, Songtsen Gampo, in the 7th century. The empire further expanded under the 38th king, Trisong Detsen. The 821–823 treaty concluded between the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty delineated the former as being in possession of an area larger than the Tibetan Plateau, stretching east to Chang'an, west beyond modern Afghanistan, and south into modern India and the Bay of Bengal.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The Yarlung dynasty was founded in 127 BC in the Yarlung Valley. The Yarlung capital was moved to Lhasa by the 33rd king Songsten Gampo, and into the Red Fort during the imperial period which continued to the 9th century. The beginning of the imperial period is marked in the reign of the 33rd king of the Yarlung dynasty, Songtsen Gampo. The power of Tibet's military empire gradually increased over a diverse terrain. During the reign of Trisong Detsen, the empire became more powerful and increased in size. At this time, a 783 treaty between the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty defined the borders, as commemorated by the Shol Potala Pillar in Lhasa. Borders were again confirmed during the later reign of the 41st king Ralpachen through his 821–823 treaty between the Tibetan Empire and Tang dynasty, which was also commemorated by three inscribed stelae. In the opening years of the 9th century, the Tibetan Empire controlled territories extending from the Tarim Basin to the Himalayas and Bengal, and from the Pamirs into what are now the Chinese provinces of Sichuan, Gansu and Yunnan. The murder of King Rapalchen in 838 by his brother Langdarma, and Langdarma's subsequent enthronement followed by his assassination in 842 marks the simultaneous beginning of the dissolution of the empire period.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Before the empire period, sacred Buddhist relics were discovered by the Yarlung dynasty's 28th king, Iha-tho-tho-ri (Thori Nyatsen), and then safeguarded. Later, Tibet marked the advent of its empire period under King Songsten Gampo, while Buddhism initially spread into Tibet after the king's conversion to Buddhism, and during his pursuits in translating Buddhist texts while also developing the Tibetan language. Under King Trisong Detsen, the empire again expanded as the founding of Tibetan Buddhism and the revealing of the Vajrayana by Guru Padmasambhava was occurring.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The empire period then corresponded to the reigns of Tibet's three 'Religious Kings', which includes King Rapalchen's reign. After Rapalchen's murder, King Lang darma nearly destroyed Tibetan Buddhism through his widespread targeting of Nyingma monasteries and monastic practitioners. His undertakings correspond to the subsequent dissolution of the unified empire period, after which semi-autonomous polities of chieftains, minor kings and queens, and those surviving Tibetan Buddhist polities evolved once again into autonomous independent polities, similar to those polities also documented in the Tibetan Empire's nearer frontier region of Do Kham (Amdo and Kham).


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Other unreferenced ideas about the dissolution of the empire period include: The varied terrain of the empire and the difficulty of transportation, coupled with the new ideas that came into the empire as a result of its expansion, helped to create stresses and power blocs that were often in competition with the ruler at the center of the empire. Thus, for example, adherents of the Bön religion and the supporters of the ancient noble families gradually came to find themselves in competition with the "recently" introduced Tibetan Buddhism.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The power that became the Tibetan state originated at the Taktsé Castle () in the Chingba ("Phying-ba") district of Chonggyä ("Phyongs-rgyas"). There, according to the Old Tibetan Chronicle, a group convinced Tagbu Nyazig ("Stag-bu snya-gzigs") to rebel against Gudri Zingpoje ("Dgu-gri Zing-po-rje"), who was, in turn, a vassal of the Zhangzhung empire under the Lig myi dynasty. The group prevailed against Zingpoje. At this point Namri Songtsen (also known as Namri Löntsän) was the leader of a clan which one by one prevailed over all his neighboring clans. He besieged the Kingdom of Sumpa in the early 7th century and eventually conquered it. He gained control of all the area around what is now Lhasa, before his assassination around 618. This new-born regional state would later become known as the "Tibetan Empire". The government of Namri Songtsen sent two embassies to the Chinese Sui Dynasty in 608 and 609, marking the appearance of Tibet on the international scene.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Songtsen Gampo ("Srong-brtsan Sgam-po") (c. 604 – 650) was the first great emperor who expanded Tibet's power beyond Lhasa and the Yarlung Valley, and is traditionally credited with introducing Buddhism to Tibet.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: When his father Namri Songtsen died by poisoning (circa 618), Songtsen Gampo took control after putting down a brief rebellion. Songtsen Gampo proved adept at diplomacy as well as combat. The emperor's minister, Myang Mangpoje ("Myang Mang-po-rje Zhang-shang"), defeated the Sumpa people ca. 627. Six years later (c. 632–33) Myang Mangpoje was accused of treason and executed. He was succeeded by minister Gar Tongtsen ("mgar-stong-btsan").


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The Chinese records mention an envoy to Tibet in 634. On that occasion, the Tibetan Emperor requested (demanded according to Tibetan sources) marriage to a Chinese princess but was refused. In 635-36 the Emperor attacked and defeated the Tuyuhun (Tibetan: "‘A zha"), who lived around Lake Koko Nur and controlled important trade routes into China. After a series of military campaigns between Tibet and the Tang dynasty in 635-8,（see also Tibetan attack on Songzhou）the Chinese emperor agreed (only because of the threat of force, according to Tibetan sources) to provide a Chinese princess to Songtsen Gampo.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Circa 639, after Songtsen Gampo had a dispute with his younger brother Tsänsong ("Brtsan-srong"), the younger brother was burned to death by his own minister Khäsreg ("Mkha’s sregs") (presumably at the behest of his older brother the emperor).


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The Chinese Princess Wencheng (Tibetan: "Mung-chang Kung-co") departed China in 640 to marry Songtsen Gampo's son. She arrived a year later. This is traditionally credited with being the first time that Buddhism came to Tibet, but it is very unlikely Buddhism extended beyond foreigners at the court.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Songtsen Gampo’s sister Sämakar ("Sad-mar-kar") was sent to marry Lig-myi-rhya, the king of Zhangzhung in what is now Western Tibet. However, when the king refused to consummate the marriage, she then helped her brother to defeat Lig myi-rhya and incorporate Zhangzhung into the Tibetan Empire. In 645, Songtsen Gampo overran the kingdom of Zhangzhung.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Songtsen Gampo died in 650. He was succeeded by his infant grandson Trimang Lön ("Khri-mang-slon"). Real power was left in the hands of the minister Gar Tongtsen. There is some confusion as to whether Central Tibet conquered Zhangzhung during the reign of Songtsen Gampo or in the reign of Trisong Detsen, (r. 755 until 797 or 804). The records of the "Tang Annals" do, however, seem to clearly place these events in the reign of Songtsen Gampo for they say that in 634, Zhangzhung and various Qiang tribes "altogether submitted to him." Following this, he united with the country of Zhangzhung to defeat the Tuyuhun, then conquered two more Qiang tribes before threatening the Chinese region of Songzhou with a very large army (according to Tibetan sources 100,000; according to the Chinese more than 200,000 men). He then sent an envoy with gifts of gold and silk to the Chinese emperor to ask for a Chinese princess in marriage and, when refused, attacked Songzhou. According to the "Tang Annals", he finally retreated and apologized, after which the emperor granted his request.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: After the death of Songtsen Gampo in 650 AD, the Chinese Tang dynasty attacked and took control of the Tibetan capital Lhasa. Soldiers of the Tang dynasty could not sustain their presence in the hostile environment of the Tibetan Plateau and soon returned to China proper."


title: Tibetan Empire

text: After having incorporated Tuyuhun into Tibetan territory, the powerful minister Gar Tongtsen died in 667.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Between 665 to 670, Khotan was defeated by the Tibetans, and a long string of conflicts ensued with the Chinese Tang Dynasty. In the spring of 670, Tibet attacked the remaining Chinese territories in the western Tarim Basin after winning the Battle of Dafeichuan against the Tang dynasty. With troops from Khotan they conquered Aksu, upon which the Chinese abandoned the region, ending two decades of Chinese control. They thus gained control over all of the Chinese Four Garrisons of Anxi in the Tarim Basin in 670 and held them until 692, when the Chinese finally managed to regain these territories.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Emperor Mangsong Mangtsen ("Trimang Löntsen"' or "Khri-mang-slon-rtsan") married Thrimalö ("Khri-ma-lod"), a woman who would be of great importance in Tibetan history. The emperor died in the winter of 676–677, and Zhangzhung revolts occurred thereafter. In the same year the emperor's son Tridu Songtsen ("Khri 'dus-srong btsan" or "Khri-'dus-srong-rtsan") was born.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The power of Emperor Tridu Songtsen was offset, to an extent, by that of his mother, Thrimalö and the influence of the Gar clan. (Wylie "mgar"; also "sgar" and "′gar"). (There is evidence that the Gar were descended from members of the Lesser Yuezhi, a people who had originally spoken an Indo-European language and migrated, sometime after the 3rd century BC, from Gansu or the Tarim into Kokonur.)


title: Tibetan Empire

text: In 685, minister Gar Tsenye Dompu ("mgar btsan-snya-ldom-bu") died and his brother, Gar Tridring Tsendrö ("mgar Khri-‘bring-btsan brod") was appointed to replace him. In 692, the Tibetans lost the Tarim Basin to the Chinese. Gar Tridring Tsendrö defeated the Chinese in battle in 696 and sued for peace. Two years later in 698 emperor Tridu Songtsen reportedly invited the Gar clan (who numbered more than 2000 people) to a hunting party and had them massacred. Gar Tridring Tsendrö then committed suicide, and his troops joined the Chinese. This brought to an end the influence of the Gar.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: From 700 until his death the emperor remained on campaign in the northeast, absent from Central Tibet, while his mother Thrimalö administrated in his name. In 702, Zhou China under Empress Wu Zetien and the Tibetan Empire concluded peace. At the end of that year, the Tibetan imperial government turned to consolidating the administrative organization khö chenpo ("mkhos chen-po") of the northeastern Sumru area, which had been the Sumpa country conquered 75 years earlier. Sumru was organized as a new "horn" of the empire.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: During the summer of 703, Tridu Songtsen resided at Öljak ("‘Ol-byag") in Ling ("Gling"), which was on the upper reaches of the Yangtze, before proceeding with an invasion of Jang ("‘Jang"), which may have been either the Mosuo or the kingdom of Nanzhao. In 704, he stayed briefly at Yoti Chuzang ("Yo-ti Chu-bzangs") in Madrom ("Rma-sgrom") on the Yellow River. He then invaded Mywa, which was at least in part Nanzhao (the Tibetan term "mywa" likely referring to the same people or peoples referred to by the Chinese as Man or Miao) but died during the prosecution of that campaign.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Gyeltsugru (Rgyal-gtsug-ru), later to become King Tride Tsuktsen ("Khri-lde-gtsug-brtsan"), generally known now by his nickname Me Agtsom ("Old Hairy"), was born in 704. Upon the death of Tridu Songtsen, his mother Thrimalö ruled as regent for the infant Gyältsugru. The following year the elder son of Tridu Songtsen, Lha Balpo ("Lha Bal-pho") apparently contested the succession of his one-year-old brother, but was "deposed from the throne" at Pong Lag-rang.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Thrimalö had arranged for a royal marriage to a Chinese princess. The Princess Jincheng (Tibetan: Kyimshang Kongjo) arrived in 710, but it is somewhat unclear whether she married the seven-year-old Gyeltsugru or the deposed Lha Balpo. Gyeltsugru also married a lady from Jang (Nanzhao) and another born in Nanam.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Gyältsugru was officially enthroned with the royal name Tride Tsuktsän in 712, the year that dowager empress Thrimalö died.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The Umayyad Caliphate and Turgesh became increasingly prominent during 710–720. The Tibetans were allied with the Türgesh. Tibet and China fought on and off in the late 720s. At first Tibet (with Türgesh allies) had the upper hand, but then they started losing battles. After a rebellion in southern China and a major Tibetan victory in 730, the Tibetans and Türgesh sued for peace.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The Tibetans aided the Turgesh in fighting against the Muslim Arabs during the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: In 734, the Tibetans married their princess Dronmalön ("‘Dron ma lon") to the Türgesh Qaghan. The Chinese allied with the Caliphate to attack the Türgesh. After victory and peace with the Türgesh, the Chinese attacked the Tibetan army. The Tibetans suffered several defeats in the east, despite strength in the west. The Türgesh empire collapsed from internal strife. In 737, the Tibetans launched an attack against the king of Bru-za (Gilgit), who asked for Chinese help, but was ultimately forced to pay homage to Tibet. In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of general Gao Xianzhi, who tried to re-open the direct communications between Central Asia and Kashmir.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: By 750, the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to the Chinese. In 753, even the kingdom of "Little Balur" (modern Gilgit) was captured by the Chinese. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by the Caliphate and Karluks at the Battle of Talas (751), Chinese influence decreased rapidly and Tibetan influence began to increase again. Tibet conquered large sections of northern India during this time.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: In 755, Tride Tsuktsen was killed by the ministers Lang and ‘Bal. Then Takdra Lukong ("Stag-sgra Klu-khong") presented evidence to prince Song Detsen ("Srong-lde-brtsan") that they were disloyal and causing dissension in the country, and were about to attack him also. Lang and ‘Bal subsequently did revolt; they were killed by the army and their property was confiscated.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: In 756, prince Song Detsän was crowned Emperor with the name Trisong Detsen ("Khri srong lde brtsan") and took control of the government when he attained his majority at 13 years of age (12 by Western reckoning) after a one-year interregnum during which there was no emperor.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: In 755, China had already begun to be weakened because of the An Shi Rebellion started by An Lushan in 751, which would last until 763. In contrast, Trisong Detsän's reign was characterized by the reassertion of Tibetan influence in Central Asia. Early in his reign regions to the West of Tibet paid homage to the Tibetan court. From that time onward the Tibetans pressed into the territory of the Tang emperors, reaching the Chinese capital Chang'an (modern Xi'an) in late 763. Tibetan troops under the command of Nganlam Takdra Lukhong occupied Chang'an for fifteen days and installed a puppet emperor while Emperor Daizong was in Luoyang. Nanzhao (in Yunnan and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: In the meantime, the Kyrgyz negotiated an agreement of friendship with Tibet and other powers to allow free trade in the region. An attempt at a peace treaty between Tibet and China was made in 787, but hostilities were to last until the Sino-Tibetan treaty of 821 was inscribed in Lhasa in 823 (see below). At the same time, the Uyghurs, nominal allies of the Tang emperors, continued to make difficulties along Tibet's Northern border. Toward the end of this king's reign Uyghur victories in the North caused the Tibetans to lose a number of their allies in the Southeast.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Recent historical research indicates the presence of Christianity in as early as the sixth and seventh centuries, a period when the Hephthalites had extensive links with the Tibetans. A strong presence existed by the eighth century when Patriarch Timothy I (727–823) in 782 calls the Tibetans one of the more significant communities of the eastern church and wrote of the need to appoint another bishop in ca. 794.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: There is a stone pillar (now blocked off from the public), the Lhasa Shöl "rdo-rings", Doring Chima or Lhasa Zhol Pillar, in the ancient village of Shöl in front of the Potala in Lhasa, dating to c. 764 CE during Trisong Detsen's reign. It also contains an account of the conquest of large swathes of northwestern China including the capture of Chang'an, the Chinese capital, for a short period in 763 CE, during the reign of Emperor Daizong.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Trisong Detsen is said to have had four sons. The eldest, Mutri Tsenpo, apparently died young. When Trisong Detsen retired he handed power to the eldest surviving son, Muné Tsenpo ("Mu-ne btsan-po"). Most sources say that Muné's reign lasted only about a year and a half. After a short reign, Muné Tsenpo was supposedly poisoned on the orders of his mother.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: After his death, Mutik Tsenpo was next in line to the throne. However, he had been apparently banished to Lhodak Kharchu (lHo-brag or Lhodrag) near the Bhutanese border for murdering a senior minister. The youngest brother, Tride Songtsen, was definitely ruling by AD 804.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Under Tride Songtsen ("Khri lde srong brtsan" – generally known as Sadnalegs), there was a protracted war with the Abbasid Caliphate. It appears that Tibetans captured a number of Caliphate troops and pressed them into service on the eastern frontier in 801. Tibetans were active as far west as Samarkand and Kabul. Abbasid forces began to gain the upper hand, and the Tibetan governor of Kabul submitted to the Caliphate and became a Muslim about 812 or 815. The Caliphate then struck east from Kashmir but were held off by the Tibetans. In the meantime, the Uyghur Khaganate attacked Tibet from the northeast. Strife between the Uyghurs and Tibetans continued for some time.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Tritsu Detsen ("Khri gtsug lde brtsan"), best known as Ralpacan, is important to Tibetan Buddhists as one of the three Dharma Kings who brought Buddhism to Tibet. He was a generous supporter of Buddhism and invited many craftsmen, scholars and translators from neighbouring countries. He also promoted the development of written Tibetan and translations, which were greatly aided by the development of a detailed Sanskrit-Tibetan lexicon called the "Mahavyutpatti" which included standard Tibetan equivalents for thousands of Sanskrit terms.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Tibetans attacked Uyghur territory in 816 and were in turn attacked in 821. After successful Tibetan raids into Chinese territory, Buddhists in both countries sought mediation.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Ralpacan was apparently murdered by two pro-Bön ministers who then placed his anti-Buddhist brother, Langdarma, on the throne.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: Tibet continued to be a major Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century. It was under the reign of Ralpacan that the political power of Tibet was at its greatest extent, stretching as far as Mongolia and Bengal, and entering into treaties with China on a mutual basis.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: A Sino-Tibetan treaty was agreed on in 821/822 under Ralpacan, which established peace for more than two decades. A bilingual account of this treaty is inscribed on a stone pillar which stands outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The reign of Langdarma ("Glang dar ma"), regal title Tri Uidumtsaen ("Khri 'U'i dum brtsan"), was plagued by external troubles. The Uyghur state to the north collapsed under pressure from the Kyrgyz in 840, and many displaced people fled to Tibet. Langdarma himself was assassinated, apparently by a Buddhist hermit, in 842.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: A civil war that arose over Langdarma's successor led to the collapse of the Tibetan Empire. The period that followed, known traditionally as the Era of Fragmentation, was dominated by rebellions against the remnants of imperial Tibet and the rise of regional warlords.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The soldiers of the Tibetan Empire wore armor such as lamellar and chainmail, and were proficient in the use of swords and lances. According to the Tibetan author Tashi Namgyal, writing in 1524, the history of lamellar armor in Tibet was divided into three distinct periods. The oldest armor dated from the time of the "Righteous Kings, Uncle, and Nephew" which would place it sometime during the Yarlung dynasty, early seventh to mid ninth century.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: According to Du You (735–812) in his encyclopedic text, the "Tongdian", the Tibetans were less proficient in archery and fought in the following manner:


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The Tibetans might have exported their armor to the neighboring steppe nomads. When the Turgesh attacked the Arabs, their khagan Suluk was reported to have worn Tibetan armor, which saved him from two arrows before a third penetrated his breast. He survived the ordeal with some discomfort in one arm.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The Tibetan Empire's officers were not employed full-time and were only called upon on an ad hoc basis. These warriors were designated by a golden arrow seven inches long which signified their office. The officers gathered once a year to swear an oath of fealty. They assembled every three years to partake in a sacrificial feast.


title: Tibetan Empire

text: The early Tibetans worshipped a god of war known as "Yuandi" (Chinese transcription) according to a Chinese transliteration from the "Old Book of Tang".


title: Tibetan Empire

text: LaRocca, Donald J. "Warriors of the Himalayas: Rediscovering the Arms and Armor of Tibet." (2006) Metropolitan Museum of Art.


title: Jessie Harlan Lincoln

text: Jessie Harlan Lincoln (November 6, 1875 – January 4, 1948) was the second daughter of Robert Todd Lincoln, the granddaughter of Abraham Lincoln, and the mother of Mary Lincoln Beckwith and Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith.


title: Jessie Harlan Lincoln

text: Jessie Harlan Lincoln was born on November 6, 1875, in Chicago, Illinois, to Mary Eunice Harlan and Robert Todd Lincoln. At the time of her birth, Robert Lincoln was practicing law in Chicago. She was the last of three children of Robert Todd Lincoln.


title: Jessie Harlan Lincoln

text: Lincoln spent part of her childhood in Washington, D.C., when her father was Secretary of War from 1881 to 1885. She later lived in London, England, when her father was the Minister to Great Britain from 1889 to 1893. Jessie's brother, Abraham Lincoln II, died on March 5, 1890, in London at the age of 16, and three years later, the family returned to America, ultimately to Mary Eunice Harlan's mother's residence in Mount Pleasant, Iowa. Jessie and her sister were piano students in the summer session of Iowa Wesleyan in 1886. She was later initiated into the Pleasant Chapter A of the P.E.O. Sisterhood on December 31, 1895, an organization of which her sister, Mary "Mamie" Lincoln, had become a member more than 11 years prior.


title: Jessie Harlan Lincoln

text: In 1919, while Lincoln was married to her second husband, her father established a trust for her and her sister, Mary Lincoln Isham. For Isham's trust, he deposited 375 shares of Commonwealth Edison stock worth slightly more than $38,000 () and 1,000 shares of National Biscuit stock worth $85,000 (). For Jessie, he deposited 1,000 shares of Commonwealth Edison stock worth $101,750 () and 1,000 shares of National Biscuit stock worth $85,000 (). It was purported that Jessie received more because she was often irresponsible with her finances. In 1920, he deposited another 1,250 shares of Commonwealth Edison stock worth than $100,000 () into Jessie's trust fund.


title: Jessie Harlan Lincoln

text: On November 10, 1897, she married Warren Wallace Beckwith, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, at 2:30 in the afternoon. Beckwith was a member of the Mt. Pleasant Football Team and Jessie's father, Robert, strongly and bitterly opposed the couple's being together. He believed their relationship had ended until news of their elopement reached him and his family. He hurried to Jessie's room only to find it empty and that Jessie had married several hours before. In Des Moines County, Iowa in 1898, she gave birth to her first child, Mary Lincoln Beckwith (1898–1975). She continued to live in Mount Pleasant, Iowa, and on July 19, 1904, had her second and last child, Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith (1904–1985), named after her father. Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith was the last undisputed descendant of Abraham Lincoln.


title: Jessie Harlan Lincoln

text: In 1907, Jessie divorced Warren Beckwith. Her second marriage was to Frank Edward Johnson (born 1873) in 1915. They divorced in 1925.


title: Jessie Harlan Lincoln

text: In 1926, Jessie married her third and final husband, Robert John Randolph, an electrical engineer of the Randolph family of Virginia. Her later two marriages did not produce any more children.


title: Jessie Harlan Lincoln

text: From 1946 until her death in 1948, Lincoln lived at their summer estate, Hildene, in Manchester, Vermont. On January 4, 1948, Jessie Harlan Lincoln died at the age of 72 at Rutland Hospital in Rutland, Vermont, the same place where her daughter, Mary would die 27 years later. Lincoln was buried in Dellwood Cemetery in Manchester, Vermont.


title: AEW World Tag Team Championship

text: The AEW World Tag Team Championship is a professional wrestling world tag team championship created and promoted by the American promotion All Elite Wrestling (AEW). It is a standard tag team championship, being contested by teams of two wrestlers. Established on June 18, 2019, the inaugural champions were SoCal Uncensored (Frankie Kazarian and Scorpio Sky). The current champions are The Acclaimed (Max Caster and Anthony Bowens), who are in their first reign, both as a team and individually.


title: AEW World Tag Team Championship

text: On June 18, 2019, six months after the American professional wrestling promotion All Elite Wrestling (AEW) was founded, a tournament was announced to crown the promotion's inaugural tag team champions. That same day, a three-way tag team match for AEW's event Fyter Fest on June 29 was scheduled, featuring Best Friends (Trent? and Chuck Taylor), SoCal Uncensored (Frankie Kazarian and Scorpio Sky), and Private Party (Marq Quen and Isiah Kassidy) with the winning team advancing to All Out for an opportunity at a first round bye in the AEW World Tag Team Championship tournament. Later, AEW's President and Chief Executive Officer Tony Khan announced that the tournament would occur on episodes of their TNT show, later revealed as "Dynamite". During the "Buy In" pre-show of Fyter Fest, Best Friends defeated Private Party and SoCal Uncensored to earn their spot at All Out.


title: AEW World Tag Team Championship

text: On July 11, AEW's Executive Vice President and wrestler Matt Jackson announced a second three-way tag team match to take place at Fight for the Fallen on July 13 with the winners facing Best Friends at All Out. At Fight for the Fallen, The Dark Order (Evil Uno and Stu Grayson) defeated Jurassic Express (Jungle Boy and Luchasaurus) and Angélico and Jack Evans to advance to All Out. At the event on August 31, The Dark Order defeated Best Friends to receive the first round bye in the tournament.


title: AEW World Tag Team Championship

text: The first official match of the AEW World Tag Team Championship Tournament was announced on August 9, 2019, with The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) facing Private Party (Marq Quen and Isiah Kassidy) on October 9 during the second episode of "Dynamite" in Boston, Massachusetts. It was later announced that the semifinals for the tournament would take place on the October 23 episode in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, with the finals on the October 30 episode in Charleston, West Virginia. On October 30, SoCal Uncensored (Frankie Kazarian and Scorpio Sky) defeated The Lucha Brothers (Pentagón Jr. and Rey Fénix) in the tournament final to become the inaugural champions.


title: AEW World Tag Team Championship

text: As of 28, 2022, there have been nine reigns between eight teams composed of 16 individual champions. The inaugural champions were SoCal Uncensored (Frankie Kazarian and Scorpio Sky). The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) hold four records with the championship: they have the most reigns at two, both as a team and individually, they are both the longest reigning and shortest reigning champions, with their first reign lasting 302 days while their second reign was 28 days, and they have the longest combined reign at 330 days. Kazarian is the oldest champion at 42 while Jungle Boy is the youngest at 24.


title: AEW World Tag Team Championship

text: The current champions are The Acclaimed (Anthony Bowens and Max Caster), who are in their first reign, both as a team and individually. They defeated Swerve In Our Glory (Keith Lee and Swerve Strickland) at "Dynamite": Grand Slam on September 21, 2022, in Queens, New York.


title: The Weight

text: "The Weight" is a song by the Canadian-American group the Band that was released as a single in 1968 and on the group's debut album "Music from Big Pink". It was their first release under this name, after their previous releases as Canadian Squires and Levon and the Hawks. Written by Band member Robbie Robertson, the song is about a visitor's experiences in a town mentioned in the lyric's first line as Nazareth. "The Weight" has significantly influenced American popular music, having been listed as No. 41 on "Rolling Stone"s 500 Greatest Songs of All Time published in 2004. Pitchfork Media named it the 13th best song of the Sixties, and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame named it one of the 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. PBS, which broadcast performances of the song in "Ramble at the Ryman" (2011), "Austin City Limits" (2012), and "Quick Hits" (2012), describes it as "a masterpiece of Biblical allusions, enigmatic lines and iconic characters" and notes its enduring popularity as "an essential part of the American songbook."


title: The Weight

text: "The Weight" is one of the Band's best known songs, gaining considerable album-oriented rock airplay even though it was not a significant hit single for the group in the US, peaking at only No. 63. After it was released, the record debuted just six days later on KHJ's Boss 30' records" and peaked at No. 3 there three weeks later. The Band's recording also fared well in Canada and the UK – in those countries, the single was a top 40 hit, peaking at No. 35 in Canada and No. 21 in the UK in 1968. "Cash Box" called it a "powerhouse performance." "American Songwriter" and "Stereogum" both ranked the song number three on their lists of the Band's greatest songs. In 1968 and 1969, three cover versions were released; their arrangements appealed to a diversity of music audiences.


title: The Weight

text: "The Weight" was written by Robbie Robertson, who found the tune by strumming idly on his guitar, when he noticed that the interior included a stamp noting that it was manufactured in Nazareth, Pennsylvania and he started crafting the lyrics as he played. The inspiration for and influences affecting the composition of "The Weight" came from the music of the American South, the life experiences of band members, particularly Levon Helm, and movies of filmmakers Ingmar Bergman and Luis Buñuel.


title: The Weight

text: The original members of the Band performed "The Weight" as an American Southern folk song with country music (vocals, guitars and drums) and gospel music (piano and organ) elements. The lyrics, written in the first-person, are about a traveler's experiences arriving, visiting, and departing a town called Nazareth, in which the traveler’s friend, Fanny, has asked him to look up some of her friends. According to Robertson, Fanny is based on Frances "Fanny" Steloff, the founder of a New York City bookstore where he explored scripts by Buñuel. The town is based on Nazareth, Pennsylvania, because it was the home of Martin Guitars. Robertson wrote the guitar parts on a 1951 Martin D-28. The singers, led by Helm, vocalize the traveler's encounters with people in the town from the perspective of a Bible Belt American Southerner, like Helm himself, a native of rural Arkansas.


title: The Weight

text: The colorful characters in "The Weight" were based on real people that members of the Band knew, as Levon Helm explained in his autobiography, "This Wheel's on Fire". In particular, "young Anna Lee" mentioned in the third verse is Helm's longtime friend Anna Lee Amsden, and, according to her, "Carmen" was from Helm's hometown, Turkey Scratch, Arkansas. "Crazy Chester" was an eccentric resident of Fayetteville, Arkansas, who carried a cap gun. Ronnie Hawkins would tell him to "keep the peace" at his Rockwood Club when Chester arrived.


title: The Weight

text: According to Robertson, "The Weight" was inspired by the movies of Spanish filmmaker Luis Buñuel. Buñuel's films are known for their surreal imagery and criticism of organized religion, particularly Catholicism. The song's lyrics and music invoke vivid imagery, the main character's perspective is influenced by the Bible, and the episodic story was inspired by the predicaments Buñuel's film characters faced that undermined their goals for maintaining or improving their moral character. Of this, Robertson once stated:


title: The Weight

text: The songwriting credit to Robbie Robertson for "The Weight", like credit for many of the songs performed by the Band, was disputed years later by Levon Helm. Helm insisted that the composition of the lyrics and the music was collaborative, declaring that each band member made a substantial contribution. In an interview, Helm credited Robertson with 60 percent of the lyrics, Danko and Manuel with 20 percent each of the lyrics, much of the music credit to Garth Hudson, and a small credit to himself for lyrics.


title: Tyler Mane

text: Daryl Karolat (born December 8, 1966) is a Canadian character actor and retired professional wrestler, better known by the name Tyler Mane. He is known for playing Sabretooth in "X-Men", Ajax in "Troy", and Michael Myers in the remake of "Halloween" and its sequel "Halloween II". He appeared as supervillain Blackstar in the 2021 Netflix limited series "Jupiter's Legacy".


title: Tyler Mane

text: As a teenager, Karolat travelled to Calgary, where he trained briefly with Stu Hart. He later began training with Red Bastien in 1986, and completed further training with Mando Guerrero. Mane began his career in 1986 under the name "Skywalker Nitron" in his native Canada. In 1987 he wrestled as Skyhigh Lee in Pacific Northwest Wrestling (Portland), billed from California.


title: Tyler Mane

text: In 1987, he wrestled in South Africa, which resulted in an invitation to wrestle for Joint Promotions in the United Kingdom, where he arrived in November. Billed as "'Sky' Walker" he appeared in one match on ITV, a disqualification loss to Pat Roach. His furious reaction to the referee's decision was later incorporated into the standalone wrestling show's title sequence.


title: Tyler Mane

text: The following year, he toured New Japan Pro-Wrestling as "Gully Gaspar", alongside Billy and Barry as a bunch of hockey-masked pirates managed by KY Wakamatsu. He could also be seen in WCW occasionally as the bodyguard of the tag team Doom along with Woman late in 1989, specifically Starrcade 1989.


title: Tyler Mane

text: In 1990, Karolat began wrestling in Puerto Rico and toured with All Japan Pro Wrestling, where he participated in the World's Strongest Tag Determination League. He then joined the Mexican promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre.


title: Tyler Mane

text: In 1993, he signed with World Championship Wrestling, under the name "Big Sky" and teamed with Vinnie Vegas. After Vegas left WCW to become Diesel in the WWF, Mane was left in limbo and left WCW by the end of the year. In 1994, he joined Herb Abrams' Universal Wrestling Federation and became the only UWF MGM Grand Champion, defeating Steve Ray to win the vacant title. After Abrams' death and eventual dissolving of the UWF in 1996, Mane retired.


title: Tyler Mane

text: In 1992, during his time within Mexico with Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre, Mane made his film debut in "Luchadores de las Estrellas" playing the villain of the movie, El Vampiro Interespacial. While part of WCW, he auditioned for and received a part in the television series "Smokey and the Bandit".


title: Tyler Mane

text: After retiring from wrestling, he appeared in numerous films, including "X-Men" as Sabretooth, "How to Make a Monster" as Hardcore, "Joe Dirt", "The Scorpion King", "Troy" as Ajax, "Hercules" as Antaeus, and "The Devil's Rejects" in the uncredited role of Rufus. The role of Sabretooth was initially intended for Kevin Nash (Mane's former wrestling tag team partner) but was awarded to Mane due to Nash's scheduling conflicts.


title: Tyler Mane

text: In 2007, he played Michael Myers in Rob Zombie's remake of "Halloween". After winning the role, he noted that he consecutively watched seven of the eight "Halloween" films (excluding the because Michael Myers does not appear) to better understand his character. He is the tallest actor (6' 8") to portray the character. In 2009, he reprised the role again in "Rob Zombie's H2", being only the second actor to play Michael Myers more than once, and the first actor to play the role in consecutive films.


title: Tyler Mane

text: In 2010, he and his wife launched their own production company: Mane Entertainment. Their first feature, "Compound Fracture", was released in 2013.


title: Tyler Mane

text: In 2016, Tyler co-starred in Fuzz on the Lens Productions comedy/fantasy film "Abnormal Attraction", reuniting with Malcolm McDowell ("Halloween"), Leslie Easterbrook ("Compound Fracture") and his wife Renae Geerlings.


title: Tyler Mane

text: In 2019 Mane co-starred in the comedy "Playing with Fire" alongside fellow professional wrestler John Cena.


title: Tyler Mane

text: Mane was previously married to Jean Goertz from 1988 to 2003. He married actress Renae Geerlings in 2007.


title: HMS Bounty

text: HMS "Bounty, also known as HM Armed Vessel "Bounty, was a small merchant vessel that the Royal Navy purchased in 1787 for a botanical mission. The ship was sent to the South Pacific Ocean under the command of William Bligh to acquire breadfruit plants and transport them to the West Indies. That mission was never completed owing to a 1789 mutiny led by acting lieutenant Fletcher Christian, an incident now popularly known as the mutiny on the "Bounty". The mutineers later burned "Bounty" while she was moored at Pitcairn Island. An American adventurer helped land several remains of "Bounty" in 1957.


title: HMS Bounty

text: "Bounty" was originally a collier, "Bethia," reputedly built in 1784 at Blaydes Yard in Hull, Yorkshire in England. The Royal Navy purchased her for £1,950 on 23 May 1787 (), refit, and renamed her "Bounty." The ship was relatively small at 215 tons, but had three masts and was full-rigged. After conversion for the breadfruit expedition, she was equipped with four cannon and ten swivel guns.


title: HMS Bounty

text: The Royal Navy had purchased "Bethia" for a single mission in support of an experiment: the acquisition of breadfruit plants from Tahiti, and the transportation of those plants to the West Indies in the hope that they would grow well there and become a cheap source of food for slaves. Sir Joseph Banks had proposed the experiment and had recommended Lieutenant William Bligh R.N. as commander. Bligh in turn was promoted through a prize offered by the Royal Society of Arts.


title: HMS Bounty

text: In June 1787, "Bounty" was refitted at Deptford. The great cabin was converted to house the potted breadfruit plants, and gratings were fitted to the upper deck. William Bligh was appointed Commanding Lieutenant on 16 August 1787 at the age of 33, after a career that included a tour as sailing master of James Cook's during Cook's third and final voyage (1776–1780). The ship's complement was 46 men: a single commissioned officer (Bligh), 43 other Royal Navy personnel, and two civilian gardeners.


title: HMS Bounty

text: On 23 December 1787, "Bounty" sailed from Spithead for Tahiti. For a full month, the crew attempted to take the ship west, around South America's Cape Horn, but adverse weather prevented this. Bligh then proceeded east, rounding the southern tip of Africa (Cape Agulhas) and crossing the width of the Indian Ocean. During the outward voyage, Bligh demoted Sailing Master John Fryer, replacing him with Fletcher Christian. This act seriously damaged the relationship between Bligh and Fryer, and Fryer later claimed that Bligh's act was entirely personal.


title: HMS Bounty

text: Bligh is commonly portrayed as the epitome of abusive sailing captains, but this portrayal has recently come into dispute. Caroline Alexander points out in her 2003 book "The Bounty" that Bligh was relatively lenient compared with other British naval officers. Bligh enjoyed the patronage of Sir Joseph Banks, a wealthy botanist and influential figure in Britain at the time. That, together with his experience sailing with Cook, familiarity with navigation in the area, and local customs were probably important factors in his appointment.


title: HMS Bounty

text: "Bounty" reached Tahiti, then called "Otaheite", on 26 October 1788, after ten months at sea. The crew spent five months there collecting and preparing 1,015 breadfruit plants to be transported. Bligh allowed the crew to live ashore and care for the potted breadfruit plants, and they became socialised to the customs and culture of the Tahitians. Many of the seamen and some of the "young gentlemen" had themselves tattooed in native fashion. Master's Mate and Acting Lieutenant Fletcher Christian married Maimiti, a Tahitian woman. Other warrant officers and seamen were also said to have formed "connections" with native women.


title: HMS Bounty

text: After five months in Tahiti, "Bounty" set sail with her breadfruit cargo on 4 April 1789. Some west of Tahiti, near Tonga, mutiny broke out on 28 April 1789. Despite strong words and threats heard on both sides, the ship was taken bloodlessly and apparently without struggle by any of the loyalists except Bligh himself. Of the 42 men on board aside from Bligh and Christian, 22 joined Christian in mutiny, two were passive, and 18 remained loyal to Bligh.


title: HMS Bounty

text: The mutineers ordered Bligh, two midshipmen, the surgeon's mate (Ledward), and the ship's clerk into the ship's boat. Several more men voluntarily joined Bligh rather than remain aboard. Bligh and his men sailed the open boat to Tofua in search of supplies, but were forced to flee after attacks by hostile natives resulted in the death of one of the men.


title: HMS Bounty

text: Bligh then undertook an arduous journey to the Dutch settlement of Coupang, located over from Tofua. He safely landed there 47 days later, having lost no men during the voyage except the one killed on Tofua.


title: HMS Bounty

text: The mutineers sailed for the island of Tubuai, where they tried to settle. After three months of bloody conflict with the natives, however, they returned to Tahiti. Sixteen of the mutineers – including the four loyalists who had been unable to accompany Bligh – remained there, taking their chances that the Royal Navy would not find them and bring them to justice.


title: HMS Bounty

text: Immediately after setting the sixteen men ashore in Tahiti in September 1789, Fletcher Christian, eight other crewmen, six Tahitian men, and 11 women, one with a baby, set sail in "Bounty" hoping to elude the Royal Navy. According to a journal kept by one of Christian's followers, the Tahitians were actually kidnapped when Christian set sail without warning them, the purpose of this being to acquire the women. The mutineers passed through the Fiji and Cook Islands, but feared that they would be found there.


title: HMS Bounty

text: Continuing their quest for a safe haven, on 15 January 1790 they rediscovered Pitcairn Island, which had been misplaced on the Royal Navy's charts. After the decision was made to settle on Pitcairn, livestock and other provisions were removed from "Bounty". To prevent the ship's detection, and anyone's possible escape, the ship was burned on 23 January 1790 in what is now called Bounty Bay.


title: HMS Bounty

text: The mutineers remained undetected on Pitcairn until February 1808, when sole remaining mutineer John Adams and the surviving Tahitian women and their children were discovered by the Boston sealer "Topaz", commanded by Captain Mayhew Folger of Nantucket, Massachusetts. Adams gave to Folger the "Bounty" azimuth compass and marine chronometer.


title: HMS Bounty

text: Seventeen years later, in 1825, , on a voyage of exploration under Captain Frederick William Beechey, arrived on Christmas Day off Pitcairn and spent 19 days there. Beechey later recorded this in his 1831 published account of the voyage, as did one of his crew, John Bechervaise, in his 1839 "Thirty-Six Years of a Seafaring Life by an Old Quarter Master". Beechey wrote a detailed account of the mutiny as recounted to him by the last survivor, Adams. Bechervaise, who described the life of the islanders, says he found the remains of "Bounty" and took some pieces of wood from it which were turned into souvenirs such as snuff boxes.


title: HMS Bounty

text: The details of the voyage of "Bounty" are very well documented, largely due to the effort of Bligh to maintain an accurate log before, during, and after the actual mutiny. "Bounty"s crew list is also well chronicled, down to and including the names of every seaman on board, something which larger ships in the rating system only occasionally were capable of due to crews in the hundreds, whereas "Bounty" carried fewer than fifty personnel.


title: HMS Bounty

text: Bligh's original log remained intact throughout his ordeal and was used as a major piece of evidence in his own trial for the loss of "Bounty", as well as the subsequent trial of captured mutineers. The original log is presently maintained at the State Library of New South Wales, with available transcripts in both print and electronic format.


title: HMS Bounty

text: In the immediate wake of the mutiny, all but four of the loyal crew joined Bligh in the long boat for the voyage to Timor, and eventually made it safely back to England, unless otherwise noted in the table below. Four were detained against their will on "Bounty" for their needed skills and for lack of space on the long boat. The mutineers first returned to Tahiti, where most of the survivors were later captured by "Pandora" and taken to England for trial. Nine mutineers continued their flight from the law and eventually settled on Pitcairn Island, where all but one died before their fate became known to the outside world.


title: HMS Bounty

text: Luis Marden rediscovered the remains of "Bounty" in January 1957. After spotting remains of the rudder (which had been found in 1933 by Parkin Christian, and is still displayed in the Fiji Museum in Suva), he persuaded his editors and writers to let him dive off Pitcairn Island, where the rudder had been found. Despite the warnings of one islander"Man, you gwen be dead as a hatchet!"Marden dived for several days in the dangerous swells near the island, and found the remains of the ship: a rudder pin, nails, a ships boat oarlock, fittings and a "Bounty" anchor that he raised. He subsequently met with Marlon Brando to counsel him on his role as Fletcher Christian in the 1962 film "Mutiny on the Bounty". Later in life, Marden wore cuff links made of nails from "Bounty". Marden also dived on the wreck of "Pandora" and left a "Bounty" nail with "Pandora".


title: HMS Bounty

text: Some of the "Bounty"s remains, such as the ballast stones, are still partially visible in the waters of Bounty Bay.


title: HMS Bounty

text: The last of "Bounty"s four 4-pounder cannon was recovered in 1998 by an archaeological team from James Cook University and was sent to the Queensland Museum in Townsville to be stabilised through lengthy conservation treatment via electrolysis over a period of nearly 40 months. The gun was subsequently returned to Pitcairn Island, where it has been placed on display in a new community hall. Several other pieces of the ship were found but local law forbids removal of such items from the island.


title: HMS Bounty

text: When the 1935 film "Mutiny on the Bounty" was made, sailing vessels (often with assisting engines) were partly still in use and existing vessels were adapted to play "Bounty" and "Pandora".


title: HMS Bounty

text: For the 1962 film, a new "Bounty" was constructed in 1960 in Nova Scotia. For much of 1962 to 2012, she was owned by a not-for-profit organisation whose primary aim was to sail her and other square rigged sailing ships, and she sailed the world to appear at harbours for inspections, and take paying passengers, to recoup running costs. For long voyages, she took on volunteer crew.


title: HMS Bounty

text: On 29 October 2012, sixteen "Bounty" crew members abandoned ship off the coast of North Carolina after getting caught in the high seas brought on by Hurricane Sandy. The ship sank, according to Coast Guard Air Station Elizabeth City, at 12:45 UTC Monday 29 October 2012 and two crew members, including Captain Robin Walbridge, were reported as missing. The captain was not found and presumed dead on 2 November 2012. It was later reported that the Coast Guard had recovered one of the missing crew members, Claudene Christian, descendant of Fletcher Christian of the original "Bounty". Christian was found to be unresponsive and pronounced dead on arrival at a hospital in North Carolina.


title: HMS Bounty

text: A second "Bounty" replica, named HMAV "Bounty", was built in New Zealand in 1979 and used in the 1984 film "The Bounty". The hull is constructed of welded steel oversheathed with timber. For many years she served the tourist excursion market from Darling Harbour, Sydney, Australia and appeared in a Tamil language Indian (1996 film), before being sold to HKR International Limited in October 2007. She was then a tourist attraction (also used for charter, excursions and sail training) based in Discovery Bay, on Lantau Island in Hong Kong, and was given an additional Chinese name "". She was decommissioned on 1 August 2017. The company has not disclosed the ship's fate.


title: Ever Carradine

text: Ever Dawn Carradine is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Tiffany Porter and Kelly Ludlow on the ABC television series "Once and Again" and "Commander in Chief", respectively and as Naomi Putnam and Janet Stein on the Hulu original series "The Handmaid's Tale" and "Runaways", respectively.


title: Ever Carradine

text: Carradine was born in Los Angeles the daughter of Susan Snyder, a horse trainer's assistant, and actor Robert Carradine. She has two half-siblings, Marika Reed Carradine and Ian Alexander Carradine. A number of other members of the Carradine family are also actors, including her grandfather John Carradine, and uncles Keith Carradine and David Carradine. She is also a cousin of Martha Plimpton.


title: Ever Carradine

text: After graduating from Lewis & Clark in 1996, she returned to Los Angeles and appeared in several television shows including "", "Tracey Takes On...", and "The Sentinel". In 1998, she received her first recurring guest role as Rosalie, a love interest on "Party of Five". She appeared as Pepper, a ditzy assistant on "Veronica's Closet". In 2003, she got her first regular series role on "Lucky", an FX drama about a professional poker player living in Las Vegas.


title: Ever Carradine

text: She starred in the film "Dead & Breakfast" and has appeared in films including "Bubble Boy", "Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back", and "Lucky 13". She appeared on the show "Once and Again" from 2001 to 2002, and on "Commander in Chief" from 2005 to 2006. She has had recurring guest roles on the shows "Major Crimes" (as Rusty's biological mother), "Veronica's Closet", "Party of Five", and "Women's Murder Club". She has also appeared in television shows such as "House", "", "", "Will & Grace", "Just Shoot Me!", and "24".


title: Ever Carradine

text: She had recurring roles on the TV series "Eureka", and on Showtime's "Shameless". Carradine also guested on an episode of "Rizzoli & Isles". She appeared in the first season of the Amazon series "Goliath", portrayed Linda on the television show "Code Black", and since 2017 has played Naomi Putnam on the Hulu series "The Handmaid's Tale". Since 2017, she has also been a series regular on "Runaways" playing the role of Janet Stein.


title: Lucy Dacus

text: Lucy Elizabeth Dacus (born May 2, 1995) is an American singer-songwriter and producer. Originally from Richmond, Virginia, Dacus attracted attention with her debut album "No Burden" (2016), which led to a deal with Matador Records. Her second album, "Historian", was released in 2018 to further critical acclaim. Dacus's third studio album, "Home Video", was released in 2021.


title: Lucy Dacus

text: In addition to her solo work, Dacus is also a member of the indie supergroup boygenius (formed in 2018), alongside Phoebe Bridgers and Julien Baker.


title: Lucy Dacus

text: Dacus was adopted as an infant and grew up in Mechanicsville, Virginia, a suburb of Richmond. She is of Uzbek and Irish descent. Her adoptive mother is a professional pianist and music teacher, and her adoptive father is a graphic designer. Dacus had an early interest in music, and bought her first guitar, an Ibanez, from Craigslist when she was in middle school. After graduating from Maggie L. Walker Governor's School in 2013, she began studying film at Virginia Commonwealth University, but left to avoid student debt and the "feeling of being misunderstood" in her university program. Prior to becoming a full-time musician, she was employed with Richmond Camera as an editor for children's school photos. During this time, she wrote approximately 30 songs, nine of which would comprise the tracklist of "No Burden".


title: Lucy Dacus

text: Dacus first performed in New York City in March 2015. Her first single, "I Don't Wanna Be Funny Anymore," premiered in November 2015. Her debut album, "No Burden", was produced in Nashville by her hometown friends, Berklee College of Music graduate Collin Pastore and Oberlin Conservatory of Music graduate Jacob Blizard; it was recorded at the request of Blizard for a school project. The album was originally released digitally on CD, and on vinyl via Richmond's EggHunt Records on February 26, 2016. Dacus was then signed to Matador Records, who re-released the album on September 9, 2016. In the same year she performed at Lollapalooza, in Chicago's Grant Park and made her national television debut on "CBS This Morning". She recorded a Tiny Desk Concert for NPR the same weekend. In October 2016 she played the London Calling festival in Amsterdam, as a replacement for The Duke Spirit, who were forced to cancel.


title: Lucy Dacus

text: Dacus's second album, entitled "Historian", was released on March 2, 2018. Like its predecessor, it was met with widespread critical acclaim. Writing for Pitchfork, Sasha Geffen praised its nuance and sensitivity: "It’s not an easy album to wear out. It lasts, and it should, given that so many of its lyrics pick at time, and the way time condenses around deep emotional attachments to other people." "Rolling Stone" rated the album 4/5 stars, as did "NME". "Historian", like "No Burden", was recorded in Nashville, at Trace Horse Studio, in a similar collaborative effort by Lucy Dacus, Jacob Blizard, and Collin Pastore.


title: Lucy Dacus

text: In 2018, Dacus, along with Phoebe Bridgers and Julien Baker, formed the group Boygenius. They released three songs in August 2018 and subsequently announced an EP and tour. The EP, titled "boygenius", came out on October 26, 2018.


title: Lucy Dacus

text: To coincide with Valentine's Day 2019, Dacus released a cover of "La Vie en rose", the first in a planned series of songs commemorating major holidays.


title: Lucy Dacus

text: In 2021, Dacus announced her third album, titled "Home Video", which was released on June 25. She performed one of the album's singles "Hot & Heavy" on "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert" on April 13. On November 10, Dacus released her single "Thumbs Again", a re-release of her song "Thumbs" with additional instrumentation, alongside the announcement of 2022 US tour dates. On February 2, 2022, Dacus released a single "Kissing Lessons", which was accompanied by a music video.


title: Lucy Dacus

text: After Texas' new abortion law went into effect on September 1, 2021, Dacus announced on Twitter that all the money she makes at her upcoming shows in Texas "will be going towards abortion funds." She also informed her fans to bring extra money to her Houston and San Antonio shows for the donation to the abortion funds. During her Home Video Tour in July, 2022, Dacus announced that she and her support act, Camp Cope, would be donating tips from the merchandise stand to the organization Fund Abortion Not Police.


title: Lucy Dacus

text: Dacus was raised Christian but has since become irreligious. She describes herself as queer, and says that the terms bisexual or pansexual come closest to defining her sexuality. Dacus lived in Richmond, Virginia, until late 2019. As of June 2021, she resides in Philadelphia.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: A high-voltage direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system (also called a power superhighway or an electrical superhighway) uses direct current (DC) for electric power transmission, in contrast with the more common alternating current (AC) transmission systems.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Most HVDC links use voltages between 100 kV and 800 kV. However, a 1,100 kV link in China was completed in 2019 over a distance of with a power capacity of 12 GW. With this dimension, intercontinental connections become possible which could help to deal with the fluctuations of wind power and photovoltaics.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: HVDC allows power transmission between AC transmission systems that are not synchronized. Since the power flow through an HVDC link can be controlled independently of the phase angle between source and load, it can stabilize a network against disturbances due to rapid changes in power. HVDC also allows the transfer of power between grid systems running at different frequencies, such as 50 and 60 Hz. This improves the stability and economy of each grid, by allowing the exchange of power between previously incompatible networks.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The modern form of HVDC transmission uses technology developed extensively in the 1930s in Sweden (ASEA) and in Germany. Early commercial installations included one in the Soviet Union in 1951 between Moscow and Kashira, and a 100 kV, 20 MW system between Gotland and mainland Sweden in 1954. Before the Chinese project of 2019, the longest HVDC link in the world was the Rio Madeira link in Brazil, which consists of two bipoles of ±600 kV, 3150 MW each, connecting Porto Velho in the state of Rondônia to the São Paulo area with a length of more than .


title: High-voltage direct current

text: High voltage is used for electric power transmission to reduce the energy lost in the resistance of the wires. For a given quantity of power transmitted, doubling the voltage will deliver the same power at only half the current. Since the power lost as heat in the wires is directly proportional to the square of the current, doubling the voltage reduces the line losses by a factor of 4. While power lost in transmission can also be reduced by increasing the conductor size, larger conductors are heavier and more expensive.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: High voltage cannot readily be used for lighting or motors, so transmission-level voltages must be reduced for end-use equipment. Transformers are used to change the voltage levels in alternating current (AC) transmission circuits. Transformers made voltage changes practical, and AC generators were more efficient than those using DC. These advantages led to early low voltage DC transmission systems being supplanted by AC systems around the turn of the 20th century.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Practical conversion of power between AC and DC became possible with the development of power electronics devices such as mercury-arc valves and, starting in the 1970s, semiconductor devices as thyristors, integrated gate-commutated thyristors (IGCTs), MOS-controlled thyristors (MCTs) and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBT).


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The first long-distance transmission of electric power was demonstrated using direct current in 1882 at Miesbach-Munich Power Transmission, but only 1.5 kW was transmitted. An early method of HVDC transmission was developed by the Swiss engineer René Thury and his method was put into practice by 1889 in Italy by the "Acquedotto De Ferrari-Galliera" company. This system used series-connected motor-generator sets to increase the voltage. Each set was insulated from electrical ground and driven by insulated shafts from a . The transmission line was operated in a 'constant current' mode, with up to 5,000 volts across each machine, some machines having double commutators to reduce the voltage on each commutator. This system transmitted 630 kW at 14 kV DC over a distance of 120 km (75 miles). The Moutiers–Lyon system transmitted 8,600 kW of hydroelectric power a distance of 200 km (100 miles), including 10 km (6 miles) of underground cable. This system used eight series-connected generators with dual commutators for a total voltage of 150 kV between the positive and negative poles, and operated from c.1906 until 1936. Fifteen Thury systems were in operation by 1913. Other Thury systems operating at up to 100 kV DC worked into the 1930s, but the rotating machinery required high maintenance and had high energy loss. Various other electromechanical devices were tested during the first half of the 20th century with little commercial success.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: One technique attempted for conversion of direct current from a high transmission voltage to lower utilization voltage was to charge series-connected batteries, then reconnect the batteries in parallel to serve distribution loads. While at least two commercial installations were tried around the turn of the 20th century, the technique was not generally useful owing to the limited capacity of batteries, difficulties in switching between series and parallel connections, and the inherent energy inefficiency of a battery charge/discharge cycle. (A modern battery storage power station includes transformers and inverters to change energy from alternating current to direct current forms at appropriate voltages.)


title: High-voltage direct current

text: First proposed in 1914, the grid controlled mercury-arc valve became available for power transmission during the period 1920 to 1940. Starting in 1932, General Electric tested mercury-vapor valves and a 12 kV DC transmission line, which also served to convert 40 Hz generation to serve 60 Hz loads, at Mechanicville, New York. In 1941, a 60 MW, ±200 kV, 115 km (70 mile) buried cable link was designed for the city of Berlin using mercury arc valves (Elbe-Project), but owing to the collapse of the German government in 1945 the project was never completed. The nominal justification for the project was that, during wartime, a buried cable would be less conspicuous as a bombing target. The equipment was moved to the Soviet Union and was put into service there as the Moscow–Kashira HVDC system. The Moscow–Kashira system and the 1954 connection by Uno Lamm's group at ASEA between the mainland of Sweden and the island of Gotland marked the beginning of the modern era of HVDC transmission.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Mercury arc valves require an external circuit to force the current to zero and thus turn off the valve. In HVDC applications, the AC power system itself provides the means of "commutating" the current to another valve in the converter. Consequently, converters built with mercury arc valves are known as line-commutated converters (LCC). LCCs require rotating synchronous machines in the AC systems to which they are connected, making power transmission into a passive load impossible.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Mercury arc valves were common in systems designed up to 1972, the last mercury arc HVDC system (the Nelson River Bipole 1 system in Manitoba, Canada) having been put into service in stages between 1972 and 1977. Since then, all mercury arc systems have been either shut down or converted to use solid state devices. The last HVDC system to use mercury arc valves was the Inter-Island HVDC link between the North and South Islands of New Zealand, which used them on one of its two poles. The mercury arc valves were decommissioned on 1 August 2012, ahead of commissioning of replacement thyristor converters.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Since 1977, new HVDC systems have used only solid-state devices, in most cases thyristors. Like mercury arc valves, thyristors require connection to an external AC circuit in HVDC applications to turn them on and off. HVDC using thyristors is also known as Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) HVDC.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Development of thyristor valves for HVDC began in the late 1960s. The first complete HVDC scheme based on thyristor was the Eel River scheme in Canada, which was built by General Electric and went into service in 1972.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: On March 15, 1979, a 1920 MW thyristor based direct current connection between Cabora Bassa and Johannesburg (1,410 km; 880 miles) was energized. The conversion equipment was built in 1974 by Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft AG (AEG), and Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) and Siemens were partners in the project. Service interruptions of several years were a result of a civil war in Mozambique. The transmission voltage of ±533 kV was the highest in the world at the time.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Line-commutated converters have some limitations in their use for HVDC systems. This results from requiring the AC circuit to turn off the thyristor current and the need for a short period of 'reverse' voltage to effect the turn-off (turn-off time). An attempt to address these limitations is the "capacitor-commutated converter" ("CCC") which has been used in a small number of HVDC systems. The CCC differs from a conventional HVDC system in that it has series capacitors inserted into the AC line connections, either on the primary or secondary side of the converter transformer. The series capacitors partially offset the "commutating inductance" of the converter and help to reduce fault currents. This also allows a smaller "extinction angle" to be used with a converter/inverter, reducing the need for reactive power support.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: However, CCC has remained only a niche application because of the advent of voltage-source converters (VSC) which eliminate the need for an extinction (turn-off) time.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Widely used in motor drives since the 1980s, voltage-source converters started to appear in HVDC in 1997 with the experimental Hellsjön–Grängesberg project in Sweden. By the end of 2011, this technology had captured a significant proportion of the HVDC market.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The development of higher rated insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) and integrated gate-commutated thyristors (IGCTs), has made smaller HVDC systems economical. The manufacturer ABB Group calls this concept "HVDC Light", while Siemens calls a similar concept "HVDC PLUS" ("Power Link Universal System") and Alstom call their product based upon this technology "HVDC MaxSine". They have extended the use of HVDC down to blocks as small as a few tens of megawatts and overhead lines as short as a few dozen kilometers. There are several different variants of VSC technology: most installations built until 2012 use pulse-width modulation in a circuit that is effectively an ultrahigh-voltage motor drive. Current installations, including HVDC PLUS and HVDC MaxSine, are based on variants of a converter called a "Modular Multilevel Converter" (MMC).


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Multilevel converters have the advantage that they allow harmonic filtering equipment to be reduced or eliminated altogether. By way of comparison, AC harmonic filters of typical line-commutated converter stations cover nearly half of the converter station area.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: With time, voltage-source converter systems will probably replace all installed simple thyristor-based systems, including the highest DC power transmission applications.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: A long-distance, point-to-point HVDC transmission scheme generally has lower overall investment cost and lower losses than an equivalent AC transmission scheme. HVDC conversion equipment at the terminal stations is costly, but the total DC transmission-line costs over long distances are lower than for an AC line of the same distance. HVDC requires less conductor per unit distance than an AC line, as there is no need to support three phases and there is no skin effect.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Depending on voltage level and construction details, HVDC transmission losses are quoted at 3.5% per 1,000 km (600 miles), about 50% less than AC (6.7%) lines at the same voltage. This is because direct current transfers only active power and thus causes lower losses than alternating current, which transfers both active and reactive power.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: HVDC transmission may also be selected for other technical benefits. HVDC can transfer power between separate AC networks. HVDC powerflow between separate AC systems can be automatically controlled to support either network during transient conditions, but without the risk that a major power-system collapse in one network will lead to a collapse in the second. HVDC improves on system controllability, with at least one HVDC link embedded in an AC grid—in the deregulated environment, the controllability feature is particularly useful where control of energy trading is needed.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The combined economic and technical benefits of HVDC transmission can make it a suitable choice for connecting electricity sources that are located far away from the main users.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Long undersea or underground high-voltage cables have a high electrical capacitance compared with overhead transmission lines, since the live conductors within the cable are surrounded by a relatively thin layer of insulation (the dielectric), and a metal sheath. The geometry is that of a long coaxial capacitor. The total capacitance increases with the length of the cable. This capacitance is in a parallel circuit with the load. Where alternating current is used for cable transmission, additional current must flow in the cable to charge this cable capacitance. This extra current flow causes added energy loss via dissipation of heat in the conductors of the cable, raising its temperature. Additional energy losses also occur as a result of dielectric losses in the cable insulation.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: However, if direct current is used, the cable capacitance is charged only when the cable is first energized or if the voltage level changes; there is no additional current required. For a sufficiently long AC cable, the entire current-carrying ability of the conductor would be needed to supply the charging current alone. This cable capacitance issue limits the length and power-carrying ability of AC power cables. DC powered cables are limited only by their temperature rise and Ohm's law. Although some leakage current flows "through" the dielectric insulator, this is small compared to the cable's rated current.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The capacitive effect of long underground or undersea cables in AC transmission applications also applies to AC overhead lines, although to a much lesser extent. Nevertheless, for a long AC overhead transmission line, the current flowing just to charge the line capacitance can be significant, and this reduces the capability of the line to carry useful current to the load at the remote end. Another factor that reduces the useful current-carrying ability of AC lines is the skin effect, which causes a nonuniform distribution of current over the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Transmission line conductors operating with direct current suffer from neither constraint. Therefore, for the same conductor losses (or heating effect), a given conductor can carry more power to the load when operating with HVDC than AC.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Finally, depending upon the environmental conditions and the performance of overhead line insulation operating with HVDC, it may be possible for a given transmission line to operate with a constant HVDC voltage that is approximately the same as the peak AC voltage for which it is designed and insulated. The power delivered in an AC system is defined by the root mean square (RMS) of an AC voltage, but RMS is only about 71% of the peak voltage. Therefore, if the HVDC line can operate continuously with an HVDC voltage that is the same as the peak voltage of the AC equivalent line, then for a given current (where HVDC current is the same as the RMS current in the AC line), the power transmission capability when operating with HVDC is approximately 40% higher than the capability when operating with AC.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Because HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution systems, it can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from propagating from one part of a wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load that would cause portions of an AC network to become unsynchronized and to separate, would not similarly affect a DC link, and the power flow through the DC link would tend to stabilize the AC network. The magnitude and direction of power flow through a DC link can be directly controlled, and changed as needed to support the AC networks at either end of the DC link. This has caused many power system operators to contemplate wider use of HVDC technology for its stability benefits alone.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: HVDC is less reliable and has lower availability than alternating current (AC) systems, mainly due to the extra conversion equipment. Single-pole systems have availability of about 98.5%, with about a third of the downtime unscheduled due to faults. Fault-tolerant bipole systems provide high availability for 50% of the link capacity, but availability of the full capacity is about 97% to 98%.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The required converter stations are expensive and have limited overload capacity. At smaller transmission distances, the losses in the converter stations may be bigger than in an AC transmission line for the same distance. The cost of the converters may not be offset by reductions in line construction cost and lower line loss.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Operating an HVDC scheme requires many spare parts to be kept, often exclusively for one system, as HVDC systems are less standardized than AC systems and technology changes more quickly.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: In contrast to AC systems, realizing multi-terminal systems is complex (especially with line commutated converters), as is expanding existing schemes to multi-terminal systems. Controlling power flow in a multi-terminal DC system requires good communication between all the terminals; power flow must be actively regulated by the converter control system instead of relying on the inherent impedance and phase angle properties of an AC transmission line. Multi-terminal systems are rare. As of 2012 only two are in service: the Hydro Québec – New England transmission between Radisson, Sandy Pond, and Nicolet and the Sardinia–mainland Italy link which was modified in 1989 to also provide power to the island of Corsica.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: HVDC circuit breakers are difficult to build because of arcing: under AC the voltage inverts, and in doing so crosses zero volts, dozens of times a second. An AC arc will "self-extinguish" at one of these zero-crossing points, because there cannot be an arc where there is no potential difference. DC will never cross zero volts and never self-extinguish, so arc distance and duration is far greater with DC than the same voltage AC. This means some mechanism must be included in the circuit breaker to force current to zero and extinguish the arc, otherwise arcing and contact wear would be too great to allow reliable switching.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: In November 2012, ABB announced development of the world's first ultrafast HVDC circuit breaker. Mechanical circuit breakers are too slow for use in HVDC grids, although they have been used for years in other applications. Conversely, semiconductor breakers are fast enough but have a high resistance when conducting, wasting energy and generating heat in normal operation. The ABB breaker combines semiconductor and mechanical breakers to produce a "hybrid breaker" with both a fast break time and a low resistance in normal operation.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Generally, providers of HVDC systems, such as Alstom, Siemens and ABB, do not specify cost details of particular projects. It may be considered a commercial matter between the provider and the client.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Costs vary widely depending on the specifics of the project (such as power rating, circuit length, overhead vs. cabled route, land costs, site seismology, and AC network improvements required at either terminal). A detailed comparison of DC vs. AC transmission costs may be required in situations where there is no clear technical advantage to DC, and economical reasoning alone drives the selection.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: An April 2010 announcement for a 2,000 MW, 64 km (40 mile) line between Spain and France is estimated at €700 million. This includes the cost of a tunnel through the Pyrenees.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: At the heart of an HVDC converter station, the equipment which performs the conversion between AC and DC is referred to as the "converter". Almost all HVDC converters are inherently capable of converting from AC to DC ("rectification") and from DC to AC ("inversion"), although in many HVDC systems, the system as a whole is optimized for power flow in only one direction. Irrespective of how the converter itself is designed, the station that is operating (at a given time) with power flow from AC to DC is referred to as the "rectifier" and the station that is operating with power flow from DC to AC is referred to as the "inverter".


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Early HVDC systems used electromechanical conversion (the Thury system) but all HVDC systems built since the 1940s have used electronic (static) converters. Electronic converters for HVDC are divided into two main categories:


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The basic LCC configuration uses a three-phase bridge rectifier or "six-pulse bridge", containing six electronic switches, each connecting one of the three phases to one of the two DC rails. A complete switching element is usually referred to as a "valve", irrespective of its construction. However, with a phase change only every 60°, considerable harmonic distortion is produced at both the DC and AC terminals when this arrangement is used.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: An enhancement of this arrangement uses 12 valves in a "twelve-pulse bridge". The AC is split into two separate three phase supplies before transformation. One of the sets of supplies is then configured to have a star (wye) secondary, the other a delta secondary, establishing a 30° phase difference between the two sets of three phases. With twelve valves connecting each of the two sets of three phases to the two DC rails, there is a phase change every 30°, and harmonics are considerably reduced. For this reason the twelve-pulse system has become standard on most line-commutated converter HVDC systems built since the 1970s.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: With line commutated converters, the converter has only one degree of freedom – the "firing angle", which represents the time delay between the voltage across a valve becoming positive (at which point the valve would start to conduct if it were made from diodes) and the thyristors being turned on. The DC output voltage of the converter steadily becomes less positive as the firing angle is increased: firing angles of up to 90° correspond to rectification and result in positive DC voltages, while firing angles above 90° correspond to inversion and result in negative DC voltages. The practical upper limit for the firing angle is about 150–160° because above this, the valve would have insufficient "turnoff time".


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Early LCC systems used mercury-arc valves, which were rugged but required high maintenance. Because of this, many mercury-arc HVDC systems were built with bypass switchgear across each six-pulse bridge so that the HVDC scheme could be operated in six-pulse mode for short periods of maintenance. The last mercury arc system was shut down in 2012.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The thyristor valve was first used in HVDC systems in 1972. The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device similar to the diode, but with an extra control terminal that is used to switch the device on at a particular instant during the AC cycle. Because the voltages in HVDC systems, up to 800 kV in some cases, far exceed the breakdown voltages of the thyristors used, HVDC thyristor valves are built using large numbers of thyristors in series. Additional passive components such as grading capacitors and resistors need to be connected in parallel with each thyristor in order to ensure that the voltage across the valve is evenly shared between the thyristors. The thyristor plus its grading circuits and other auxiliary equipment is known as a "thyristor level".


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Each thyristor valve will typically contain tens or hundreds of thyristor levels, each operating at a different (high) potential with respect to earth. The command information to turn on the thyristors therefore cannot simply be sent using a wire connection – it needs to be isolated. The isolation method can be magnetic but is usually optical. Two optical methods are used: indirect and direct optical triggering. In the indirect optical triggering method, low-voltage control electronics send light pulses along optical fibres to the "high-side" control electronics, which derives its power from the voltage across each thyristor. The alternative direct optical triggering method dispenses with most of the high-side electronics, instead using light pulses from the control electronics to switch light-triggered thyristors (LTTs), although a small monitoring electronics unit may still be required for protection of the valve.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: In a line-commutated converter, the DC current (usually) cannot change direction; it flows through a large inductance and can be considered almost constant. On the AC side, the converter behaves approximately as a current source, injecting both grid-frequency and harmonic currents into the AC network. For this reason, a line commutated converter for HVDC is also considered as a "current-source inverter".


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Because thyristors can only be turned on (not off) by control action, the control system has only one degree of freedom – when to turn on the thyristor. This is an important limitation in some circumstances.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: With some other types of semiconductor device such as the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), both turn-on and turn-off can be controlled, giving a second degree of freedom. As a result, they can be used to make "self-commutated converters". In such converters, the electric polarity of DC voltage is usually fixed and the DC voltage, being smoothed by a large capacitance, can be considered constant. For this reason, an HVDC converter using IGBTs is usually referred to as a "voltage sourced converter". The additional controllability gives many advantages, notably the ability to switch the IGBTs on and off many times per cycle in order to improve the harmonic performance. Being self-commutated, the converter no longer relies on synchronous machines in the AC system for its operation. A voltage sourced converter can therefore feed power to an AC network consisting only of passive loads, something which is impossible with LCC HVDC.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: HVDC systems based on voltage sourced converters normally use the six-pulse connection because the converter produces much less harmonic distortion than a comparable LCC and the twelve-pulse connection is unnecessary.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Most of the VSC HVDC systems built until 2012 were based on the "two level converter", which can be thought of as a six pulse bridge in which the thyristors have been replaced by IGBTs with inverse-parallel diodes, and the DC smoothing reactors have been replaced by DC smoothing capacitors. Such converters derive their name from the discrete, two voltage levels at the AC output of each phase that correspond to the electrical potentials of the positive and negative DC terminals. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is usually used to improve the harmonic distortion of the converter.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Some HVDC systems have been built with "three level converters", but today most new VSC HVDC systems are being built with some form of "multilevel converter", most commonly the "modular multilevel converter" (MMC), in which each valve consists of a number of independent converter submodules, each containing its own storage capacitor. The IGBTs in each submodule either bypass the capacitor or connect it into the circuit, allowing the valve to synthesize a stepped voltage with very low levels of harmonic distortion.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: At the AC side of each converter, a bank of transformers, often three physically separated single-phase transformers, isolate the station from the AC supply, to provide a local earth, and to ensure the correct eventual DC voltage. The output of these transformers is then connected to the converter.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Converter transformers for LCC HVDC schemes are quite specialized because of the high levels of harmonic currents which flow through them, and because the secondary winding insulation experiences a permanent DC voltage, which affects the design of the insulating structure (valve side requires more solid insulation) inside the tank. In LCC systems, the transformers also need to provide the 30° phase shift needed for harmonic cancellation.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Converter transformers for VSC HVDC systems are usually simpler and more conventional in design than those for LCC HVDC systems.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: A major drawback of HVDC systems using line-commutated converters is that the converters inherently consume reactive power. The AC current flowing into the converter from the AC system lags behind the AC voltage so that, irrespective of the direction of active power flow, the converter always absorbs reactive power, behaving in the same way as a shunt reactor. The reactive power absorbed is at least 0.5 Mvar/MW under ideal conditions and can be higher than this when the converter is operating at higher than usual firing or extinction angle, or reduced DC voltage.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Although at HVDC converter stations connected directly to power stations some of the reactive power may be provided by the generators themselves, in most cases the reactive power consumed by the converter must be provided by banks of shunt capacitors connected at the AC terminals of the converter. The shunt capacitors are usually connected directly to the grid voltage but in some cases may be connected to a lower voltage via a tertiary winding on the converter transformer.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Since the reactive power consumed depends on the active power being transmitted, the shunt capacitors usually need to be subdivided into a number of switchable banks (typically four per converter) in order to prevent a surplus of reactive power being generated at low transmitted power.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The shunt capacitors are almost always provided with tuning reactors and, where necessary, damping resistors so that they can perform a dual role as harmonic filters.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Voltage-source converters, on the other hand, can either produce or consume reactive power on demand, with the result that usually no separate shunt capacitors are needed (other than those required purely for filtering).


title: High-voltage direct current

text: All power electronic converters generate some degree of harmonic distortion on the AC and DC systems to which they are connected, and HVDC converters are no exception.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: With the recently developed modular multilevel converter (MMC), levels of harmonic distortion may be practically negligible, but with line-commutated converters and simpler types of voltage-source converters, considerable harmonic distortion may be produced on both the AC and DC sides of the converter. As a result, harmonic filters are nearly always required at the AC terminals of such converters, and in HVDC transmission schemes using overhead lines, may also be required on the DC side.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The basic building-block of a line-commutated HVDC converter is the "six-pulse bridge". This arrangement produces very high levels of harmonic distortion by acting as a current source injecting harmonic currents of order 6n±1 into the AC system and generating harmonic voltages of order 6n superimposed on the DC voltage.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: It is very costly to provide harmonic filters capable of suppressing such harmonics, so a variant known as the "twelve-pulse bridge" (consisting of two six-pulse bridges in series with a 30° phase shift between them) is nearly always used. With the twelve-pulse arrangement, harmonics are still produced but only at orders 12n±1 on the AC side and 12n on the DC side. The task of suppressing such harmonics is still challenging, but manageable.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Line-commutated converters for HVDC are usually provided with combinations of harmonic filters designed to deal with the 11th and 13th harmonics on the AC side, and 12th harmonic on the DC side. Sometimes, high-pass filters may be provided to deal with 23rd, 25th, 35th, 37th... on the AC side and 24th, 36th... on the DC side. Sometimes, the AC filters may also need to provide damping at lower-order, "noncharacteristic" harmonics such as 3rd or 5th harmonics.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The task of designing AC harmonic filters for HVDC converter stations is complex and computationally intensive, since in addition to ensuring that the converter does not produce an unacceptable level of voltage distortion on the AC system, it must be ensured that the harmonic filters do not resonate with some component elsewhere in the AC system. A detailed knowledge of the "harmonic impedance" of the AC system, at a wide range of frequencies, is needed in order to design the AC filters.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: DC filters are required only for HVDC transmission systems involving overhead lines. Voltage distortion is not a problem in its own right, since consumers do not connect directly to the DC terminals of the system, so the main design criterion for the DC filters is to ensure that the harmonic currents flowing in the DC lines do not induce interference in nearby open-wire telephone lines. With the rise in digital mobile telecommunication systems, which are much less susceptible to interference, DC filters are becoming less important for HVDC systems.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Some types of voltage-sourced converters may produce such low levels of harmonic distortion that no filters are required at all. However, converter types such as the "two-level" converter, used with pulse-width modulation (PWM), still require some filtering, albeit less than on line-commutated converter systems.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: With such converters, the harmonic spectrum is generally shifted to higher frequencies than with line-commutated converters. This usually allows the filter equipment to be smaller. The dominant harmonic frequencies are sidebands of the PWM frequency and multiples thereof. In HVDC applications, the PWM frequency is typically around 1 to 2 kHz.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: In a monopole configuration one of the terminals of the rectifier is connected to earth ground. The other terminal, at high voltage relative to ground, is connected to a transmission line. The earthed terminal may be connected to the corresponding connection at the inverting station by means of a second conductor.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: If no metallic return conductor is installed, current flows in the earth (or water) between two electrodes. This arrangement is a type of single-wire earth return system.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The electrodes are usually located some tens of kilometers from the stations and are connected to the stations via a medium-voltage electrode line. The design of the electrodes themselves depends on whether they are located on land, on the shore or at sea. For the monopolar configuration with earth return, the earth current flow is unidirectional, which means that the design of one of the electrodes (the cathode) can be relatively simple, although the design of anode electrode is quite complex.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: For long-distance transmission, earth return can be considerably cheaper than alternatives using a dedicated neutral conductor, but it can lead to problems such as:


title: High-voltage direct current

text: These effects can be eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor between the two ends of the monopolar transmission line. Since one terminal of the converters is connected to earth, the return conductor need not be insulated for the full transmission voltage which makes it less costly than the high-voltage conductor. The decision of whether or not to use a metallic return conductor is based upon economic, technical and environmental factors.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Modern monopolar systems for pure overhead lines carry typically 1.5 GW. If underground or underwater cables are used, the typical value is 600 MW.