title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: Fire and Ice is a 1983 American animated epic dark fantasy adventure film directed by Ralph Bakshi. The film, a collaboration between Bakshi and Frank Frazetta, was distributed by 20th Century-Fox, which also distributed Bakshi's 1977 release "Wizards". The animated feature, based on characters co-created by Bakshi and Frazetta, was made using the process of rotoscoping, in which scenes were shot in live-action and then traced onto animation cels.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: The screenplay was written by Gerry Conway and Roy Thomas, both of whom had written "Conan" stories for Marvel Comics. The background painter was James Gurney, the author and artist of the "Dinotopia" illustrated novels. Iconic American painter Thomas Kinkade also worked on the backgrounds to various scenes. Peter Chung, the creator of "Aeon Flux", was a layout artist.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: From their citadel Icepeak, the evil queen Juliana and her son Nekron send forth a wave of glaciers; this forces humanity to retreat south towards the equator. Nekron sends a delegation to Firekeep, the volcano citadel of king Jarol, ostensibly to request the king's surrender. In truth, the ice queen has orchestrated it as a ruse so that her subhuman troops can abduct Jarol's beautiful daughter, princess Teegra. Juliana feels that Nekron should take her as a bride to produce an heir.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: Teegra escapes her captors and comes upon a young warrior named Larn, the only survivor of a village destroyed by Nekron's glaciers. The two grow close, but they become separated when Larn is attacked by a monstrous giant squid, and Nekron's subhumans recapture Teegra. She briefly escapes again, but runs into the witch Roleil and her son Otwa, who intend to use her as a bargaining chip for incurring Nekron's favor. However, the subhumans simply kill them and take Teegra to Icepeak. Nekron refuses to marry Teegra, in spite of his mother's plan, but keeps the princess as a hostage.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: While looking for Teegra, Larn encounters Darkwolf, a mysterious masked warrior who pursues a personal vendetta against Nekron and Juliana. While Darkwolf holds off Nekron's horde, Larn continues his search and comes upon Roleil's remains, which briefly reanimate and tell him how to find the princess. At the same time, Jarol sends his son, Prince Taro, to Nekron to bargain for Teegra's release. With Larn as a stowaway on their ship, Taro and his emissaries reach Icepeak. Nekron refuses to release Teegra and insults her, inciting Taro to attack him. Using his magic, Nekron forces the prince and his delegation to kill each other.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: Larn infiltrates the ice fortress, but fails to retrieve Teegra and is rescued by Darkwolf. They travel to Firekeep to inform Jarol, who decides to give them time to penetrate Icepeak and rescue his daughter until the glacier crosses the border to his realm, forcing him to release the lava from the volcano to destroy the advancing ice. With some help from Jarol's dragon hawk riders, they assault the fortress, but only Darkwolf manages to reach Nekron. Larn, stranded midway during the attack, finally finds and rescues Teegra from Juliana. Darkwolf slays Nekron, but Nekron's dying agony expands the glacier explosively, prompting Jarol to open the volcano's valves. The lava flow swiftly overcomes the glacier, obliterating Icepeak, Juliana, and the subhuman army.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: Larn and Teegra barely succeed in escaping the cataclysm. When they encounter a wounded subhuman, Larn prepares to kill him, but Teegra stops him and they embrace with a kiss. From atop a cliff, a smiling Darkwolf briefly watches the pair, then disappears.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: By 1982, fantasy films had proven to be considerably successful at the box office, including "The Beastmaster" and "Conan the Barbarian", and Bakshi had a desire to work with long-time friend and fantasy illustrator Frank Frazetta. Bakshi received $1.2 million to finance "Fire and Ice" from some of the same investors as "American Pop", and 20th Century-Fox agreed to distribute the film based upon the financial longevity of "Wizards".


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: Because "Fire and Ice" was the most action-oriented story Bakshi had directed up until that point, rotoscoping was again used, and the realism of the animation and design replicated Frazetta's artwork. Bakshi and Frazetta were heavily involved in the production of the live-action sequences, from casting sessions to the final shoot. The film's crew included background artists James Gurney and Thomas Kinkade, layout artist Peter Chung, and established Bakshi Productions artists Sparey, Steven E. Gordon, Bell and Banks. Chung strongly admired Bakshi and Frazetta's work, and animated his sequences on the film while simultaneously working for The Walt Disney Company.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" wrote, "If you love comic books but can't bear the unnecessary bother of turning pages, 'Fire and Ice' [...] may be for you. It would help if you were a sex-obsessed 12-year old boy, but it isn't essential." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two stars out of four and called it "attractive to look at, but its slow-moving, predictable story makes viewing it much like reading a comic book with pages made of lead." He added that "the constant rhythm of Teegra being captured and rescued and captured and rescued is, after a while, more than a bit tiring." Sheila Benson of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that "in spite of all the glorious washes in the background, which do indeed have the Frazetta look, 'Fire and Ice' is as unintentionally funny a fantasy as you could hope for." Donald Greig of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" called the action sequences "impressive enough" but stated that "the animators' fetishistic fascination with the human form ... underlines the two-dimensionality of the script, for the artwork is certainly the only fleshing-out that characters receive."


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: Colin Greenland reviewed "Fire and Ice" for "Imagine" magazine, and stated that "Much more enjoyable is his earlier "Wizards", now on video from CBS/Fox, a fantasy with a sly sense of humour. Compared with this, "Fire and Ice" is a bit glum."


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: Andrew Leal wrote, "The plot is standard [...] recalling nothing so much as a more graphic episode of Filmation's "He-Man" series. [...] "Fire and Ice" essentially stands as a footnote to the spate of barbarian films that followed in the wake of Arnold Schwarzenegger's appearance as Conan."


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: In 2003, the Online Film Critics Society ranked the film as the 99th greatest animated film of all time.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: The film was released on VHS, Betamax, CED, and LaserDisc by RCA/Columbia Pictures Home Video in 1983. GoodTimes Home Video re-released the film on VHS in 1988. In 2005, it was released on DVD by Blue Underground Entertainment on a limited edition two-disc set, paired with the documentary "Frazetta: Painting With Fire", about the film's co-creator and producer, Frank Frazetta. The company later released the film on Blu-ray in 2008 with Remastered 1080p video and a 7.1 surround sound remix in both Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio.


title: Fire and Ice (1983 film)

text: In 2010, Robert Rodriguez announced that he would direct a live-action remake of the film. Bakshi stated that he did not want any involvement with the film, but he agreed to license the rights to Rodriguez. The deal closed shortly after Frazetta's death. On December 18, 2014, Sony Pictures Entertainment acquired the filming rights to the live-action remake version of the film, to be directed by Robert Rodriguez.


title: Father of the Nation

text: The Father of the Nation is an honorific title given to a person considered the driving force behind the establishment of a country, state, or nation. (plural ), also seen as , was a Roman honorific meaning the "Father of the Fatherland", bestowed by the Senate on heroes, and later on emperors. In monarchies, the monarch was often considered the "father/mother of the nation" or as a patriarch to guide his family. This concept is expressed in the divine right of kings espoused in some monarchies, while in others it is codified into constitutional law as in Spain, where the monarch is considered the personification and embodiment, the symbol of unity and permanence of the nation. In Thailand, the monarch is given the same recognition, and any person who expresses disrespect toward the reigning monarch will face severe criminal penalties.


title: Father of the Nation

text: Many dictators bestow titles upon themselves, which rarely survive the end of their regime. Gnassingbé Eyadéma of Togo's titles included "father of the nation", "older brother", and "Guide of the People". Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire's included "Father of the nation", "the Guide", "the Messiah", "the Leopard", "the Sun-President", and "the Cock who Jumps on Anything That Moves". In postcolonial Africa, "father of the nation" was a title used by many leaders both to refer to their role in the independence movement as a source of legitimacy, and to use paternalist symbolism as a source of continued popularity. On Joseph Stalin's seventieth birthday in 1949, he was bestowed with the title "Father of Nations" for his establishment of "people's democracies" in countries occupied by the USSR after World War II.


title: Father of the Nation

text: The title "Father of the Nation" is sometimes politically contested. The 1972 Constitution of Bangladesh declared Sheikh Mujibur Rahman to be "father of the nation". A motion in the Parliament of Slovakia to proclaim controversial pre-war leader Andrej Hlinka "father of the nation" barely failed in September 2007.


title: Father of the Nation

text: The following people are still often called the "Father" of their respective nations. Highlighted names indicate people who are still living.


title: QBZ-191

text: The QBZ-191 Automatic Rifle () is a Chinese assault rifle chambered for the 5.8×42mm intermediate cartridge, designed and manufactured by Norinco as a new-generation service rifle for the People's Liberation Army (PLA) and People's Armed Police (PAP). The rifle's designation "QBZ" stands for "light weapon (Qīng Wŭqì) - rifle (Bùqiāng) - automatic (Zìdòng)".


title: QBZ-191

text: The new rifle was formally revealed at the 70th Anniversary National Day military parade on October 1, 2019, carried by troopers of the PLA Ground Force and People's Armed Police.


title: QBZ-191

text: Chinese military initiated the development of conventional layout rifles in 2014, with multiple manufacturers involved in the development and bidding process. Various prototypes of the new weapon platform were leaked online in 2016 and 2017.


title: QBZ-191

text: The QBZ-191 rifle was designed by Norinco's 208 Research Institute, which also designed the QBZ-95 assault rifle. According to the director of the 208 Research Institute, QBZ-191 is a component of the new "Integrated Soldier Combat System" (单兵综合作战系统), which aims to overhaul the PLA's infantry equipment.


title: QBZ-191

text: The QBZ-191 was first announced in the 2019 Chinese national parade and would gradually replace the QBZ-95 rifle family in Chinese military service. The QBZ-191 features several improvements, aiming to resolve the unsatisfactory issues, such as ergonomics, of the Type 95 platform.


title: QBZ-191

text: Compared to the bullpup QBZ-95, the QBZ-191 uses a conventional configuration with greatly improved ergonomics, ambidextrous usability, and better reliability across different environments. The platform features various barrel lengths and handguard configurations. A shorter carbine version was carried by vehicle crews during the 2019 parade.


title: QBZ-191

text: The QBZ-191 rifle features a full-length Picatinny rail on the top and comes standard with new 3× daylight prismatic optics called QMK152 and QMK-171A, while a thermal sight is also available. The DMR variant is equipped with a new 3–8.6× low power variable zoom sniper scope called QMK-191, and the weapon can also be equipped with the IR5118 digital night vision/thermal scope. The rifle is also equipped with backup iron sights that can be folded down when not in use. The main body is divided into the upper and lower receivers, both are made of aluminium alloy and connected by two assembly pins, while the handguard, pistol grip, and telescoping stock are made of polymer material. The handguard has additional provisions at its 3, 6, and 9 o'clock positions which allow small sections of Picatinny rails to be selectively installed through screw holes, so that various accessories such as flashlight, laser module, foregrip, and bipod can be attached. The reciprocating charging handle is located on the right side, while the bolt-release button sits on the left, above the "rock-and-lock" magazine insertion well. The weapon features a short-stroke piston gas-operation design with rotating bolt.


title: QBZ-191

text: The rifle has improved ergonomics, featuring a 4-position adjustable buttstock, ambidextrous fire selector, and a lengthened magazine release lever located in front of the trigger guard for speed-reloading or easier manipulation when wearing gloves. The new polymer magazine has a redesigned surface texture for better grip, and a transparent ammunition-checking window. The weapon platform can also be mounted with bayonet and sound suppressor.


title: QBZ-191

text: According to Chinese media, the QBZ-191 rifle is chambered in the Chinese-proprietary 5.8×42mm caliber with a redesigned DBP-191 ammunition that has better ballistic performance at medium to long ranges. The rifle has been designed into three variants: a standard rifle version with a barrel, a carbine version with a barrel called QBZ-192, and a long-barreled designated marksman rifle version called QBU-191. The standard QBZ-191 has a full-auto rate of fire of 750 rounds per minute. The full-auto capability is retained on the QBU-191 designated marksman rifle, which could be easily configured into a light support weapon with a drum magazine.


title: Saponification

text: Saponification is a process of converting esters into soaps and alcohols by the action of aqueous alkali (for example, aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions). Soaps are salts of fatty acids, which in turn are carboxylic acids with long carbon chains. Sodium stearate is a typical soap.


title: Saponification

text: Vegetable oils and animal fats are the traditional materials that are saponified. These greasy materials, triesters called triglycerides, are mixtures derived from diverse fatty acids. Triglycerides can be converted to soap in either a one- or a two-step process. In the traditional one-step process, the triglyceride is treated with a strong base (e.g. lye), which cleaves the ester bond, releasing fatty acid salts (soaps) and glycerol. This process is also the main industrial method for producing glycerol. In some soap-making, the glycerol is left in the soap. If necessary, soaps may be precipitated by salting it out with sodium chloride.


title: Saponification

text: Fat in a corpse converts into adipocere, often called "grave wax". This process is more common where the amount of fatty tissue is high and the agents of decomposition are absent or only minutely present.


title: Saponification

text: The saponification value is the amount of base required to saponify a fat sample. Soap makers formulate their recipes with a small deficit of lye to account for the unknown deviation of saponification value between their oil batch and laboratory averages.


title: Saponification

text: The hydroxide anion adds to the carbonyl group of the ester. The immediate product is called an orthoester.


title: Saponification

text: The alkoxide ion is a strong base so the proton is transferred from the carboxylic acid to the alkoxide ion, creating an alcohol:


title: Saponification

text: In a classic laboratory procedure, the triglyceride trimyristin is obtained by extracting it from nutmeg with diethyl ether. Saponification to the soap sodium myristate takes place using NaOH in water. Treating the soap with hydrochloric acid gives myristic acid.


title: Saponification

text: The reaction of fatty acids with base is the other main method of saponification. In this case, the reaction involves neutralization of the carboxylic acid. The neutralization method is used to produce industrial soaps such as those derived from magnesium, the transition metals, and aluminium. This method is ideal for producing soaps that are derived from a single fatty acid, which leads to soaps with predictable physical properties, as required by many engineering applications.


title: Saponification

text: Depending on the nature of the alkali used in their production, soaps have distinct properties. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) produces "hard" soaps; hard soaps can also be used in water containing Mg, Cl, and Ca salts. By contrast, potassium soaps (derived using KOH) are "soft" soaps. The fatty acid source also affects the soap's melting point. Most early hard soaps were manufactured using animal fats and KOH extracted from wood ash; these were broadly solid. However, the majority of modern soaps are manufactured from polyunsaturated triglycerides such as vegetable oils. As in the triglycerides they are formed from the salts of these acids have weaker inter-molecular forces and thus lower melting points.


title: Saponification

text: Lithium derivatives of 12-hydroxystearate and other fatty acids are important constituents of lubricating greases. In lithium-based greases, lithium carboxylates are thickeners. "Complex soaps" are also common, these being combinations of more than one acid salt, such as azelaic or acetic acid.


title: Saponification

text: Fires involving cooking fats and oils (classified as class K (US) or F (Australia/Europe/Asia)) burn hotter than most flammable liquids, rendering a standard class B extinguisher ineffective. Such fires should be extinguished with a wet chemical extinguisher. Extinguishers of this type are designed to extinguish cooking fats and oils through saponification. The extinguishing agent rapidly converts the burning substance to a non-combustible soap.


title: Saponification

text: Saponification can occur in oil paintings over time, causing visible damage and deformation. Oil paints are composed of pigment molecules suspended in an oil-binding medium. Heavy metal salts are often used as pigment molecules, such as in lead white, red lead, and zinc white. If those heavy metal salts react with free fatty acids in the oil medium, metal soaps may form in a paint layer that can then migrate outward to the painting's surface.


title: Saponification

text: Saponification in oil paintings was described as early as 1912. It is believed to be widespread, having been observed in many works dating from the fifteenth through the twentieth centuries; works of different geographic origin; and works painted on various supports, such as canvas, paper, wood, and copper. Chemical analysis may reveal saponification occurring in a painting's deeper layers before any signs are visible on the surface, even in paintings centuries old.


title: Saponification

text: The saponified regions may deform the painting's surface through the formation of visible lumps or protrusions that can scatter light. These soap lumps may be prominent only on certain regions of the painting rather than throughout. In John Singer Sargent's famous "Portrait of Madame X", for example, the lumps only appear on the blackest areas, which may be because of the artist's use of more medium in those areas to compensate for the tendency of black pigments to soak it up. The process can also form chalky white deposits on a painting's surface, a deformation often described as "blooming" or "efflorescence", and may also contribute to the increased transparency of certain paint layers within an oil painting over time.


title: Saponification

text: Saponification does not occur in all oil paintings and many details are unresolved. At present, retouching is the only known restoration method.


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: Michael Cormac Newell (born 28 March 1942) is an English film and television director and producer. He won the BAFTA for Best Direction for "Four Weddings and a Funeral" (1994), which also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film, and directed the films "Donnie Brasco" (1997) and "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire" (2005).


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: Newell was born in St Albans, Hertfordshire, as the son of amateur actors, and was educated at St Albans School. He read English at Magdalene College, Cambridge. He then attended a three-year training course at Granada Television with the intention of entering the theatre.


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: Newell directed various British TV shows from the 1960s onwards (such as "Spindoe", credited as Cormac Newell, and "Big Breadwinner Hog"), but eventually shifted his focus to film direction.


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: His first feature-length project was "The Man in the Iron Mask" (1977), a made-for-television film. His first critically acclaimed movie was "Bad Blood" (1981), concerning the 1941 manhunt for the New Zealand mass-killer Stan Graham played by Jack Thompson. This was followed by "Dance with a Stranger" (1985), a biographical drama starring Miranda Richardson as Ruth Ellis, the last woman to be hanged in the UK. For his directorial efforts, Newell won the Award of the Youth at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: Newell continued his successes in the film industry with "Enchanted April" (1991), an adaptation of the 1922 novel by Elizabeth von Arnim. Miranda Richardson won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical and Joan Plowright won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture.


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: During this period, George Lucas recruited Newell as one of the numerous feature film directors to direct episodes of "The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles".


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: The comedy "Four Weddings and a Funeral" (1994) was also critically acclaimed, winning numerous awards, including a César Award (Best Foreign Film), a Golden Globe ( – Hugh Grant), and a number of London Critics Circle Film Awards (Best Director, Film, Producer, and Screenwriter).


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: Since these award-winning productions, Newell has directed a number of films in Hollywood, such as "Donnie Brasco" (1997) (starring Al Pacino and Johnny Depp), "Pushing Tin" (1999) (starring John Cusack, Billy Bob Thornton, Cate Blanchett, and Angelina Jolie) and "Mona Lisa Smile" (2003) (starring Julia Roberts, Kirsten Dunst, and Julia Stiles).


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: In 2005, Newell was presented with an honorary degree of Doctor of Arts by the University of Hertfordshire which has a campus in St Albans, his birthplace. He was also awarded the BAFTA Britannia Award for Artistic Excellence in Directing for his career prior to 2005. Newell became the first British director of the "Harry Potter" film series with the production of "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire", the fourth adaptation in the series, which became a major critical and financial success worldwide. Newell is heard briefly as the radio announcer at the beginning of the film.


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: Newell directed "Love in the Time of Cholera" in 2007 and "" in 2010. In February 2011, Newell attended the British Academy Film Awards along with "Harry Potter" author J.K. Rowling, David Heyman, David Barron, David Yates, Alfonso Cuarón, Rupert Grint, and Emma Watson to collect the Michael Balcon Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Cinema on behalf of the "Harry Potter" film series.


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: Continuing to work on adaptations, Newell directed "Great Expectations" (2012) from the novel by Charles Dickens with Ralph Fiennes, Helena Bonham Carter, and Jeremy Irvine in starring roles. The film had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival.


title: Mike Newell (director)

text: On Christmas Day in 2016, Newell appeared as a contestant on a special episode of the BBC's "University Challenge", representing his "alma mater", Magdalene College, Cambridge.


title: Black supremacy

text: Black supremacy or black supremacism is a racial supremacist belief which maintains that black people are superior to people of other races. In the 1960s, Martin Luther King Jr. said that a doctrine of black supremacy was as dangerous as white supremacy.


title: Black supremacy

text: Black supremacy was advocated by Jamaican preacher Leonard Howell in the 1935 Rastafari movement tract "The Promised Key". Howell's use of "Black Supremacy" had both religious and political implications. Politically, as a direct counterpoint to white supremacy, and the failure of white governments to protect black people, he advocated the destruction of white governments. Howell had drawn upon as an influence the work of the earlier proto-Rastafari preacher Fitz Balintine Pettersburg, in particular the latter's book "The Royal Parchment Scroll of Black Supremacy".


title: Black supremacy

text: The Associated Press described the teachings of the Nation of Islam (NOI) as having been black supremacist until 1975, when W. Deen Mohammed succeeded Elijah Muhammad (his father) as its leader. Elijah Muhammad's black-supremacist doctrine acted as a counter to the supremacist paradigm established and controlled by white supremacy. The SPLC described the group as having a "theology of innate black superiority over whites – a belief system vehemently and consistently rejected by mainstream Muslims.".


title: Black supremacy

text: Several fringe groups have been described as either holding or promoting black supremacist beliefs. A source described by historian David Mark Chalmers as being "the most extensive source on right-wing extremism" is the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), an American nonprofit organization that monitors hate groups and extremists in the United States. Authors of the SPLC's quarterly "Intelligence Reports" have described the following groups as holding black supremacist views:


title: Black supremacy

text: During speeches given at the Freedom Rally in Cobo Hall on June 23, 1963, at Oberlin College in June 1965, and at the Southern Methodist University on March 17, 1966, Martin Luther King Jr. said:


title: Grand Union Flag

text: "Cambridge Flag", and the "First Navy Ensign") is considered to be the first national flag of the United States of America.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: Similar to the current U.S. flag, the Grand Union Flag has 13 alternating red and white stripes, representative of the Thirteen Colonies. The upper inner corner, or canton, features the Union Jack, or flag of the Kingdom of Great Britain, of which the colonies were subjects.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: By the end of 1775, during the first year of the American Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress operated as a "de facto" war government, who had authorized the creation of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, and even a small contingent of Continental Marines. A new flag was needed to represent both the Congress and the United Colonies, with a banner distinct from the British Red Ensign flown from civilian and merchant vessels, the White Ensign of the British Royal Navy, and the Flag of Great Britain carried on land by the British army. The emerging states had been using their own independent flags, with Massachusetts using the Taunton Flag, and New York using the George Rex Flag, prior to the adoption of united colors.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: Americans first hoisted the Grand Union Flag on the colonial warship , in the harbor on the western shore of the Delaware River at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on 3 December 1775, under the command of the new appointed Lieutenant John Paul Jones of the formative Continental Navy. The event was documented in letters to Congress and eyewitness accounts. The flag was also used by the Continental Army forces as both a naval ensign, and as a garrison flag throughout 1776 and early 1777.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: It was widely believed that the flag was raised by George Washington's army on the 2 January 1776, at Prospect Hill in Charlestown (now part of Somerville), near his headquarters at Cambridge, Massachusetts, (across the Charles River to the north from Boston), which was then surrounding and laying siege to the British forces then occupying the city. It is also stated that the flag was interpreted by British military observers in the city under commanding General Thomas Gage, as a sign of surrender. However, some scholars dispute the traditional account and conclude that the flag raised at Prospect Hill was probably the flag of Great Britain, though subsequent research supports the contrary.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: The flag has had several names, at least five of which have been popularly remembered. The more recent moniker, "Grand Union Flag", was first applied in the 19th-century Reconstruction era by George Henry Preble, in his 1872 "History of the American Flag".


title: Grand Union Flag

text: The Grand Union Flag became obsolete following the passing of the Flag Act of 1777 by the Continental Congress. The new national flag replaced the Union Jack in the canton with thirteen stars (representing the thirteen States) on a field of blue. The resolution describes only a "new constellation" for the arrangement of the white stars in the blue canton, so overall designs were later interpreted and made with rows, columns, a square with one star in the center, a circle, and various other designs.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: It is not known for certain when or by whom the design of the Continental Colours was created, but the flag could easily be produced by sewing white stripes onto the British Red Ensigns. The ""Alfred"" flag has been credited to Margaret Manny.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: The design of the Colours is strikingly similar to the flag of the British East India Company (EIC). Indeed, certain EIC designs in use since 1707 (when the canton was changed from the flag of England to that of the flag of Great Britain) were nearly identical. However, the number of stripes varied from 9 to 15. One theory on the origin of the design is that the American colonists would have known and been familiar with the existing EIC flags and that this may have influenced the design.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: The combined crosses in the flag of Great Britain symbolized the union of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland. The symbolism of a union of equal parts was retained in the new U.S. flag, as described in the Flag Resolution of 14 June 1777 (later celebrated in U.S. culture and history as "Flag Day").


title: Grand Union Flag

text: According to the vexillologist Nick Groom, the use of the flag of Great Britain in the canton component of the flag, suggests that George Washington's army adopted it, not as a protest against the rule of the British Parliament, but instead as a profession of continued loyalty towards King George III. This view is shared by Laurie Calkhoven, a biographer of George Washington, who suggests that the flag was designed to reflect the colonists hope for justice from King George III.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: In "For Want of a Nail" by Robert Sobel, it serves as the flag of the Confederation of North America, a self-governing dominion created in 1843 via the second of two Britannic Designs after John Burgoyne's victory at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777, resulting in the Conciliationists gaining control of the Continental Congress in 1778.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: In "The Two Georges" by Harry Turtledove and Richard Dreyfuss, it serves as the flag for the North American Union and is commonly referred to as the 'Jack and Stripes'. A modified version of the flag used by the separatist Independence Party and the nativist terrorist organization the Sons of Liberty replaces the Union Jack with a bald eagle on a blue field.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: In the "Sliders" episode "Prince of Wails", set in a reality where the American Revolution was successfully suppressed, it serves as the flag of the British States of America, a heavily taxed and dictatorially-governed corner of the British Empire.


title: Grand Union Flag

text: Versions of the Grand Union Flag in alternate history novels may be modified so that the Union Jack in the canton also represents Ireland.


title: Limousine

text: A limousine ( or ), or limo () for short, is a large, chauffeur-driven luxury vehicle with a partition between the driver compartment and the passenger compartment.


title: Limousine

text: A very long wheelbase luxury sedan (with more than four doors) driven by a professional driver is called a stretch limousine.


title: Limousine

text: In some countries, such as the United States, Germany, Canada, and Australia, a limousine service may be any pre-booked hire car with driver, usually but not always a luxury car. In particular, airport shuttle services are often called limousine services though they often use minibuses.


title: Limousine

text: The word "limousine" is derived from the name of the French region Limousin. However, how the name of the region transferred to the car is uncertain.


title: Limousine

text: One possibility involves a particular type of carriage hood or roof physically resembled the raised hood of the cloak worn by the shepherds there.


title: Limousine

text: An alternate etymology speculates that some early chauffeurs wore a Limousin-style cloak in the open driver's compartment, for protection from the weather. The name was then extended to this particular type of car with a permanent top projecting over the chauffeur. This former type of automobile had an enclosed passenger compartment seating three to five persons, with only a roof projecting forward over the open driver's area in the front.


title: Limousine

text: Rich owners of expensive carriages and their passengers were accustomed to their own private compartment leaving their coachman or driver outside in all weathers. When automobiles arrived the same people required a similar arrangement for their chauffeurs. As such, the 1916 definition of limousine by the US Society of Automobile Engineers is "a closed car seating three to five inside, with driver's seat outside".


title: Limousine

text: In Great Britain, the limousine de-ville was a version of the "limousine town car" where the driver's compartment was outside and had no weather protection. The limousine-landaulet variant (also sold in the United States) had a removable or folding roof section over the rear passenger seat.


title: Limousine

text: In the United States, sub-categories of limousines in 1916 were the berline defined as "a limousine having the driver's seat entirely enclosed", and the brougham, defined as "a limousine with no roof over the driver's seat."


title: Limousine

text: The limousine body style usually has a partition separating the driver from the rear passenger compartment. This partition includes a usually openable glass section so passengers may see the road. Communication with the driver is possible either by opening the window in the partition or by using an intercom system.


title: Limousine

text: Limousines are often long-wheelbase vehicles, in order to provide extra legroom in the passenger compartment. There will usually be occasional seats (in the U.S. called jump seats) at the front of the compartment (either forward-facing, rear-facing or able to face either direction).


title: Limousine

text: Many nations have official state cars designed to transport government officials. The top leaders have dedicated and specially equipped limousines. The United States Presidential State Car is the official car of the President of the United States.


title: Limousine

text: Stretch limousines are longer than regular limousines, usually in order to accommodate more passengers. Stretch limousines may have seating along the sides of the cabin.


title: Limousine

text: A "stretch limousine" was created in Fort Smith, Arkansas, around 1928 by a coach company named Armbruster. Armbruster's cars were primarily used to transport famous "big band" leaders, such as Glenn Miller and Benny Goodman, and their bands and equipment. These early stretch limousines were often called "big band buses". Armbruster called their lengthened cars "extended-wheelbase multi-door auto-coaches". Their 12-passenger people movers were used by hotels, taxis, airlines, corporations and tour companies.


title: Limousine

text: A variety of vehicles have been converted into novelty limousines. They are used for weddings, parties and other social occasions. Another style of novelty limousine are those painted in bright colours, such as purple or pink.


title: Limousine

text: Vehicles converted into novelty stretch limousines include the East German Trabant, Volkswagen Beetle, Fiat Panda, and Citroën 2CV. There are instances of Corvettes, Ferraris, and Mini Coopers being stretched to accommodate up to 10 passengers.


title: Limousine

text: The last production limousine, by Cadillac, with forward-facing jump seats was in 1987 (with their Fleetwood Series 75 model), the last Packard in 1954, and the last Lincoln in 1939, though Lincoln has offered limousines through their dealers as special order vehicles at times. Several Lincoln Premier cars were also built, one being owned by Elvis Presley. Vehicles of this type in private use may contain expensive audio players, televisions, video players, and bars, often with refrigerators. The President of the United States has ridden in a variety of brands of limousine stretching back to 1899.


title: Limousine

text: Due to the partition behind the driver, the Hackney carriages are a type of limousine, although not typically identified as such in Britain. The occasional seats, also referred to as taxi-tip-seats, usually carry advertising on the underside; the advertisements are visible to the passengers when the tip-seats are not in use.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Vladislav Yuryevich Surkov (; born 21 September 1962 or 1964) is a Russian politician and businessman. He was First Deputy Chief of the Russian Presidential Administration from 1999 to 2011, during which time he was often viewed as the main ideologist of the Kremlin who proposed and implemented the concept of sovereign democracy in Russia. From December 2011 until May 2013, Surkov served as the Russian Federation's Deputy Prime Minister. After his resignation, Surkov returned to the Presidential Executive Office and became a personal adviser of Vladimir Putin on relationships with Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Ukraine. He was removed from this duty by presidential order in February 2020.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Surkov is perceived by many to be a key figure with much power and influence in the administration of Vladimir Putin. According to "The Moscow Times", this perception is not dependent on the official title Surkov might hold at any one time in the Putin government. BBC documentary filmmaker Adam Curtis credits Surkov's blend of theater and politics with keeping Putin, and Putin's chosen successors, in power since 2000.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Journalists in Russia and abroad have speculated that Surkov writes under the pseudonym Nathan Dubovitsky, although the Kremlin denies it.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: According to Surkov's official biography and birth certificate, he was born 21 September 1964 in Solntsevo, Lipetsk Oblast, Russian SFSR. As per other statements, he was born in 1962 in Shali, Checheno-Ingush ASSR. His birth name is sometimes reported to be Aslambek Dudayev. His parents, the ethnic Russian Zinaida Antonovna Surkova (born 1935) and the ethnic Chechen Yuriy ("Andarbek") Danil'bekovich Dudayev (1942–2014), were school teachers in Duba-yurt, Checheno-Ingush ASSR.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Following the separation of his parents, his mother moved to Lipetsk and he was baptized into Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In an interview published in June 2005 in the German magazine "Der Spiegel", Surkov stated that his father was ethnic Chechen and that he spent the first five years of his life in Chechnya, in Duba-yurt and Grozny. Surkov has claimed to be a relative of Dzhokhar Dudayev, the first president of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: From 1982 to 1983, Surkov attended MISiS, but did not graduate from it. From 1983 to 1985, Surkov served in a Soviet artillery regiment in Hungary, according to his official biography. However, former defence minister Sergei Ivanov stated in a 2006 TV interview that Surkov served in the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff (GRU) during the same time period.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: After his military training, Surkov was accepted to Moscow Institute of Culture for a five-year program in theater direction, but spent only three years there. Surkov graduated from Moscow International University with a master's degree in economics in the late 1990s.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In the late 1980s, when the government lifted the ban against private businesses, Surkov started out in business. In 1987, he became head of the advertising department of Mikhail Khodorkovsky's businesses. From 1991 to April 1996, he held key managerial positions in advertising and PR departments of Khodorkovsky's Bank Menatep. From March 1996 to February 1997, he was at Rosprom, and since February 1997 with Mikhail Fridman's Alfa-Bank. At Alfa-Bank, he worked closely with Oleg Markovich Govorun (; born 15 January 1969 Bratsk, USSR) who carried black cash directly to Putin.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In September 2004, Surkov was elected president of the board of directors of the oil products transportation company Transnefteproduct, but was instructed by Russia's prime minister Mikhail Fradkov to give up the position in February 2006.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: After a brief career as a director for public relations on the Russian television ORT channel from 1998 to 1999, Surkov was appointed Deputy Chief of Staff of the President of the Russian Federation in 1999.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: During the beginning of his time in this role, Surkov's main appearances in public and in international media were as a public relations mouthpiece of the Kremlin. In August 2000, he confirmed that Gazprom would buy Vladimir Gusinsky's Media-Most, which at the time owned the only independent, nationwide Russian television channel, NTV. In September 2002, he stated on behalf of the Kremlin that they had decided not to return the statue of KGB founder Felix Dzerzhinsky that had been torn down during the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. After the 2003 Russian Duma elections, when the president's United Russia party got the most seats at 37.6%, Surkov delivered the Kremlin's enthusiastic response, saying "We are living in a new Russia now."


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Since 2006, Surkov has advocated a political doctrine he has called sovereign democracy, to counter democracy promotion conducted by the US and European states. Judged by some Western media as controversial, this view has not generally been shared by Russian media and the Russian political elite. Surkov sees this concept as a national version of the common political language that will be used when Russia talks to the outside world. As the most influential ideologist of "sovereign democracy", Surkov gave two programmatic speeches in 2006: "Sovereignty is a Political Synonym of Competitiveness" in February and "Our Russian Model of Democracy is Titled Sovereign Democracy" in June 2006.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: On 8 February 2007, Moscow State University marked the 125th anniversary of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's birth with a high-level conference "Lessons of the New Deal for Modern Russia and the World" attended, among others, by Surkov and Gleb Pavlovsky. Surkov drew an explicit parallel between Roosevelt and Russian president Putin, praising the legacy of Roosevelt's New Deal, and between the US of the 1930s and present-day Russia. Pavlovsky called on Putin to follow Roosevelt in staying for a third presidential term.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: According to "The Moscow Times", Surkov exerted his influence to have Ramzan Kadyrov appointed as acting Head of the Chechen Republic on 15 February 2007. Since this appointment, Kadyrov has gone on to serve two terms in office and has been accused of numerous humans rights abuses.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In October 2009, Surkov warned that opening and modernization of Russia's political system, a need repeatedly stressed by President Dmitry Medvedev, could result in more instability, which "could rip Russia apart".


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In September 2011, Mikhail Prokhorov quit the Right Cause party, which he had led for five months. He condemned the party as a puppet of the Kremlin and named Surkov the "main puppet master of the political process" (), according to a report in Russian-language magazine "Korrespondent" picked up by "The New York Times". Prokhorov had hoped that Surkov would be fired from the Kremlin, but the Kremlin stood behind Surkov and said he would not disappear from the political stage. At that time, "Reuters" described Surkov in a profile as the Kremlin's 'shadowy chief political strategist', one of the most powerful men in the Kremlin and considered a close ally of then-Prime Minister Putin.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: On 28 December 2011, Medvedev reassigned Surkov to the role of Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Modernisation" in a move interpreted by many to be fallout from the controversial Russian parliamentary elections of 2011. At that time, Surkov described his past career as follows: "I was among those who helped Boris Yeltsin to secure a peaceful transfer of power; among those who helped President Putin stabilize the political system; among those who helped President Medvedev liberalize it. All the teams were great."


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: During this time, Surkov helped create some pro-government youth movements, including Nashi. He met with their leaders and participants several times and gave them lectures on the political situation. Nashi has been compared by Edward Lucas as the Putin government's version of the Soviet-era Komsomol.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: When Putin returned to the presidency in 2012, Surkov became marginalized as Putin "pursued a path of open repression over the cunning manipulation favoured by Surkov". As a Deputy Prime Minister, Surkov criticized the Investigative Committee of Russia, which led investigations into opposition leaders, rather than the general prosecutor's office. The Committee stated he offered to resign on 7 May 2013, whereas Surkov stated he offered to resign on 28 April 2013. Putin accepted it on 8 May 2013.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: During Putin's first two terms as president, Surkov was regarded as the Kremlin's "grey cardinal", due to crafting Russia's system of "sovereign democracy" and directing its propaganda principally through control of state run television. On 20 September 2013, Putin appointed Surkov as his Aide in the Presidential Executive Office, focused on Russian aggrandizement in Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Ukraine.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: On 17 March 2014, the day after the Crimean status referendum, Surkov became one of the first eleven persons who were placed under executive sanctions on the Specially Designated Nationals List (SDN) by President Barack Obama, freezing his assets in the US and banning him from entering the United States. Surkov responded to this by saying: "The only things that interest me in the US are Tupac Shakur, Allen Ginsberg, and Jackson Pollock. I don't need a visa to access their work."


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: On 21 March 2014, the European Union (EU) placed Surkov on its sanction list barring him from entering the EU and freezing his assets in the EU.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In February 2015, Ukrainian authorities accused Surkov of organizing snipers to kill protesters and police during the Ukrainian Euromaidan in January 2014. This accusation was dismissed by the Russian government as "absurd".


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Despite being barred from entering the EU, Surkov visited Greece's Mount Athos as a part of Putin's delegation to the holy site in May 2016.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In October 2016, Ukrainian hacker group CyberHunta released over a gigabyte of emails and other documents alleged to belong to Surkov. The 2,337 emails belonged to the inbox of Surkov's office email account, prm_surkova@gov.ru. The Kremlin suggested that the leaked documents were fake.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: The emails illustrate Russian plans to politically destabilize Ukraine and the coordination of affairs with major opposition leaders in separatist east Ukraine. The document release included a document sent by Denis Pushilin, former Chairman of the People's Council of the Donetsk People's Republic, listing casualties that occurred from 26 May to  6 June 2014. It also included a 22-page outline of "a plan to support nationalist and separatist politicians and to encourage early parliamentary elections in Ukraine, all with the aim of undermining the government in Kiev."


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: On 11 February 2019, Surkov published in "Nezavisimaya Gazeta" the article "The Long State of Putin", which describes the main points of the term "Putinism" proposed by him. The article caused a stir in the media.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: On 18 February 2020, Surkov was removed from his role of advisor. On 26 February 2020, he gave an interview to "Aktualnyie kommentarii" where he stated that he actually resigned from the post on his own initiative and the reasons were correctly disclosed by Russian journalists Vladimir Solovyev and Alexei Venediktov. Surkov added that he was primarily involved with Donbas and Ukraine, but since the "context" had changed he decided to leave. He claimed that "There is no Ukraine", adding that "coercion to fraternal relations by force is the only method that has historically proven its effectiveness in the Ukrainian direction. I do not think that some other will be invented".


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In April 2022, amidst the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Surkov was reported to be under house arrest, on the grounds of embezzlement of funds intended for the Donbass separatist region of Ukraine.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Before the 2010 U.S.-Russia "Civil Society to Civil Society" (C2C) summit, a U.S. House of Representatives representative for the state of Florida's 27th district, Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R), was the lead signatory of a written petition which called upon the Obama administration to suspend U.S. participation in the summit until Surkov was replaced as a delegate for the Russian side. In an interview with Radio Free Europe, Ros-Lehtinen explained that she objected to Surkov's attendance as she views him as "one of the main propagators of limiting freedom of speech in Russia, intimidating Russian journalists and representatives of opposition political parties". However, the summit went ahead despite her objections. A 2007 Open Source Center "Media Aid" document identifies the Russian "ura.ru" information website as reportedly having links to Surkov.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Inside Russia, Surkov has drawn criticism from activists and opposition groups: In September 2010, Lyudmila Alexeyeva appealed to then-president Dmitry Medvedev to dismiss him.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In May 2013 after his dismissal as Deputy Prime Minister, Surkov was characterized by "The Economist" as the engineer of "a system of make-believe", "a land of imitation political parties, stage-managed media and fake social movements".


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In Western media outside Russia, a vocal and eloquent critic of Surkov and of the administration of Vladimir Putin in general has been Peter Pomerantsev. Over a short period in 2013–14, Pomerantsev wrote op-eds in "The Atlantic", "The New York Times", and the "London Review of Books" accusing Surkov, "Putin's chief ideologue" with "unsurpassed influence over Russian politics", of turning Russia into a "managed democracy", and of reducing Russian politics to nothing but "postmodernist theatre". In an October 2013 talk before the Legatum Institute, Pomerantsev, along with Pavel Khodorkovsky, termed Russia a "postmodern dictatorship".


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Some time before October 2014, Igor Ivanovich Strelkov, who played a key role in the Russian military intervention in Ukraine, referred to Surkov as a "notorious" person who "focuses only on destruction...as in South Ossetia and other regions where he focused on looting rather than aid".


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In November 2016, opposition leaders Boris Nemtsov (Solidarnost), Vladimir Milov (Democratic Choice), and Vladimir Ryzhkov (People's Freedom Party) jointly demanded his resignation over policies perceived to threaten freedom of the press and journalists in Russia.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: On 13 August 2009, Russian business newspaper "Vedomosti" reported that an anonymous source told them that a recently released novel, "Close to Zero" (""), was written by Surkov under the pseudonym Natan Dubovitsky () in the magazine Russian Pioneer (). It was soon realized that the pseudonym is almost identical to the name of Surkov's second and current wife, Natalya Dubovitskaya ().


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In a subsequent edition of "Close to Zero", Surkov would write a preface to it under his real name, but would continue to deny writing the main text. In the preface, Surkov writes two seemingly contradictory statements: "The author of this novel is an unoriginal Hamlet-obsessed hack"; and, "this is the best book I have ever read".


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: The January 2011 debut performance of the theatrical version of the novel, directed by Kirill Serebrennikov, was attended by Surkov.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: The novel, which has the English language subtitle "gangsta fiction", has as its protagonist a man by the name of Yegor Samokhodov. Samokhodov's occupation is public relations, and he is tasked with managing the reputation of a regional governor. First, he hires a writer to ghostwrite a piece of poetry to be published under the name of the governor without disclosing the ghostwriting, so that the governor may win an award and seem clever to his constituents. He then bribes a newspaper reporter to "correct" stories that portray the governor negatively, such as allegations that a factory of a relative of his is releasing chemicals into the air that harm local children.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: The publishing houses and public relations firms in the novel are intensely violent, with each company having its own gang and turf wars being fought over the rights to publish or represent such acclaimed Russian authors as Alexander Pushkin and Vladimir Nabokov. Peter Pomerantsev described the book as "exactly the sort of book Surkov's youth groups burn on Red Square." "The Economist" wrote that the novel "expos[ed] the vices of the system [Surkov] himself had created".


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Other works authored under the name Natan Dubovitsky, all published in Russian Pioneer, that are rumored to be the work of Surkov are:


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Some outside Russia, such as Ned Resnikoff of ThinkProgress, and Adam Curtis in the BBC documentary "HyperNormalisation", have claimed that Surkov's unique blend of politics and theatre have begun to affect countries outside of Russia, most notably the United States with the selection of Donald Trump for the 2016 US Republican nomination and Trump's subsequent campaign and election victory.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In an editorial for the "London Review of Books" quoted by Curtis, Peter Pomerantsev describes Putin's Russia thus:


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Curtis claims that Trump used a similar strategy to become president of the United States, and hints that Trump's Surkovian origins caused Putin to express his admiration for Trump in Russian media.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Surkov has boasted that "Russia is playing with the West's minds", "They don't know how to deal with their own changed consciousness."


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: In June 2021 Henry Foy published an interview with Surkov in the "Financial Times" in which he said "Surkov is a founding father of Putinism, and one of its key enablers." In Foy's tale, Surkov "stage-manage[d] the 2014 annexation of Crimea and Russia’s involvement in the ongoing war in eastern Ukraine." Foy credits Surkov with the observation that an overdose of freedom is lethal to a state, while the latter compares Putin with Octavian. He describes the Minsk agreements as an act that “legitimised the first division of Ukraine”. He is "proud that I was part of the reconquest [of Ukraine]. This was the first open geopolitical counter-attack by Russia [against the west] and such a decisive one." Surkov exhibits profound and naked cynicism:


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Surkov has even had entire articles written about him and his influence on the War in Donbas by Japanese academics curious about his leaked emails and his "political technology".


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Surkov has married twice. His first marriage, to Yulia Petrovna Vishnevskaya (, née Lukoyanova, Лукоянова) in 1987, ended in divorce in 1996. In his second marriage, Surkov married Natalya Dubovitskaya (), his secretary when he was an executive at the Menatep bank, in a civil ceremony in 2004.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Surkov has four children: Artem (; born 1987), the biological child of Yulia he adopted during his first marriage; and Roman (; born 2001), Maria (; born 2003), and Timur (; born 2010), biological children of himself and Natalya.


title: Vladislav Surkov

text: Surkov has composed songs and written texts for the Russian rock-musician Vadim Samoylov, ex-member of the band Agata Kristi (). He speaks English and is fond of poets of the Beat Generation such as Allen Ginsberg.


title: Abelian group

text: In mathematics, an abelian group, also called a commutative group, is a group in which the result of applying the group operation to two group elements does not depend on the order in which they are written. That is, the group operation is commutative. With addition as an operation, the integers and the real numbers form abelian groups, and the concept of an abelian group may be viewed as a generalization of these examples. Abelian groups are named after early 19th century mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.


title: Abelian group

text: The concept of an abelian group underlies many fundamental algebraic structures, such as fields, rings, vector spaces, and algebras. The theory of abelian groups is generally simpler than that of their non-abelian counterparts, and finite abelian groups are very well understood and fully classified.


title: Abelian group

text: An abelian group is a set formula_1, together with an operation formula_2 that combines any two elements formula_3 and formula_4 of formula_1 to form another element of formula_6 denoted formula_7. The symbol formula_2 is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation. To qualify as an abelian group, the set and operation, formula_9, must satisfy four requirements known as the "abelian group axioms" (some authors include in the axioms some properties that belong to the definition of an operation: namely that the operation is "defined" for any ordered pair of elements of , that the result is "well-defined", and that the result "belongs to" ):


title: Abelian group

text: A group in which the group operation is not commutative is called a "non-abelian group" or "non-commutative group".


title: Abelian group

text: Generally, the multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual notation for modules and rings. The additive notation may also be used to emphasize that a particular group is abelian, whenever both abelian and non-abelian groups are considered, some notable exceptions being near-rings and partially ordered groups, where an operation is written additively even when non-abelian.


title: Abelian group

text: To verify that a finite group is abelian, a table (matrix) – known as a Cayley table – can be constructed in a similar fashion to a multiplication table. If the group is formula_30 under the the entry of this table contains the product formula_31.


title: Abelian group

text: The group is abelian if and only if this table is symmetric about the main diagonal. This is true since the group is abelian iff formula_32 for all formula_33, which is iff the formula_34 entry of the table equals the formula_35 entry for all formula_33, i.e. the table is symmetric about the main diagonal.


title: Abelian group

text: In general, matrices, even invertible matrices, do not form an abelian group under multiplication because matrix multiplication is generally not commutative. However, some groups of matrices are abelian groups under matrix multiplication – one example is the group of formula_55 rotation matrices.


title: Abelian group

text: Camille Jordan named abelian groups after Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel, because Abel found that the commutativity of the group of a polynomial implies that the roots of the polynomial can be calculated by using radicals.


title: Abelian group

text: If formula_39 is a natural number and formula_45 is an element of an abelian group formula_44 written additively, then formula_59 can be defined as formula_60 (formula_39 summands) and formula_62. In this way, formula_44 becomes a module over the ring formula_49 of integers. In fact, the modules over formula_49 can be identified with the abelian groups.


title: Abelian group

text: Theorems about abelian groups (i.e. modules over the principal ideal domain formula_49) can often be generalized to theorems about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is the classification of finitely generated abelian groups which is a specialization of the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain. In the case of finitely generated abelian groups, this theorem guarantees that an abelian group splits as a direct sum of a torsion group and a free abelian group. The former may be written as a direct sum of finitely many groups of the form formula_67 for formula_68 prime, and the latter is a direct sum of finitely many copies of formula_49.


title: Abelian group

text: If formula_70 are two group homomorphisms between abelian groups, then their sum formula_71, defined by formula_72, is again a homomorphism. (This is not true if formula_73 is a non-abelian group.) The set formula_74 of all group homomorphisms from formula_44 to formula_73 is therefore an abelian group in its own right.


title: Abelian group

text: Somewhat akin to the dimension of vector spaces, every abelian group has a "rank". It is defined as the maximal cardinality of a set of linearly independent (over the integers) elements of the group. Finite abelian groups and torsion groups have rank zero, and every abelian group of rank zero is a torsion group. The integers and the rational numbers have rank one, as well as every nonzero additive subgroup of the rationals. On the other hand, the multiplicative group of the nonzero rationals has an infinite rank, as it is a free abelian group with the set of the prime numbers as a basis (this results from the fundamental theorem of arithmetic).


title: Abelian group

text: The center formula_77 of a group formula_44 is the set of elements that commute with every element of formula_44. A group formula_44 is abelian if and only if it is equal to its center formula_77. The center of a group formula_44 is always a characteristic abelian subgroup of formula_44. If the quotient group formula_84 of a group by its center is cyclic then formula_44 is abelian.


title: Abelian group

text: Cyclic groups of integers modulo formula_39, formula_87, were among the first examples of groups. It turns out that an arbitrary finite abelian group is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups of prime power order, and these orders are uniquely determined, forming a complete system of invariants. The automorphism group of a finite abelian group can be described directly in terms of these invariants. The theory had been first developed in the 1879 paper of Georg Frobenius and Ludwig Stickelberger and later was both simplified and generalized to finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain, forming an important chapter of linear algebra.


title: Abelian group

text: Any group of prime order is isomorphic to a cyclic group and therefore abelian. Any group whose order is a square of a prime number is also abelian. In fact, for every prime number formula_68 there are (up to isomorphism) exactly two groups of order formula_89, namely formula_90 and formula_91.


title: Abelian group

text: The fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups states that every finite abelian group formula_44 can be expressed as the direct sum of cyclic subgroups of prime-power order; it is also known as the basis theorem for finite abelian groups. Moreover, automorphism groups of cyclic groups are examples of abelian groups. This is generalized by the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups, with finite groups being the special case when "G" has zero rank; this in turn admits numerous further generalizations.


title: Abelian group

text: The classification was proven by Leopold Kronecker in 1870, though it was not stated in modern group-theoretic terms until later, and was preceded by a similar classification of quadratic forms by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801; see history for details.


title: Abelian group

text: The cyclic group formula_93 of order formula_94 is isomorphic to the direct sum of formula_95 and formula_96 if and only if formula_42 and formula_39 are coprime. It follows that any finite abelian group formula_44 is isomorphic to a direct sum of the form


title: Abelian group

text: For example, formula_106 can be expressed as the direct sum of two cyclic subgroups of order 3 and 5: formula_107. The same can be said for any abelian group of order 15, leading to the remarkable conclusion that all abelian groups of order 15 are isomorphic.


title: Abelian group

text: For another example, every abelian group of order 8 is isomorphic to either formula_108 (the integers 0 to 7 under addition modulo 8), formula_109 (the odd integers 1 to 15 under multiplication modulo 16), or formula_110.


title: Abelian group

text: One can apply the fundamental theorem to count (and sometimes determine) the automorphisms of a given finite abelian group formula_44. To do this, one uses the fact that if formula_44 splits as a direct sum formula_113 of subgroups of coprime order, then


title: Abelian group

text: Given this, the fundamental theorem shows that to compute the automorphism group of formula_44 it suffices to compute the automorphism groups of the Sylow formula_68-subgroups separately (that is, all direct sums of cyclic subgroups, each with order a power of formula_68). Fix a prime formula_68 and suppose the exponents formula_119 of the cyclic factors of the Sylow formula_68-subgroup are arranged in increasing order:


title: Abelian group

text: One special case is when formula_124, so that there is only one cyclic prime-power factor in the Sylow formula_68-subgroup formula_126. In this case the theory of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group can be used. Another special case is when formula_39 is arbitrary but formula_128 for formula_129. Here, one is considering formula_126 to be of the form


title: Abelian group

text: so elements of this subgroup can be viewed as comprising a vector space of dimension formula_39 over the finite field of formula_68 elements formula_134. The automorphisms of this subgroup are therefore given by the invertible linear transformations, so


title: Abelian group

text: In the most general case, where the formula_119 and formula_39 are arbitrary, the automorphism group is more difficult to determine. It is known, however, that if one defines


title: Abelian group

text: One can check that this yields the orders in the previous examples as special cases (see Hillar, C., & Rhea, D.).


title: Abelian group

text: An abelian group is finitely generated if it contains a finite set of elements (called "generators") formula_145 such that every element of the group is a linear combination with integer coefficients of elements of .


title: Abelian group

text: This homomorphism is surjective, and its kernel is finitely generated (since integers form a Noetherian ring). Consider the matrix with integer entries, such that the entries of its th column are the coefficients of the th generator of the kernel. Then, the abelian group is isomorphic to the cokernel of linear map defined by . Conversely every integer matrix defines a finitely generated abelian group.


title: Abelian group

text: It follows that the study of finitely generated abelian groups is totally equivalent with the study of integer matrices. In particular, changing the generating set of is equivalent with multiplying on the left by a unimodular matrix (that is, an invertible integer matrix whose inverse is also an integer matrix). Changing the generating set of the kernel of is equivalent with multiplying on the right by a unimodular matrix.


title: Abelian group

text: where and are unimodular, and is a matrix such that all non-diagonal entries are zero, the non-zero diagonal entries are the first ones, and is a divisor of for . The existence and the shape of the Smith normal proves that the finitely generated abelian group is the direct sum


title: Abelian group

text: where is the number of zero rows at the bottom of (and also the rank of the group). This is the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups.


title: Abelian group

text: The existence of algorithms for Smith normal form shows that the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups is not only a theorem of abstract existence, but provides a way for computing expression of finitely generated abelian groups as direct sums.


title: Abelian group

text: The simplest infinite abelian group is the infinite cyclic group formula_49. Any finitely generated abelian group formula_1 is isomorphic to the direct sum of formula_153 copies of formula_49 and a finite abelian group, which in turn is decomposable into a direct sum of finitely many cyclic groups of prime power orders. Even though the decomposition is not unique, the number formula_153, called the rank of formula_1, and the prime powers giving the orders of finite cyclic summands are uniquely determined.


title: Abelian group

text: By contrast, classification of general infinitely generated abelian groups is far from complete. Divisible groups, i.e. abelian groups formula_1 in which the equation formula_158 admits a solution formula_159 for any natural number formula_39 and element formula_3 of formula_1, constitute one important class of infinite abelian groups that can be completely characterized. Every divisible group is isomorphic to a direct sum, with summands isomorphic to formula_163 and Prüfer groups formula_164 for various prime numbers formula_68, and the cardinality of the set of summands of each type is uniquely determined. Moreover, if a divisible group formula_1 is a subgroup of an abelian group formula_44 then formula_1 admits a direct complement: a subgroup formula_169 of formula_44 such that formula_171. Thus divisible groups are injective modules in the category of abelian groups, and conversely, every injective abelian group is divisible (Baer's criterion). An abelian group without non-zero divisible subgroups is called reduced.


title: Abelian group

text: Two important special classes of infinite abelian groups with diametrically opposite properties are "torsion groups" and "torsion-free groups", exemplified by the groups formula_172 (periodic) and formula_163 (torsion-free).


title: Abelian group

text: An abelian group is called periodic or torsion, if every element has finite order. A direct sum of finite cyclic groups is periodic. Although the converse statement is not true in general, some special cases are known. The first and second Prüfer theorems state that if formula_1 is a periodic group, and it either has a bounded exponent, i.e., formula_175 for some natural number formula_39, or is countable and the formula_68-heights of the elements of formula_1 are finite for each formula_68, then formula_1 is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups.


title: Abelian group

text: The cardinality of the set of direct summands isomorphic to formula_181 in such a decomposition is an invariant of formula_1. These theorems were later subsumed in the Kulikov criterion. In a different direction, Helmut Ulm found an extension of the second Prüfer theorem to countable abelian formula_68-groups with elements of infinite height: those groups are completely classified by means of their Ulm invariants.


title: Abelian group

text: An abelian group is called torsion-free if every non-zero element has infinite order. Several classes of torsion-free abelian groups have been studied extensively:


title: Abelian group

text: An abelian group that is neither periodic nor torsion-free is called mixed. If formula_1 is an abelian group and formula_187 is its torsion subgroup, then the factor group formula_188 is torsion-free. However, in general the torsion subgroup is not a direct summand of formula_1, so formula_1 is "not" isomorphic to formula_191. Thus the theory of mixed groups involves more than simply combining the results about periodic and torsion-free groups. The additive group formula_49 of integers is torsion-free formula_49-module.


title: Abelian group

text: One of the most basic invariants of an infinite abelian group formula_1 is its rank: the cardinality of the maximal linearly independent subset of formula_1. Abelian groups of rank 0 are precisely the periodic groups, while torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1 are necessarily subgroups of formula_163 and can be completely described. More generally, a torsion-free abelian group of finite rank formula_153 is a subgroup of formula_198. On the other hand, the group of formula_68-adic integers formula_200 is a torsion-free abelian group of infinite formula_49-rank and the groups formula_202 with different formula_39 are non-isomorphic, so this invariant does not even fully capture properties of some familiar groups.


title: Abelian group

text: The classification theorems for finitely generated, divisible, countable periodic, and rank 1 torsion-free abelian groups explained above were all obtained before 1950 and form a foundation of the classification of more general infinite abelian groups. Important technical tools used in classification of infinite abelian groups are pure and basic subgroups. Introduction of various invariants of torsion-free abelian groups has been one avenue of further progress. See the books by Irving Kaplansky, László Fuchs, Phillip Griffith, and David Arnold, as well as the proceedings of the conferences on Abelian Group Theory published in "Lecture Notes in Mathematics" for more recent findings.


title: Abelian group

text: The additive group of a ring is an abelian group, but not all abelian groups are additive groups of rings (with nontrivial multiplication). Some important topics in this area of study are:


title: Abelian group

text: The collection of all abelian groups, together with the homomorphisms between them, forms the category formula_204, the prototype of an abelian category.


title: Abelian group

text: Moreover, abelian groups of infinite order lead, quite surprisingly, to deep questions about the set theory commonly assumed to underlie all of mathematics. Take the Whitehead problem: are all Whitehead groups of infinite order also free abelian groups? In the 1970s, Saharon Shelah proved that the Whitehead problem is:


title: Abelian group

text: Among mathematical adjectives derived from the proper name of a mathematician, the word "abelian" is rare in that it is often spelled with a lowercase a, rather than an uppercase A, the lack of capitalization being a tacit acknowledgment not only of the degree to which Abel's name has been institutionalized but also of how ubiquitous in modern mathematics are the concepts introduced by him.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The Ten-Day War (), or the Slovenian War of Independence (), was a brief armed conflict that followed Slovenia's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991. It was fought between the separatists of the Slovenian Territorial Defence and the Yugoslav People's Army (or JNA). It lasted from 27 June 1991 until 7 July 1991, when the Brioni Accords were signed.


title: Ten-Day War

text: It was the second of the Yugoslav wars to start in 1991, following the Croatian War of Independence, and by far the shortest of the conflicts with fewest overall casualties. The war was brief because the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA, dominated by Serbo-Montenegrins, although still made up of all the nationalities of Yugoslavia) did not want to waste resources on this campaign, as it was preparing for the Croatian War of Independence, where the Serbo-Montenegrin majority in Yugoslavia did have territorial uses, unlike Slovenia, which was considered "ethnically homogeneous" and therefore of no interest to the Yugoslavs. In the BBC documentary "The Death of Yugoslavia", Slobodan Milošević said: "I was against using the Yugoslav Army in Slovenia." Borisav Jović said: "With Slovenia out of the way, we could dictate the terms to the Croats."


title: Ten-Day War

text: Following the death of Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito in 1980, underlying political, ethnic, religious, and economic tensions within Yugoslavia surfaced. In 1989 Slobodan Milošević, Chairman of the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Serbia since 1986, became president of Serbia, the largest and most populous of the six Yugoslav republics. As Milošević moved to consolidate power by centralizing the state, the governments of the other republics sought to loosen the central grip on power by devolving as much constitutional power as possible to each of the republics and autonomous provinces. A series of disagreements among delegates persisted until four of the six republics each made the decision to gain independence from Yugoslavia. Supported by Germany and the Vatican, Slovenia was among those republics aiming for independence.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The first action in defence of Slovenian independence, that united both the opposition and democratized communist establishment in Slovenia was, however, carried out by the Slovene police forces, in an action named Action North in 1989. In April 1990, Slovenia held its first democratic multi-party elections, won by the DEMOS coalition.


title: Ten-Day War

text: On 23 December 1990, Slovenia held a referendum, which passed with 88.5% of overall electorate supporting independence (94.8% of votes cast), with a turnout of 93.3%. The Slovenian government was well aware that the federal government in Belgrade might seek to use military force to quash Slovenia's move towards independence. Immediately after the Slovenian elections, the Yugoslav People's Army announced a new defence doctrine that would apply across the country. The Tito-era doctrine of "General People's Defence", in which each republic maintained a Territorial Defence Force, was to be replaced by a centrally directed system of defence. The republics would lose their role in defence matters, and their TOs would be disarmed and subordinated to the JNA's headquarters in Belgrade.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The Slovenian government resisted these moves and successfully ensured that the majority of Slovenian Territorial Defence equipment was kept out of the hands of the JNA. It also declared in a constitutional amendment passed on 28 September 1990 that it's TO would be under the sole command of the Slovenian government. At the same time, the Slovenian government set up a secret alternative command structure, known as the Manoeuvre Structures of National Protection ("Manevrska struktura narodne zaščite", or MSNZ). This was an existing but antiquated institution, unique to Slovenia, which was intended to enable the republic to form an "ad hoc" defence structure, akin to a Home Guard. It was of negligible importance prior to 1990, with antiquated weapons and few members. However, the DEMOS-led government realised that the MSNZ could be adapted to provide a parallel organisation to the TO that would be entirely in the hands of the Slovenian government.


title: Ten-Day War

text: When the JNA tried to take control of the Slovenian Territorial Defence, the TO's command structure was simply replaced by that of the parallel MSNZ. Between May and October 1990, some 21,000 Slovenian Territorial Defence and police personnel were secretly mobilised into the MSNZ command structure, of which the federal government was wholly unaware. The Slovenian government also undertook detailed planning of a military campaign against the JNA, which resulted in the production of an operational and tactical plan by November 1990 – over seven months before the conflict actually began.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The Slovenes were aware that they would not be able to deter the JNA's forces for an extended period of time. Under Defence Minister Janez Janša, they adopted a strategy based on an asymmetric warfare approach. TO units would carry out a guerrilla campaign, using anti-tank weapons and anti-aircraft missiles to ambush the JNA's units. Tank columns could be trapped by destroying the lead and rear vehicles in favourable terrain – for instance, on a narrow mountain road where room for manoeuvre was limited – enabling the rest to be tackled more easily. In preparation for this, the Slovenian government covertly bought lightweight missile systems from foreign suppliers, notably the SA-7 Grail (Strela) anti-aircraft missile and the German-designed Armbrust anti-tank system. Hit-and-run and delaying tactics were to be preferred and frontal clashes were to be avoided since in such situations the JNA's superior firepower would have been very difficult to overcome.


title: Ten-Day War

text: Slovenia and Croatia passed their acts of independence on 25 June 1991. This "advance" on the date of independence was a critical element of the Slovenian plan to gain an early advantage in the expected conflict. The Slovenian government fully expected the Yugoslav military to respond with force on the day of the declaration of independence or shortly afterwards. By secretly advancing the date by 24 hours, the Slovenians wrongfooted the Yugoslav government, which had set 26 June as the date for its move.


title: Ten-Day War

text: Although the Yugoslav army was adamantly opposed to Slovenian independence, it was divided about what to do. The JNA Chief of Staff, Colonel-General Blagoje Adžić, advocated a large-scale military operation to remove the Slovenian government and bring "healthy forces" to power in the republic. His political superior, the Yugoslav Defence Minister General of the Army Veljko Kadijević, insisted on a more cautious approach – essentially a show of force that would convince the Slovenian government to back down on its declaration of independence. After some debate, Kadijević got his way.


title: Ten-Day War

text: It is unclear how much the civilian members of the Yugoslav government were involved in the decision to resort to force in Slovenia. Ante Marković, the President of the Federal Executive Council (equivalent to Prime Minister) is reported to have said that the federal government had not been informed of the Army's actions.


title: Ten-Day War

text: On the morning of 26 June, units of the Yugoslav People's Army's 13th Corps left their barracks in Rijeka, Croatia, to move towards Slovenia's borders with Italy. The move immediately led to a strong reaction from local Slovenians, who organized spontaneous barricades and demonstrations against the JNA's actions. There had been no fighting yet, and both sides appeared to have an unofficial policy of not being the first to open fire.


title: Ten-Day War

text: By this time, the Slovenian government had already put into action its plan to seize control of the republic's border posts and the international airport at Brnik. The personnel manning the border posts were, in most cases, already Slovenians, so the Slovenian take-over mostly simply amounted to changing of uniforms and insignia, without any fighting. This was undertaken, in the words of Janez Janša, to "establish our sovereignty in the key triangle, border-customs-air control." It also had important practical effects. The border crossings were a major source of revenue. In addition, by taking control of the borders, the Slovenians were able to establish defensive positions against an expected JNA attack. This meant that the JNA would have to fire the first shot. It was fired on 27 June at 14:30 in Divača by an officer of the JNA.


title: Ten-Day War

text: Further JNA troop movements took place in the early hours of 27 June. A unit of the JNA's 306th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, based in Karlovac, Croatia, crossed the Slovenian border at Metlika. A few hours later, a column of tanks and armoured personnel carriers of the JNA 1st Armoured Brigade left their barracks at Vrhnika near the Slovenian capital Ljubljana, heading for the airport at Brnik. They arrived a few hours later and took control of the facilities. As the JNA was the federal army, its forces were customarily deployed in various places within the federal republics including Slovenia. To the east, JNA units left Maribor heading for the nearby border crossing at Šentilj and the border town of Dravograd further west. The Yugoslav Air Force aircraft dropped leaflets over various parts of Slovenia bearing the messages "We invite you to peace and cooperation!" and "All resistance will be crushed."


title: Ten-Day War

text: In the early hours of 27 June the Slovenian leadership was told of the movements of the JNA. The military leadership of the Fifth Military District, which included Slovenia, was in telephone contact with Slovenian president Milan Kučan, telling him that the troops' mission was limited to taking over the border crossings and airport. A meeting of the Slovene presidency was hastily convened at which Kučan and the rest of the members decided on armed resistance.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The Slovenian government had received warnings that the JNA would use helicopters to ferry special forces troops to strategic locations. It issued a warning to the JNA's 5th Military Command District in Zagreb that if helicopters continued to be used they would be shot down. The warning was disregarded by the JNA leadership, which still believed that the Slovenians would back down rather than fight. This was, however, a disastrous miscalculation. In the afternoon of 27 June, the Slovenian TO (Slovenian Territorial Defence) shot down two JNA helicopters with SA-7 missiles, one of them a Gazelle over Rožna Dolina, Ljubljana, killing the occupants, one of whom, Toni Mrlak, was a Slovenian pilot, as the JNA's forces consisted of nationals from all the republics. But it was later found out that Mrlak, the pilot who was shot down over Gazelle, was unarmed and was just carrying bread for the Yugoslav soldiers.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The Slovenian Territorial Defence also took up positions around JNA barracks in various locations, effectively besieging them, and launched a series of attacks on JNA forces across Slovenia. At Brnik, a Slovenian TO unit attacked the JNA troops holding the airport, and at Trzin a firefight developed in which four JNA soldiers and one Slovenian TO soldier (Edvard Peperko) were killed and the remainder of the JNA unit was forced to surrender. Attacks were also launched by Slovenian TO units on JNA tank columns at Pesnica, Ormož and Koseze near Ilirska Bistrica. A tank column from the JNA's 32nd Mechanised Brigade, advancing from Varaždin in Croatia, was blocked at Ormož near the Slovenian border and found itself unable to break through a Slovenian barricade.


title: Ten-Day War

text: Despite the confusion and fighting, the JNA nonetheless successfully accomplished much of its military mission. By midnight on 27 June it had captured all of the crossings along the Italian border, all but three crossings on the Austrian border and several of the new crossing points established along Slovenia's border with Croatia. However, many of its units were still stuck in vulnerable positions across Slovenia.


title: Ten-Day War

text: During the night of 27–28 June, Slovenian TO units were ordered to undertake a general offensive against the JNA. The Slovenian defence ministry ordered:


title: Ten-Day War

text: At all locations where RS (Republic of Slovenia) armed forces (Slovenian Territorial Defence) have the tactical advantage, offensive actions against enemy units and facilities will be carried out. The enemy will be summoned to surrender, the shortest deadline possible for surrender given and action taken using all available weapons. While in action, any necessary arrangements will be made to evacuate and protect the civilians.


title: Ten-Day War

text: Additional fighting took place throughout the day. The JNA tank column that had been attacked at Pesnica the previous day was blocked by impromptu barricades of Slovenian trucks at Štrihovec, a few kilometers short of the border with Austria, where it again came under attack by Slovenian TO personnel and Slovenian police. The SFR Yugoslav Air Force mounted two airstrikes in support of the JNA forces at Strihovec, killing four truck drivers. At Medvedjek in central Slovenia, another JNA tank column came under attack at a truck barricade, where air raids killed six truck drivers.


title: Ten-Day War

text: Heavy fighting broke out at Nova Gorica on the border with Italy, where the Slovenian Special Forces fired two Armbrust antitank rockets and fired 700 rounds from infantry weapons. Slovene troops destroyed two JNA T-55 tanks and captured an additional three, plus a BTS-1 military engineering vehicle. Three JNA soldiers were killed and 16 wounded, among them the commander of the armored column, and 98 surrendered. A number of wounded were admitted to Gorizia's hospital after crossing the Italian border. Some sources claim that this was the decisive battle of the war.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The border crossing at Holmec was captured by Slovenian TO forces. Two Slovenian and three JNA soldiers were killed, and 91 JNA soldiers captured. The JNA barracks at Bukovje Mansion in Bukovje near Dravograd were attacked by Slovenian TO units and a JNA weapons depot at Borovnica fell to the Slovenian TO, significantly improving the Slovenians' supply of weapons. The Yugoslav Air Force carried out attacks at a number of locations across the country, most notably at Brnik Airport, where two journalists from Austria and Germany (Nikolas Vogel and Norbert Werner) were killed and four Adria Airways airliners were seriously damaged. The Yugoslav Air Force also attacked the Slovenian TO military headquarters at Kočevska Reka and flew sorties against radio and television transmitters at Krim, Kum, Trdina Peak, and Nanos in an attempt to silence the Slovenian government broadcasts.


title: Ten-Day War

text: By the end of the day, the JNA still held many of its positions but was rapidly losing ground. JNA was beginning to experience problems with desertions – many Slovenian members of the JNA quit their units or simply changed sides - and both the troops on the ground and the leadership in Belgrade appeared to have little idea of what to do next.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The outbreak of the war galvanised diplomatic efforts by the European Community to find an end to the crisis. Three EC foreign ministers met with Slovenian and Yugoslav government representatives in Zagreb during the night of 28–29 June and agreed on a ceasefire plan, but this was not put into practice. In the morning, the Slovenians achieved several significant military successes. The JNA troops at Ljubljana Airport near Brnik surrendered to Slovenian TO forces, who had surrounded the facility overnight.


title: Ten-Day War

text: In the north, several JNA tanks were captured near Strihovec and later reorganised into a TO tank company. JNA special forces attempted a maritime landing at Hrvatini but were ambushed and repulsed by the Slovenians, suffering two dead and three wounded. The JNA-held border crossings at Vrtojba and Šentilj also fell to the Slovenian TO, who seized the federal troops' weapons and tanks, providing a much-needed boost to their arsenal.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The JNA issued an ultimatum to Slovenia, demanding an immediate cessation of hostilities by 09:00 on 30 June. In response, the Slovenian Assembly adopted a resolution calling for a peaceful solution to the crisis that did not jeopardise Slovenian independence, and rejected the JNA ultimatum.


title: Ten-Day War

text: Skirmishing continued in several places during the day. Separatist forces seized the strategic Karawanks Tunnel under the Alps on the border with Austria and captured nine JNA tanks near Nova Gorica, on the border with Italy. The entire JNA garrison at Dravograd – 16 officers and 400 men, plus equipment – surrendered, and the garrisons at Tolmin and Bovec also fell to the Slovenians. The weapons captured from the garrisons were quickly re-issued to the Slovenian forces.


title: Ten-Day War

text: More skirmishes took place, with Slovenian TO forces taking over a JNA facility at Nova vas, south of Ljubljana. The JNA's ammunition dump at Črni Vrh caught fire and was destroyed in a massive explosion, damaging much of the town. However, the Slovenians successfully captured depots at Pečovnik, Bukovžlak, and Zaloška Gorica, taking possession of some 70 truckloads of ammunition and explosives.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The JNA 306th Light Air Defence Artillery Regiment's column retreated from its exposed position at Medvedjek and headed into the Krakovo Forest ("Krakovski gozd") near the Croatian border. It ran into a blockade near the town of Krško and was surrounded by Slovenian forces, but refused to surrender, probably hoping for help from a relief column.


title: Ten-Day War

text: In the meantime, the JNA's leadership sought permission to change the tempo of its operations. Defence Minister Veljko Kadijević informed the Yugoslav cabinet that the JNA's first plan – a limited operation to secure Slovenia's border crossings – had failed, and that it was time to put into operation the backup plan of a full-scale invasion and imposition of military rule in Slovenia. However, the collective presidency – headed at the time by Serbia's Borisav Jović – refused to authorise such an operation. The JNA Chief of Staff, General Blagoje Adžić, was furious and publicly denounced "the federal organs [which] continually hampered us, demanding negotiations while they [the Slovenians] were attacking us with all means."


title: Ten-Day War

text: The heaviest fighting of the war to date took place during 2 July. The Domžale radio transmitter was attacked at 10:37 UTC (11:37 local time) and heavily damaged by two JNA MiG-21 planes. During the rest of the day there were a number of major set-backs for the JNA. The JNA convoy in the Krakovo Forest came under sustained attack from TO units, forcing it to surrender. Units from the JNA's Fourth Armoured Brigade attempted to move up from Jastrebarsko in Croatia but were beaten back near the border town of Bregana. The Slovenian TO mounted successful attacks on border crossings at Šentilj, Gornja Radgona, Fernetiči and Gorjansko, overrunning them and taking a number of JNA troops prisoner. A protracted engagement between JNA and Slovenian TO forces took place during the afternoon and evening at Dravograd, and a number of JNA facilities around the country fell to Slovenian forces.


title: Ten-Day War

text: At 21:00, the Slovenian Presidency announced a unilateral ceasefire. However, this was rejected by the JNA leadership, which vowed to "take control" and crush Slovenian resistance.


title: Ten-Day War

text: A large JNA armoured convoy set off from Belgrade on the morning of 3 July, ostensibly to go to Slovenia. It never arrived; according to the official account, this was due to mechanical breakdowns.


title: Ten-Day War

text: Fighting continued in Slovenia, with a JNA relief force heading for the Gornja Radgona border crossing being halted near Radenci. JNA forces at the Kog border crossing were also attacked by TO units. In the evening, the JNA agreed to a ceasefire and a withdrawal to barracks. In a separate incident not far from Radenci, in the village of Hrastje-Mota, a Yugoslav Mi-8 helicopter developed mechanical problems and was forced to land. The helicopter was seized by the Slovene military, but was deemed not suitable for the newly born air force and handed back to Belgrade on 13 August.


title: Ten-Day War

text: With a ceasefire now in force, the two sides disengaged. Slovenian forces took control of all of the country's border crossings, and JNA units were allowed to withdraw peacefully to barracks and to cross the border to Croatia.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The Ten-Day War was formally ended with the Brioni Accord, signed on the Croatian Brijuni Islands. Slovenian and Croatian independence were agreed to. The terms were distinctly favourable to Slovenia; it was agreed that Slovenia and Croatia would postpone their independence for three months—which in practical terms had little real impact—and the Slovenian police and armed forces (Slovenian Territorial Defence) were recognised as sovereign on their territory.