title: American decline

text: Alex Lo, a columnist from "South China Morning Post", wrote in 2021 that "Soviet Russia under Mikhail Gorbachev didn't know they had already lost the empire until it was too late. The fate of the United States will not be any different."


title: American decline

text: 2018 polls placed the U.S. leadership a notch below China's 31% and left Germany as the most popular power with an approval of 41%.


title: American decline

text: A 2019 survey carried out by Pew Research Center shows that a majority of Americans predicted the U.S. economy to be weaker in 2050. Also, the survey says, a majority of the people thought the U.S. would be "a country with a burgeoning national debt, a wider gap between the rich and the poor and a workforce threatened by automation."


title: American decline

text: In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, public opinion of both the United States and China worsened in most countries surveyed by Pew Research. The opinion of the US was more favorable than that of China overall; opinion of the handling of the pandemic was negative in both countries, but the opinion of China's handling of the pandemic was more favorable than the US.


title: American decline

text: According to a January 2021 survey of 1,032 people from ASEAN countries by Singapore's ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute, 61.5% of the respondents said they would choose the U.S. over China if they had to pick sides in the ongoing rivalry between the two countries. Support for the U.S. rose 7.9% from the previous year's survey.


title: American decline

text: In a 2021 poll of 1,019 Americans just after the riot at the Capitol, 79% of those surveyed said that America is "falling apart". At the same time, a similar proportion of survey respondents indicated that they are "proud to be an American".


title: American decline

text: In late January 2021, Pew reported that as Biden's inauguration approached, polls showed the international opinion of the United States in Europe improved significantly, raising to 72-84% optimism about US relations in Britain, France, and Germany.


title: American decline

text: A January 2022 poll conducted by NPR/Ipsos found that over 70% of U.S. respondents believe democracy is "in crisis and at risk of failing."


title: Sergeant Major of the Army

text: The Sergeant Major of the Army (SMA) is a unique non-commissioned rank and position of office in the United States Army. The holder of this rank and position is the most senior enlisted soldier in the Army, unless a enlisted soldier is serving as the Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman. The SMA is appointed to serve as a spokesman to address the issues of enlisted soldiers to all officers, from warrant officers and lieutenants to the Army's highest positions. As such, they are the senior enlisted advisor to the Chief of Staff of the Army. The exact duties vary depending on the chief of staff, though much of the SMA's time is spent traveling throughout the Army, observing training and talking with soldiers and their families.


title: Sergeant Major of the Army

text: Kenneth O. Preston held the rank from 15 January 2004 through 28 February 2011, the only incumbent to serve longer than five years. SMA Michael A. Grinston has held the office since 9 August 2019.


title: Sergeant Major of the Army

text: While the SMA is a non-commissioned officer, protocol places the SMA higher than all lieutenant generals (except for the Director of the Army Staff) and equivalent to a general for formal courtesies in addition to seating, billeting, transportation, and parking.


title: Sergeant Major of the Army

text: The rank and position were based on those of the Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps (established in its current incarnation on 23 May 1957). The Chief of Staff of the Army created the position in 1966 after asking leaders of the major commands for a personal recommendation. He asked that it not be considered a near-retirement type assignment. He listed seven duties and functions he expected the Sergeant Major to perform, including service as a personal adviser and assistant on matters pertaining to enlisted soldiers. From 4,700 proposed candidates, 21 nominees were selected. Finally chosen was the only one then serving in Vietnam, Sergeant Major William O. Wooldridge of the 1st Infantry Division.


title: Sergeant Major of the Army

text: The other services later followed, creating the positions of Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy and Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force in 1967, Master Chief Petty Officer of the Coast Guard in 1969, Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman in 2005, and Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force in 2020. These seven positions are collectively referred to as "senior enlisted advisors" ("SEAs").


title: Sergeant Major of the Army

text: The sergeant major of the Army, like counterparts in the other branches, wears a unique rank insignia, including a unique collar insignia ("brass").


title: Sergeant Major of the Army

text: The collar insignia of the SMA is the shield portion of the collar insignia of an aide-de-camp to the Army Chief of Staff (less the surmounting eagle), placed upon an enlisted collar disk of gold color, one inch in diameter. The insignia worn by SMA Wooldridge was hand-soldered by Colonel Jasper J. Wilson from the cannibalized insignia and enlisted collar brass of an aide. The insignia was approved on 4 July 1966. Originally, the SMA would wear the device on each collar, but he now wears the standard "U.S." disk on his right collar as do all enlisted soldiers. This insignia is also worn in place of a unit insignia on the SMA's beret, garrison cap, and pull-over sweater. The collar insignia of the senior enlisted advisor to the chairman ("SEAC") of the JCS, approved 2 February 2006, is based directly upon that of the SMA, and features the shield of an aide de camp to the chairman of the joint chiefs of staff (without the surmounting eagle), on a gold-colored disk.


title: Sergeant Major of the Army

text: The SMA's cap device, worn on the front of the blue service cap (and, formerly, the white service cap; and, until 2011 the green service cap) is a gold-colored rendering of the United States' coat of arms, surrounded by a wreath. The cap device for all other U.S. Army enlisted soldiers is a gold-colored rendering of the United States' coat of arms on a gold-colored disk (males) or surrounded by a gold colored ring (females). The chief master sergeant of the Air Force has the same cap device as the SMA, but in silver-colored metal.


title: Sergeant Major of the Army

text: The Sergeant Major of the Army, Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force, Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force, and the Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman are the only members of the United States armed forces below the rank of brigadier general/rear admiral, lower half to be authorized a positional color (flag). First considered in 1992, the SMA's color has been authorized since 22 March 1999. It is based on the design of his collar insignia and the positional flag of the Chief of Staff, Army. Like the SEAC's collar brass, the SEAC's positional color was patterned after the SMA's color.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: Anne-Marie, ( ; born 30 August 1946) is a Greek and Danish royal who was the last Queen of Greece from 1964 to 1973 as the wife of King Constantine II. The Greek monarchy was abolished with the 1974 Greek Republic Referendum.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: Born Princess Anne-Marie of Denmark, she is the youngest daughter of King Frederick IX of Denmark and his wife Ingrid of Sweden. In 1964 she married King Constantine and became queen consort of Greece. During her tenure as Queen of Greece, Anne-Marie spent much of her time working for a charitable foundation known as "Her Majesty's Fund" and later as the "Anne-Marie Foundation", which provided assistance to people in rural areas of Greece. In 1967, however, the king and queen were forced into exile and later deposed as Greece transitioned into a Republic.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: Anne-Marie is the youngest sister of the reigning Queen Margrethe II of Denmark. She is also a first cousin of the reigning King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, and a second cousin of the reigning King Harald V of Norway. Anne-Marie and her husband Constantine are third cousins: they share King Christian IX of Denmark as patrilineal great-great-grandfather. They also share Queen Victoria as a great-great-grandmother. They have five children: Princess Alexia, Crown Prince Pavlos, Prince Nikolaos, Princess Theodora, and Prince Philippos.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: Princess Anne-Marie was born on 30 August 1946 in Frederick VIII's Palace, an 18th-century palace which forms part of the Amalienborg Palace complex in central Copenhagen. She was the third and last daughter and child of Crown Prince Frederik and Crown Princess Ingrid of Denmark. Her father was the eldest son of King Christian X of Denmark and his wife, Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; her mother, born a Princess of Sweden, was the only daughter of the Crown Prince of Sweden and his late British-born first wife, Princess Margaret of Connaught, daughter of the Duke of Connaught. At birth, Anne-Marie had two elder sisters: Princess Margrethe, the present Queen of Denmark, and Princess Benedikte, who married Prince Richard of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg and lives in Germany.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: Anne-Marie was baptised on 9 October 1946 in the Holmen Church in Copenhagen. Her godparents are the King and Queen of Denmark (paternal grandparents); Crown Prince of Sweden (maternal grandfather), Prince Bertil of Sweden (maternal uncle), the King of Norway (paternal grand-uncle), Prince George of Greece and Denmark, the Crown Princess of Norway (father's first cousin), Queen Mary of the United Kingdom, Princess Dagmar of Denmark (paternal grand-aunt) and the Crown Princess of the Netherlands.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: She is a great-great granddaughter of Queen Victoria, thus a third cousin to the late Queen Elizabeth II and her late husband Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, as well as of King Juan Carlos I of Spain, King Michael I of Romania. Through her mother, Queen Ingrid born princess of Sweden, she is also a first cousin of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden and a second cousin to King Harald V of Norway.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: Princess Anne-Marie and her sisters grew up in apartments at Frederick VIII's Palace at Amalienborg in Copenhagen and in Fredensborg Palace in North Zealand. She spent summer holidays with the royal family in her parents' summer residence at Gråsten Palace in Southern Jutland. On 20 April 1947, less than a year after Princess Anne-Marie's birth, her grandfather King Christian X died, and her father ascended the throne as King Frederick IX.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: At the time of her father's accession to the throne, only males could ascend the throne of Denmark. As Anne-Marie's parents had no sons, it was assumed that her uncle Prince Knud would one day assume the throne. The popularity of Frederick IX and his daughters and the more prominent role of women in Danish life paved the way for a new Act of Succession in 1953 which permitted female succession to the throne following the principle of male-preference primogeniture, where a female can ascend to the throne if she has no brothers. Her eldest sister Margrethe therefore became heir presumptive, and Princess Benedikte and Princess Anne-Marie became second and third in the line of succession.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: Anne-Marie was educated at N. Zahle's School, a private school in Copenhagen, from 1952 to 1961. In 1961 she attended the Chatelard School for Girls, an English boarding school outside Montreux in Switzerland. In 1963 and 1964 she attended the Institut Le Mesnil, a Swiss finishing school also in Montreux.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: In 1959, at the age of thirteen, Anne-Marie first met her future husband, her third cousin Constantine, Crown Prince of Greece, who accompanied his parents, King Paul and Queen Frederica, on a state visit to Denmark. They met a second time in Denmark in 1961, when Constantine declared to his parents his intention to marry Anne-Marie. They met again in Athens in May 1962 at the marriage of Constantine's sister Princess Sofia of Greece and Denmark to Prince Juan Carlos of Spain at which Anne-Marie was a bridesmaid: and again in 1963 at the centenary celebrations of the Greek monarchy.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: On 6 March 1964, King Paul died, and Constantine succeeded him as King of the Hellenes. In July 1964, the announcement of the engagement of Constantine and Anne-Marie raised the polite protests of the Left in Denmark. Anne-Marie and Constantine were married on 18 September 1964 (two weeks after Anne-Marie's 18th birthday) in the Metropolis, the Greek Orthodox Cathedral of Athens. Prior to the wedding, Anne-Marie converted from Lutheranism to the Greek Orthodox Church. Also, in view of the fact that she was marrying a foreign ruler, consent to the marriage was given on the condition that Anne-Marie renounced her succession rights to the Danish throne for herself and her descendants.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: As Queen of Greece, Anne-Marie spent much of her time working for a charitable foundation known as "Her Majesty's Fund" and later as the "Anne-Marie Foundation", which provided assistance to people in rural areas of Greece. On 10 July 1965, Queen Anne-Marie gave birth at the villa Mon Repos in Corfu to her first child, Princess Alexia, who was heir presumptive to the throne of Greece, from her birth until the birth of her younger brother Crown Prince Pavlos on 20 May 1967, Greece's order of succession adhering to male-preference primogeniture.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: In April 1967, Anne-Marie's husband King Constantine II, after a military coup, swore into office a military junta. In December 1967, the King attempted to shake off the authoritarian regime and tried to stage a counter-coup with the help of certain like-minded people. The counter-coup failed and Anne-Marie and her family had to flee to Italy. In the aftermath, Anne-Marie miscarried a child. The family lived for two months in the Greek embassy in Rome and then for the next five years in a house in a suburb of Rome.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: In 1973, Anne-Marie moved with her family to England. They lived first in Chobham in Surrey. Later they moved to the London suburb of Hampstead. The Greek government seized their former private home of Tatoi. It was only after a successful appeal to the European Court of Human Rights that the Greek government were forced to pay compensation for the property. King Constantine used the money obtained to establish the Anna-Maria Foundation, which was established in 2003 to provide aid to victims of natural disasters, including earthquakes and floods, in Greece. Anne-Marie serves as president of the foundation.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: In 1980 Anne-Marie and Constantine founded Hellenic College of London, a bilingual school where her own children were educated. The school closed in 2005.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: The government of Greece did not permit Anne-Marie to return to Greece until 1981 when she was allowed to enter Greek territory for several hours to attend the funeral of her mother-in-law, Queen Frederika. She and her family paid a private visit to Greece in 1993. Since 2003 – when the property dispute between her husband Constantine and the government of Greece concluded – Anne-Marie has visited Greece numerous times.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: On 21 May 2004 Anne-Marie was peripherally involved in a dispute in Madrid between former Crown Prince Vittorio Emanuele of Italy and his cousin and dynastic rival Prince Amedeo of Savoy-Aosta. At a "soirée" held at the Zarzuela Palace during the wedding celebrations of Felipe, Prince of Asturias, Amedeo approached Vittorio who reportedly punched him twice in the face, causing him to stumble backward down the steps. The quick intervention of Anne-Marie, who propped him up, prevented Amedeo from falling to the ground. She discreetly assisted him indoors while stanching his bleeding facial wounds until first aid was administered. Upon learning of the incident Spain's King Juan Carlos, a cousin of both men, reportedly declared that "never again" would an opportunity to abuse his hospitality be afforded the competing pretenders.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: On 14 August 2004 Anne-Marie and her husband Constantine visited their former home in Athens, the former Royal Palace that is now the Presidential Palace, for the first time since 1967. They were received by then-President of Greece Costis Stephanopoulos along with other members of the International Olympic Committee (of which Constantine is an honorary member). In December 2004 Constantine, Anne-Marie and their children were again invited to pay a personal private visit by President Stephanopoulos.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: She has been the titular Queen of the Hellenes since 1973. This title is not recognized under the terms of the republican Constitution of Greece.


title: Queen Anne-Marie of Greece

text: The coats of arms of Queen Anne-Marie combine the 1936–1973 royal coat of arms of Greece and the 1948–1972 coat of arms of Denmark which was current at the time of her marriage in 1964. The Danish coat of arms is almost identical with the dynastic arms inescutcheon in the Greek coat of arms, which equals the Danish coat of arms of 1819–1903. The only difference is that the Greek arms also include Iceland's white stockfish on red in the lower dexter corner.


title: Intelligence agency

text: An intelligence agency is a government agency responsible for the collection, analysis, and exploitation of information in support of law enforcement, national security, military, public safety, and foreign policy objectives.


title: Intelligence agency

text: Means of information gathering are both overt and covert and may include espionage, communication interception, cryptanalysis, cooperation with other institutions, and evaluation of public sources. The assembly and propagation of this information is known as intelligence analysis or intelligence assessment.


title: Intelligence agency

text: There is a distinction between "security intelligence" and "foreign intelligence". Security intelligence pertains to domestic threats (e.g., terrorism, espionage). Foreign intelligence involves information collection relating to the political, or economic activities of foreign states.


title: Intelligence agency

text: Some agencies have been involved in assassination, arms trafficking, coups d'état, and the placement of misinformation (propaganda) as well as other covert and clandestine operations, in order to support their own or their governments' interests.


title: Japanese era name

text: The , also known as , is the first of the two elements that identify years in the Japanese era calendar scheme. The second element is a number which indicates the year number within the era (with the first year being ""), followed by the literal "" meaning "year".


title: Japanese era name

text: Era names originated in 140 BCE in China, during the reign of the Emperor Wu of Han. As elsewhere in East Asia, the use of era names was originally derived from Chinese imperial practice, although the Japanese system is independent of the Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese era-naming systems. Unlike these other similar systems, Japanese era names are still in use. Government offices usually require era names and years for official papers.


title: Japanese era name

text: The five era names used since the end of the Edo period in 1868 can be abbreviated by taking the first letter of their romanized names. For example, S55 means Shōwa 55 (i.e. 1980), and H22 stands for Heisei 22 (2010). At 62 years and 2 weeks, Shōwa is the longest era to date.


title: Japanese era name

text: The current era is , which began on 1 May 2019, following the 31st (and final) year of the . While the started on the day after the death of the Emperor Hirohito (8 January 1989), the Reiwa era began the day after the planned and voluntary abdication of the 125th Emperor Akihito. Emperor Akihito received special one-time permission to abdicate, rather than serving in his role until his death, as is the rule. His elder son, Naruhito, ascended to the throne as the 126th Emperor of Japan on 1 May 2019.


title: Japanese era name

text: The system on which the Japanese era names are based originated in China in 140 BC, and was adopted by Japan in 645 AD, during the reign of Emperor Kōtoku.


title: Japanese era name

text: The first era name to be assigned was , celebrating the political and organizational changes which were to flow from the great of 645. Although the regular practice of proclaiming successive era names was interrupted in the late seventh century, it was permanently re-adopted in 701 during the reign of Emperor Monmu (697–707). Since then, era names have been used continuously up through the present day.


title: Japanese era name

text: Prior to the Meiji period, era names were decided by court officials and were subjected to frequent change. A new era name was usually proclaimed within a year or two after the ascension of a new emperor. A new era name was also often designated on the first, fifth and 58th years of the sexagenary cycle, because they were inauspicious years in Onmyōdō. These three years are respectively known as "kakurei", "kakuun", and "kakumei", and collectively known as "sankaku". Era names were also changed due to other felicitous events or natural disasters.


title: Japanese era name

text: In historical practice, starts whenever the emperor chooses; and the first year continues until the next lunar new year, which is understood to be the start of the nengō's second year.


title: Japanese era name

text: Era names indicate the various reasons for their adoption. For instance, the nengō , during the Nara period, was declared due to the discovery of copper deposits in Chichibu. Most nengō are composed of two kanji, except for a short time during the Nara period when four-kanji names were sometimes adopted to follow the Chinese trend. , , and are some famous nengō names that use four characters. Since the Heian period, Confucian thoughts and ideas have been reflected in era names, such as , and . Although there currently exist a total of 248 Japanese era names, only 73 kanji have been used in composing them. Out of these 73 kanji, 31 of them have been used only once, while the rest have been used repeatedly in different combinations.


title: Japanese era name

text: The vast majority of Japanese Era Names were used for less than 10 years, with two being used for less than a year. Only 28 have been used for more than 10 years and less than 30 years. Only Heisei, Oei, Meiji, and Showa have been used for more than 30 years.


title: Japanese era name

text: Mutsuhito assumed the throne in 1867, during the third year of the era. On 23 October 1868, the era name was changed to , and a system was adopted, wherein era names would change only upon immediate imperial succession. This system is similar to the now-defunct Chinese system used since the days of the Ming dynasty. The Japanese nengō system differs from Chinese practice, in that in the Chinese system the era name was not updated until the year following the emperor's death.


title: Japanese era name

text: In modern practice, starts immediately upon the emperor's accession and ends on 31 December. Subsequent years follow the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Meiji era lasted until 30 July 1912, when the Emperor died and the era was proclaimed. 1912 is therefore known as both "Meiji 45" and , although Meiji technically ended on 30 July with Mutsuhito's death.


title: Japanese era name

text: This practice, implemented successfully since the days of Meiji but never formalized, became law in 1979 with the passage of the . Thus, since 1868, there have only been five era names assigned: Meiji, Taishō, Shōwa, Heisei, and Reiwa, each corresponding with the rule of only one emperor. Upon death, the emperor is thereafter referred to by the era of his reign. For example, Mutsuhito is posthumously known as .


title: Japanese era name

text: It is protocol in Japan that the reigning emperor be referred to as or . To call the current emperor by the current era name, i.e. "Reiwa", even in English, is a faux pas, as this is – and will be – his posthumous name. Use of the emperor's given name (i.e., "Naruhito") is rare, and is considered vulgar behaviour in Japanese.


title: Japanese era name

text: The Emperor Akihito abdicated on 30 April 2019, necessitating a change in nengō. The new name, made public on the morning of 1 May of the same year, is .


title: Japanese era name

text: The era name system that was introduced by Emperor Kōtoku was abandoned after his death; no era names were designated between 654 and 686. The system was briefly reinstated by Emperor Tenmu in 686, but was again abandoned upon his death about two months later. In 701, Emperor Monmu once again reinstated the era name system, and it has continued uninterrupted through today.


title: Japanese era name

text: Although use of the Gregorian calendar for historical dates became increasingly common in Japan, the traditional Japanese system demands that dates be written in reference to era names. The apparent problem introduced by the lack of era names was resolved by identifying the years of an imperial reign as a period.


title: Japanese era name

text: Although in modern Japan posthumous imperial names correspond with the eras of their reign, this is a relatively recent concept, introduced in practice during the Meiji period and instituted by law in 1979. Therefore, the posthumous names of the emperors and empresses who reigned prior to 1868 may not be taken as era names by themselves. For example, the year 572—the year in which Emperor Bidatsu assumed the Chrysanthemum Throne – is properly written as "" ("Bidatsu-Tennō Gannen", "the first year of Emperor Bidatsu"), and not "" ("Bidatsu Gannen", "the first year of Bidatsu"), although it may be abbreviated as such. By incorporating both proper era names and posthumous imperial names in this manner, it is possible to extend the nengō system to cover all dates from 660 BCE through today.


title: Japanese era name

text: In addition to the official era name system, in which the era names are selected by the imperial court, one also observes—primarily in the ancient documents and epigraphs of shrines and temples—unofficial era names called , also known as or . Currently, there are over 40 confirmed shinengō, most of them dating from the middle ages. "Shinengō" used prior to the reestablishment of the era name system in 701 are usually called .


title: Japanese era name

text: Because official records of "shinengō" are lacking, the range of dates to which they apply is often unclear. For example, the well-known itsunengō is normally said to refer to 650–654 CE; a poetic synonym for the Hakuchi era. However, alternate interpretations exist. For example, in the Nichūreki, Hakuhō refers to 661–683 CE, and in some medieval temple documents, Hakuhō refers to 672–685 CE. Thus, shinengō may be used as an alternative way of dating periods for which there is no official era name.


title: Japanese era name

text: Other well-known "itsunengō" and "shinengō" include (591–621+ CE), (686), (1460), (1506–1507 or 1507–1509) and (1540–1543).


title: Japanese era name

text: Edo period scholar Tsurumine Shigenobu proposed that , said to have been used in ancient Kumaso, should also be considered a form of "shinengō". This claim is not generally recognized by the academic community. Lists of the proposed "Kyūshū nengō" can be seen in the Japanese language entries and .


title: Japanese era name

text: Certain era names have specific characters assigned to them, for instance ㋿ for the Reiwa period, which can also be written as . These are included in Unicode: Code points U+32FF (㋿), U+337B (㍻), U+337C (㍼), U+337D (㍽) and U+337E (㍾) are used for the Reiwa, Heisei, Shōwa, Taishō and Meiji eras, respectively.


title: Japanese era name

text: Certain calendar libraries support the conversion from and to the era system, as well as rendering of dates using it.


title: Japanese era name

text: Since the release of Java 8, the Japanese calendar is supported in the new Date and time API for the year Meiji 6 (1873) onwards.


title: Japanese era name

text: Computers and software manufacturers needed to test their systems in preparation for the new era which began on 1 May 2019. "Windows" provided a test mechanism to simulate a new era ahead of time. Java Development Kit 11 supported this era using the placeholders "" for Japanese, "NewEra" for other languages. The final name was added in JDK 12.0.1, after it was announced by the Japanese government.


title: Japanese era name

text: The list of Japanese era names is the result of a periodization system which was established by Emperor Kōtoku in 645. The system of was irregular until the beginning of the 8th century. After 701, sequential era names developed without interruption across a span of centuries. As of 1 April 2019, there have been 239 era names.


title: Japanese era name

text: To convert a Japanese year to a Gregorian calendar year, find the first year of the Japanese era name (also called "nengō"). When found, add the number of the Japanese year, then subtract 1.


title: Terrarium

text: A terrarium (plural: terraria or terrariums) is usually a sealable glass container containing soil and plants that can be opened for maintenance to access the plants inside; however, terraria can also be open to the atmosphere. Terraria are often kept as ornamental items.


title: Terrarium

text: A closed terrarium's transparent walls allow heat and light to enter, creating a unique environment for plant growth. Heat entering the sealed container allows the creation of a small water cycle due to evaporating moisture from the soil and plants. The water vapor then condenses onto the walls of the container, eventually falling back onto the plants and soil below. Light passing through the transparent walls, allowing photosynthesis, with the constant water supply provide an ideal environment for plants. Open terraria are not sealed and are better suited to plants requiring a more arid environment.


title: Terrarium

text: The first terrarium was developed by botanist Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward in 1842. Ward had an interest in observing insect behaviour and accidentally left one of his jars unattended. A fern spore in the jar grew and germinated into a plant, becoming the first known terrarium. The trend quickly spread in the Victorian Era amongst the English. Instead of the terrarium, it was known as the Wardian case.


title: Terrarium

text: Ward hired carpenters to build his Wardian cases to export native British plants to Sydney, Australia. After months of travel, the plants arrived well and thriving. Likewise, plants from Australia sent to London using the same method were received by Ward in pristine condition. His experiment indicated plants can be sealed, without ventilation, and continue thriving. Wardian cases were used for many decades by Kew Gardens to ship plants around the British Empire and were also used during European colonization of Africa to bring African goods, like spices and coffee, back to Europe.


title: Terrarium

text: Terraria are typically classified into two categories: closed and open. Closed terraria are sealed shut with a lid, door, or cork; open terraria have access to fresh air, most commonly by leaving the container open or through a hole drilled into the container.


title: Terrarium

text: Tropical plant varieties, such as moss, orchids, ferns, and air plants are generally kept within closed terraria to replicate their native humid, sheltered environment in the tropics. Keeping the terrarium sealed allows for circulation of water, making the terrarium self-sufficient. The terrarium may be opened once a week, allowing evaporation of excess moisture from the air and walls of the container, to prevent growth of mold or algae, which may damage plants and discolor the sides of the terrarium. Springtails may be used to consume mold or fungi within the terrarium.


title: Terrarium

text: Any wilting plants or absence of condensation on the walls of the terrarium indicates the terrarium requires water; watering is primarily done using a spray bottle.


title: Terrarium

text: Closed terraria benefit from specific soil mixes to ensure ideal growing conditions and reduce risk of microbial damage; a common medium used is "peat-lite:" a mixture of peat moss, vermiculite, and perlite. The mixture should be sterile to minimize risk of introducing potentially harmful microbes to the terrarium.


title: Terrarium

text: Not all plants require or are suited to the moist environment of closed terraria; open terraria are better suited for plants preferring less humidity and soil moisture, such as temperate plants and plants adapted to dry climates. Open terraria also work well for plants requiring more (but not direct) sunlight, as closed terraria can trap excess heat, potentially killing the plants inside. While open terraria require more watering than closed terraria, they have reduced risk of disease due to their lower humidity.


title: Terrarium

text: An open terrarium should not be confused with a dish garden. A terrarium, even open, allows for increased humidity compared to the environment outside the structure, whereas a dish garden does not provide additional humidity. Due to the transparent walls of terraria causing magnification of the sun's rays, terraria cannot be placed in direct sunlight because the intense light will cause foliage to burn. A dish garden can tolerate direct sun, as long as it is planted with full sun-tolerant plants. Succulents and cacti are better suited for a dish garden than a terrarium because dish gardens allow succulents and cacti to be placed in the full sun they require without burning.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Jon Dahl Tomasson (; born 29 August 1976) is a Danish football manager and former player who is the current head coach of EFL Championship club Blackburn Rovers.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: A forward, his most notable run of football came in his first stint at Feyenoord, with whom he won the 2002 UEFA Cup, and Italian club AC Milan, with whom he won the UEFA Champions League in 2003 and reached the final in 2005. He also played top-flight football in England, Germany and Spain. He is the joint all-time top goalscorer for the Denmark national team with 52 goals in 112 games and was also honoured with the Danish "Player of the Year" award in both 2002 and 2004. He played at the UEFA European Championship in 2000 and 2004 and the FIFA World Cup in 2002 and 2010.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: After his playing career, Tomasson went into coaching, being both assistant and manager in the Netherlands, before becoming assistant manager in the Denmark national team under Åge Hareide. In 2020, Tomasson became the manager of Malmö FF and left two years later after winning the Swedish championship for two consecutive seasons. In June 2022 he signed a three-year deal at Blackburn Rovers.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Born in Copenhagen, son of Bjarne Tomasson and Leila Dahl Petersen, Tomasson first started playing football as a five-year-old in the youth team of Solrød BK near Køge. At nine years of age, he moved to the biggest club in the area, Køge BK. In November 1992, at 16, he made his senior debut for the club. During the next two years he helped the club to get promoted twice in a row: at the end of the 1993 season, when the club was promoted from the Denmark Series to the 2nd Division; and at the end of the 1994 season, when the club was promoted to the 1st Division.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: In December 1994, aged 18, he agreed on a transfer from Køge BK to the Dutch club SC Heerenveen, of the Eredivisie. A first-team regular by the 1995–96 season, Tomasson was the club top scorer for the season as well, netting 14 goals in 30 league matches. He increased this tally in the 1996–97 season to 18, and was top-scorer for the club once again. On top of that, he also won the "Best Dutch Football Talent of 1996", beating the likes of Boudewijn Zenden and Patrick Kluivert to the prize.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: His success attracted the interest of other clubs, and he completed a high-profile move to FA Premier League club Newcastle United in July 1997. Newcastle's manager at the time, Kenny Dalglish, saw Tomasson as the perfect link-up player to England national team striker Alan Shearer. The partnership initially worked well, with Tomasson impressing during a pre-season friendly tournament in the Republic of Ireland. However, a career threatening injury to Shearer, combined with the transfer of striker Les Ferdinand to Tottenham Hotspur, meant that Tomasson was moved from his traditional attacking midfield position to that of striker. He struggled to adapt to his new position on the field, and to the English game, due to his lack of physical strength. He scored only four goals in 35 appearances in all competitions during the 1997–98 season.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Tomasson returned to the Eredivisie in July 1998, where he joined Feyenoord, once again as an attacking midfielder. The club won the Eredivisie championship for the 1998–99 season, and the Dutch Super Cup. Although Feyenoord did not manage to repeat as champions in the following years, they still performed well enough to capture third place in 1999–00, second place in 2000–01, and third place again in 2001–02. In his latter two seasons, Tomasson scored 15 and 17 Eredivisie goals respectively, forming a partnership with Pierre van Hooijdonk, who was 2002's league top scorer with 24 goals.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: In 2002, Tomasson was an integral player in the Feyenoord team, that won its first international trophy in 26 years, when the club triumphed in the 2001–02 UEFA Cup tournament. He scored four goals in the tournament and also had an impressive collaboration on the field with striker Pierre van Hooijdonk. During the tournament, they defeated SC Freiburg, Rangers F.C., PSV Eindhoven and Internazionale Milano before meeting German team Borussia Dortmund in the final. Tomasson scored the goal to 3–1, in a game that ended 3–2 to Feyenoord, and he was subsequently voted man of the match.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: On 2 May 2002, as Tomasson's contract with Feyenoord was expiring before their UEFA Cup victory, he agreed a move to Italy on a four-year free transfer, to play for Serie A club A.C. Milan. He joined compatriots Martin Laursen and Thomas Helveg at the San Siro club.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: The 2002–03 season, Tomasson's first at Milan, saw them winning the Italian Cup. Tomasson was most often used as a late substitute, but did manage to score three goals in the UEFA Champions League; and thereby also held his share of the trophy, when Milan won the prestigious tournament in May 2003. Tomasson missed the final because of an injury that he picked up in the first leg of the 2003 Coppa Italia Final. During the 2003–04 season, Tomasson was given more playing time and managed to score 12 Serie A goals in a title-winning campaign. In August 2004, he was also a part of the Milan team that won the Italian Super Cup, with a 3–0 victory against the Coppa Italia champions Lazio.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: For the next 2004–05 season, he struggled to secure a regular starting place in the line-up of Milan. He was once again in the role of substitute, and therefore also scored fewer goals compared to the previous season. At the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final against Liverpool, he was again used by Milan as a late substitute, and when the final had to be decided in penalty shootout, he was selected to kick. Tomasson scored on his attempt, but Milan lost as Serginho, Andrea Pirlo and Andriy Shevchenko missed their shots. When striker Christian Vieri joined the club in July 2005, Tomasson was deemed as potential surplus, and he therefore agreed with Milan to be placed at their transfer list.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Years later, prior to the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League round of 16 match between Chelsea FC and FC Copenhagen former Milan manager Carlo Ancelotti, now manager of Chelsea, was asked about his view on Danish footballers: "Above all the Danish work ethic surprised me, their special ability to give everything in training. These were very professional and skilled players. The one who performed best and showed the most continuity, was Jon Dahl Tomasson, who always had to fight for playing time against world class strikers. He never had an easy time, but he never gave up and tried to take every chance he got".


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: In July 2005, the German Bundesliga club VfB Stuttgart paid a transfer fee to Milan of €7.5 million, in order to sign Tomasson to a four-year contract. He joined international teammate Jesper Grønkjær at the club but the upcoming 2005–06 season was not successful for either of them. Even though Tomasson was the team's top scorer with eight Bundesliga goals, the team struggled throughout the season to create enough chances and goals, and as a consequence Stuttgart only finished in ninth position of the Bundesliga. After the season, Grønkjær left the club, while Tomasson stayed and in the 2006–07 season Stuttgart became the new champions of the Bundesliga.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: On 24 January 2007, Tomasson was loaned to Villarreal in the Spanish Primera División championship, to cover the place of the injured striker Nihat Kahveci, for the remaining part of the 2006–07 season. When he made his Villarreal debut, in a game against Real Madrid, Tomasson became only the fifth player to have played in the Premier League, Serie A, Bundesliga and Primera División. This rare achievement had previously only been made by the four players: Florin Răducioiu, Gheorghe Popescu, Abel Xavier and Pierre Womé.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: His loan contract expired on 1 July 2007, but also featured a buying option, for which Villarreal paid Stuttgart the second half of a total transfer fee at €1 million in order to sign Tomasson to a two-year contract . In the first match of the 2007–08 La Liga season, he scored in a 3–0 victory against Valencia, but he mostly played the club's UEFA Cup games that season, and scored five goals in eight games. The season ended as the best ever for Villarreal, who were runners-up in La Liga.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Tomasson agreed with Villarreal in June 2008 to search the market for a possible transfer. The Spanish sportspaper Marca immediately linked him together with Dutch side Feyenoord. This was at first described by Tomasson as pure speculation. The speculation, however, turned out to be true. In July 2008, he left Villarreal on a free transfer, and returned to Feyenoord on a new three-year contract. He made a fine start with four goals in three games. But this was followed by an injury from the end of September until the end of January, which meant he could only play a total of 14 games for Feyenoord in 2008–09.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: In the next 2009–10 season, he again had to battle with a couple of injuries. But during the season he was still able to play another 28 games for Feyenoord, where he scored a club-best 12 goals. With his good performance on the field, he helped Feyenoord to achieve a fourth place in the Eredivisie, and help the club to reach the final of the Dutch Cup. The final was played over two legs, and Feyenoord lost 6–1 on aggregate to Ajax, with Tomasson scoring the only goal for Feyenoord. During the 2010 World Cup, he was hit by another serious injury, that spoiled his first half of the 2010–11 season for Feyenoord. According to the medical staff at Feyenoord, the injury was a lot worse than original thought. When they tried to get him ready for a game at 15 August, the injury had not entirely healed; and after a too hard training session, it therefore reappeared at its previous strength. Based upon further examination of the injury, the coach now feared that Tomasson only would be ready to play his first game of the season in January 2011.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Tomasson scored 10 goals in 16 games for the national under-19 team, and was awarded 1994 Danish U-19 Player of the Year. In all, he scored 27 goals in 37 matches for various national youth selections.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: After two good seasons with Heerenveen, Tomasson got a call-up to the Denmark national team, and he made his debut on 29 March 1997, against Croatia. During his time at Newcastle, reduced playing time saw Tomasson dropped by the Denmark national team, and he was not selected to play at the 1998 FIFA World Cup. When he moved to Feyenoord, Tomasson was once more called up for the Denmark national team in August 1998, and with six goals in seven matches of the Euro 2000 qualification, he quickly became an important part of the Danish team, playing as an attacking midfielder behind striker Ebbe Sand. He played in all Denmark's three matches at the main Euro 2000 tournament, but did not score as Denmark were eliminated in the group stage. Before moving to Milan, he played for Denmark in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, where he scored four goals in as many games.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Tomasson played for Denmark at Euro 2004, where he scored three goals in four games and was selected for the Euro 2004 "Team of the Tournament". On 28 May 2010, Denmark coach Morten Olsen announced that the player would be part of the final squad of 23 participating in the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. On 24 June, he scored against Japan in a 3–1 defeat as Denmark went out of the competition. He was rated by FIFA as the best Danish player of the tournament. Some fans and the media did not agree with the world football's governing body, however.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Tomasson scored a total of 52 goals in 112 games for Denmark throughout his career, which spanned from March 1997 to June 2010, making him joint all time goal scorer on the Denmark national team with Poul Nielsen. He played at Euro 2000, the 2002 World Cup, Euro 2004 and the 2010 World Cup. On 9 August 2010, having scored 52nd international goal in Denmark's final match at the 2010 World Cup, Tomasson decided to retire from the national team. "We say farewell to a terrific player and a fantastic person," national coach Olsen said, adding that Tomasson was "the ultimate team player".


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Tomasson retired on 6 June 2011, and became assistant coach at Dutch club Excelsior. He became the club's head coach at the beginning of the 2013–14 season. His debut was a 2–2 Eerste Divisie draw at home to Helmond Sport, and he took the Rotterdam-based team to the last 16 of the KNVB Cup before losing 2–1 at home to PEC Zwolle on 17 December.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Eredivisie side Roda JC Kerkrade sacked their head coach Ruud Brood on 15 December 2013, and signed Tomasson 11 days later, on a 3-year deal, effective 3 January. He made his debut 15 days later in a 2–2 draw at his former club Heerenveen. After the second half of the season, which resulted in relegation, he was dismissed on 26 May 2014.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: On 19 June 2015, Tomasson was appointed as the new assistant manager of Vitesse. On 7 March 2016, he was appointed as an assistant coach of the Danish national team.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: On 5 January 2020, Tomasson was appointed as the new manager of Swedish Allsvenskan side Malmö FF. He led the team to the 2020 Allsvenskan title in his first season with the club, winning Malmö FF its 21st Swedish Championship.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: In his second season for Malmö FF he took the club to the group stage of Champions League after succeeding in four qualification rounds, including beating Rangers in the third round and Ludogorets Razgrad in the fourth. In December 2021, Tomasson and Malmō FF won their second consecutive Allsvenskan league title. On 30 December, he left by his own request.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: On 14 June 2022, Tomasson was appointed as the new head coach of Blackburn Rovers. He signed a three-year deal at the club, stating: "I'm really proud and excited to be taking over as head coach of Blackburn Rovers – a club with a lot of tradition and also great ambition." On his debut on 30 July, the team won 1–0 at home to Queens Park Rangers with a long-range goal from Lewis Travis.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Tomasson has two sons, Luca (born in 2008) and Liam (born in 2012), with his Danish wife Line Dahl Kongeskov Tomasson.


title: Jon Dahl Tomasson

text: Tomasson was known for his positional strength and fine finishing as a forward, despite his lack of notable pace or physicality. He also drew praise from pundits and managers for his discipline in training, and for his work-rate and movement off the ball, as well as his ability to create space for his teammates with his runs. A versatile player, he was capable of playing both as a striker and as a second striker.


title: Laila Majnu (2018 film)

text: Laila Majnu () is a 2018 Indian Hindi-language romance film starring Avinash Tiwary and Tripti Dimri. It is presented by Imtiaz Ali and co-produced by Ekta Kapoor, Shobha Kapoor and Preety Ali. The film is directed by Sajid Ali.


title: Laila Majnu (2018 film)

text: The film was released in theatres on 7 September 2018. Although it was a commercial failure after its theatrical release, the film received critical acclaim for its story and the performances of its cast after its digital release.


title: Laila Majnu (2018 film)

text: Laila is a flirt who likes to tease boys who are attracted to her. She belongs to a reputed family in town. She meets Qais, a rich boy whose family have some legal dispute going on with her family. But despite the rivalry between their families, both of them fall for each other instantly. But when Laila's family finds out about their relationship, they fix her marriage with Ibban, her father's political assistant. Even though Laila waits for Qais to convince her father, she breaks up with him when he talks disrespectfully to her father. Qais tells her that he would not follow her anymore and asks her to find him if she ever need him.


title: Laila Majnu (2018 film)

text: After four years, Qais returns from London for his father's funeral. He avoids meeting Laila but Laila who is regularly abused by her drunkard husband, who is now the MLA, decides to meet Qais. When she sees him, she realises that he was struggling all these years with her memories, making him a different person. Laila stands up to her husband and they decide to get divorced. Laila asks Qais to wait till her divorce. However, before the divorce, her husband dies in a road accident. Laila decides to run away with Qais on the day of the funeral but her father asks her not to and promises her that she could marry him after a few weeks. Laila again asks Qais to wait for her.


title: Laila Majnu (2018 film)

text: Qais who had been waiting for years for her, gets a feeling that he will never get united with her and this thought makes him eccentric. He begins to have hallucinations of Laila, he talks to her and eventually runs off to a mountain. His family, friends and Laila, searches for him for days but he is still missing. Qais however thinks that Laila is with him and starts a life with her in the mountain.


title: Laila Majnu (2018 film)

text: He is caught by some people and is brought back to his house. There he recognises Laila but also says that Laila is not one person but she is everywhere and points to different directions.


title: Laila Majnu (2018 film)

text: Laila realises that she has lost him forever and dies of the grief. A completely insane Qais runs to her burial ground, falls and get severely injured. He however gets up and looks at Laila, running towards a mountain and smile.


title: Laila Majnu (2018 film)

text: Hitesh Sonik composed the film's background score and Niladri Kumar, Joi Barua and Alif composed the songs. The lyrics were written by Irshad Kamil, Mehmood Gaami and Mohammad Muneem. The first song, "Aahista", was released on 9 August 2018. This was followed by the title track, "O Meri Laila", on 13 August 2018.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Varieties of the color yellow may differ in hue, chroma (also called saturation, intensity, or colorfulness) or lightness (or value, tone, or brightness), or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being a yellow or other hue mixed with white, a shade being mixed with black. A large selection of these various colors is shown below.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The color box at right shows the most intense yellow representable in 8-bit RGB color model; yellow is a "secondary" color in an additive RGB space.


title: Shades of yellow

text: This color is also called color wheel yellow. It is at precisely 60 degrees on the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel (). Its complementary color is blue.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Process yellow (also called pigment yellow or printer's yellow), also known as canary yellow, is one of the three colors typically used as subtractive primary colors, along with magenta and cyan. Canary yellow is derived from the colour of an average canary bird, though canaries can vary in colour from dark yellow to light pink.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Process yellow is not an RGB color, and in the CMYK color model there is no fixed conversion from CMYK primaries to RGB. Different formulations are used for printer's ink, so there can be variations in the printed color that is pure yellow ink.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The color defined as yellow in the NCS or Natural Color System is shown at right (NCS 0580-Y). The Natural Color System is a color system based on the four unique hues or psychological primary colors red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS is based on the opponent process theory of vision.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The color defined as yellow in the Munsell color system (Munsell 5Y) is shown at apex of color wheel. The "Munsell color system" is a color space that specifies colors based on three color dimensions: hue, value (lightness), and chroma (color purity), spaced uniformly in three dimensions in the elongated oval at an angle shaped Munsell color solid according to the logarithmic scale which governs human perception. In order for all the colors to be spaced uniformly, it was found necessary to use a color wheel with five primary colors—red, yellow, green, blue, and purple.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The Munsell colors displayed are only approximate as they have been adjusted to fit into the sRGB gamut.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #C, EC, M, PC, U, or CP—Yellow.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The color "xanthic" is derived from "xantho" (meaning yellow or golden), from the Ancient Greek ξανθός and "ic" (meaning of or pertaining to), from the Ancient Greek adjectival suffix -ικός.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The color "unmellow yellow" is a similar fluorescent yellow to laser lemon but the color is brighter. In crayons, the color may appear slightly orange, though the computer display can appear more pale depending on one's monitor.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The color is supposed to be fluorescent, but there is no mechanism to display fluorescence on a flat computer screen.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Lemon is a color somewhat resembling yellow and named after the fruit. The color "lemon" is a representation of the color of the outer skin of a lemon.


title: Shades of yellow

text: "Mellow yellow" was first used as a color name in English in 1948 when it was formulated as one of the colors on the Plochere color list.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The source of this color is the "Plochere Color System", a color system formulated in 1948 that is widely used by interior designers.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Donovan's album "Mellow Yellow", named after the song "Mellow Yellow", was popular during the Summer of Love in 1967.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The first recorded use of "royal yellow" as a color name in English was in 1548. Other names for this color are Chinese yellow and imperial yellow.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Gold, also called golden, is a yellow-orange color which is a representation of the color of the element gold.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The web color "gold" (also referred to as "orange-yellow") is sometimes referred to as golden to distinguish it from the color "metallic gold". The use of "gold" as a color term in traditional usage is more often applied to the color "metallic gold".


title: Shades of yellow

text: The first recorded uses of "golden" as a color name in English were in 1300 to refer to the element gold and in 1423 to refer to blonde hair.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color 14-0760 TPX—Cyber Yellow.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Safety yellow is one of the standard high-visibility safety colors defined by ANSI standard Z535, which specifies standards for safety and accident prevention information. It is often used on hazard symbols, warning signs, guard rails, dangerous equipment, and some high-visibility clothing and personal protective equipment. The definition is mirrored in British Standard BS 381C and Australian Standard AS2700 (where it is known as golden yellow). In 1937, it was determined that safety yellow was the best color to be noticed by the human brain; as a result, the paint color of all United States school buses was changed from orange to safety yellow (see also school bus yellow).


title: Shades of yellow

text: Displayed at right is the color Bright yellow (Crayola). It is the main color on Indian 200-rupee note.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The first recorded use of "chartreuse" for the color that is now called "chartreuse yellow" in American English was in 1892.


title: Shades of yellow

text: In the book "Color Standards and Color Nomenclature" (1912), "Chartreuse Yellow" is listed and illustrated.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The first use in English of the color name "mindaro" was in 2001, when it was formulated as one of the colors on the Xona.com Color List.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Pear is a desaturated chartreuse yellow color that resembles the color of the exterior surface of Anjou or Bartlett pears.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Olive is a dark shade of yellow typically seen on olives. Shades of olive, such as olive drab or OD green, are frequently used for camouflage, or by the military in general. The complementary color of olive is light blue.


title: Shades of yellow

text: The color "army olive" or ""army green"": has been used in militaries since at least World War II, and possibly before, though the precise tint varies considerably between and within different nations.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Despite many sources claiming olive being darkish yellow, the word "olive" has often been associated with green, which leads to many yellow colors being accidentally misclassified.


title: Shades of yellow

text: Displayed at right is the color "green earth". It is also known as "terre verte" and "Verona green". It is an inorganic pigment derived from the minerals celadonite and glauconite.


title: Shades of yellow

text: "Feldgrau" (field grey) was the color of the field uniform of the German Army from late 1907 until 1935, and the East German NVA armies. "Feldgrau yellow" was the first shade under the name of "feldgrau", while the second one was more greenish in color. Metaphorically, "feldgrau" used to refer to the armies of Germany (the Imperial German Army and the Heer [army] component of the "Reichswehr" and the "Wehrmacht").


title: Imaad Shah

text: Imaaduddin Shah (also credited as Imaad Shah; born 20 September 1986) is an Indian actor and musician. He is the son of actors Naseeruddin Shah and Ratna Pathak Shah.


title: Imaad Shah

text: Imaad was born to actors Naseeruddin Shah and Ratna Pathak on 20 September, 1986 in Mumbai. He has a brother Vivaan and a paternal half-sister Heeba. He did his schooling at The Doon School in Dehradun.


title: Imaad Shah

text: Imaad made his acting debut in 2006 in his father's "Yun Hota To Kya Hota". In 2007, he acted in "Dil Dosti Etc" under Prakash Jha, where he played a young Delhi University student with a penchant for the secret corners of the old town.


title: Imaad Shah

text: He is also a theatre actor and works with the theatre company Motley, founded by Naseeruddin Shah and Benjamin Gilani. He has been a part of many productions including "Katha Collage", "Waiting for Godot", "By George" and "Manto Ismat Haazir Hain", apart from working with other groups.


title: Imaad Shah

text: He bounced back with his next film Sooni Taraporevala's award winning "Little Zizou" (2009) which traveled to film festivals all across Europe, North America and parts of Asia.


title: Imaad Shah

text: Subsequent releases, including "404", "Tasher Desh" and Mira Nair's "The Reluctant Fundamentalist" saw him playing dark and memorable characters.


title: Imaad Shah

text: He is part of the electro funk/nu disco duo Madboy/Mink with Saba Azad and is the frontman and guitarist/vocalist for the funk/disco band The Pulp Society.


title: Imaad Shah

text: Imaad Shah was recently seen in the web series 'A Married Woman', directed by Sahir Raza. The star cast also includes Ridhi Dogra, Monica Dogra.


title: Imaad Shah

text: In 2006, he fell out of a moving local train in Mumbai and was hospitalized with serious injuries on his head and legs.


title: Imaad Shah

text: From 2013 to 2020, Imaad dated actress and musician Saba Azad. But they both remain friends after their breakup and made music together for their band Mad Boy Mink.


title: Subutai

text: Subutai (Classical Mongolian: "Sübügätäi" or "Sübü'ätäi"; Modern Mongolian: Сүбээдэй, "Sübeedei". ; ; c. 1175–1248) was a Mongol general and the primary military strategist of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He directed more than 20 campaigns and won 65 pitched battles, during which he conquered or overran more territory than any other commander in history as part of the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous empire in human history.


title: Subutai

text: He often gained victory by means of imaginative and sophisticated strategies and routinely coordinated movements of armies that operated hundreds of kilometers apart from each other. Subutai is well known for the geographical diversity and success of his expeditions, which took him from central Asia to the Russian steppe and into Europe. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest military commanders and strategists in history.


title: Subutai

text: Historians believe Subutai was born in the year 1175, probably just west of the upper Onon River in what is now Mongolia. Some historical accounts claim that he belonged to the Uriankhai clan. As a member of the reindeer people, according to these accounts, Subutai lacked the natural horsemanship training from birth that all Mongols possessed, making him an outsider among them.


title: Subutai

text: However, recent scholarship has discounted this earlier narrative. Stephen Pow and Jingjing Liao note in the "Journal of Chinese Military History" (Brill, 2018):


title: Subutai

text: In fact, Subutai's family had been associated with the family of Temujin (future Genghis Khan) for many generations. Subutai's great-great-grandfather, Nerbi, was supposedly an ally of the Mongol Khan Tumbina Sechen. Subutai's father, Jarchigudai, supposedly supplied food to Temujin and his followers when they were in dire straits at lake Baljuna, and Subutai's elder brother Jelme also served as a general in the Mongol army and was a close companion of Temujin. Jelme rescued a severely wounded Temujin (hit by an arrow from Jebe, then an enemy) in the process of unification of the Mongolian plateau. Another brother, Chaurkhan (also romanized as Ca'urqan) is mentioned in the Secret History of the Mongols.


title: Subutai

text: According to Subutai's biography in the History of Yuan, Subutai's father was once driving a herd of sheep in order to present them to his overlord, Taizu (Genghis Khan). Encountering robbers, he was seized. Huluhun (Subutai's brother) and Subutai arrived in good time, and with their lances stabbed some of the robbers. Horses and men fell together, and the remainder of the band withdrew and departed. Consequently, they relieved their father's difficulty, and the sheep were able to attain the emperor's station.


title: Subutai

text: Despite this close family association, some consider Subutai's career proof that the Mongol Empire was a meritocracy. He was a commoner by birth, the son of Jarchigudai, who was supposedly a blacksmith. When he was 14 years old, Subutai left his clan to join Temujin's army, following in the footsteps of his older brother Jelme who had joined when he was 17 years old, and he rose to the very highest command available to one who was not a blood relative to Genghis. Within a decade he rose to become a general, in command of one of 4 tumens operating in the vanguard. During the invasion of Northern China in 1211, Subutai was partnered with the senior Mongol general Jebe, an apprentice and partnership they would maintain until Jebe's death in 1223. In 1212 he took Huan by storm, the first major independent exploit mentioned in the sources. Genghis Khan is reported to have called him one of his "dogs of war," who were 4 of his 8 top lieutenants, in "The Secret History of the Mongols":


title: Subutai

text: Appointed to the prestigious post of Genghis Khan's ger (yurt) door guard during his teen years, Mongol histories say that Subutai said to Genghis Khan, "I will ward off your enemies as felt cloth protects one from the wind." This access enabled him to listen on, and later join, the Mongol strategy meetings somewhere around his late teens and early twenties. Throughout most of Genghis Khan's lifetime, Subutai would have the opportunity to apprentice on detached missions under the elite Jebe (1211–12, 1213–14, 1219–23) and Muqali (1213–14), in addition to Genghis Khan himself (1219).


title: Subutai

text: Subutai's first chance at independent command came in 1197 during action against the Merkit, when he was 22 years old. Subutai's role was to act as the vanguard and defeat one of the Merkit camps at the Tchen River. Subutai refused Genghis Khan's offer for extra elite troops, and instead traveled to the Merkit camp alone, posing as a Mongol deserter. Subutai managed to convince the Merkits that the main Mongol army was far away, and they were in no danger. As a result, the Merkit lowered their guard and limited their patrols, allowing the Mongols to easily surprise and encircle the Merkits, capturing two generals. He also served as a commander of the vanguard with distinction in the 1204 battle against the Naiman that gave the Mongols total control over Mongolia.


title: Subutai

text: Subutai was a major innovator in the art of war. In the invasions of China, Russia, and Europe, Subutai routinely coordinated large forces often separated by large distances. Subutai's maneuvers were designed to mislead his foes and strike them from unexpected directions. The Mongol invasion of the Jin in 1232 continually pulled the hitherto successful Jin forces apart despite their highly advantageous terrain, as they could not determine which Mongol armies were the feints and which were the true threats until their main army became isolated and starved. Strongly fortified locations would be bypassed and ignored until all organized resistance had been destroyed. Sieges would be limited to critical or vulnerable locations; in other situations, the Mongols either left a blockading force, or simply ignored fortified citadels and devastated the surrounded agriculture so that the remaining people would starve if they remained within fortified walls.


title: Subutai

text: In contrast to the common perception of steppe horse archer armies slowly weakening their foes with arrows for many hours or even days, such as at the battle of Carrhae or the battle of Manzikert, Subutai fought in a much more decisive and fluid manner where heavy firepower was used to create openings for rapid cavalry charges with deep formations. At the battle of the Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's 20,000 man army routed the 80,000 man Russian army by stringing it out after a 9-day retreat, and then immediately turning and delivering a decisive charge without a prolonged missile bombardment. The vanguard of the Russian army was already put in flight before the second wave even reached the battlefield and began to deploy.


title: Subutai

text: Subutai was one of the first Mongol generals, alongside Genghis Khan, who realized the value of engineers in siege warfare. Even in field battles he made use of siege engines. In the Battle of Mohi, the Hungarian crossbowmen repelled a night bridge crossing by the Mongols, and inflicted considerable casualties on the Mongols fighting to cross the river the following day. Subutai ordered huge stonethrowers to clear the bank of Hungarian crossbowmen and open the way for his light cavalry to cross the river without further losses. This use of siege weapons was one of the first recorded uses of artillery bombardments against the enemy army to disrupt their resistance while simultaneously attacking them. In execution, his usage functioned more akin to the creeping barrage of World War I, used to soften and disrupt enemy lines right before an attack.


title: Subutai

text: Like Genghis Khan, Subutai was a master at creating divisions within the enemy ranks and surprising them. The terrifying Mongol reputation, combined with highly effective spy networks that spread discord, as well as incentives to key local leaders, prevented his opponents from effectively uniting and fighting at their full capacity.


title: Subutai

text: In 1217, Genghis Khan sent Subutai to hunt down the hated Merkits and their allies, the Cuman-Kipchak confederation, in modern-day central Kazakhstan. Subutai defeated them on the Chu River in 1217 and again in 1219 in Wild Kipchak territory. Before the battle of the Chem River in 1219, Subutai had his vanguard carry children's toys and leave them behind, as if they were a group of families fleeing from the Merkit. As a result of this deception, Subutai's army was able to surprise, encircle, and capture of all the Merkit/Kipchak leadership.


title: Subutai

text: Mohammed II of Khwarizm attacked Subutai shortly afterwards along the Irghiz River. Despite being outnumbered three to one against the Sultan's elite forces which had conquered much of Central Asia, Subutai held him off after a fierce battle and retreated during the night. According to Persian sources, this battle seems to have eroded Mohammed's confidence in his ability to defeat the Mongols in pitched battle, since Subutai only commanded a small 20,000 man force and did not want to even fight him. Supposedly the Mongol army had destroyed his left wing, and nearly broken his center and captured him, until reinforcements from his son arrived and the battlefield turned dark. Because of this battle, Mohammed was unable to take advantage of the upheaval in the Kara-Khitai Empire (simultaneously being conquered by the Mongolian general Jebe), like he had in earlier wars.


title: Subutai

text: Genghis Khan led the Mongol army westwards in late 1219 to invade Khwarizm as retaliation for the execution of Mongol ambassadors. With roughly 100,000 armed men, the Mongol army was numerically superior to the forces of the Khwarizim Empire, and through deception and rapid maneuver, the Mongols defeated the isolated Khwarezm armies in detail before they could react. Serving as the Mongol equivalent of Genghis Khan's Chief of Staff, Subutai marched with the Khan's army through the deadly Kyzylkum Desert to emerge behind the Khwarezm defense network at Bukhara. After the rapid capture of the Khwarezm center of defense, Samarkand, Genghis Khan dispatched Subutai and Jebe with 30,000 men to hunt the Khwarezm Shah and prevent him from rallying the other Khwarezm armies. Shah Mohammed attempted to save himself by fleeing into central Persia, but while he eluded capture, the relentless chase meant he could not rally his forces. As a result, the several hundred thousand man Khwarezm forces in reserve remained divided and were easily destroyed piecemeal by Genghis Khan's main army. Drained by the fierce pursuit, Mohammed fell ill and died at a fishing village on an island in the Caspian Sea in early 1221, an ignominious end for the man who styled himself the 'Second Alexander'.


title: Subutai

text: Subutai and Jebe spent part of the 1219 winter in Azerbaijan and Iran, raiding and looting while preventing the western Khwarezm forces from assisting the rest of the empire to the east. Here he conceived the idea of conducting the most audacious reconnaissance-in-force in history, which was described by Edward Gibbon as [an expedition] "which has never been attempted, and has never been repeated": 20,000 Mongol forces would circle the Caspian Sea through the Caucasus Mountains to fall on the rear of the Wild Kipchaks and Cumans.


title: Subutai

text: After destroying resistance in Persia and submitting Azerbaijan, the Mongols invaded the Christian Kingdom of Georgia. Though the king George IV of Georgia was reluctant to commit to battle, Subutai and Jebe forced his hand by ravaging the countryside and killing his people. Subutai and Jebe then defeated the Georgian army despite the presence of many thousands of Georgian knights, by luring the knights away from their infantry with a feigned retreat, then enveloping the knights. After destroying them, the Mongols encircled and crushed the Georgian army. Subutai, who was identified by the Georgians as being in command, originally lured the Georgians into thinking his army was a friendly ally by having his men parade in front of crosses, and using spies to start false rumors that the Mongols were actually Christian wonder-workers who had come to assist the Georgians. This Mongol reconnaissance mission may have inadvertently altered the history of the Crusades, as Georgia had planned on sending their now destroyed army to join the Fifth Crusade. Instead, King George's sister Rusudan had to write to the Pope Honorius III to explain that they could not assist the Crusade because their whole army had been disintegrated. Though Georgia lay defenseless after these catastrophic defeats, the Mongol mission was to raid and scout, not conquer.


title: Subutai

text: After ravaging Georgia, the Mongols cut across the Caucasus Mountains during the winter to get around the Derbent Pass. The Mongols were tricked by their guides into taking a perilous route and emerged from the mountains exhausted, only to be confronted with a far larger steppe coalition army. Using clever diplomacy, Subutai isolated and defeated the Alans, Circassians, and Don Kipchaks/Cumans in detail. After plundering the southern Russian steppes, the Russian princes united with the retreating Cuman confederacy to defeat the Mongols with an 80,000 man host. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Subutai sacrificed the 1,000 men of his rear guard to induce the coalition army to recklessly pursue him and become separated. The plan worked, but strategic advantage came at a high price. In all likelihood the 1,000 men were led by Jebe who was killed by some Kipchaks. As expected the coalition army pursued the Mongols and after retreating for 9 days, Subutai suddenly turned and crushed the combined Rus' and Cuman army at the Kalka (31 May 1223). Arab historian Ibn al-Athir mentions a campaign against Volga Bulgaria, where the Mongol army was defeated in late 1223 or early 1224 (620). According to Ibn al-Athir, 4, 000 men survived from the Mongol side in this battle. The remaining army proceeded to Desht-i Qipchaq, where they joined the army of Jochi, but historians have doubted this account in light of the Mongols seeking out and defeating the Qangli Turks in southern Russia shortly afterward.


title: Subutai

text: In the initial invasion of the Jin in 1211, Subutai served with Jebe's army that attacked the Chinese forts around the eastern edge of the Great Wall (not the Ming Great Wall). In late 1211 he was the first to scale the walls of the key fortress of Huan-Chou, and took part in the ambush of a major Jin army at Wu Sha Pao and the climactic battle of Yehuling. In 1212, he may have served with Jebe during the latter's daring capture of Liaoyang, and in 1213 he served with Muqali and Jebe in a great raid in Shandong.


title: Subutai

text: Subutai played a key part in the campaign against the Tanguts of Xi Xia in 1226, serving as commander of the flank army to strike the Tanguts in the rear. While Genghis invaded the Xi Xia by a more traditional northern route, Subutai unexpectedly attacked from the west over the mountains and inhospitable deserts in modern Turkestan, causing Tangut resistance to collapse. The Tangut Empire was cut in two: with Genghis preventing reinforcements being sent west, Subutai subdued resistance in the west and joined with Genghis's main army to conquer the east. In 1227, he conquered the Jin districts along the upper Wei River, and even raided the Kingdom of Tibet. Though the Mongols conquered Xi Xia, Mongol operations against Jin China were interrupted by the death of Genghis Khan in 1227. Genghis Khan was succeeded by his son Ögedei in 1229.


title: Subutai

text: After a humiliating defeat by the resurgent Jin in 1230–1231, Ögedei personally led the main Mongol army against the Jin (in Central China) and appointed Subutai to salvage the situation. Subutai had originally been assigned to conquer the Kipchak Turks in central Russia in 1229, but was hurriedly recalled to China in 1229–1230 after the Mongol general Doqolqu suffered a major defeat. Against Subutai, the Jin generals retreated from Shaanxi and implemented a scorched earth policy to hold the fortified Tongguan Pass and block any access to the Jin stronghold of Henan. They calculated that the scorched earth policies would deny the Mongols the ability to sustain a lengthy siege, and their lines of fortifications and difficult terrain would prevent the Mongols from outmaneuvering them.


title: Subutai

text: At the Battle of Daohuigu, Subutai initially attempted to outflank the Jin by feinting an attack at the fortified location of Weizhou and maneuvering through an unguarded side corridor. Though the Jin were fooled by the feint, they moved with great alacrity once Subutai's main advance was discovered, and the attempt to break into the plains of Henan ended in failure after Subutai's advanced raiding parties were checked at Shan-ch’e-hui. The Mongols defeated a relieving force and captured Fengxiang, a secondary target, by concentrating 400 trebuchets at a corner of the wall. However, the overall campaign seemed to have reached a stalemate.


title: Subutai

text: In 1231–1232 Subutai made another attempt to outmaneuver the Jin fortified lines by using a similar highly audacious approach that they had employed in Khwarezm (1219) and Xi Xia (1226). The Mongols divided into three armies, one to attack Henan from the North in the center of the Yellow River, another to attempt to cross the Yellow River in Shandong in the east, and the last, under Subutai and Tolui, invading the Song Empire and attacking Henan from the more exposed south. The Song initially refused to allow the Mongols passage through the rugged Qinling mountains, so Subutai dodged their forces and isolated the mountain citadels one by one. Disheartened by the ease of the Mongol advance against their strong fortifications, the Song agreed to supply guides. This time Subutai was able to outmaneuver the Jin armies and cross the Han River to invade Henan from the south.


title: Subutai

text: The main Jin army promptly marched to intercept Subutai's army at Mount Yu. Its commander, Wan Yen Heda attempted to ambush the Mongols, but the ambush was detected. In turn, the Mongols attempted to draw him into their own ambush with a feigned retreat, but he held his strong position. After a full day of fierce fighting that resulted in a stalemate, the Mongols retreated under darkness and attempted to hide their trail and outflank the Jin. Wan Yen Heda had retreated towards the city of Tengzhou in order to obtain supplies. Changing tracks, Subutai, identifying that the Jin were vulnerable to attrition, used a feint attack to temporarily divert the Jin forces away from their supply train, which he promptly seized with a hidden force. Rather than continually attempting to attack the vigilant Jin during their retreat, Subutai instead dispersed his army into several detachments to target supplies in the area. 3,000 men masked the Mongol dispersion and occupied the Jin's attention, while other Mongol forces slowly slipped away from the field in small numbers to hide their movements towards the Jin capital of Kaifeng, the route that Wan Yen Heda was retreating along.


title: Subutai

text: With part of his force harassing the Jin army's foragers, the other units marched around the flanks in a wide arc and emerged ahead of the Jin army, aiming to destroy or steal the supplies of nearby villages along the Jin's line of retreat. Ogedei Khan had been able to cross the Yellow River after the Jin army blocking him had to march south to help Wan Yan Heda. With Subutai's army having maneuvered along the Jin rear, Ogedei was able to send reinforcements to Subutai, bringing the total Mongol strength to 50,000 men. After these reinforcements arrived and with the Jin army's food supplies severely depleted over the past three weeks, Subutai forced a battle on his terms and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Sanfengshan, capturing Wan Yen Heda and annihilating the main Jin army which had nowhere safe to retreat to. He then made forced marches and eliminated the other Jin armies holding the other fronts at the battles of Yangyi (24 February 1232), and T’iehling (1 March 1232).


title: Subutai

text: The heavily fortified city of Kaifeng required an eight month long siege. Subutai was forced to construct lines of that had a perimeter stretching . Additionally, the Jin began to employ a cutting edge gunpowder weapon called "Thunder Crash Bombs", which made it very difficult for the Mongols to get close enough for more concentrated fire. After cutting off Kaifeng from any outside help, Subutai alternated intense bombardments using a mixture of Muslim trebuchets, mangonels, and captured gunpowder with periods of rest and plundering the countryside. The Mongol dispersion helped them avoid contagion by the plague that devastated Kaifeng, and after being stretched to the limit, the Emperor fled and the city surrendered. Subutai originally wanted to execute everyone in Kaifeng to punish them for their and extremely long resistance. However, Ögedei intervened and ordered Subutai to treat them fairly. With assistance from the Song Dynasty, the last Jin stronghold of Caizhou fell in 1234.


title: Subutai

text: However, it did not take the Song long to fall out with the Mongols. Two Song armies seized Kaifeng and Luoyang during the summer of 1234 during Subutai's absence. Subutai returned, destroyed the three Song armies by isolating and defeating them, and retook the cities. He then made a preemptive raid into Song territory to force them to adopt a defensive position. Though war had begun between the Mongols and Song, Subutai was recalled to the west. Still, Subutai's victories had taught the Song a lesson they would heed: no Song army would dare venture north to attack Mongol territory afterward.


title: Subutai

text: Ögedei decided to send a major part of the army into the western regions to finally crush the Wild Kipchaks and Bulgars. Subutai was tasked to direct the operations (under the overall command of prince Batu). This mission was more than just a typical invasion: Ögedei sent many of the next generation of Mongol princes, including the heirs of each of the four families, most likely to be trained by Subutai before he died. In order to crush the Volga Bulgars, who had previously defeated Batu in 1232, Subutai launched another giant encirclement campaign. The Mongols marched up the Volga river in a wide arc on the west side. However, this force was just to occupy their attention, for he sent a secondary army to surprise the Bulgars from the east by crossing the Ural mountains. After squashing the Bulgar armies, he defeated the guerrilla leader Bachman on the north side of the Caspian Sea. Bachman had himself on an island, and taunted the Mongols. However, they constructed a mini-navy of 200 boats, trapped Bachman within a limited area, and gradually closed the 'net'.


title: Subutai

text: Unlike in 1222–23 when the majority of the Rus' states allied against Subutai and Jebe, this time the Mongols apparently struck with such speed that the Rus' were either too paralyzed, or possibly too bitter or distracted to ally. In late 1237, Subutai attacked Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal, operating with three columns (attacking as the Mongols usually did during the winter, when the rivers froze over). The Rus forces were defeated in 3 separate engagements and their cities were taken in quick succession. The Mongols spent the summer of 1238 resting along the Don River. Columns were sent out to subjugate the various tribes living in the plains around the Black Sea. In 1239, the Rus' state of Chernigov was defeated and their cities were taken. The Mongols were spared the need to conquer Novgorod when the principality surrendered, agreed to pay tribute in the future, and gave the Mongols a large bribe.


title: Subutai

text: The most notable encounter of the campaign was the battle of the Sit River in 1238. The Grand Duke Yuri of Vladimir, the most prominent of the Rus' leaders, had left Vladimir to raise an army and defeat the Mongols before they reached his city. However, the Mongols evaded his army and captured Vladimir before he even knew what had happened. When Yuri sent out a strong reconnaissance force to penetrate the Mongol scouting screen, his lieutenant told him in horror that his army was already entirely surrounded. Not surprisingly, Yuri and his army were easily defeated. The Mongols had made a treaty with Galicia-Volhynia , whose prince was therefore taken by surprise when the Mongols suddenly attacked in December 1240. Kiev, Vladimir, and other cities were quickly taken.


title: Subutai

text: The attack on Europe was planned and carried out by Subutai, who achieved his lasting fame with his victories there. Having devastated the various Russian principalities, he sent spies as far as Poland, Hungary, and Austria in preparation for an attack into the heartland of Europe. Having a clear picture of the European kingdoms, he brilliantly prepared an attack nominally commanded by Batu Khan and two other princes of the blood. While Batu Khan, son of Jochi, was the overall leader, Subutai was the actual commander in the field, and as such was present in both the northern and southern campaigns against Kievan Rus'. He personally commanded the central column that moved against the Kingdom of Hungary, and likely gave detailed instructions to his subordinates.


title: Subutai

text: Though the Mongol methods of warfare were mostly a mystery in the west, the King of Hungary, Bela IV, was well-informed of the Mongol invasion of Russia and prepared as well as the fractured relations of Europe would allow him to. Though Bela was unable to obtain help from the Holy Roman Empire or the Pope, he did at least have the support of his cousins in Poland. Once again, Subutai invaded during winter, when they would be least expected. The Mongol invasion of Europe was a five-pronged attack. Kaidu and Orda Khan ravaged Northern Poland, Baidar Southern Poland, while Shiban attacked through the rugged terrain in northeastern Hungary, Subutai and Batu invaded central Hungary, and Guyuk marched south through Transylvania. The Mongols dispersed their forces in order to confuse the Europeans as to their ultimate objectives, and defeat the European armies piecemeal before they could mass into a central force. After a series of sweeping victories Baidar and Kadan regrouped their northern force and defeated the main Polish army at the Battle of Legnica, right before it could merge with the Bohemian Army a days march away. While Güyük's army triumphed in Transylvania, a day after Legnica, Subutai was waiting for the Hungarian army on the Hungarian plain. Though the Hungarian King Bela IV had effectively blocked the Carpathian passes using felled trees, ditches, traps, and other natural obstacles, in addition to the general disrepair or simple nonexistence of roads in eastern Hungary, Subutai's force still managed an astonishing pace of a day despite several feet of snow. The Mongols retained a pioneer corps capable of efficiently clearing pathways through the forest, and were unfazed by Bela's obstacles.


title: Subutai

text: Only one day after the smaller Mongol army in Poland had won the Battle of Legnica, Subutai launched his attack, thus beginning the Battle of Mohi during the night of 10 April 1241. At Mohi, the Mongols fixated the Hungarian attention in the center by assaulting the lone bridge and attempting to ford to the north and around the bridge. The main body began to cross the Sajo by the bridge at Mohi, and continued to attack the following day. This was met with fierce resistance, so catapults were used to clear the opposite bank of crossbowmen, as was noted earlier. Meanwhile, Subutai in secret created a pontoon bridge to the south, where the river was too deep to be forded, and crossed the river in secret with a large force. When the crossing was completed, the second contingent attacked from the south, and a third from the north. The threat of now reassembled Mongol force, enveloping the Hungarian army on the far side of the Sajo river, forced the Hungarians to retreat into their wagon laager camp, a traditional tool of fighting against nomadic armies. However, the Mongols surrounded the fortified Hungarian camp, and bombarded it with trebuchets, gunpowder weapons, and flaming arrows. Hungarian cavalry charges were lured further away from their camp and encircled.


title: Subutai

text: The result was complete panic; and to ensure that the Hungarians did not fight to the last man, the Mongols left an obvious gap in their encirclement. This was one of Subutai's classic tricks, to create a tactical situation which appeared to be favourable to the enemy. Subutai did not want a battle where the massed crossbowmen, supported by mounted knights, stood firm and fought to the death against his army. He far preferred to let them flee and be slaughtered individually. The apparent gap in the Mongol lines was an invitation to retreat, which would leave the knights and crossbowmen spread out all over the countryside, easy pickings for the disciplined Mongols. As Subutai had planned, the Hungarians poured through this 'hole' in the Mongol lines, which led to a swampy area, poor footing for horses and hard going for infantry. When the Hungarian knights split up, the Mongol archers picked them off at will. It was later noted that corpses littered the countryside over the space of a two-day journey. Two archbishops and three bishops were killed at the Sajo, plus more than 10,000 fighting men. In one stroke, the bulk of Hungarian fighting men were totally destroyed, but Mongol casualties in the center had been higher than normal: in addition to anywhere from many hundreds to many thousands of regular soldiers, Batu lost 30 of his 4,000 strong ba'aaturs (heavily armored bodyguards) and one of his lieutenants (Bagatu/Bakatu), which caused tension later in the camp.


title: Subutai

text: In addition to defeating the enemy, Subutai also had to spend substantial energy keeping the egos of the Mongol princes in check during the Hungarian campaign. During the battle, Subutai had to shame Batu into continuing the fight after the first failed attack on the bridge. Batu first blamed Subutai for taking too long to ford the river, but Subutai rebuffed him by saying that they knew fording the river would take time, and Batu had launched his attack preemptively. In the end Batu apologized to Subutai. This was not the first time that Subutai had to bail Batu out of a mistake: during the invasion of Russia, Batu had struggled for weeks to conquer the fortress of Torzhok, launching several failed assaults. Subutai had to divert his movements, take command, and conquered the fortress in three days with ease. Either at this feast or another one shortly after, Batu got into a heated argument with the Mongol princes Guyuk and Buri. Guyuk and Buri, jealous of Batu, accused Batu of incompetence and riding Subutai's coattails. This resulted in Guyuk and Batu, and possibly some of their men being sent home to Ögedei Khan for judgment, causing further rifts in the Mongol army.


title: Subutai

text: Despite these obstacles, the Mongols still attempted to solidify their control over Hungary. From Rogerius' writings it would seem that scattered resistance by the peasantry was attempted, but it never really got off the ground, perhaps in part due to the flat open plains of central Hungary allowing scant opportunity for ambush or withdrawal. After the defeat of the Hungarians at Mohi, Subutai used a stolen royal seal to issue bogus decrees across the country, leaving many unassuming inhabitants at his mercy.


title: Subutai

text: In order to keep the pressure on Bela, Subutai split his forces into several detachments. A light cavalry force under Kadan was sent to chase King Bela along the Adriatic Coast, while the main army with its siege engines under Subutai and Batu attempted to pacify Hungary proper. Other Mongol forces raided outside the borders of Hungary, even reaching Austria before being repulsed in a skirmish near Wiener Neustadt. The Mongols successfully besieged several cities, including the fortified city at Oradea, the castle of St. Martin of Pannonia, and the capital Esztergom, though the latter's stone citadel held out, and not all sieges proved successful.


title: Subutai

text: By early 1242, Subutai was discussing plans to invade the Holy Roman Empire, when news came of the death of Ögedei Khan and a revolt by the Cumans in Russia. Carpini alleges that, over the objections of Subutai, the Mongol princes withdrew the army to Mongolia for the election of a new Great Khan. It should be noted however that this account of events is disputed, with Rashid al-Din specifically noting that Batu and Subutai only heard of the Khan's death after they had already begun the withdrawal. However, the death of Ogedei and the turmoil immediately after it prevented the Mongols from returning to Europe for decades. Still, the devastation had been immense. Subutai had devastated the agriculture of any area that was resisting. Though some of the civilians had escaped capture or death by hiding in castles, forests, or marshes, they returned to their ruined fields only to starve. Some historians have claimed that a quarter to a half of Hungary's population may have died from the invasion. Even in 1250, eight years after the Mongols had left, Hungarian King Bela wrote to Pope Innocent IV that Hungary could not withstand another invasion and would have to surrender to the Mongols if they returned.


title: Subutai

text: After subduing a Cuman revolt in what is now Russia, Subutai turned towards Mongolia. Subutai insisted that Batu attend the kurultai to elect the successor of Ogedei in the Mongolian heartland. Batu declined to come and Güyük was elected after three years, with Subutai's support. Güyük had no love for Batu and wanted the best of the Mongol generals to be made unavailable to Batu if the feud between them came to open war. The new Khagan placed Subutai in charge, at the age of 71, of the campaign against the Song dynasty for 1246–1247. The Papal envoy Plano Carpini saw him when he was in Karakorum, Mongolia. He said Subutai was well respected among the Mongols and called him a Knight/Valiant/Hero (translation of Baghatur). Subutai returned to Mongolia from the Song campaign in 1248 and spent the remainder of his life at his home in the vicinity of the Tuul River (near modern Ulaanbaatar), dying there at the age of 72. A folk legend claimed that Subutai wished to die by his son Uriyangkhadai by the banks of the Danube river.


title: Subutai

text: Subutai's descendants such as Uriyangkhadai and Aju would serve the Great Khans for the next three decades as commanders. Uriyangkhadai would successfully conquer the kingdom of Dali, invade Dai Viet and obtain their submission, and achieve great success invading the Song from the southwest in the 1258 invasion of Möngke Khan. Aju fought with his father, and then later led the successful five-year Mongol siege of the pivotal dual fortress of Xiangyang-Fancheng in the battle of Xiangyang, which opened up a gateway into the heart of the Song and enabled their total conquest six years later in 1279.


title: Subutai

text: In a unique historical anomaly, the strategic and operational innovations of Genghis Khan and Subutai became lost in history, and others were forced to rediscover them 600 and 700 years later. Even though Subutai had devastated the armies of Russia, Georgia, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, and Latin Constantinople in a series of one-sided campaigns, Western military leaders, historians, and theorists completely ignored him until the 20th century. The Mongols did not operate as one distinct mass, but instead moved along 3–5 axes of approach, often 500–1000 km apart, and threatened numerous objectives simultaneously. Like Napoleon, Subutai (and Genghis Khan) would disperse their forces along a wide frontage and rapidly coalesce at decisive points to defeat the enemy in detail. Their methods were aligned to completely crush the enemy state's will to fight. Subutai has been credited as the first general to operate campaigns using the modern organizational methods of command and control.