title: Mediterranean Basin

text: Europe lies to the north of the Mediterranean. The European portion of the Mediterranean Basin loosely corresponds to Southern Europe. The three large Southern European peninsulas, the Iberian Peninsula, Italian Peninsula, and the Balkan Peninsula, extend into and comprise much of the Mediterranean-climate zone. A system of folded mountains, including the Pyrenees dividing Spain from France, the Alps dividing Italy from Central Europe, the Dinaric Alps along the eastern Adriatic, and the Balkan and Rila-Rhodope mountains of the Balkan Peninsula divide the Mediterranean from the temperate climate regions of Western, Northwestern or Northern Europe, Central Europe, and Eastern Europe.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The Mediterranean Basin was shaped by the ancient collision of the northward-moving African–Arabian continent with the stable Eurasian continent. As Africa–Arabia moved north, it closed the former Tethys Sea, which formerly separated Eurasia from the ancient super continent of Gondwana, of which Africa was part. At about the same time, 170 mya in the Jurassic period, a small Neotethys ocean basin formed shortly before the Tethys Sea was closed at the eastern end. The collision pushed up a vast system of mountains, extending from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran. This episode of mountain building, known as the Alpine orogeny, occurred mostly during the Oligocene (34 to 23 million years ago (mya)) and Miocene (23 to 5.3 mya) epochs. The Neotethys became larger during these collisions and associated folding and subduction.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: About 6 mya during the late Miocene, the Mediterranean was closed at its western end by drifting Africa, which caused the entire sea to evaporate. There followed several (debated) episodes of sea drawdown and re-flooding known as the Messinian Salinity Crisis, which ended when the Atlantic last re-flooded the basin at the end of the Miocene. Recent research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding cycle may have repeated several times during the last 630,000 years of the Miocene epoch, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition. Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the Mediterranean Basin's climate. Fossil evidence shows that the Mediterranean Basin had a relatively humid subtropical climate with summer rainfall during the Miocene, which supported laurel forests. The shift to a Mediterranean climate occurred within the last 3.2–2.8 million years, during the Pliocene epoch, as summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests retreated, although they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, and the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and sclerophyllous trees and shrubs, with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: Phytogeographically, the Mediterranean Basin together with the nearby Atlantic coast, the Mediterranean woodlands and forests and Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe of North Africa, the Black Sea coast of northeastern Anatolia, the southern coast of Crimea between Sevastopol and Feodosiya and the Black Sea coast between Anapa and Tuapse in Russia forms the "Mediterranean Floristic Region", which belongs to the Tethyan Subkingdom of the Boreal Kingdom and is enclosed between the Circumboreal, Irano-Turanian, Saharo-Arabian and Macaronesian floristic regions.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The Mediterranean Region was first proposed by German botanist August Grisebach in the late 19th century.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The monotypic Drosophyllaceae, recently segregated from Droseraceae, is the only plant family endemic to the region. Among the endemic plant genera are:


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The genera "Aubrieta", "Sesamoides", "Cynara", "Dracunculus", "Arisarum" and "Biarum" are nearly endemic. Among the endemic species prominent in the Mediterranean vegetation are the Aleppo pine, stone pine, Mediterranean cypress, bay laurel, Oriental sweetgum, holm oak, kermes oak, strawberry tree, Greek strawberry tree, mastic, terebinth, common myrtle, oleander, "Acanthus mollis" and "Vitex agnus-castus". Moreover, many plant taxa are shared with one of the four neighboring floristic regions only. According to different versions of Armen Takhtajan's delineation, the Mediterranean Region is further subdivided into seven to nine floristic provinces: Southwestern Mediterranean (or Southern Moroccan and Southwestern Mediterranean), Ibero-Balearian (or Iberian and Balearian), Liguro-Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, East Mediterranean, South Mediterranean and Crimeo-Novorossiysk.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The Mediterranean Basin is the largest of the world's five Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub regions. It is home to a number of plant communities, which vary with rainfall, elevation, latitude, and soil.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The Mediterranean Basin is home to considerable biodiversity, including 22,500 endemic vascular plant species. Conservation International designates the region as a biodiversity hotspot, because of its rich biodiversity and its threatened status. The Mediterranean Basin has an area of 2,085,292 km, of which only 98,009 km remains undisturbed.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: Endangered mammals of the Mediterranean Basin include the Mediterranean monk seal, the Barbary macaque, and the Iberian lynx.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The WWF identifies 22 Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions in the Mediterranean Basin, most of which featuring sclerophyll plant species:


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: Neanderthals inhabited western Asia and the non-glaciated portions of Europe starting about 230,000 years ago. Modern humans moved into western Asia from Africa less than 100,000 years ago. Modern humans, known as Cro-Magnons, moved into Europe approximately 50–40,000 years ago.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The most recent glacial period, the Wisconsin glaciation, reached its maximum extent approximately 21,000 years ago, and ended approximately 12,000 years ago. A warm period, known as the Holocene climatic optimum, followed the ice age.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: Food crops, including wheat, chickpeas, and olives, along with sheep and goats, were domesticated in the eastern Mediterranean in the 9th millennium BCE, which allowed for the establishment of agricultural settlements. Near Eastern crops spread to southeastern Europe in the 7th millennium BCE. Poppy and oats were domesticated in Europe from the 6th to the 3rd millennium BCE. Agricultural settlements spread around the Mediterranean Basin. Megaliths were constructed in Europe from 4500 – 1500 BCE.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: A strengthening of the summer monsoon 9000–7000 years ago increased rainfall across the Sahara, which became a grassland, with lakes, rivers, and wetlands. After a period of climatic instability, the Sahara settled into a desert state by the 4th millennium BCE.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: One of the earliest modern studies of the Mediterranean was Fernand Braudel's "La Méditerranéee et le monde méditerranéen à l époque de Philippe II" (The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II), published in 1949. S.D. Goitein's multivolume study of the Cairo Geniza documents was another important contribution in the area of Mediterranean Jewish culture.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: Wheat is the dominant grain grown around the Mediterranean Basin. Pulses and vegetables are also grown. The characteristic tree crop is the olive. Figs are another important fruit tree, and citrus, especially lemons, are grown where irrigation is present. Grapes are an important vine crop, grown for fruit and to make wine. Rice and summer vegetables are grown in irrigated areas.


title: ACT (test)

text: The ACT (; originally an abbreviation of American College Testing) is a standardized test used for college admissions in the United States. It is currently administered by ACT, a nonprofit organization of the same name. The ACT test covers four academic skill areas: English, mathematics, reading, and scientific reasoning. It also offers an optional direct writing test. It is accepted by all four-year colleges and universities in the United States as well as more than 225 universities outside of the U.S.


title: ACT (test)

text: The main four ACT test sections are individually scored on a scale of 1–36, and a composite score (the rounded whole number average of the four sections) is provided.


title: ACT (test)

text: The ACT was first introduced in November of 1959 by University of Iowa professor Everett Franklin Lindquist as a competitor to the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). The ACT originally consisted of four tests: English, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Natural Sciences. In 1989, however, the Social Studies test was changed into a Reading section (which included a social sciences subsection), and the Natural Sciences test was renamed the Science Reasoning test, with more emphasis on problem-solving skills as opposed to memorizing scientific facts. In February 2005, an optional Writing Test was added to the ACT. By the fall of 2017, computer-based ACT tests were available for school-day testing in limited school districts of the US, with greater availability expected in fall of 2018.


title: ACT (test)

text: The ACT has seen a gradual increase in the number of test takers since its inception, and in 2012 the ACT surpassed the SAT for the first time in total test takers; that year, 1,666,017 students took the ACT and 1,664,479 students took the SAT.


title: ACT (test)

text: ACT, Inc., says that the ACT assessment measures high school students' general educational development and their capability to complete college-level work with the multiple choice tests covering four skill areas: English, mathematics, reading, and science. The optional Writing Test measures skill in planning and writing a short essay. Specifically, ACT states that its scores provide an indicator of "college readiness", and that scores in each of the subtests correspond to skills in entry-level college courses in English, algebra, social science, humanities, and biology. According to a research study conducted by ACT, Inc. in 2003, there was a relationship between a student's ACT composite score and the probability of that student earning a college degree.


title: ACT (test)

text: To develop the test, ACT incorporates the objectives for instruction from middle and high schools throughout the United States, reviews approved textbooks for subjects taught in Grades 7–12, and surveys educators on which knowledge skills are relevant to success in postsecondary education. ACT publishes a technical manual that summarizes studies conducted on its validity in predicting freshman GPA, equating different high school GPAs, and measuring educational achievement.


title: ACT (test)

text: Colleges use the ACT and the SAT because there are substantial differences in funding, curricula, grading, and difficulty among U.S. secondary schools due to American federalism, local control, the prevalence of private, distance, homeschooled students, and lack of a rigorous college entrance examination system similar those used in some other countries. ACT scores are used to supplement the secondary school record and help admission officers put local data—such as coursework, grades, and class rank—in a national perspective.


title: ACT (test)

text: The majority of colleges do not indicate a preference for the SAT or ACT exams and accept both, being treated equally by most admissions officers. According to "Uni in the USA," colleges that also require students to take the SAT Subject Tests do so regardless of whether the candidate took the SAT or ACT; however, some colleges accept the ACT in place of the SAT subject tests and some accept the optional ACT Writing section in place of an SAT Subject Test.


title: ACT (test)

text: Most colleges use ACT scores as only one factor in the admission process. A sampling of ACT admissions scores shows that the 75th percentile composite score was 24.1 at public four-year institutions and 25.3 at private four-year institutions.


title: ACT (test)

text: In addition, some states and individual school districts have used the ACT to assess student learning and/or the performance of schools, requiring all high school students to take the ACT, regardless of whether they are college bound. Colorado and Illinois were the first to incorporate the ACT as part of their mandatory testing program in 2001. Other states followed suit in subsequent years. During the 2018–2019 school year, 13 states will administer the ACT test to all public school 11th graders, and another six states will fund ACT test administration as an option or choice for districts.


title: ACT (test)

text: While the exact manner in which ACT scores will help to determine admission of a student at American institutions of higher learning is generally a matter decided by the individual institution, some foreign countries have made ACT (and SAT) scores a legal criterion in deciding whether holders of American high school diplomas will be admitted at their public universities.


title: ACT (test)

text: The ACT is more widely used in the Midwestern, Rocky Mountain, and Southern United States, whereas the SAT is more popular on the East and West coasts. Recently, however, the ACT is being used more on the East Coast. Use of the ACT by colleges has risen as a result of various criticisms of the effectiveness and fairness of the SAT.


title: ACT (test)

text: The required portion of the ACT is divided into four multiple-choice subject tests: English, mathematics, reading, and science reasoning. Subject test scores range from 1 to 36; all scores are integers. The English, mathematics, and reading tests also have subscores ranging from 1 to 18 (the subject score is not the sum of the subscores). In addition, students taking the optional writing test receive a writing score ranging from 2 to 12 (this is a change from the previous 1–36 score range); the writing score does not affect the composite score. Prior to September 2015, there was a Combined English/Writing score, which was a 36-point combination of the 36-point English Test score and the 12-point Writing subscore. The ACT has eliminated the Combined English/writing score and has added two new combined scores: ELA (an average of the English, Reading, and Writing scores) and STEM (an average of the Math and Science scores). These changes for the writing, ELA, and STEM scores were effective starting with the September 2015 test.


title: ACT (test)

text: Each question answered correctly is worth one raw point, and there is no penalty for marking incorrect answers on the multiple-choice parts of the test; a student can answer all questions without a decrease in their score due to incorrect answers. This is parallel to several AP Tests eliminating the penalties for incorrect answers. To improve the result, students can retake the test: 55% of students who retake the ACT improve their scores, 22% score the same, and 23% see their scores decrease.


title: ACT (test)

text: The first section is the 45-minute English test covering usage/mechanics, sentence structure, and rhetorical skills. The 75-question test consists of five passages with various sections underlined on one side of the page and options to correct the underlined portions on the other side of the page. Specifically, questions focus on usage and mechanics – issues such as commas, apostrophes, (misplaced/dangling) modifiers, colons, and fragments and run-ons – as well as on rhetorical skills – style (clarity and brevity), strategy, transitions, and organization (sentences in a paragraph and paragraphs in a passage) – and sentence structure – constructing sentences in a stylistically and grammatically correct manner.


title: ACT (test)

text: The second section is a 60-minute, 60-question math test with the usual distribution of questions being approximately 14 covering pre-algebra, 10 elementary algebra, 9 intermediate algebra, 14 plane geometry, 9 coordinate geometry, and 4 elementary trigonometry questions. However, the distribution of question topics varies from test to test. The difficulty of questions usually increases as you get to higher question numbers. Calculators are permitted in this section only. The calculator requirements are stricter than the SAT's in that computer algebra systems (such as the TI-89) are not allowed; however, the ACT permits calculators with paper tapes, that make noise (but must be disabled), or that have power cords with certain "modifications" (i.e., disabling the mentioned features), which the SAT does not allow. Standard graphing calculators, such as the TI-83 and TI-84, are allowed. Within the TI-Nspire family, the standard and CX versions are allowed while the CX CAS is not. This is the only section that has five answer choices per question instead of four.


title: ACT (test)

text: The reading section is a 35-minute, 40-question test that consists of four sections, three of which contain one long prose passage and one which contains two shorter prose passages. The passages are representative of the levels and kinds of text commonly encountered in first-year college curriculum. This reading test assesses skills in three general categories: key ideas and details, craft and structure, and integration of knowledge and ideas. Test questions will usually ask students to derive meaning from texts referring to what is explicitly stated or by reasoning to determine implicit meanings. Specifically, questions will ask you to use referring and reasoning skills to determine main ideas; locate and interpret significant details; understand sequences of events; make comparisons; comprehend cause-effect relationships; determine the meaning of context-dependent words, phrases, and statements; draw generalizations; and analyze the author's or narrator's voice and method.


title: ACT (test)

text: The science test is a 35-minute, 40-question test. There are seven passages each followed by five to seven questions. The passages have three different formats: Data Representation, Research Summary, and Conflicting Viewpoints. While the format used to be very predictable (i.e. there were always three Data Representation passages with 5 questions following each, 3 Research Summary passages with six questions each, and one Conflicting Viewpoints passage with 7 questions), when the number of passages was reduced from 7 to 6, more variability in the number of each passage type started to appear. But so far, there is still always only one Conflicting Viewpoints passage. These changes are very recent, and the only reference to them so far is in the recently released practice test on the ACT website.


title: ACT (test)

text: The optional writing section, which is always administered at the end of the test, is 40 minutes (increasing from the original 30-minute time limit on the September 2015 test). While no particular essay structure is required, the essays must be in response to a given prompt; the prompts are about broad social issues (changing from the old prompts which were directly applicable to teenagers), and students must analyze three different perspectives given and show how their opinion relates to these perspectives. The essay does not affect the composite score or the English section score; it is only given as a separate writing score and is included in the ELA score. Two trained readers assign each essay subscores between 1 and 6 in four different categories: Ideas and Analysis, Development and Support, Organization, Language Use and Conventions. Scores of 0 are reserved for essays that are blank, off-topic, non-English, not written with a no. 2 pencil, or considered illegible after several attempts at reading. The subscores from the two different readers are summed to produce final domain scores from 2 to 12 (or 0) in each of the four categories. If the two readers' subscores differ by more than one point, then a senior third reader makes the final decision on the score. The four domain scores are combined through a process that has not been described to create a writing section score between 1 and 36. Note that the domain scores are not added to create the writing section score.


title: ACT (test)

text: Although the writing section is optional, many colleges require an essay score and will factor it into the admissions decision (but fewer than half of all colleges have this requirement).


title: ACT (test)

text: For the "enhanced" version of the ACT introduced in 1989, the mean score of each of the four tests, as well as the mean composite score, was scaled to be 18, with an intended standard error of measurement of 2 for the four test scores and 1 for the composite score. These statistics vary from year to year for current populations of ACT takers.


title: ACT (test)

text: The chart below summarizes each section and the average test score based on graduating high school seniors in 2022.


title: ACT (test)

text: The table below summarizes how many students achieved a composite score of 36 on the ACT between the years of 1997 and 2021.


title: ACT (test)

text: The ACT Assessment Student Report, at ACT.org, provides the typical ACT Composite averages for college and universities admission policies. They caution that "because admission policies vary across colleges, the score ranges should be considered rough guidelines." Following is a list of the average composite scores that typically are accepted at colleges or universities.


title: ACT (test)

text: The ACT is offered seven times a year in the United States and its territories, Puerto Rico, and Canada: in September, October, December, February, April, June, and July. (In New York State, the test is not offered in July.) In other locations, the ACT is offered five times a year: in September, October, December, April, and June. The ACT is offered only on Saturdays except for those with credible religious obligations, who may take the test on another day.


title: ACT (test)

text: The ACT is designed, administered, and scored so that there is no advantage to testing on one particular date.


title: ACT (test)

text: Candidates may choose either the ACT assessment ($63.00), or the ACT assessment plus writing ($88.00).


title: ACT (test)

text: Students with verifiable disabilities, including physical and learning disabilities, are eligible to take the test with accommodations. The standard time increase for students requiring additional time due to disabilities is 50%. Originally, the score sheet was labeled that additional time was granted due to a learning disability; however, this was ultimately dropped because it was deemed illegal under the Americans with Disabilities Act and could be perceived as an unfair designator of disability.


title: ACT (test)

text: Scores are sent to the student, their high school, and up to four colleges of the student's choice (optional).


title: ACT (test)

text: The ACT is generally regarded as being composed of somewhat easier questions versus the SAT, but the shorter time allotted to complete each section increases difficulty. The ACT allows:


title: ACT (test)

text: Comparatively, the SAT is structured such that the test taker is allowed at least one minute per question, on generally shorter sections (25 or fewer questions). Times may be adjusted as a matter of accommodation for certain disabilities or other impairments.


title: ACT (test)

text: Score reports provided to students taking the ACT test include the ranks (or cumulative percents) for each score and subscore received by the student. Each rank gives the percentage of recently tested students in the U.S. who scored at or below the given student's score. The following table shows the ACT national ranks


title: ACT (test)

text: The College Board (the developer of the SAT) and ACT, Inc. compared scores from about 600,000 students who were graduating in 2017 and who took both the SAT (2016 revision) and the ACT in 2016 and 2017. The following table shows, for each ACT composite score in the data set, the corresponding range of SAT total scores for students with the same percentile rank on each test. The most appropriate corresponding SAT score point for the given ACT score is also shown in the table.


title: ACT (test)

text: The data in this section pertains to the SAT prior to the 2016 redesign. Comparisons to SAT scores are not valid after the 2017 graduating class.


title: ACT (test)

text: Sixty percent—about 2.03 million students—of the 2017 high school graduating class took the ACT. For the graduating class of 2017, the average composite score was a 21.0. Of these test-takers, 46% were male and 52% were female, with 2% not reporting a gender. 2,760 students in the graduating class of 2017 received the highest ACT composite score of 36.


title: ACT (test)

text: The following chart shows, for each ACT score from 11 to 36, the corresponding ACT percentile and equivalent total SAT score or score range. (Concordance data for ACT scores less than 11 is not yet available for the current version of the SAT.) Note that ACT percentiles are defined as the percentage of test takers scoring at or below the given score.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: A nuclear electromagnetic pulse (nuclear EMP or NEMP) is a burst of electromagnetic radiation created by a nuclear explosion. The resulting rapidly varying electric and magnetic fields may couple with electrical and electronic systems to produce damaging current and voltage surges. The specific characteristics of a particular nuclear EMP event vary according to a number of factors, the most important of which is the altitude of the detonation.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The term "electromagnetic pulse" generally excludes optical (infrared, visible, ultraviolet) and ionizing (such as X-ray and gamma radiation) ranges. In military terminology, a nuclear warhead detonated tens to hundreds of miles above the Earth's surface is known as a high-altitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP) device. Effects of a HEMP device depend on factors including the altitude of the detonation, energy yield, gamma ray output, interactions with the Earth's magnetic field and electromagnetic shielding of targets.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The fact that an electromagnetic pulse is produced by a nuclear explosion was known in the earliest days of nuclear weapons testing. The magnitude of the EMP and the significance of its effects were not immediately realized.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: During the first United States nuclear test on 16 July 1945, electronic equipment was shielded because Enrico Fermi expected the electromagnetic pulse. The official technical history for that first nuclear test states, "All signal lines were completely shielded, in many cases doubly shielded. In spite of this many records were lost because of spurious pickup at the time of the explosion that paralyzed the recording equipment." During British nuclear testing in 1952–1953, instrumentation failures were attributed to "radioflash", which was their term for EMP.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The first openly reported observation of the unique aspects of high-altitude nuclear EMP occurred during the helium balloon-lofted Yucca nuclear test of the Hardtack I series on 28 April 1958. In that test, the electric field measurements from the 1.7 kiloton weapon exceeded the range to which the test instruments were adjusted and was estimated to be about five times the limits to which the oscilloscopes were set.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The Yucca EMP was initially positive-going, whereas low-altitude bursts were negative-going pulses. Also, the polarization of the Yucca EMP signal was horizontal, whereas low-altitude nuclear EMP was vertically polarized. In spite of these many differences, the unique EMP results were dismissed as a possible wave propagation anomaly.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The high-altitude nuclear tests of 1962, as discussed below, confirmed the unique results of the Yucca high-altitude test and increased the awareness of high-altitude nuclear EMP beyond the original group of defense scientists. The larger scientific community became aware of the significance of the EMP problem after a three-article series on nuclear EMP was published in 1981 by William J. Broad in "Science".


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In July 1962, the US carried out the Starfish Prime test, exploding a bomb above the mid-Pacific Ocean. This demonstrated that the effects of a high-altitude nuclear explosion were much larger than had been previously calculated. Starfish Prime made those effects known to the public by causing electrical damage in Hawaii, about away from the detonation point, disabling approximately 300 streetlights, triggering numerous burglar alarms and damaging a microwave link.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Starfish Prime was the first success in the series of United States high-altitude nuclear tests in 1962 known as Operation Fishbowl. Subsequent tests gathered more data on the high-altitude EMP phenomenon.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The Bluegill Triple Prime and Kingfish high-altitude nuclear tests of October and November 1962 in Operation Fishbowl provided data that was clear enough to enable physicists to accurately identify the physical mechanisms behind the electromagnetic pulses.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The EMP damage of the Starfish Prime test was quickly repaired due, in part, to the fact that the EMP over Hawaii was relatively weak compared to what could be produced with a more intense pulse, and in part due to the relative ruggedness (compared to today) of Hawaii's electrical and electronic infrastructure in 1962.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The relatively small magnitude of the Starfish Prime EMP in Hawaii (about 5.6 kilovolts/metre) and the relatively small amount of damage (for example, only 1% to 3% of streetlights extinguished) led some scientists to believe, in the early days of EMP research, that the problem might not be significant. Later calculations showed that if the Starfish Prime warhead had been detonated over the northern continental United States, the magnitude of the EMP would have been much larger (22 to 30 kV/m) because of the greater strength of the Earth's magnetic field over the United States, as well as its different orientation at high latitudes. These calculations, combined with the accelerating reliance on EMP-sensitive microelectronics, heightened awareness that EMP could be a significant problem.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In 1962, the Soviet Union performed three EMP-producing nuclear tests in space over Kazakhstan, the last in the "Soviet Project K nuclear tests". Although these weapons were much smaller (300 kiloton) than the Starfish Prime test, they were over a populated, large landmass and at a location where the Earth's magnetic field was greater. The damage caused by the resulting EMP was reportedly much greater than in Starfish Prime. The geomagnetic storm–like E3 pulse from Test 184 induced a current surge in a long underground power line that caused a fire in the power plant in the city of Karaganda.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the level of this damage was communicated informally to US scientists. For a few years US and Russian scientists collaborated on the HEMP phenomenon. Funding was secured to enable Russian scientists to report on some of the Soviet EMP results in international scientific journals. As a result, formal documentation of some of the EMP damage in Kazakhstan exists but is still sparse in the open scientific literature.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: For one of the K Project tests, Soviet scientists instrumented a section of telephone line in the area that they expected to be affected by the pulse. The monitored telephone line was divided into sub-lines of in length, separated by repeaters. Each sub-line was protected by fuses and by gas-filled overvoltage protectors. The EMP from the 22 October (K-3) nuclear test (also known as Test 184) blew all of the fuses and destroyed all of the overvoltage protectors in all of the sub-lines.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Published reports, including a 1998 IEEE article, have stated that there were significant problems with ceramic insulators on overhead electrical power lines during the tests. A 2010 technical report written for Oak Ridge National Laboratory stated that "Power line insulators were damaged, resulting in a short circuit on the line and some lines detaching from the poles and falling to the ground."


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Nuclear EMP is a complex multi-pulse, usually described in terms of three components, as defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The E1 pulse is a very fast component of nuclear EMP. E1 is a brief but intense electromagnetic field that induces high voltages in electrical conductors. E1 causes most of its damage by causing electrical breakdown voltages to be exceeded. E1 can destroy computers and communications equipment and it changes too quickly (nanoseconds) for ordinary surge protectors to provide effective protection from it. Fast-acting surge protectors (such as those using TVS diodes) will block the E1 pulse.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: E1 is produced when gamma radiation from the nuclear detonation ionizes (strips electrons from) atoms in the upper atmosphere. This is known as the Compton effect and the resulting current is called the "Compton current". The electrons travel in a generally downward direction at relativistic speeds (more than 90 per cent of the speed of light). In the absence of a magnetic field, this would produce a large, radial pulse of electric current propagating outward from the burst location confined to the source region (the region over which the gamma photons are attenuated). The Earth's magnetic field exerts a force on the electron flow at a right angle to both the field and the particles' original vector, which deflects the electrons and leads to synchrotron radiation. Because the outward traveling gamma pulse is propagating at the speed of light, the synchrotron radiation of the Compton electrons adds coherently, leading to a radiated electromagnetic signal. This interaction produces a large, brief, pulse.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Several physicists worked on the problem of identifying the mechanism of the HEMP E1 pulse. The mechanism was finally identified by Conrad Longmire of Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1963.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Longmire gives numerical values for a typical case of E1 pulse produced by a second-generation nuclear weapon such as those of Operation Fishbowl. The typical gamma rays given off by the weapon have an energy of about 2MeV (mega electron-volts). The gamma rays transfer about half of their energy to the ejected free electrons, giving an energy of about 1MeV.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In a vacuum and absent a magnetic field, the electrons would travel with a current density of tens of amperes per square metre. Because of the downward tilt of the Earth's magnetic field at high latitudes, the area of peak field strength is a U-shaped region to the equatorial side of the detonation. As shown in the diagram, for nuclear detonations in the Northern Hemisphere, this U-shaped region is south of the detonation point. Near the equator, where the Earth's magnetic field is more nearly horizontal, the E1 field strength is more nearly symmetrical around the burst location.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: At geomagnetic field strengths typical of the mid-latitudes, these initial electrons spiral around the magnetic field lines with a typical radius of about . These initial electrons are stopped by collisions with air molecules at an average distance of about . This means that most of the electrons are stopped by collisions with air molecules before completing a full spiral around the field lines.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: This interaction of the negatively charged electrons with the magnetic field radiates a pulse of electromagnetic energy. The pulse typically rises to its peak value in some five nanoseconds. Its magnitude typically decays by half within 200 nanoseconds. (By the IEC definition, this E1 pulse ends 1000 nanoseconds after it begins.) This process occurs simultaneously on about 10 electrons.  The simultaneous action of the electrons causes the resulting pulse from each electron to radiate coherently, adding to produce a single large amplitude, but narrow, radiated pulse.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Secondary collisions cause subsequent electrons to lose energy before they reach ground level. The electrons generated by these subsequent collisions have so little energy that they do not contribute significantly to the E1 pulse.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: These 2 MeV gamma rays typically produce an E1 pulse near ground level at moderately high latitudes that peaks at about 50,000 volts per metre. The ionization process in the mid-stratosphere causes this region to become an electrical conductor, a process that blocks the production of further electromagnetic signals and causes the field strength to saturate at about 50,000 volts per metre. The strength of the E1 pulse depends upon the number and intensity of the gamma rays and upon the rapidity of the gamma-ray burst. Strength is also somewhat dependent upon altitude.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: There are reports of "super-EMP" nuclear weapons that are able to exceed the 50,000 volts per metre limit by unspecified mechanisms. The reality and possible construction details of these weapons are classified and are, therefore, unconfirmed in the open scientific literature


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The E2 component is generated by scattered gamma rays and inelastic gammas produced by neutrons. This E2 component is an "intermediate time" pulse that, by IEC definition, lasts from about one microsecond to one second after the explosion. E2 has many similarities to lightning, although lightning-induced E2 may be considerably larger than a nuclear E2. Because of the similarities and the widespread use of lightning protection technology, E2 is generally considered to be the easiest to protect against.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: According to the United States EMP Commission, the main problem with E2 is that it immediately follows E1, which may have damaged the devices that would normally protect against E2.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The EMP Commission Executive Report of 2004 states, "In general, it would not be an issue for critical infrastructure systems since they have existing protective measures for defense against occasional lightning strikes. The most significant risk is synergistic because the E2 component follows a small fraction of a second after the first component's insult, which has the ability to impair or destroy many protective and control features. The energy associated with the second component thus may be allowed to pass into and damage systems."


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The E3 component is different from E1 and E2. E3 is a much slower pulse, lasting tens to hundreds of seconds. It is caused by the nuclear detonation's temporary distortion of the Earth's magnetic field. The E3 component has similarities to a geomagnetic storm. Like a geomagnetic storm, E3 can produce geomagnetically induced currents in long electrical conductors, damaging components such as power line transformers.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Because of the similarity between solar-induced geomagnetic storms and nuclear E3, it has become common to refer to solar-induced geomagnetic storms as "Solar EMP". "Solar EMP" does not include E1 or E2 components.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Factors that control weapon effectiveness include altitude, yield, construction details, target distance, intervening geographical features, and local strength of the Earth's magnetic field.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The altitude indicated above is greater than that of the International Space Station and many low Earth orbit satellites. Large weapons could have a dramatic impact on satellite operations and communications such as occurred during Operation Fishbowl. The damaging effects on orbiting satellites are usually due to factors other than EMP. In the Starfish Prime nuclear test, most damage was to the satellites' solar panels while passing through radiation belts created by the explosion.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: For detonations within the atmosphere, the situation is more complex. Within the range of gamma ray deposition, simple laws no longer hold as the air is ionised and there are other EMP effects, such as a radial electric field due to the separation of Compton electrons from air molecules, together with other complex phenomena. For a surface burst, absorption of gamma rays by air would limit the range of gamma-ray deposition to approximately , while for a burst in the lower-density air at high altitudes, the range of deposition would be far greater.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Typical nuclear weapon yields used during Cold War planning for EMP attacks were in the range of . This is roughly 50 to 500 times the size of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs. Physicists have testified at United States Congressional hearings that weapons with yields of or less can produce a large EMP.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The EMP at a fixed distance from an explosion increases at most as the square root of the yield (see the illustration to the right). This means that although a weapon has only of the energy release of the Starfish Prime test, the EMP will be at least as powerful. Since the E1 component of nuclear EMP depends on the prompt gamma-ray output, which was only 0.1% of yield in Starfish Prime but can be of yield in low-yield pure nuclear fission weapons, a bomb can easily be as powerful as the Starfish Prime at producing EMP.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The total prompt gamma-ray energy in a fission explosion is of the yield, but in a detonation the triggering explosive around the bomb core absorbs about of the prompt gamma rays, so the output is only about of the yield. In the thermonuclear Starfish Prime the fission yield was less than 100% and the thicker outer casing absorbed about 95% of the prompt gamma rays from the pusher around the fusion stage. Thermonuclear weapons are also less efficient at producing EMP because the first stage can pre-ionize the air which becomes conductive and hence rapidly shorts out the Compton currents generated by the fusion stage. Hence, small pure fission weapons with thin cases are far more efficient at causing EMP than most megaton bombs.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: This analysis, however, only applies to the fast E1 and E2 components of nuclear EMP. The geomagnetic storm-like E3 component of nuclear EMP is more closely proportional to the total energy yield of the weapon.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In nuclear EMP all of the components of the electromagnetic pulse are generated outside of the weapon.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: For high-altitude nuclear explosions, much of the EMP is generated far from the detonation (where the gamma radiation from the explosion hits the upper atmosphere). This electric field from the EMP is remarkably uniform over the large area affected.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: According to the standard reference text on nuclear weapons effects published by the U.S. Department of Defense, "The peak electric field (and its amplitude) at the Earth's surface from a high-altitude burst will depend upon the explosion yield, the height of the burst, the location of the observer, and the orientation with respect to the geomagnetic field. As a general rule, however, the field strength may be expected to be tens of kilovolts per metre over most of the area receiving the EMP radiation."


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The text also states that, "...over most of the area affected by the EMP the electric field strength on the ground would exceed 0.5"E". For yields of less than a few hundred kilotons, this would not necessarily be true because the field strength at the Earth's tangent could be substantially less than 0.5"E"."


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In other words, the electric field strength in the entire area that is affected by the EMP will be fairly uniform for weapons with a large gamma-ray output. For smaller weapons, the electric field may fall at a faster rate as distance increases.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Also known as an "Enhanced-EMP", a super-electromagnetic pulse is a relatively new type of warfare in which a nuclear weapon is designed to create a far greater electromagnetic pulse in comparison to standard nuclear weapons of mass destruction. These weapons capitalize on the E1 pulse component of a detonation involving gamma rays, creating an EMP yield of potentially up to 200,000 volts per meter. For decades, numerous countries have experimented with the creation of such weapons, most notably China and Russia.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: According to a statement made in writing by the Chinese military, the country has super-EMPs and has discussed their use in attacking Taiwan. Such an attack would debilitate information systems in the nation, allowing China to move in and attack it directly using soldiers. The Taiwanese military has subsequently confirmed Chinese possession of super-EMPs and their possible destruction to power grids.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In addition to Taiwan, the possible implications of attacking the United States with these weapons was examined by China. While the United States also possess nuclear weapons, the country has not experimented with super-EMPs and is hypothetically highly vulnerable to any future attacks by nations. This is due to the country's reliance on computers to control much of the government and economy. Abroad, U.S. aircraft carriers stationed within a reasonable range of an exploding bomb could potentially be subject to complete destruction of missiles on board, as well as telecommunication systems that would allow them to communicate with nearby vessels and controllers on land.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Since the Cold War, Russia has experimented with the design and effects of EMP bombs. More recently, the country has performed several cyberattacks on the United States, which some analysts believe suggests possible future nationwide blackouts caused by super-EMPs, since Russia is known to possess them. Along with ordinary warheads equipped with Super-EMP capabilities, Russia has been developing hypersonic missiles that, in 2021, are far more difficult for U.S. defenses in the form of radars and satellites to detect in a timely manner. This method makes the act of nuclear deterrence, which is a key strategy for the United States in preventing nuclear war, nearly impossible.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Plans of a device that is capable of placing a nuclear weapon into space were first introduced by the Soviet Union in 1962 when they developed a system, known as Fractional Orbital Bombardment System, to deliver nuclear weapons from above the Earth's atmosphere. Compared to super-EMPs that target ground operations, proposals have been made by Russia to develop satellites supplied with similar EMP capabilities. This would call for detonations up to above the Earth's surface, with the potential to disrupt the electronic systems of U.S. satellites suspended in orbit around the planet, many of which are vital for deterrence and alerting the country of possible incoming missiles.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: An energetic EMP can temporarily upset or permanently damage electronic equipment by generating high voltage and high current surges; semiconductor components are particularly at risk. The effects of damage can range from imperceptible to the eye, to devices literally blowing apart. Cables, even if short, can act as antennas to transmit pulse energy to the equipment.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Older, vacuum tube (valve)-based equipment is generally much less vulnerable to nuclear EMP than solid state equipment, which is much more susceptible to damage by large, brief voltage and current surges. Soviet Cold War-era military aircraft often had avionics based on vacuum tubes because solid-state capabilities were limited and vacuum-tube gear was believed to be more likely to survive.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Other components in vacuum tube circuitry can be damaged by EMP. Vacuum tube equipment was damaged in the 1962 testing. The solid state PRC-77 VHF manpackable two-way radio survived extensive EMP testing. The earlier PRC-25, nearly identical except for a vacuum tube final amplification stage, was tested in EMP simulators, but was not certified to remain fully functional.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Equipment that is running at the time of an EMP is more vulnerable. Even a low-energy pulse has access to the power source, and all parts of the system are illuminated by the pulse. For example, a high-current arcing path may be created across the power supply, burning out some device along that path. Such effects are hard to predict and require testing to assess potential vulnerabilities.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Many nuclear detonations have taken place using aerial bombs. The B-29 aircraft that delivered the nuclear weapons at Hiroshima and Nagasaki did not lose power from electrical damage, because electrons (ejected from the air by gamma rays) are stopped quickly in normal air for bursts below roughly , so they are not significantly deflected by the Earth's magnetic field.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: If the aircraft carrying the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs had been within the intense nuclear radiation zone when the bombs exploded over those cities, then they would have suffered effects from the charge separation (radial) EMP. But this only occurs within the severe blast radius for detonations below about altitude.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: During Operation Fishbowl, EMP disruptions were suffered aboard a KC-135 photographic aircraft flying from the detonations at burst altitudes. The vital electronics were less sophisticated than today's and the aircraft was able to land safely.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Modern aircraft are heavily reliant on solid state electronics which are very susceptible to EMP blasts. Therefore, airline authorities are creating high intensity radiated fields (HIRF) requirements for new air planes to help prevent the chance of crashes caused by EMPs or electromagnetic interference (EMI). To do this all parts of the airplane must be conductive. This is the main shield from EMP blasts as long as there are no holes for the waves to penetrate into the interior of the airplane. Also, by insulating some of the main computers inside the plane also add an extra layer of protection from EMP blasts.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: An EMP would probably not affect most cars, despite modern cars' heavy use of electronics, because cars' electronic circuits and cabling are likely too short to be affected. In addition, cars' metallic frames provide some protection. However, even a small percentage of cars breaking down due to an electronic malfunction would cause temporary traffic jams.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: An EMP has a smaller effect the shorter the length of an electrical conductor; though other factors affect the vulnerability of electronics as well, so no cutoff length determines whether some piece of equipment will survive. However, small electronic devices, such as wristwatches and cell phones, would most likely withstand an EMP.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: This is true only if they are not plugged into or in operation. Electronics plugged into the grid could see a massive surge and end up sustaining permanent damage to the devices similarly, if there was a lightning strike. EMPs could also blow all the breakers in a home and damage devices not connected to a surge protector. Or if the house has a proper whole house surge protector that can negate the effects of an EMP attack, and other protective devices that will protect the house.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: Though electric potential difference can accumulate in electrical conductors after an EMP, it will generally not flow out into human or animal bodies, and thus contact is safe.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: EMPs of sufficient magnitude and length have the potential to affect the human body. Possible side effects include cellular mutations, nervous system damages, internal burns, brain damage, and temporary problems with thinking and memory. However, this would be in extreme cases like being near the center of the blast and being exposed to a large amount of radiation and EMP waves.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: A study found that exposure to 200–400 pulses of EMP caused the leaking of vessels in the brain, leakage that has been linked to small problems with thinking and memory recollection. These effects could last up to 12 hours after the exposure. Due to the long exposure time needed to see any of these effects it is unlikely that anyone would see these effects even if exposed for a small period of time. Also, the human body will see little effect as signals are passed chemically and not electrically making it hard to be affected by EMP waves.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The United States EMP Commission was created by the United States Congress in 2001. The commission is formally known as the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The Commission brought together notable scientists and technologists to compile several reports. In 2008, the Commission released the "Critical National Infrastructures Report". This report describes the likely consequences of a nuclear EMP on civilian infrastructure. Although this report covered the United States, most of the information is applicable to other industrialized countries. The 2008 report was a follow-up to a more generalized report issued by the commission in 2004.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In written testimony delivered to the United States Senate in 2005, an EMP Commission staff member reported:


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The United States EMP Commission determined that long-known protections are almost completely absent in the civilian infrastructure of the United States and that large parts of US military services were less-protected against EMP than during the Cold War. In public statements, the Commission recommended making electronic equipment and electrical components resistant to EMP – and maintaining spare parts inventories that would enable prompt repairs. The United States EMP Commission did not look at other nations.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In 2011, the Defense Science Board published a report about the ongoing efforts to defend critical military and civilian systems against EMP and other nuclear weapons effects.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The United States military services developed, and in some cases published, hypothetical EMP attack scenarios.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In 2016, the Los Alamos Laboratory started phase 0 of a multi-year study (through to phase 3) to investigate EMPs which prepared the strategy to be followed for the rest of the study.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In 2017, the US Department of Energy published the "DOE Electromagnetic Pulse Resilience Action Plan", Edwin Boston published a dissertation on the topic and the EMP Commission published "Assessing the threat from electromagnetic pulse (EMP)". The EMP commission was closed in summer 2017. They found that earlier reports had underestimated the effects of an EMP attack on the national infrastructure, highlighted issues with communications from the DoD due to the classified nature of the material, and recommended that the DHS instead of going to the DOE for guidance and direction should directly cooperate with the more knowledgeable parts of the DOE. Several reports are in process of being released to the general public.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The problem of protecting civilian infrastructure from electromagnetic pulse has been intensively studied throughout the European Union, and in particular by the United Kingdom.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: As of 2017, several power utility companies in the United States had been involved in a three-year research program on the impact of HEMP to the United States power grid led by an industry non-profit organization, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: In 2018, the US Department of Homeland Security released the Strategy for Protecting and Preparing the Homeland against Threats from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) and Geomagnetic Disturbance (GMD), which was the Department’s first articulation of a holistic, long-term, partnership-based approach to protecting critical infrastructure and preparing to respond and recover from potentially catastrophic electromagnetic incidents. Progress on that front is described in the EMP Program Status Report.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: NuScale, the small modular nuclear reactor company from Oregon, US, has made their reactor resistant to EMP.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: By 1981, a number of articles on nuclear electromagnetic pulse in the popular press spread knowledge of the nuclear EMP phenomenon into the popular culture. EMP has been subsequently used in a wide variety of fiction and other aspects of popular culture.


title: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

text: The popular media often depict EMP effects incorrectly, causing misunderstandings among the public and even professionals, and official efforts have been made in the United States to set the record straight. The United States Space Command commissioned science educator Bill Nye to narrate and produce a video called "Hollywood vs. EMP" so that inaccurate Hollywood fiction would not confuse those who must deal with real EMP events. The video is not available to the general public.


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title: Madeline Miller

text: Madeline Miller (born July 24, 1978) is an American novelist, author of "The Song of Achilles" (2011) and "Circe" (2018). Miller spent ten years writing "The Song of Achilles" while she worked as a teacher of Latin and Greek. The novel tells the story of the love between the mythological figures Achilles and Patroclus; it won the Orange Prize for Fiction, making Miller the fourth debut novelist to win the prize. She is a 2019 recipient of the Alex Awards.


title: Madeline Miller

text: Miller was born on July 24, 1978, in Boston and grew up in New York City and Philadelphia. After graduating from Brown University with a bachelor's and master's in Classics (2000 and 2001, respectively), Miller then went on to teach Latin, Greek, and Shakespeare to high school students. She also studied for a year at the University of Chicago's Committee on Social Thought working towards a PhD and from 2009 to 2010 at the Yale School of Drama for an MFA in Dramaturgy and Dramatic Criticism. Miller lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts teaching and writing.


title: Madeline Miller

text: Miller told a reporter from "The Guardian" that her inspirations include David Mitchell, Lorrie Moore, Anne Carson, and Virgil.


title: Madeline Miller

text: Miller expressed "hate" and "visceral disgust" towards Ayn Rand's book "The Fountainhead". As she herself indicated, she hates the "ideas behind it". Instead, she prefers books by James Herriot and Chinua Achebe.


title: Madeline Miller

text: "The Song of Achilles", Miller's debut novel, was released in September 2011. The book took her ten years to write. Set in Greece, the novel tells the story from Patroclus' point of view and the bond that grew between him and Achilles. The novel won the 17th annual Orange Prize for Fiction.


title: Madeline Miller

text: "Circe", Miller's second novel, was released on April 10, 2018. The book is a modern reimagining told from the perspective of Circe, an enchantress in Greek mythology who is featured in Homer's "Odyssey." "Circe" was ranked the second-greatest book of the 2010s by "Paste". Tutor House ranked Circe in its top books for Classics students in 2021. An 8-part miniseries adaptation of the book has been greenlit for HBO Max. Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver are set to write and produce the adaptation.


title: Madeline Miller

text: A short story originally released as an e-book in 2013. It was later released in hardback in March 2022. The novel is a retelling of the Greek myth "Pygmalion" from the perspective of the sculptor's statue.


title: Madeline Miller

text: A short story contained within "The Song of Achilles", published on August 7th 2012. It takes from the perspective of Philoctetes, how he suffered his snake bite, and his abandonment by his companions. Much of the story takes place as a dialogue between Philoctetes and an imaginary Heracles, though other characters from "The Song of Achilles" also appear in it.


title: Madeline Miller

text: In December 2021, Miller announced via an Instagram post that she was working on her new novel, about the goddess Persephone.


title: Nasi goreng

text: Nasi goreng () is a Southeast Asian fried rice dish, usually cooked with pieces of meat and vegetables. One of Indonesia's national dishes, it is also eaten in Malay-speaking communities in countries such as Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, and has gained popularity in Sri Lanka through migrations from the Malay Archipelago, in countries like Suriname via Indonesian immigrant communities, and in the Netherlands through its colonial ties with Indonesia. "Nasi goreng" is distinguished from other Asian fried rice preparations by its distinct smoky aroma, and caramelised yet savoury undertones of flavour. There is no single defined recipe for "nasi goreng", and its composition and preparation varies greatly from household to household.


title: Nasi goreng

text: "Nasi goreng" has long been considered an important staple of Indonesian cuisine. In 2018, it is officially recognized by the Indonesian government as one of the country's five national dishes. A ubiquitous meal throughout Indonesia, particularly for breakfast, it can be enjoyed in simple versions from a tin plate at a roadside food stall, eaten on porcelain in restaurants, or collected from the buffet tables at dinner parties in urban cities like Jakarta. Premixed packaged seasonings for "nasi goreng" are widely available for purchase, and microwave-heated frozen versions of "nasi goreng" may be found in convenience store outlets throughout Indonesia.


title: Nasi goreng

text: The term "nasi goreng" means "fried rice" in both the Indonesian and Malay languages. The Cambridge English Dictionary defines "nasi goreng" as an "Indonesian rice dish with pieces of meat and vegetables added", although this dish is just as common in neighbouring Malaysia and Singapore as a cultural staple.


title: Nasi goreng

text: Similar to other fried rice recipes in Asia, some commentators have suggested that Indonesian-style "nasi goreng" can trace its origin from Southern Chinese fried rice, and was likely developed as a way to avoid wasting rice. The Chinese influences upon Indonesian cuisine can be seen in "mie goreng" that appeared simultaneously with the introduction of the stir frying technique that required the use of a Chinese wok. In China, the stir frying technique became increasingly popular during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE). The common soy sauce has its origin in 2nd century CE China, however, "kecap manis" (sweet soy sauce) was developed in Indonesia with a generous addition of local palm sugar.


title: Nasi goreng

text: However, it is unclear when the people of present-day Indonesia began to adopt the practice of cooking fried rice. The trade between China and the Indonesian archipelago flourished from the era of Srivijaya around the 10th century and intensified in the Majapahit era around the 15th century. By that time Chinese immigrants had begun to settle in the archipelago, bringing along with them their culture and cuisine. Chinese people usually favor freshly cooked hot food, and it is taboo to throw away uneaten foodstuffs in their culture. As a result, the previous day's leftover rice was often recooked in the morning. Gregory Rodgers suggested that frying the rice could prevent the propagation of dangerous microbes, especially in pre-refrigeration technology in Indonesia, and also avoid the need to throw out precious food.


title: Nasi goreng

text: Writer Fadly Rahman from Padjajaran University claimed that there is no historical evidence that proves that "nasi goreng" is native to Indonesia, and suggested another theory besides Chinese influence: that "nasi goreng" was actually inspired by a Middle Eastern dish called "pilaf", which is rice cooked in seasoned broth. A particular variant, Betawi-style "nasi goreng kambing" (goat fried rice), uses mutton or goat meat (traditionally favoured by Arab Indonesians), rich spices and "minyak samin" (ghee), all typical ingredients used in the preparation of Middle-eastern pilaf.


title: Nasi goreng

text: "Nasi goreng" was considered as part of the Indies culture during the colonial period. The mention of "nasi goreng" appears in colonial literature of Dutch East Indies, such as in the "Student Hidjo" by Marco Kartodikoromo, a serial story published in Sinar Hindia newspaper in 1918.


title: Nasi goreng

text: It was mentioned in a 1925 Dutch cookbook "Groot Nieuw Volledig Oost Indisch Kookboek". Trade between the Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies during that time has increased the popularity of Indonesian-style "nasi goreng" to the world.


title: Nasi goreng

text: After the independence of Indonesia, "nasi goreng" was popularly considered as a national dish, albeit unofficial. Its simplicity and versatility has contributed to its popularity and made it as a staple among Indonesian households—colloquially considered as the most "democratic" dish since the absence of an exact and rigid recipe has allowed people to do anything they want with it. "Nasi goreng" that is commonly consumed daily in Indonesian households were considered as the quintessential dish that represents an Indonesian family. It is in the menu, introduced, offered, and served in Indonesian Theater Restaurant within the Indonesian pavilion at the 1964 New York World's Fair. Howard Palfrey Jones, the US ambassador to Indonesia during the last years of Sukarno's reign in the mid-1960s, in his memoir "Indonesia: The Possible Dream", said that he liked "nasi goreng". He described his fondness for "nasi goreng" cooked by Hartini, one of Sukarno's wives, and praised it as the most delicious "nasi goreng" he ever tasted.


title: Nasi goreng

text: In 2018, "nasi goreng" was officially recognized by the Indonesian government as one of the country's national dishes along with four others: soto, "sate", rendang, and gado-gado.


title: Nasi goreng

text: "Nasi goreng" is distinguished from other Asian fried rice recipes by its aromatic, earthy and smoky flavour. "Nasi goreng" is traditionally served at home for breakfast and it is traditionally made out of leftover rice from the night before. The texture of leftover cooked rice is considered more suitable for "nasi goreng" than that of freshly cooked rice which may be too moist and soft to withstand frying in a wok.


title: Nasi goreng

text: Other than cooked rice, nasi goreng consists of at least three components; ingredients (e.g. egg, shrimp, meat, cooking oil), "bumbu" spice or seasoning (e.g. garlic, shallot, salt, chili pepper), and condiments (e.g. "bawang goreng", krupuk, "acar" pickles, slices of fresh cucumber and tomato). The combination of spices and ingredients in different ratio creates myriad variation of flavours.


title: Nasi goreng

text: Typical seasonings for "nasi goreng" include but are not limited to salt, chilli pepper, spring onions, turmeric, palm sugar, "bumbu" paste made from ground garlic and onion or shallot, "kecap manis" (sweet soy sauce), shrimp paste, black pepper, fish sauce, powdered broth and so on. Eggs may be scrambled into the rice during the cooking process, or served as accompaniments in the form of sunny side up eggs, omelettes, and boiled eggs. Scraps of leftovers from a prepared dish, perhaps chicken or beef pieces, may also be used.


title: Nasi goreng

text: "Nasi goreng" often adds condiments or garnishes as add-ons. Fried shallot and traditional crackers are often sprinkled upon to give crispy texture, slices of cucumber and tomato for garnishing and to give freshness in an otherwise oily dish, a fried egg is often placed on top of the dish to add savouriness, while chili paste is to add the zesty spiciness according to one's preference. Some common condiments are:


title: Nasi goreng

text: There is no single defined recipe for "nasi goreng", as every fried rice dish with certain mixtures, additions, ingredients, and toppings could lead to another recipe of "nasi goreng". There is an innumerable variety of fried rice recipes described as "nasi goreng" in the nations of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. While many versions are perceived as regionally specific, some recipes share common elements that transcends regional and national boundaries: examples include the use of the term "kampung" ("village" in Indonesian and Malay), shrimp paste ("terasi" in Indonesian, "belacan" in Malay), chilli-based "sambal" relishes, salted fish, and the technique of wrapping fried rice in an omelette.


title: Nasi goreng

text: According to Dwi Larasatie, an Indonesian culinary expert from the Gadjah Mada University, there are 104 types of "nasi goreng" found throughout Indonesia. All of them are different because they have special spices that characterise the region. Of that 104 "nasi goreng" variants are classified into three groups; "nasi goreng" whose origins can be clearly known (36 types), then some developed "nasi goreng" because it cannot be traced to the area of origin (59 types), and there are 9 types of "nasi goreng" whose basic ingredients are not only rice, but also contains additional mixture such as noodles, barley, corn, etc.


title: Nasi goreng

text: In most parts of Indonesia, "nasi goreng" is cooked with ample amounts of "kecap manis" (sweet soy sauce) that creates a golden brownish colour, and the flavour is mildly sweet. A typical preparation of "nasi goreng" may involve stir frying rice in a small amount of cooking oil or margarine; seasoned with an ample amount of "kecap manis" and ground shrimp paste, and cooked with other ingredients, particularly eggs and chicken. However, in other places such as Eastern Indonesia (Sulawesi and Maluku), the sweet soy sauce is usually absent and is replaced by bottled tomato and chili sauce, creating reddish-coloured "nasi goreng". This variant is called "nasi goreng merah" (red fried rice) or "nasi goreng Makassar" after the South Sulawesi capital. Some variants of "nasi goreng", such as salted fish or "teri Medan" (Medan's anchovy) "nasi goreng", do not use "kecap manis" at all, creating a lighter colour similar to Chinese fried rice or Japanese "chahan".


title: Nasi goreng

text: The basic ingredients of "nasi goreng" are rice and sliced or ground "bumbu" (spices) mixture of shallot, garlic, pepper, salt, tomato ketchup, sambal or chili sauce, and usually sweet soy sauce. Some variants may add "saus tiram" (oyster sauce), "ang-ciu" (Chinese cooking red wine), "kecap ikan" (fish sauce), or "kecap inggris" (like Worcestershire sauce). Typically in Indonesian households, the ingredients of "nasi goreng" prepared for daily breakfast consist of leftovers of the previous day's meals preserved in the refrigerator, with fresh vegetables and eggs added.


title: Nasi goreng

text: Many variants are named after their main ingredients, others after their city or region of origin. Specific examples of "nasi goreng" include:


title: Nasi goreng

text: Indonesians also called foreign versions of fried rice simply as "nasi goreng", thus "nasi goreng Hongkong" and "nasi goreng Tionghoa/China" refer to Chinese fried rice, while "nasi goreng Jepang" refer to "yakimeshi" or "chahan".


title: Nasi goreng

text: "Nasi goreng" is a commonly popular household dish in Malaysia. It is also can be found in restaurants and food courts in the country.


title: Nasi goreng

text: In Singapore, "nasi goreng" is one of the most popular rice dishes with many variations including sausage, stinky beans, seafood, beef and chicken. Some of the variants include:


title: Nasi goreng

text: Singapore has an ethnic Chinese majority that has influenced local cuisine. Chinese fried rice recipes, such as Yeung Chow fried rice also popular throughout in Singapore.


title: Nasi goreng

text: Nasi goreng is a common rice dish in Brunei. Nasi goreng ikan masin or "fried rice with salted fish" is the most popular version.


title: Nasi goreng

text: Nasi goreng () is adopted into Sri Lankan cuisine through cultural influences from the Sri Lankan Malays. It is prepared using a variety of ingredients including spices, soy sauce, oyster sauce, ginger, white onion, shrimp, cucumber and prawns.


title: Nasi goreng

text: In the Netherlands, Indonesian cuisine is common due to the historical colonial ties with Indonesia. Indo-Dutch and Indonesians cater Indonesian food both in restaurants and as take-away. Also, take-away versions of "nasi goreng" are plentiful in "toko" Asian grocery shop and supermarkets. Supermarkets also commonly carry several brands of spice mix for "nasi goreng", along with "krupuk" and other Indonesian cooking supplies. Chinese take-aways and restaurants have also adapted "nasi goreng", plus a selection of other Indonesian dishes, but spice them Cantonese style. In Flanders, the name "nasi goreng" is often used for any Asian style of fried rice. Distinctive version of "nasi goreng" has been developed, such as Javanese-Suriname version of the dish. In the Netherlands, "nasi goreng" has been developed into a snack called "nasischijf" (Dutch for "nasi disk"), it is a Dutch deep-fried fast food, consisting of "nasi goreng" inside a crust of breadcrumbs.


title: Nasi goreng

text: A typical type of nasi goreng, created in the Dutch Indies by Indo-Dutch or Dutch and still eaten in The Netherlands today is made with butter and bacon or other types of pork at its base.


title: Nasi goreng

text: "Nasi goreng" can be eaten at any time of day, and many Indonesians, Malaysians and Singaporeans eat "nasi goreng" for breakfast whether at home or at dining establishments. As a main meal, "nasi goreng" may be accompanied by additional items such as a fried egg, "ayam goreng" (fried chicken), satay, vegetables, seafood dishes such as fried shrimp or fish, and "kerupuk" crackers.


title: Nasi goreng

text: "Nasi goreng" is a popular staple served by street vendors, in "warungs" and also by travelling night hawkers that frequent residential neighbourhoods with their wheeled carts. When accompanied by a fried egg, it is sometimes called "nasi goreng istimewa" (special fried rice). "Nasi goreng" is usually cooked to order for each serving, since the cook usually asks the client their preference on the degree of spiciness: mild, medium, hot or extra hot. The spiciness corresponds to the amount of "sambal" or chili pepper paste used. The cook might also ask how the client would like their egg done: mixed into nasi goreng or fried separately as "telur mata sapi" or "ceplok" (fried whole egg) or as "telur dadar" (omelette). Nevertheless, some popular "nasi goreng" "warung" or food stalls may prepare in bulk due to large demand.


title: Nasi goreng

text: In many "warungs" (street stalls) in Indonesia, "nasi goreng" is often sold together with "bakmi goreng" (fried noodles), "kwetiau goreng", and "mie rebus" (noodle soup).


title: Nasi goreng

text: "Nasi goreng" is a popular dish in restaurants. In Indonesia there are restaurant chains that specialise at serving "nasi goreng".


title: Nasi goreng

text: Some seasoning brands sold in Indonesian supermarkets offer ""bumbu nasi goreng"", an instant "nasi goreng" seasoning paste to be applied upon frying leftover rice. Convenience store outlets in Indonesia also offering prepackage frozen microwave-heated "nasi goreng" take away.


title: Waltz

text: The waltz ( ), meaning "to roll or revolve") is a ballroom and folk dance, normally in triple (time), performed primarily in closed position.


title: Waltz

text: There are many references to a sliding or gliding dance that would evolve into the waltz that date from 16th-century Europe, including the representations of the printmaker Hans Sebald Beham. The French philosopher Michel de Montaigne wrote of a dance he saw in 1580 in Augsburg, where the dancers held each other so closely that their faces touched. Kunz Haas (of approximately the same period) wrote, "Now they are dancing the godless "Weller" or "Spinner"." "The vigorous peasant dancer, following an instinctive knowledge of the weight of fall, uses his surplus energy to press all his strength into the proper beat of the bar, thus intensifying his personal enjoyment in dancing." Around 1750, the lower classes in the regions of Bavaria, Tyrol, and Styria began dancing a couples dance called "Walzer". The "Ländler", also known as the "Schleifer", a country dance in time, was popular in Bohemia, Austria, and Bavaria, and spread from the countryside to the suburbs of the city. While the eighteenth-century upper classes continued to dance the minuets (such as those by Mozart, Haydn and Handel), bored noblemen slipped away to the balls of their servants.


title: Waltz

text: In the 1771 German novel "Geschichte des Fräuleins von Sternheim" by Sophie von La Roche, a high-minded character complains about the newly introduced waltz among aristocrats thus: "But when he put his arm around her, pressed her to his breast, cavorted with her in the shameless, indecent whirling-dance of the Germans and engaged in a familiarity that broke all the bounds of good breeding—then my silent misery turned into burning rage."


title: Waltz

text: Describing life in Vienna (dated at either 1776 or 1786), Don Curzio wrote, "The people were dancing mad ... The ladies of Vienna are particularly celebrated for their grace and movements of waltzing of which they never tire." There is a waltz in the second act finale of the 1786 opera "Una Cosa Rara" by Martin y Soler. Soler's waltz was marked "andante con moto", or "at a walking pace with motion", but the flow of the dance was sped-up in Vienna leading to the "Geschwindwalzer", and the "Galloppwalzer".


title: Waltz

text: In the 19th century, the word primarily indicated that the dance was a turning one; one would "waltz" in the polka to indicate rotating rather than going straight forward without turning.


title: Waltz

text: Shocking many when it was first introduced, the waltz became fashionable in Vienna around the 1780s, spreading to many other countries in the years to follow. According to contemporary singer Michael Kelly, it reached England in 1791. During the Napoleonic Wars, infantry soldiers of the King's German Legion introduced the dance to the people of Bexhill, Sussex, from 1804.


title: Waltz

text: It became fashionable in Britain during the Regency period, having been made respectable by the endorsement of Dorothea Lieven, wife of the Russian ambassador. Diarist Thomas Raikes later recounted that "No event ever produced so great a sensation in English society as the introduction of the waltz in 1813." In the same year, a sardonic tribute to the dance by Lord Byron was anonymously published (written the previous autumn). Influential dance master and author of instruction manuals, Thomas Wilson published "A Description of the Correct Method of Waltzing" in 1816. Almack's, the most exclusive club in London, permitted the waltz, though the entry in the "Oxford English Dictionary" shows that it was considered "riotous and indecent" as late as 1825. In "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall", by Anne Brontë, in a scene set in 1827, the local vicar Reverend Milward tolerates quadrilles and country dances but intervenes decisively when a waltz is called for, declaring "No, no, I don't allow that! Come, it's time to be going home."


title: Waltz

text: The waltz, especially its closed position, became the example for the creation of many other ballroom dances. Subsequently, new types of waltz have developed, including many folk and several ballroom dances.


title: Waltz

text: In the 19th and early 20th century, numerous different waltz forms existed, including versions performed in , or (sauteuse), and time ( waltz, half and half).


title: Waltz

text: In the 1910s, a form called the Hesitation Waltz was introduced by Vernon and Irene Castle. It incorporated "hesitations" and was danced to fast music. A hesitation is basically a halt on the standing foot during the full waltz bar, with the moving foot suspended in the air or slowly dragged. Similar figures (Hesitation Change, Drag Hesitation, and Cross Hesitation) are incorporated in the International Standard Waltz Syllabus.


title: Waltz

text: The Country Western Waltz is mostly progressive, moving counter clock wise around the dance floor. Both the posture and frame are relaxed, with posture bordering on a slouch. The exaggerated hand and arm gestures of some ballroom styles are not part of this style. Couples may frequently dance in the promenade position, depending on local preferences. Within Country Western waltz, there is the Spanish Waltz and the more modern (for the late 1930s- early 1950s) Pursuit Waltz. At one time it was considered ill treatment for a man to make the woman walk backwards in some locations.


title: Waltz

text: In California, the waltz was banned by Mission priests until 1834 because of the "closed" dance position. Thereafter a Spanish Waltz was danced. This Spanish Waltz was a combination of dancing around the room in closed position, and a "formation" dance of two couples facing each other and performing a sequence of steps. "Valse a Trois Temps" was the "earliest" waltz step, and the Rye Waltz was preferred as a couple dance.


title: Waltz

text: Today both the faster Viennese Waltz, made forever popular by the Strauss family, and the slower American and International style waltzes are extremely popular with dancers of all ages.


title: Dave Eggers

text: Dave Eggers (born March 12, 1970) is an American writer, editor, and publisher. He wrote the 2000 best-selling memoir "A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius". Eggers is also the founder of "Timothy McSweeney's Quarterly Concern", a literary journal; a co-founder of the literacy project 826 Valencia and the human rights nonprofit Voice of Witness; and the founder of ScholarMatch, a program that matches donors with students needing funds for college tuition. His writing has appeared in several magazines.