title: Belgravia (TV series)

text: Principal photography took place in the summer of 2019. Many of the exteriors were shot in Edinburgh, with parts of the New Town standing in for Belgravia. Other locations included Edinburgh City Chambers and Hopetoun House.


title: Belgravia (TV series)

text: The scenes that take place in Brussels were filmed at Hopetoun House in West Lothian, Wrest Park in Bedfordshire (chapel scenes) and the Bath Assembly Hall (ballroom scenes). The exterior of the Trenchard townhouse were filmed on Moray Place, in Edinburgh; most of the interiors were filmed at a mansion in Berwickshire, and also at a mansion in Basildon Park and Syon House in London. Some scenes take place at the Duchess of Bedford’s London townhouse; those were filmed in West Wycombe House in Buckinghamshire. Anne Trenchard's manor house is fictional, so filming was done at the manor house Loseley Park, in Guildford.


title: Belgravia (TV series)

text: The production visited The Historic Chatham Dockyard and filmed on Anchor Wharf quayside, the Tarred Yarn Store as Pimm’s Chop House and the streets around the Ropery to stand in for both a London market and the streets around Girton’s Mill. Other shooting locations included the gardens at Hampton Court Palace, the Athenaeum Club in London, and Quarry Bank Mill in Cheshire.


title: Rusalka

text: In Slavic folklore, the rusalka (plural: rusalky/rusalki; ; ) is a typically feminine entity, often malicious toward mankind and frequently associated with water, with counterparts in other parts of Europe, such as the French Melusine and the Germanic Nixie. Folklorists have proposed a variety of origins for the entity, including that they may originally stem from Slavic paganism, where they may have been seen as benevolent spirits. Rusalki appear in a variety of media in modern popular culture, particularly in Slavic language-speaking countries, where they frequently resemble the concept of the mermaid.


title: Rusalka

text: In northern Russia, the rusalka was also known by various names such as the vodyanitsa (or vodyaniha/vodyantikha; ; lit. "she from the water" or "the water maiden"), kupalka (; "bather"), shutovka (; "joker", "jester" or "prankster") and loskotukha (or shchekotukha, shchekotunya; ; "tickler" or "she who tickles"). In Ukraine, the rusalka was called a mavka. Those names were more common until the 20th century, and the word "rusalka" was perceived by many people as bookish, scholarly.


title: Rusalka

text: The term "rusalka" derives from "rusalija" (, , , ) which entered Slavic languages, via Byzantine Greek "rousália" (), from the Latin "Rosālia" as a name for Pentecost and the days adjacent to it. Long-standing, likely pre-Christian, annual traditions resulted in that time of year being associated with spirits (navki, mavki) which were subsequently named for the holiday.


title: Rusalka

text: According to Vladimir Propp, the original "rusalka" was an appellation used by pagan Slavic peoples, who linked them with fertility and did not consider rusalki evil before the 19th century. They came out of the water in the spring to transfer life-giving moisture to the fields and thus helped nurture the crops.


title: Rusalka

text: In 19th-century versions, a rusalka is an unquiet, dangerous being who is no longer alive, associated with the unclean spirit. According to Dmitry Zelenin, young women, who either committed suicide by drowning due to an unhappy marriage (they might have been jilted by their lovers or abused and harassed by their much older husbands) or who were violently drowned against their will (especially after becoming pregnant with unwanted children), must live out their designated time on Earth as rusalki. However, the initial Slavic lore suggests that not all rusalki occurrences were linked with death from water.


title: Rusalka

text: It is accounted by most stories that the soul of a young woman who had died in or near a river or a lake would come back to haunt that waterway. This undead rusalka is not invariably malevolent, and would be allowed to die in peace if her death is avenged. Her main purpose is, however, to lure young men, seduced by either her looks or her voice, into the depths of said waterways where she would entangle their feet with her long hair and submerge them. Her body would instantly become very slippery and not allow the victim to cling on to her body in order to reach the surface. She would then wait until the victim had drowned, or, on some occasions, tickle them to death, as she laughed. It is also believed, by a few accounts, that rusalki can change their appearance to match the tastes of men they are about to seduce, although a rusalka is generally considered to represent universal beauty, therefore is highly feared yet respected in Slavic culture.


title: Rusalka

text: In most beliefs rusalki always have loose hair, which is popularly considered a sign of unclean spirits. According to Dal's Explanatory Dictionary, the expression "Walks like a rusalka" () is applied to girls with unkempt hair. The hair of the rusalka can be fair, black, greenish or completely green. An important attribute of the water maiden is the comb, usually made from fish bones.


title: Rusalka

text: While lore often says that the rusalki could not completely stand out of water, some fiction works tell of rusalki that could climb trees and sing songs, sit on docks with only submerged feet and comb their hair, or even join other rusalki in circle dances in the field. A particular feature of such stories revolves around the fact that this behaviour would be limited to only certain periods of the year, usually the summer (see Rusalka Week section).


title: Rusalka

text: Specifics pertaining to rusalki differed among regions. In most tales they lived without men. In stories from Ukraine, they were often linked with water. In Belarus they were linked with the forest and field. They were usually pictured as beautiful naked maidens, but in some areas they were imagined as hideous and hairy. They were said to tickle men to death. According to some Russian beliefs, rusalki had the appearance of very pale little girls with green hair and long arms. In other beliefs, they were described as naked girls with light brown hair.


title: Rusalka

text: In Poland and Czech Republic, water rusalki/rusalky were younger and fair-haired, while the forest ones looked more mature and had black hair – but in both cases, if someone looked up close, their hair turned green, and the faces became distorted. They killed their victims by tickling them to death or forcing them to participate in a frenzied dance. In Polish folklore, the term rusalka could also stand for boginka, dziwożona and various other entities.


title: Rusalka

text: The "rusalki" were believed to be at their most dangerous during the 'Rusalka week' (, ) in early June. At this time, they were supposed to have left their watery depths in order to swing on branches of birch and willow trees by night. Swimming during this week was strictly forbidden, lest mermaids would drag a swimmer down to the river bed. A common feature of the celebration of Rusalnaya was the ritual banishment or burial of the rusalki at the end of the week, which remained as entertainment in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine until the 1930s.


title: Rusalka

text: Regarding representations of the rusalka in modern popular culture, folklorist Natalie Kononenko says, "the currently dominant presents her as something like a mermaid, though she is pictured as having legs rather than a fish tail ... The current view of the "rusalka" as a seductive or seduced woman was probably influenced by written literature. In the past, her image was more complex and she more closely resembled a nature spirit, found not only near water but in fields, forests, and mountains, rather like the vila ...".


title: Incineration

text: Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of substances contained in waste materials. Industrial plants for waste incineration are commonly referred to as waste-to-energy facilities. Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment". Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas and heat. The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas. The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere. In some cases, the heat that is generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power.


title: Incineration

text: Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy technologies such as gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion. While incineration and gasification technologies are similar in principle, the energy produced from incineration is high-temperature heat whereas combustible gas is often the main energy product from gasification. Incineration and gasification may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery.


title: Incineration

text: In several countries, there are still concerns from experts and local communities about the environmental effect of incinerators (see arguments against incineration).


title: Incineration

text: In some countries, incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include a materials separation to remove hazardous, bulky or recyclable materials before combustion. These facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control. Most of these facilities did not generate electricity.


title: Incineration

text: Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80–85% and the volume (already compressed somewhat in garbage trucks) by 95–96%, depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling. This means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling, it significantly reduces the necessary volume for disposal. Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator. Alternatively, at landfills, the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately 70% by using a stationary steel compressor, albeit with a significant energy cost. In many countries, simpler waste compaction is a common practice for compaction at landfills.


title: Incineration

text: Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types in niche areas such as clinical wastes and certain hazardous wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures. Examples include chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams, which cannot be routed to a conventional wastewater treatment plant.


title: Incineration

text: Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan, Singapore and the Netherlands, where land is a scarce resource. Denmark and Sweden have been leaders by using the energy generated from incineration for more than a century, in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district heating schemes. In 2005, waste incineration produced 4.8% of the electricity consumption and 13.7% of the total domestic heat consumption in Denmark. A number of other European countries rely heavily on incineration for handling municipal waste, in particular Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Germany, and France.


title: Incineration

text: The first UK incinerators for waste disposal were built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. in 1874 to a design patented by Alfred Fryer. They were originally known as destructors.


title: Incineration

text: The first US incinerator was built in 1885 on Governors Island in New York, NY. The first facility in the Czech Republic was built in 1905 in Brno.


title: Incineration

text: An incinerator is a furnace for burning waste. Modern incinerators include pollution mitigation equipment such as flue gas cleaning. There are various types of incinerator plant design: moving grate, fixed grate, rotary-kiln, and fluidised bed.


title: Incineration

text: The burn pile or the burn pit is one of the simplest and earliest forms of waste disposal, essentially consisting of a mound of combustible materials piled on the open ground and set on fire, leading to cause pollution.


title: Incineration

text: Burn piles can and have spread uncontrolled fires, for example, if the wind blows burning material off the pile into surrounding combustible grasses or onto buildings. As interior structures of the pile are consumed, the pile can shift and collapse, spreading the burn area. Even in a situation of no wind, small lightweight ignited embers can lift off the pile via convection, and waft through the air into grasses or onto buildings, igniting them. Burn piles often do not result in full combustion of waste and therefore produce particulate pollution.


title: Incineration

text: The burn barrel is a somewhat more controlled form of private waste incineration, containing the burning material inside a metal barrel, with a metal grating over the exhaust. The barrel prevents the spread of burning material in windy conditions, and as the combustibles are reduced they can only settle down into the barrel. The exhaust grating helps to prevent the spread of burning embers. Typically steel drums are used as burn barrels, with air vent holes cut or drilled around the base for air intake. Over time, the very high heat of incineration causes the metal to oxidize and rust, and eventually the barrel itself is consumed by the heat and must be replaced.


title: Incineration

text: The private burning of dry cellulosic/paper products is generally clean-burning, producing no visible smoke, but plastics in the household waste can cause private burning to create a public nuisance, generating acrid odors and fumes that make eyes burn and water. A two-layered design enables secondary combustion, reducing smoke. Most urban communities ban burn barrels and certain rural communities may have prohibitions on open burning, especially those home to many residents not familiar with this common rural practice.


title: Incineration

text: The typical incineration plant for municipal solid waste is a moving grate incinerator. The moving grate enables the movement of waste through the combustion chamber to be optimized to allow a more efficient and complete combustion. A single moving grate boiler can handle up to of waste per hour, and can operate 8,000 hours per year with only one scheduled stop for inspection and maintenance of about one month's duration. Moving grate incinerators are sometimes referred to as municipal solid waste incinerators (MSWIs).


title: Incineration

text: The waste is introduced by a waste crane through the "throat" at one end of the grate, from where it moves down over the descending grate to the ash pit in the other end. Here the ash is removed through a water lock.


title: Incineration

text: Part of the combustion air (primary combustion air) is supplied through the grate from below. This air flow also has the purpose of cooling the grate itself. Cooling is important for the mechanical strength of the grate, and many moving grates are also water-cooled internally.


title: Incineration

text: Secondary combustion air is supplied into the boiler at high speed through nozzles over the grate. It facilitates complete combustion of the flue gases by introducing turbulence for better mixing and by ensuring a surplus of oxygen. In multiple/stepped hearth incinerators, the secondary combustion air is introduced in a separate chamber downstream the primary combustion chamber.


title: Incineration

text: According to the European Waste Incineration Directive, incineration plants must be designed to ensure that the flue gases reach a temperature of at least for 2 seconds in order to ensure proper breakdown of toxic organic substances. In order to comply with this at all times, it is required to install backup auxiliary burners (often fueled by oil), which are fired into the boiler in case the heating value of the waste becomes too low to reach this temperature alone.


title: Incineration

text: The flue gases are then cooled in the superheaters, where the heat is transferred to steam, heating the steam to typically at a pressure of for the electricity generation in the turbine. At this point, the flue gas has a temperature of around , and is passed to the flue gas cleaning system.


title: Incineration

text: In Scandinavia, scheduled maintenance is always performed during summer, where the demand for district heating is low. Often, incineration plants consist of several separate 'boiler lines' (boilers and flue gas treatment plants), so that waste can continue to be received at one boiler line while the others are undergoing maintenance, repair, or upgrading.


title: Incineration

text: The older and simpler kind of incinerator was a brick-lined cell with a fixed metal grate over a lower ash pit, with one opening in the top or side for loading and another opening in the side for removing incombustible solids called clinkers. Many small incinerators formerly found in apartment houses have now been replaced by waste compactors.


title: Incineration

text: The rotary-kiln incinerator is used by municipalities and by large industrial plants. This design of incinerator has two chambers: a primary chamber and secondary chamber. The primary chamber in a rotary kiln incinerator consists of an inclined refractory lined cylindrical tube. The inner refractory lining serves as sacrificial layer to protect the kiln structure. This refractory layer needs to be replaced from time to time. Movement of the cylinder on its axis facilitates movement of waste. In the primary chamber, there is conversion of solid fraction to gases, through volatilization, destructive distillation and partial combustion reactions. The secondary chamber is necessary to complete gas phase combustion reactions.


title: Incineration

text: The clinkers spill out at the end of the cylinder. A tall flue-gas stack, fan, or steam jet supplies the needed draft. Ash drops through the grate, but many particles are carried along with the hot gases. The particles and any combustible gases may be combusted in an "afterburner".


title: Incineration

text: A strong airflow is forced through a sandbed. The air seeps through the sand until a point is reached where the sand particles separate to let the air through and mixing and churning occurs, thus a fluidized bed is created and fuel and waste can now be introduced. The sand with the pre-treated waste and/or fuel is kept suspended on pumped air currents and takes on a fluid-like character. The bed is thereby violently mixed and agitated keeping small inert particles and air in a fluid-like state. This allows all of the mass of waste, fuel and sand to be fully circulated through the furnace.


title: Incineration

text: Furniture factory sawdust incinerators need much attention as these have to handle resin powder and many flammable substances. Controlled combustion, burn back prevention systems are essential as dust when suspended resembles the fire catch phenomenon of any liquid petroleum gas.


title: Incineration

text: The heat produced by an incinerator can be used to generate steam which may then be used to drive a turbine in order to produce electricity. The typical amount of net energy that can be produced per tonne municipal waste is about 2/3 MWh of electricity and 2 MWh of district heating. Thus, incinerating about per day of waste will produce about 400 MWh of electrical energy per day (17 MW of electrical power continuously for 24 hours) and 1200 MWh of district heating energy each day.


title: Incineration

text: Incineration has a number of outputs such as the ash and the emission to the atmosphere of flue gas. Before the flue gas cleaning system, if installed, the flue gases may contain particulate matter, heavy metals, dioxins, furans, sulfur dioxide, and hydrochloric acid. If plants have inadequate flue gas cleaning, these outputs may add a significant pollution component to stack emissions.


title: Incineration

text: In a study from 1997, Delaware Solid Waste Authority found that, for same amount of produced energy, incineration plants emitted fewer particles, hydrocarbons and less SO, HCl, CO and NO than coal-fired power plants, but more than natural gas–fired power plants. According to Germany's Ministry of the Environment, waste incinerators reduce the amount of some atmospheric pollutants by substituting power produced by coal-fired plants with power from waste-fired plants.


title: Incineration

text: The most publicized concerns about the incineration of municipal solid wastes (MSW) involve the fear that it produces significant amounts of dioxin and furan emissions. Dioxins and furans are considered by many to be serious health hazards. The EPA announced in 2012 that the safe limit for human oral consumption is 0.7 picograms Toxic Equivalence (TEQ) per kilogram bodyweight per day, which works out to 17 billionths of a gram for a 150 lb person per year.


title: Incineration

text: In 2005, the Ministry of the Environment of Germany, where there were 66 incinerators at that time, estimated that "...whereas in 1990 one third of all dioxin emissions in Germany came from incineration plants, for the year 2000 the figure was less than 1%. Chimneys and tiled stoves in private households alone discharge approximately 20 times more dioxin into the environment than incineration plants."


title: Incineration

text: According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the combustion percentages of the total dioxin and furan inventory from all known and estimated sources in the U.S. (not only incineration) for each type of incineration are as follows: 35.1% backyard barrels; 26.6% medical waste; 6.3% municipal wastewater treatment sludge; 5.9% municipal waste combustion; 2.9% industrial wood combustion. Thus, the controlled combustion of waste accounted for 41.7% of the total dioxin inventory.


title: Incineration

text: In 1987, before the governmental regulations required the use of emission controls, there was a total of Toxic Equivalence (TEQ) of dioxin emissions from US municipal waste combustors. Today, the total emissions from the plants are TEQ annually, a reduction of 99%.


title: Incineration

text: Backyard barrel burning of household and garden wastes, still allowed in some rural areas, generates of dioxins annually.


title: Incineration

text: Studies conducted by the US-EPA demonstrated that one family using a burn barrel produced more emissions than an incineration plant disposing of of waste per day by 1997 and five times that by 2007 due to increased chemicals in household trash and decreased emission by municipal incinerators using better technology.


title: Incineration

text: The same researchers found that their original estimates for the burn barrel were high, and that the incineration plant used for comparison represented a theoretical 'clean' plant rather than any existing facility. Their later studies found that burn barrels produced a median of 24.95 nanograms TEQ per lb garbage burned, so that a family burning 5 lbs of trash per day, or 1825 lbs per year, produces a total of 0.0455 mg TEQ per year, and that the equivalent number of burn barrels for the of the 251 municipal waste combustors inventoried by the EPA in the U.S. in 2000, is 1,841,700, or on average, 7337 family burn barrels per municipal waste incinerator.


title: Incineration

text: Most of the improvement in U.S. dioxin emissions has been for large-scale municipal waste incinerators. As of 2000, although small-scale incinerators (those with a daily capacity of less than 250 tons) processed only 9% of the total waste combusted, these produced 83% of the dioxins and furans emitted by municipal waste combustion.


title: Incineration

text: The breakdown of dioxin requires exposure of the molecular ring to a sufficiently high temperature so as to trigger thermal breakdown of the strong molecular bonds holding it together. Small pieces of fly ash may be somewhat thick, and too brief an exposure to high temperature may only degrade dioxin on the surface of the ash. For a large volume air chamber, too brief an exposure may also result in only some of the exhaust gases reaching the full breakdown temperature. For this reason there is also a time element to the temperature exposure to ensure heating completely through the thickness of the fly ash and the volume of waste gases.


title: Incineration

text: There are trade-offs between increasing either the temperature or exposure time. Generally where the molecular breakdown temperature is higher, the exposure time for heating can be shorter, but excessively high temperatures can also cause wear and damage to other parts of the incineration equipment. Likewise the breakdown temperature can be lowered to some degree but then the exhaust gases would require a greater lingering period of perhaps several minutes, which would require large/long treatment chambers that take up a great deal of treatment plant space.


title: Incineration

text: A side effect of breaking the strong molecular bonds of dioxin is the potential for breaking the bonds of nitrogen gas (N) and oxygen gas (O) in the supply air. As the exhaust flow cools, these highly reactive detached atoms spontaneously reform bonds into reactive oxides such as NO in the flue gas, which can result in smog formation and acid rain if they were released directly into the local environment. These reactive oxides must be further neutralized with selective catalytic reduction (SCR) or selective non-catalytic reduction (see below).


title: Incineration

text: The temperatures needed to break down dioxin are typically not reached when burning plastics outdoors in a burn barrel or garbage pit, causing high dioxin emissions as mentioned above. While plastic does usually burn in an open-air fire, the dioxins remain after combustion and either float off into the atmosphere, or may remain in the ash where it can be leached down into groundwater when rain falls on the ash pile. Fortunately, dioxin and furan compounds bond very strongly to solid surfaces and are not dissolved by water, so leaching processes are limited to the first few millimeters below the ash pile. The gas-phase dioxins can be substantially destroyed using catalysts, some of which can be present as part of the fabric filter bag structure.


title: Incineration

text: Modern municipal incinerator designs include a high-temperature zone, where the flue gas is sustained at a temperature above for at least 2 seconds before it is cooled down. They are equipped with auxiliary heaters to ensure this at all times. These are often fueled by oil or natural gas, and are normally only active for a very small fraction of the time. Further, most modern incinerators utilize fabric filters (often with Teflon membranes to enhance collection of sub-micron particles) which can capture dioxins present in or on solid particles.


title: Incineration

text: For very small municipal incinerators, the required temperature for thermal breakdown of dioxin may be reached using a high-temperature electrical heating element, plus a selective catalytic reduction stage.


title: Incineration

text: Although dioxins and furans may be destroyed by combustion, their reformation by a process known as 'de novo synthesis' as the emission gases cool is a probable source of the dioxins measured in emission stack tests from plants that have high combustion temperatures held at long residence times.


title: Incineration

text: As for other complete combustion processes, nearly all of the carbon content in the waste is emitted as CO to the atmosphere. MSW contains approximately the same mass fraction of carbon as CO itself (27%), so incineration of 1 ton of MSW produces approximately 1 ton of CO.


title: Incineration

text: If the waste was landfilled, 1 ton of MSW would produce approximately methane via the anaerobic decomposition of the biodegradable part of the waste. Since the global warming potential of methane is 34 and the weight of 62 cubic meters of methane at 25 degrees Celsius is 40.7 kg, this is equivalent to 1.38 ton of CO, which is more than the 1 ton of CO which would have been produced by incineration. In some countries, large amounts of landfill gas are collected. Still the global warming potential of the landfill gas emitted to atmosphere is significant. In the US it was estimated that the global warming potential of the emitted landfill gas in 1999 was approximately 32% higher than the amount of CO that would have been emitted by incineration. Since this study, the global warming potential estimate for methane has been increased from 21 to 35, which alone would increase this estimate to almost the triple GWP effect compared to incineration of the same waste.


title: Incineration

text: In addition, nearly all biodegradable waste has biological origin. This material has been formed by plants using atmospheric CO typically within the last growing season. If these plants are regrown the CO emitted from their combustion will be taken out from the atmosphere once more.


title: Incineration

text: Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate incineration of biodegradable waste as renewable energy. The rest – mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products – is generally treated as non-renewables.


title: Incineration

text: Different results for the CO footprint of incineration can be reached with different assumptions. Local conditions (such as limited local district heating demand, no fossil fuel generated electricity to replace or high levels of aluminium in the waste stream) can decrease the CO benefits of incineration.


title: Incineration

text: The methodology and other assumptions may also influence the results significantly. For example, the methane emissions from landfills occurring at a later date may be neglected or given less weight, or biodegradable waste may not be considered CO neutral. A study by Eunomia Research and Consulting in 2008 on potential waste treatment technologies in London demonstrated that by applying several of these (according to the authors) unusual assumptions the average existing incineration plants performed poorly for CO balance compared to the theoretical potential of other emerging waste treatment technologies.


title: Incineration

text: Other gaseous emissions in the flue gas from incinerator furnaces include nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, heavy metals, and fine particles. Of the heavy metals, mercury is a major concern due to its toxicity and high volatility, as essentially all mercury in the municipal waste stream may exit in emissions if not removed by emission controls.


title: Incineration

text: The steam content in the flue may produce visible fume from the stack, which can be perceived as a visual pollution. It may be avoided by decreasing the steam content by flue-gas condensation and reheating, or by increasing the flue gas exit temperature well above its dew point. Flue-gas condensation allows the latent heat of vaporization of the water to be recovered, subsequently increasing the thermal efficiency of the plant.


title: Incineration

text: The quantity of pollutants in the flue gas from incineration plants may or may not be reduced by several processes, depending on the plant.


title: Incineration

text: Particulate is collected by particle filtration, most often electrostatic precipitators (ESP) and/or baghouse filters. The latter are generally very efficient for collecting fine particles. In an investigation by the Ministry of the Environment of Denmark in 2006, the average particulate emissions per energy content of incinerated waste from 16 Danish incinerators were below 2.02 g/GJ (grams per energy content of the incinerated waste). Detailed measurements of fine particles with sizes below 2.5 micrometres (PM) were performed on three of the incinerators: One incinerator equipped with an ESP for particle filtration emitted 5.3 g/GJ fine particles, while two incinerators equipped with baghouse filters emitted 0.002 and 0.013 g/GJ PM. For ultra fine particles (PM), the numbers were 4.889 g/GJ PM from the ESP plant, while emissions of 0.000 and 0.008 g/GJ PM were measured from the plants equipped with baghouse filters.


title: Incineration

text: Acid gas scrubbers are used to remove hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, mercury, lead and other heavy metals. The efficiency of removal will depend on the specific equipment, the chemical composition of the waste, the design of the plant, the chemistry of reagents, and the ability of engineers to optimize these conditions, which may conflict for different pollutants. For example, mercury removal by wet scrubbers is considered coincidental and may be less than 50%. Basic scrubbers remove sulfur dioxide, forming gypsum by reaction with lime.


title: Incineration

text: Sulfur dioxide may also be removed by dry desulfurisation by injection limestone slurry into the flue gas before the particle filtration.


title: Incineration

text: NO is either reduced by catalytic reduction with ammonia in a catalytic converter (selective catalytic reduction, SCR) or by a high-temperature reaction with ammonia in the furnace (selective non-catalytic reduction, SNCR). Urea may be substituted for ammonia as the reducing reagent but must be supplied earlier in the process so that it can hydrolyze into ammonia. Substitution of urea can reduce costs and potential hazards associated with storage of anhydrous ammonia.


title: Incineration

text: Heavy metals are often adsorbed on injected active carbon powder, which is collected by particle filtration.


title: Incineration

text: Incineration produces fly ash and bottom ash just as is the case when coal is combusted. The total amount of ash produced by municipal solid waste incineration ranges from 4 to 10% by volume and 15–20% by weight of the original quantity of waste, and the fly ash amounts to about 10–20% of the total ash. The fly ash, by far, constitutes more of a potential health hazard than does the bottom ash because the fly ash often contain high concentrations of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, copper and zinc as well as small amounts of dioxins and furans. The bottom ash seldom contain significant levels of heavy metals. At present although some historic samples tested by the incinerator operators' group would meet the being ecotoxic criteria at present the EA say "we have agreed" to regard incinerator bottom ash as "non-hazardous" until the testing programme is complete.


title: Incineration

text: Odor pollution can be a problem with old-style incinerators, but odors and dust are extremely well controlled in newer incineration plants. They receive and store the waste in an enclosed area with a negative pressure with the airflow being routed through the boiler which prevents unpleasant odors from escaping into the atmosphere. A study found that the strongest odor at an incineration facility in Eastern China occurred at its waste tipping port.


title: Incineration

text: An issue that affects community relationships is the increased road traffic of waste collection vehicles to transport municipal waste to the incinerator. Due to this reason, most incinerators are located in industrial areas. This problem can be avoided to an extent through the transport of waste by rail from transfer stations.


title: Incineration

text: Scientific researchers have investigated the human health effects of pollutants produced by waste incineration. Many studies have examined health impacts from exposure to pollutants utilizing U.S. EPA modeling guidelines. Exposure through inhalation, ingestion, soil, and dermal contact are incorporated in these models. Research studies have also assessed exposure to pollutants through blood or urine samples of residents and workers who live near waste incinerators. Findings from a systematic review of previous research identified a number of symptoms and diseases related to incinerator pollution exposure. These include neoplasia, respiratory issues, congenital anomalies, and infant deaths or miscarriages. Populations near old, inadequately maintained incinerators experience a higher degree of health issues. Some studies also identified possible cancer risk. However, difficulties in separating incinerator pollution exposure from combined industry, motor vehicle, and agriculture pollution limits these conclusions on health risks.


title: Incineration

text: Many communities have advocated for the improvement or removal of waste incinerator technology. Specific pollutant exposures, such as high levels of nitrogen dioxide, have been cited in community-led complaints relating to increased emergency room visits for respiratory issues. Potential health effects of waste incineration technology have been publicized, notably when located in communities already facing disproportionate health burdens. For example, the Wheelabrator Incinerator in Baltimore, Maryland, has been investigated due to increased rates of asthma in its neighboring community, which is predominantly occupied by low-income, people of color. Community-led efforts have suggested a need for future research to address a lack of real-time pollution data. These sources have also cited a need for academic, government, and non-profit partnerships to better determine the health impacts of incineration.


title: Incineration

text: Use of incinerators for waste management is controversial. The debate over incinerators typically involves business interests (representing both waste generators and incinerator firms), government regulators, environmental activists and local citizens who must weigh the economic appeal of local industrial activity with their concerns over health and environmental risk.


title: Incineration

text: People and organizations professionally involved in this issue include the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and a great many local and national air quality regulatory agencies worldwide.


title: Incineration

text: The history of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration is linked intimately to the history of landfills and other waste treatment technology. The merits of incineration are inevitably judged in relation to the alternatives available. Since the 1970s, recycling and other prevention measures have changed the context for such judgements. Since the 1990s alternative waste treatment technologies have been maturing and becoming viable.


title: Incineration

text: Incineration is a key process in the treatment of hazardous wastes and clinical wastes. It is often imperative that medical waste be subjected to the high temperatures of incineration to destroy pathogens and toxic contamination it contains.


title: Incineration

text: In 1949, Robert C. Ross founded one of the first hazardous waste management companies in the U.S. He began Robert Ross Industrial Disposal because he saw an opportunity to meet the hazardous waste management needs of companies in northern Ohio. In 1958, the company built one of the first hazardous waste incinerators in the U.S.


title: Incineration

text: The first full-scale, municipally operated incineration facility in the U.S. was the Arnold O. Chantland Resource Recovery Plant built in 1975 in Ames, Iowa. The plant is still in operation and produces refuse-derived fuel that is sent to local power plants for fuel. The first commercially successful incineration plant in the U.S. was built in Saugus, Massachusetts, in October 1975 by Wheelabrator Technologies, and is still in operation today.


title: Incineration

text: There are several environmental or waste management corporations that transport ultimately to an incinerator or cement kiln treatment center. Currently (2009), there are three main businesses that incinerate waste: Clean Harbours, WTI-Heritage, and Ross Incineration Services. Clean Harbours has acquired many of the smaller, independently run facilities, accumulating 5–7 incinerators in the process across the U.S. WTI-Heritage has one incinerator, located in the southeastern corner of Ohio across the Ohio River from West Virginia.


title: Incineration

text: Several old generation incinerators have been closed; of the 186 MSW incinerators in 1990, only 89 remained by 2007, and of the 6200 medical waste incinerators in 1988, only 115 remained in 2003.


title: Incineration

text: No new incinerators were built between 1996 and 2007. The main reasons for lack of activity have been:


title: Incineration

text: There has been renewed interest in incineration and other waste-to-energy technologies in the U.S. and Canada. In the U.S., incineration was granted qualification for renewable energy production tax credits in 2004. Projects to add capacity to existing plants are underway, and municipalities are once again evaluating the option of building incineration plants rather than continue landfilling municipal wastes. However, many of these projects have faced continued political opposition in spite of renewed arguments for the greenhouse gas benefits of incineration and improved air pollution control and ash recycling.


title: Incineration

text: In Europe, with the ban on landfilling untreated waste, scores of incinerators have been built in the last decade, with more under construction. Recently, a number of municipal governments have begun the process of contracting for the construction and operation of incinerators. In Europe, some of the electricity generated from waste is deemed to be from a 'Renewable Energy Source' (RES) and is thus eligible for tax credits if privately operated. Also, some incinerators in Europe are equipped with waste recovery, allowing the reuse of ferrous and non-ferrous materials found in landfills. A prominent example is the AEB Waste Fired Power Plant.


title: Incineration

text: In Sweden, about 50% of the generated waste is burned in waste-to-energy facilities, producing electricity and supplying local cities' district heating systems. The importance of waste in Sweden's electricity generation scheme is reflected on their 2,700,000 tons of waste imported per year (in 2014) to supply waste-to-energy facilities.


title: Incineration

text: The technology employed in the UK waste management industry has been greatly lagging behind that of Europe due to the wide availability of landfills. The Landfill Directive set down by the European Union led to the Government of the United Kingdom imposing waste legislation including the landfill tax and Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme. This legislation is designed to reduce the release of greenhouse gases produced by landfills through the use of alternative methods of waste treatment. It is the UK Government's position that incineration will play an increasingly large role in the treatment of municipal waste and supply of energy in the UK.


title: Incineration

text: In 2008, plans for potential incinerator locations exists for approximately 100 sites. These have been interactively mapped by UK NGO's.


title: Incineration

text: Under a new plan in June 2012, a DEFRA-backed grant scheme (The Farming and Forestry Improvement Scheme) was set up to encourage the use of low-capacity incinerators on agricultural sites to improve their bio security.


title: Incineration

text: A permit has recently been granted for what would be the UK's largest waste incinerator in the centre of the Cambridge – Milton Keynes – Oxford corridor, in Bedfordshire. Following the construction of a large incinerator at Greatmoor in Buckinghamshire, and plans to construct a further one near Bedford, the Cambridge – Milton Keynes – Oxford corridor will become a major incineration hub in the UK.


title: Incineration

text: Emergency incineration systems exist for the urgent and biosecure disposal of animals and their by-products following a mass mortality or disease outbreak. An increase in regulation and enforcement from governments and institutions worldwide has been forced through public pressure and significant economic exposure.


title: Incineration

text: Contagious animal disease has cost governments and industry $200 billion over 20 years to 2012 and is responsible for over 65% of infectious disease outbreaks worldwide in the past sixty years. One-third of global meat exports (approx 6 million tonnes) is affected by trade restrictions at any time and as such the focus of Governments, public bodies and commercial operators is on cleaner, safer and more robust methods of animal carcass disposal to contain and control disease.


title: Incineration

text: Large-scale incineration systems are available from niche suppliers and are often bought by governments as a safety net in case of contagious outbreak. Many are mobile and can be quickly deployed to locations requiring biosecure disposal.


title: Incineration

text: Small-scale incinerators exist for special purposes. For example, mobile small-scale incinerators are aimed for hygienically safe destruction of medical waste in developing countries. Small incinerators can be quickly deployed to remote areas where an outbreak has occurred to dispose of infected animals quickly and without the risk of cross contamination.


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: Let Them All Talk is a 2020 American comedy-drama film directed by Steven Soderbergh from a screenplay by Deborah Eisenberg. The film stars Meryl Streep, Dianne Wiest, Candice Bergen, Lucas Hedges, and Gemma Chan. Much of the dialogue was improvised by the cast, and Soderbergh shot the film using natural light and little equipment aboard the "Queen Mary 2".


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: Alice Hughes is a Pulitzer Prize-winning author working on her latest manuscript, which her publisher hopes will be a sequel to her best-known work, "You Always/You Never". Alice is receiving a literary award in the United Kingdom but is unable to fly due to her health, leading her agent Karen to suggest she make the transatlantic crossing on the "Queen Mary 2". Alice invites her nephew Tyler to assist her while on the voyage, and her university friends Roberta and Susan, with whom she has lost touch. Alice and Roberta have a difficult relationship stemming from Roberta's belief that Alice used details about her in "You Always/You Never", which Roberta feels derailed her life. Unbeknownst to Alice, Karen joins them on the ship, hoping to learn details about Alice's new book.


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: Once on the ship, Karen strikes up a friendship with Tyler, using him to gain information from Alice. Alice tells Tyler that the book is about "trying to catch lightning in a bottle for a second time", possibly implying that it will be a sequel to a previous work. She spends the majority of her time writing, only taking breaks to eat and swim. Roberta attempts to attract wealthy men on board, while Susan begins interacting with Kelvin Krantz, another writer; Krantz writes popular mystery and thriller books, which Alice dismisses. Krantz also knows Karen, and advises her not to pry into the details of Alice's work. Roberta attempts to meet with Alice to seek an apology and acknowledgement of Alice's use of her life details – a fact that Alice has never admitted to – but the two fail to connect. Alice runs into Tyler and Karen together, and learns that Tyler has a romantic interest in Karen. Tyler and Karen have dinner, where Tyler's romantic advances are rejected. Alice invites Karen to dinner with the foursome, where tensions come to a head between Alice and Roberta after Karen asks about the new book. They are interrupted by Susan, who accuses them both of being selfish and holding onto their bitterness. Alice decides to delete her book, implied to be a sequel to "You Always/You Never" as both Karen and Roberta expected.


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: After disembarking the ship, Alice and Roberta have a conversation about their estrangement. Roberta tells Alice that she will provide her with the life details Alice would need to write a sequel to "You Always/You Never", but wants a share of the profits in return. Alice rejects this offer and they part with Roberta telling Alice "I loved you when you were Al." That evening, Alice begins work on a new writing project.


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: The next morning, a man that Tyler saw frequently coming out of Alice's room on the ship greets him at Alice's door. He reveals that he is Dr. Mitchell, Alice's personal physician, and that Alice has died in the night from deep vein thrombosis; Dr. Mitchell was aboard the ship to administer injections of a blood thinning medication to Alice.


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: Tyler, Roberta, and Susan visit the grave of 19th century author Blodwyn Pugh, as Alice had intended them to. Back in the United States, Roberta gives Alice's writing, which she took from Alice's room after her death, to Karen in the hopes of profiting from it. Karen maintains that the work is unfinished and cannot be published, but encourages Roberta's idea of writing a book about her life experiences. Susan works with Krantz on a new book based on an idea of hers she shared with him aboard the ship. Tyler receives Alice's unfinished writing from Karen and returns it to her apartment, recalling a talk Alice made celebrating the existence of consciousness and the ability of people to affect each other.


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: In August 2019, it was announced Meryl Streep and Gemma Chan would star in the film, with Steven Soderbergh directing from a screenplay by Deborah Eisenberg. Later that month, it was announced HBO Max had acquired the distribution rights to the film, along with the additions of Candice Bergen, Dianne Wiest and Lucas Hedges to the cast.


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: Production began in August 2019 in New York City, and continued on board the Cunard ocean liner RMS "Queen Mary 2" as it crossed the Atlantic, lasting two weeks. Soderbergh only used the story outline written by Eisenberg, and allowed the actors to improvise much of their dialogue. Soderbergh served as the film editor and cinematographer. According to Wiest, Soderbergh "held the camera in a wheelchair and just rolled along," and sound was the only equipment used. Streep said she was paid 25 cents for her role.


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: According to the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, of critic reviews are positive, with the average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "When Steven Soderbergh rounds up a cast this talented, it's definitely wise to "Let Them All Talk"—and this light yet rewarding dramedy more than lives up to expectations." On Metacritic, the film was assigned a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 31 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Let Them All Talk (film)

text: Leah Greenblatt of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film an A− and described it as "a chance to spend two hours watching Streep & Co. make the most of Deborah Eisenberg's deliciously salty script, while Soderbergh—who also serves as cinematographer—shoots it all in ruthless, radiant light."


title: Allegra Curtis

text: Allegra Curtis (born July 11, 1966) is an American-born actress and businesswoman who has worked in English and German movies. She is known for her work in movies, particularly "Das Gold der Liebe" (1983) and "" (2000) as well as her participation in the German TV series "Ich bin ein Star – Holt mich hier raus!" in 2013.


title: Allegra Curtis

text: Curtis resides in Wilmington, North Carolina. She is the daughter of American actor Tony Curtis and Austrian-German actress Christine Kaufmann. She is the younger sister of Alexandra Curtis who is also an actress. Actresses Kelly and Jamie Lee Curtis are her paternal half-sisters. Her paternal grandparents were Hungarian-Jewish immigrants.


title: Allegra Curtis

text: After Christine Kaufmann's death in March 2017, Curtis announced in October 2017 that she would be continuing with her mother's cosmetics line.


title: Casio F-91W

text: The Casio F-91W is a digital watch manufactured by Japanese electronics company Casio. Introduced in 1989 as a successor of the F-87W, it is popular for its low price and long battery life. As of 2011, annual production of the watch is 3 million units. Its ubiquitous use in the construction of timers for terrorist bombs prompted US officials to view the wearing of these watches as a "sign of al-Qaeda".


title: Casio F-91W

text: Designed by Ryusuke Moriai as his first design for Casio, the case of the F-91W measures . The case is primarily made of resin, with a stainless steel caseback and buttons with the manufacturer's module number, 593, stamped on the caseback. The resin strap is at the fitting and 22 mm across the widest part of the lugs. The total weight is .


title: Casio F-91W

text: The F-91W is a chronograph, featuring a  second stopwatch with a count up to 59:59.99 (nearly one hour). The stopwatch also has the feature to mark net and split time (lap). Other features include an hourly time beep and a single daily alarm lasting 20 seconds and an annual calendar, with adjustment for leap years not supported as the watch does not record the year. February is always counted as 28 days. The watch uses a faint, green LED backlight located to the left of the display for illumination (in earlier versions it was an amber microlight). According to manufacturer estimates, the watch is reported to be accurate to ±30 seconds per month.


title: Casio F-91W

text: The quartz movement, designated "Module 593", is powered by a single CR2016 3-volt lithium button cell.


title: Casio F-91W

text: The watch front is marked "Water Resist", but Casio reports different values for different variants of the watch. The black version (F91W-1) is "30 meter / 3 bar" (i.e. 100 feet / 44 psi), the ISO standard meaning of which is: "Suitable for everyday use. Splash/rain resistant. NOT suitable for showering, bathing, swimming, snorkeling, water related work and fishing".


title: Casio F-91W

text: The time or date is adjusted by pressing the lower left button three times to bring the watch to time adjustment mode. The top left button is used to cycle through seconds, hours, minutes, month, date, day, and normal mode. The right button is used to adjust the flashing value displayed. Unlike any other value, the seconds can only be zeroed. Should this happen before 30 seconds, the watch will zero in at the beginning of the current minute. After 30 seconds it will start the next minute as displayed. When the adjustments are finished, the bottom left button can be pressed once to return the watch to normal mode.


title: Casio F-91W

text: The watch display shows the day of the week, day of the month, hour, minute, seconds, and the signs PM in the afternoon – or 24H (24-hour clock) – at all times, the alarm signal status (bar of vertical lines), and the hourly signal status (double beep on the hour, shown as a bell) are present when activated in the alarm mode.


title: Casio F-91W

text: According to secret documents issued to interrogators at Guantanamo Bay, obtained and released by "The Guardian", "the Casio F-91W digital watch was declared to be 'the sign of al-Qaeda' and a contributing factor to continued detention of prisoners by the analysts stationed at Guantanamo Bay. Briefing documents used to train staff in assessing the threat level of new detainees advise that possession of the F-91W and the A159W – available online for as little as £4 – suggests the wearer has been trained in bomb making by al-Qaeda in Afghanistan." United States military intelligence officials have identified the F-91W as a watch that terrorists use in constructing time bombs.


title: Casio F-91W

text: This association was highlighted in the Denbeaux study, and may have been used in some cases at Guantanamo Bay. An article published in "The Washington Post" in 1996 reported that Abdul Hakim Murad, Wali Khan Amin Shah, and Ramzi Ahmed Yousef had developed techniques to use commonly available Casio digital watches to detonate time bombs. Casio watches were mentioned almost 150 times in prisoner assessments from Guantanamo.


title: Casio F-91W

text: On July 12, 2006, the magazine "Mother Jones" provided excerpts from the transcripts of a selection of the Guantanamo detainees.


title: Casio F-91W

text: More than a dozen detainees were cited for owning cheap digital watches, particularly "the infamous Casio watch of the type used by Al Qaeda members for bomb detonators."


title: Casio F-91W

text: When they told me that Casios were used by Al Qaeda and the watch was for explosives, I was shocked... If I had known that, I would have thrown it away. I'm not stupid. We have four chaplains [at Guantanamo]; all of them wear this watch.


title: Casio F-91W

text: Counterfeits of this watch are very common, despite its low price tag. These counterfeits generally have a lower plastic build quality, narrower LCD viewing angles, louder and higher-pitched beeps, and significantly less accurate timekeeping than genuine models. The newer modules with the green LED light can be tested by holding the right button for over 3 seconds in the main timekeeping mode; this will lead the display to show "CASIo", as a test for authenticity. With the advancement in technology, however, some counterfeit models have also been developed to show this sign, although these are fairly uncommon. This leaves the only method of distinguishing them as assessing the overall build quality, timekeeping accuracy, display viewing angle and the printing on the screen.


title: Naiad

text: In Greek mythology, the naiads (; ) are a type of female spirit, or nymph, presiding over fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of fresh water.


title: Naiad

text: They are distinct from river gods, who embodied rivers, and the very ancient spirits that inhabited the still waters of marshes, ponds and lagoon-lakes such as pre-Mycenaean Lerna in the Argolis.


title: Naiad

text: Naiads were often the object of archaic local cults, worshipped as essential to humans. Boys and girls at coming-of-age ceremonies dedicated their childish locks to the local naiad of the spring. In places like Lerna their waters' ritual cleansings were credited with magical medical properties. Animals were ritually drowned there. Oracles might be situated by ancient springs.


title: Naiad

text: Naiads could be dangerous: Hylas of the "Argo"’s crew was lost when he was taken by naiads fascinated by his beauty. The naiads were also known to exhibit jealous tendencies. Theocritus's story of naiad jealousy was that of a shepherd, Daphnis, who was the lover of Nomia or Echenais; Daphnis had on several occasions been unfaithful to Nomia and as revenge she permanently blinded him. The nymph Salmacis raped Hermaphroditus and fused with him when he tried to escape.


title: Naiad

text: The water nymph associated with particular springs was known all through Europe in places with no direct connection with Greece, surviving in the Celtic wells of northwest Europe that have been rededicated to Saints, and in the medieval Melusine.


title: Naiad

text: Walter Burkert points out, "When in the "Iliad" [xx.4–9] Zeus calls the gods into assembly on Mount Olympus, it is not only the well-known Olympians who come along, but also all the nymphs and all the rivers; Okeanos alone remains at his station", Greek hearers recognized this impossibility as the poet's hyperbole, which proclaimed the universal power of Zeus over the ancient natural world: "the worship of these deities," Burkert confirms, "is limited only by the fact that they are inseparably identified with a specific locality."


title: Naiad

text: Robert Graves offered a sociopolitical reading of the common myth-type in which a mythic king is credited with marrying a naiad and founding a city: it was the newly arrived Hellenes justifying their presence. The loves and rapes of Zeus, according to Graves' readings, record the supplanting of ancient local cults by Olympian ones (Graves 1955, "passim").


title: Naiad

text: So, in the back-story of the myth of Aristaeus, Hypseus, a king of the Lapiths, married Chlidanope, a naiad, who bore him Cyrene. Aristaeus had more than ordinary mortal experience with the naiads: when his bees died in Thessaly, he went to consult them. His aunt Arethusa invited him below the water's surface, where he was washed with water from a perpetual spring and given advice.


title: M. Sasikumar

text: Mahalingam Sasikumar (born 28 September 1974) is an Indian film director, actor, singer and producer. He worked as an assistant director for director Bala in "Sethu" (1999), also worked for director Ameer in his first two films "Mounam Pesiyadhe" (2002) and "Raam" (2005). He is best known in the Tamil film industry for his debut film "Subramaniapuram" (2008), which became a blockbuster.


title: M. Sasikumar

text: Sasikumar studied at St. Peters School Kodaikanal and then went on to study business administration in Vellaichamy Nadar College, Madurai.


title: M. Sasikumar

text: Sasikumar acted in "Subramaniapuram" (2008) as Parama and in "Naadodigal" (2009) as Karuna, directed by Samuthirakani. Story revolves around four men and two women who live their life with utmost Joy and a Goal to Achieve. Among the actors Sasikumar is the pick of the lot, he is hero material and has given an amazingly candid performance. He also acted in "Poraali" (2011), Sasikumar plays the lead role in the film & also he is the producer of the film. Followed by Malayalam film, "Masters" (2012) as Milan Paul alongside Prithviraj. Prithviraj and Sasikumar will appear as bosom friends in this movie, who try different ways to fulfill their social responsibility. "Masters" is somewhat different from the usual crime thriller, but it leaves us with a feeling that it could have been better. It was followed by drama film, "Sundarapandian" (2012). The cast includes Lakshmi Menon and Vijay Sethupathi. In 2013, he acted in "Kutti Puli", with his previous movie pair Lakshmi Menon. The film is released to positive reviews. In 2014, a romantic action film "Bramman". The film will definitely be a huge disappointment to fans.


title: M. Sasikumar

text: In 2013, Sasikumar began work on Bala's "Tharai Thappattai" and portrayed Sannasi, a nadaswaram player who heads a Karagattam troupe. To look the part, he had to train for a month with folk singers and dancers brought in by Bala, while he also grew long hair for the role. The film's production progressed over two years, while the team were forced to have a three-month break in 2015 after Sasikumar had dislocated his hand while shooting for the film's climax. The soundtrack has been composed by Ilaiyaraaja. The film has garnered a lot of expectations in being promoted as the 1000th film score of Ilaiyaraaja. The soundtrack consists of seven tracks: five songs and two theme scores. The film is released on 14 January 2016 to mostly positive reviews. "Vetrivel", "Appa", "Kidaari" and "Balle Vellaiyathevaa" follow up. In 2017, he acted in "Kodiveeran". This is the second time that this actor and director joining hands after "Kutti Puli". Kodi Veeran is produced by M. Sasikumar's Company Productions. In 2018, "Asuravadham". After a series of underwhelming films, the film has received mixed reviews from critics and audience.


title: M. Sasikumar

text: He starts the year with Rajinikanth's' "Petta" (2019) directed by Karthik Subbaraj. The next project is Suseenthiran's "Kennedy Club". Sify relieves: "Sasikumar is not at all convincing as a Kabbadi player and maintains the same age-old". The film is an average sports drama. Sasikumar was roped in to star in Gautham Vasudev Menon's "Enai Noki Paayum Thota" (2019), which stars Dhanush and Megha Akash . In the film, Sasikumar acted as Dhanush's elder brother. After "Naadodigal 2" (2020), he starred in family films like "Udanpirappe" (2021), "MGR Magan" (2021) and "Raajavamsam" (2021).


title: M. Sasikumar

text: After the success of "Subramaniapuram", Sasikumar produced "Pasanga" (2009), directed by debutant Pandiraj, and the self-directed "Easan" (2010). His production ventures include "Poraali" (2011) and "Sundarapandian" (2012). He produced "Thalaimuraigal" directed by Balu Mahendra who acts along with Sasikumar for the first time in his career and won the National Award (India) in April 2014. He also produced "Tharai Thappattai" (2016), "Kidaari" (2016), "Balle Vellaiyathevaa" (2016) and "Kodiveeran" (2017).


title: Green hydrogen

text: Green hydrogen has significantly lower carbon emissions than grey hydrogen, which is produced by steam reforming of natural gas, which makes up the bulk of the hydrogen market. Green hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of water is less than 0.1% of total hydrogen production. It may be used to decarbonize sectors which are hard to electrify, such as steel and cement production, and thus help to limit climate change.


title: Green hydrogen

text: The high cost of production is the main factor behind the low use of green hydrogen. Nonetheless, the hydrogen market is expected to grow, with some forecasts of the cost of hydrogen production falling from $6/kg in 2015 to around $2/kg by 2025. In 2020, major European companies announced plans to switch their truck fleets to hydrogen power.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Green hydrogen can be blended into existing natural gas pipelines, and also used to produce green ammonia, the main constituent of fertilizer production. It is suggested by hydrogen industry bodies that green ammonia will be cost-competitive with ammonia produced conventionally (gray ammonia) by 2030.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Certified green hydrogen requires an emission reduction of >60-70% (depending on the certification body) below the benchmark emissions intensity threshold (= GHG emissions of grey hydrogen, for example benchmark values according to the renewable energy directive RED II).


title: Green hydrogen

text: The high cost of production is the main factor behind the low use of green hydrogen. Nonetheless, the United States Department of Energy forecasts that the hydrogen market is expected to grow, with the cost of hydrogen production falling from $6/kg in 2015 to as low as $2/kg by 2025. The price of $2/kg is considered a potential tipping point that will make green hydrogen competitive against other fuel sources.


title: Green hydrogen

text: The majority of hydrogen produced globally in 2020 is derived from fossil fuel sources with 99% of hydrogen fuel coming from carbon-based sources, and is not green hydrogen.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Green hydrogen has significantly lower carbon emissions than grey hydrogen, which is produced by steam reforming of natural gas and represents 95% of the market. On the contrary, green hydrogen, specifically, that produced by electrolysis of water represents less than 0.1% of total hydrogen production.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Hydrogen can be used as a hydrogen fuel for fuel cells or internal combustion engines. Hydrogen vehicles are not limited to automobiles, with trucks also being designed to run on green hydrogen. In 2020, major European companies announced plans to switch their truck fleets to hydrogen power. Additionally, hydrogen-powered aircraft are already being designed by Airbus, with a planned release of the first commercial aircraft by 2035. Nevertheless, Airbus has warned that hydrogen will not be widely used on aircraft before 2050.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Hydrogen can be used for cooking and heating within homes. Hydrogen heating has been proposed as an alternative to power most UK homes by 2050. The British government intends to launch demonstration projects to show how the fuel can power regions containing hundreds of homes.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Natural gas pipelines are sometimes used to transport hydrogen, but it is not without challenges. Many pipelines would need to be upgraded for hydrogen transport. The natural gas industry and its infrastructure could pose a roadblock to green hydrogen adoption for countries that intend to be carbon neutral. A pilot program in Cappelle-la-Grande‚ France has already mixed hydrogen into the gas grid of 100 homes. Natural gas-fired power plants can also be converted to burn hydrogen serving to provide backup power during periods of high demand.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Green hydrogen can be used to produce green ammonia, the main constituent of fertilizer production. The Hydrogen Council suggested in 2021 that green ammonia will be cost competitive with ammonia produced conventionally (gray ammonia) by 2030.


title: Green hydrogen

text: As of 2020, the global hydrogen market was valued at $900 million and is expected to reach $300 billion by 2050. According to analysts at Fitch Solutions, the global hydrogen market could jump to 10% by 2030. The number of investments in green hydrogen has risen from almost none in 2020 to 121 gigawatts across 136 projects in planning and development phases totaling over $500 billion in 2021.


title: Green hydrogen

text: As of 2021, companies across countries have formed alliances to increase production of the fuel fifty-fold in the next six years. The market could be worth over $1 trillion a year by 2050 according to Goldman Sachs.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Mauritania has launched two major projects on green hydrogen: NOUR Project, one of the world’s largest hydrogen projects with 10 GW of capacity by 2030 in cooperation with Chariot company. The second is EMAN Project, which include 18GW of wind capacity and 12GW of solar capacity to produce 1.7 million tons per annum of green hydrogen or 10 million tons per annum of green ammonia for local use and export, in cooperation with Australian company CWP.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Countries in Africa such as Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Namibia have proposed plans to have green hydrogen as a part of their overall climate change goals. Namibia is partnering with European countries such as Netherlands and Germany for feasibility studies and funding.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In Australia, green hydrogen has cost twice as much as conventional hydrogen and blue hydrogen, but a 2020 Australian National University report estimated that Australia could be producing it for much cheaper, even currently, and it could equal the price of conventional and blue hydrogen (at about per kilogram) by 2030, which would be cost-competitive with fossil fuels. An energy market analyst suggested in early 2021 that the price of green hydrogen would drop 70% over the coming 10 years in countries which have cheap renewable energy. In 2020, the government fast tracked approval for the world's largest planned renewable energy export facility in the Pilbara region. In 2021, energy companies announced plans to construct a "hydrogen valley" in New South Wales at a cost of $2 billion which would replace the region's coal industry.


title: Green hydrogen

text: As of July 2022, the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) has invested $88 million in 35 hydrogen projects ranging from research and development projects with universities, to first-of-a-kind demonstrations. In 2022, ARENA expects to reach financial close on two or three of Australia’s first large-scale electrolyzer deployments as part of its $100 million hydrogen deployment round.


title: Green hydrogen

text: EverWind Fuels developer of green hydrogen and ammonia production and E.ON Hydrogen GmbH, agreed on a detailed Memorandum of Understanding to import green ammonia at scale to Germany beginning in 2025 from EverWind’s initial production facility in Point Tupper, Nova Scotia.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Under the MoU, EverWind and E.ON intend to work towards an offtake agreement for up to 500,000 tonnes per annum of green ammonia. The facility is expected to reach commercial operation in early 2025.


title: Green hydrogen

text: China is the leader of the global hydrogen market with an output of 20 million tons, accounting for ⅓ of global production. Sinopec aims to generate 500,000 tonnes of green hydrogen by 2025. Researchers from the Harvard China Project have indicated that hydrogen generated from wind energy could provide a cost effective alternative for coal-dependent regions like Inner Mongolia. As part of preparations for the 2022 Winter Olympics a hydrogen electrolyzer, described as the "world's largest" began operations to provide fuel for vehicles used at the games. The electrolyzer produced green hydrogen using onshore wind.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In order to become carbon neutral, the Japanese government intends to transform the nation into a "hydrogen society". The energy demand in Japan would require the government to import 36 million tons of liquefied hydrogen. The nation's commercial imports are projected to be 100 times less than this amount by 2030, when the use of the fuel is expected to commence, which represents a serious challenge. Japan has published a preliminary road map that called for hydrogen and related fuels to supply 10% of the power for electricity generation as well as a significant portion of the energy for other uses like shipping and steel manufacture by 2050. Japan has created a hydrogen highway consisting of 135 subsidized hydrogen fuels stations and plans to construct 1,000 by the end of the 2020s.


title: Green hydrogen

text: A consortium of companies have announced a $30 billion project in Oman, which would become one of the largest hydrogen facilities in the world. Construction will begin in 2028. By 2038 the project will be powered by 25 of wind and solar energy.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In 2021, in collaboration with Expo 2020 Dubai a pilot project was launched which is the first "industrial scale", solar-driven green hydrogen facility in the Middle East and North Africa."


title: Green hydrogen

text: In 2021, Saudi Arabia, as a part of the NEOM project, announced an investment of $5bn to build a green hydrogen-based ammonia plant, which would start production from 2025.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Reliance Industries and Adani Group - two of India's largest Energy companies announced a foray into green hydrogen production in 2021. Reliance Industries announced its plan to use about 3 gigawatt (GW) of solar energy to generate 400,000 tonnes of hydrogen. Gautam Adani, founder of the Adani Group announced plans to invest $70 billion to become the world's largest renewable energy company, and produce the cheapest hydrogen across the globe. The power ministry of India has stated that India intends to produce a cumulative 5 million tonnes of green hydrogen by 2030.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In April 2022, the public sector Oil India Limited (OIL), which is headquartered in eastern Assam’s Duliajan, set up India’s first 99.99% pure green hydrogen pilot plant in keeping with the goal of “making the country ready for the pilot-scale production of hydrogen and its use in various applications” while “research and development efforts are ongoing for a reduction in the cost of production, storage and the transportation” of hydrogen.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In October 2020, the South Korean government announced its plan to introduce the Clean Hydrogen Energy Portfolio Standards (CHPS) that emphasizes the use of clean hydrogen. During the introduction of the Hydrogen Energy Portfolio Standard (HPS), it voted by the 2nd Hydrogen Economy Committee. In March 2021, the 3rd Hydrogen Economy Committee was held to pass a plan to introduce a clean hydrogen certification system based on incentives and obligations for clean hydrogen.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In June 2021, Hyundai Engineering signed a mutual business agreement with POSCO, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Uljin-gun, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang Institute of Industrial Science and the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute. It plans to secure MMR technology competitiveness and revitalize the hydrogen economy through cooperation such as developing hot hydrogen production technology, developing hot water electrolytic technology, and commercializing nuclear power.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In July 2020 the European Union unveiled the Hydrogen Strategy for a Climate-Neutral Europe with the goal of reaching carbon neutrality by incorporating hydrogen into EU plans. A motion backing this strategy passed the European Parliament in 2021. The plan will be divided in three phases. The first one, from 2020 to 2024, will aim at decarbonizing all existing hydrogen production. The second phase (2024-2030) will integrate green hydrogen into the energy system. The third phase (2030 to 2050) will see a large-scale deployment of hydrogen in the decarbonization process. Goldman Sachs estimates hydrogen will be 15% of the EU energy mix by 2050.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Six European Union member states: Germany, Austria, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, requested hydrogen funding be backed by legislation. Germany has already invested €9 billion to construct 5 of hydrogen capacity by 2030. Many member countries have created plans to import hydrogen from other nations, especially from North Africa. These plans would increase hydrogen production, however they have also been accused of trying to export the necessary changes needed within Europe. The European Union has required that starting in 2021, all new gas turbines made in the bloc must be equipped ready to burn a hydrogen–natural gas blend.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In February 2021, thirty companies announced a pioneering project to provide hydrogen based in Spain. The project intends to start in 2022, creating 93 of solar and 67 GW of electrolysis capacity by the end of the decade. In April 2021, Portugal announced plans to construct the first solar-powered plant to produce hydrogen by 2023. Lisbon based energy company Galp Energia has announced plans to construct an electrolyzer to power its refinery by 2025.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In November 2020, Chile's president presented the "National Strategy for Green Hydrogen," stating he wanted Chile to become "the most efficient green hydrogen producer in the world by 2030". The plan includes HyEx, a project to make solar based hydrogen for use in the mining industry.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In 2021, the British government published its policy document, a "Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revolution," which included investing to create 5 of low carbon hydrogen by 2030. The plans include work with the industry to complete the necessary testing that would allow up to 20% blending of hydrogen into the gas distribution grid for all homes on the gas grid by 2023. Though a BEIS consultation in 2022 suggested that grid blending would only have a "limited and temporary" role due to an expected reduction in the use of natural gas.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In March 2021 a proposal emerged to use offshore wind proposal in Scotland to power converted convert oil and gas rigs into a "green hydrogen hub" which would supply fuel to local distilleries.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In June 2021 Equinor announced plans to triple UK hydrogen production. In March 2022 National Grid announced a project to introduce green hydrogen into the grid with a 200m wind turbine powering an electrolyzer to produce gas for about 300 homes.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In the early 2020s energy firms including ERM, Source Energie and RWE announced interest in generating green hydrogen using floating wind turbines in the Celtic Sea.


title: Green hydrogen

text: During his 2003 State of the Union Address, President George W. Bush unveiled a $1.2 billion plan to develop hydrogen fuel cell vehicles dubbing it "freedom fuel." This funding was reduced in 2009 by Barack Obama.


title: Green hydrogen

text: The Federal Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, which became law in November 2021, allocates $9.5 billion to green hydrogen initiatives. In 2021, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) was planning the first demonstration of a hydrogen network in Texas. The department had previously attempted a hydrogen project known as Hydrogen Energy California. Texas is considered a key part of green hydrogen projects in the country as the state is the largest domestic producer of hydrogen and already has a hydrogen pipeline network. In 2020, SGH2 Energy Global announced plans to use plastic and paper via plasma gasification to produce green hydrogen near Los Angeles.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In 2021 then New York governor Andrew Cuomo announced a $290 million investment to construct a green hydrogen fuel production facility. Authorities in the state have backed plans for developing fuel cells to be used in trucks and research on blending hydrogen into the gas grid. In March 2022 the governors of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma announced the creation of a hydrogen energy hub between the states. Australia-based Woodside has announced plans for a green hydrogen production site in Ardmore, Oklahoma. In August 2022 President Joe Biden signed the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, establishing a 10-year production tax credit, which includes a $3.00/kg subsidy for green hydrogen.


title: Green hydrogen

text: Albeit multiple green hydrogen technologies already exist, there is ongoing research and development for novel technological pathways for "green hydrogen". For instance, in 2020 scientists reported the development of micro-droplets for algal cells or synergistic algal-bacterial multicellular spheroid microbial reactors capable of producing oxygen as well as hydrogen via photosynthesis in daylight under air.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In 2020, the European Commission adopted a new dedicated strategy on hydrogen in the EU which includes research and innovation in line with the European Green Deal. The "European Green Hydrogen Acceleration Center" is tasked with developing a €100 billion a year green hydrogen economy by 2025.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In December 2020, the United Nations together with RMI and several companies, launched Green Hydrogen Catapult, which agitates to bring the cost of green hydrogen below US$2 per kilogram (equivalent to $50 per megawatt hour) by 2026.


title: Green hydrogen

text: In 2021, with the support of the governments of Austria, China, Germany and Italy, UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) launched its Global Programme for GH2in Industry. It stimulates the accelerated uptake and deployment of GH2 in industries of developing countries and transition economies. It aims to build partnerships for knowledge and technology transfer and cooperation.


title: Green hydrogen

text: There is extensive interest in possible integration of green hydrogen with existing forms of renewable energy. Particularly, there are current interests focused on using green hydrogen as a carbon-neutral solution to address the difficulties of integrating renewable energy resources into the electrical grid. One of the biggest issues with direct integration of solar and wind energy into the grid is the risk of unbalanced supply or demand in the electric grid from the intermittent behavior of the renewable energy resources. During peak wind or daylight periods, oversupply of energy into the grid can be equally as damaging as not being able to supply enough electricity to match the usage demands. Green hydrogen can act as a stabilizing energy storage device. Existing water electrolysis methods such as alkaline water electrolysis are vulnerable to risks that can arise if the source of energy for the electrolysis is unable to be maintained at the peak capacity and can cause evolved hydrogen to encounter evolved oxygen, running the risk of explosion at the electrolyzer and requiring the disabling of the electrolysis system to flush out the hydrogen. One proposed solution is to use chitin, which is produced at over 100 billion tons a year from nature in forms such as crude shrimp shell waste, as a potentially scalable biomass resource to act as an alternative to oxygen evolution in the hydrogen generation process. This would lead to the consumption of chitin and water to produce hydrogen and acetic acid, which avoids the risk of hydrogen-oxygen reaction and maintains scalability. By running this process using the solar energy from photovoltaic solar panels, hydrogen gas can be generated that falls under the category of green hydrogen. This also has an economic incentive of being able to produce acetic acid at yields of between 73.7 to 77.5% as a byproduct that could be used or sold.


title: Green hydrogen

text: As part of an interest in examining sustainable hydrogen fuel for maritime shipping and in response to concerns of freshwater scarcity, a 2020 study into the various means of electrolysis for green hydrogen from seawater as a source of water have been conducted. Four such methods, direct electrolysis of seawater, alkaline electrolysis, proton-exchange membrane electrolysis, and solid oxide electrolysis, are briefly summarized. Direct electrolysis of seawater follows known processes, forming an electrolysis cell in which the seawater acts as the electrolyte to allow for the reaction at the anode, <chem>2 Cl- (aq)->{Cl2(g)} + 2e-</chem>and the reaction at the cathode, <chem>2 {H2O(l)}+2e- -> {H2}(g) + 2{OH- }(aq)</chem>. The inclusion of magnesium and calcium ions in the seawater makes the production of alkali hydroxides possible that could form scales in the electrolyzer cell, cutting down on lifespan and increasing the need for maintenance. The alkaline electrolyzers operate with the following reactions at the anode, <chem>{2OH^-}(aq)->{1/2{O_2}(g)}+


title: Imgur

text: Imgur ( , stylized as imgur) is an American online image sharing and image hosting service with a focus on social gossip that was founded by Alan Schaaf in 2009. The service has hosted viral images and meme, particularly those posted on Reddit.


title: Imgur

text: The company was started in 2009 in Athens, Ohio as Alan Schaaf's side project while he attended Ohio University for computer science. Imgur was created as a response to the usability problems encountered in similar services. "It took off almost instantly, jumping from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views in the first five months." In October 2012, Imgur expanded its functionality to allow users to directly share images to Imgur instead of requiring images to gain enough attraction through other social media sites like Reddit to show up on the popular image gallery.


title: Imgur

text: In the beginning, Imgur relied on donations to help with the web hosting costs. Display ads were introduced in May 2009; sponsored images and self-service ads were introduced in 2013.


title: Imgur

text: Imgur used three different hosting providers in the first year before settling on Voxel, then switching to Amazon Web Services in late 2011.


title: Imgur

text: In January 2011, the company moved from Ohio to San Francisco. As of June 2013 it had 10 employees, and won the Best Bootstrapped Startup award at TechCrunch's 2012 Crunchies Awards.


title: Imgur

text: In 2016, Reddit introduced native image hosting, causing a notable decrease in Imgur submissions on the site.


title: Imgur

text: On September 27, 2021, Imgur announced that they were acquired by MediaLab AI, Inc., a holding company of internet brands.


title: Imgur

text: In April 2014, five years after it was founded, Imgur raised $40 million from Andreessen Horowitz and Andreessen Horowitz's Lars Dalgaard joined Imgur's board. Imgur was profitable at the time, generating revenue from Pro subscriptions and advertising.


title: Imgur

text: In April 2016, it was ranked 16th among Alexa's Top Sites in the United States but by April 2021 it had dropped to #51.


title: Imgur

text: On January 9, 2010, Schaaf introduced Imgur accounts, which allowed users to create custom image galleries and manage their images. Accounts gave full image management including editing, deletion, album creation and embedding, and the ability to comment on viral images and submit to the public gallery. Gallery profiles gave the user the ability to view their past public activity. Paid pro accounts were created in 2010 to remove image upload limitations and allow unlimited image storage.


title: Imgur

text: Imgur used to have a policy to keep images unless they went three months without receiving any views, at which point (unless they were Pro account images) they might be removed in response to space needs. In early 2015, it was announced all images will be kept forever (even if not added from a Pro account) and only removed if deletion is requested.


title: Imgur

text: Since June 26, 2013, Imgur has provided a "Meme Generator" service that allows users to create image macros with custom text using a wide variety of images.


title: Imgur

text: The public Imgur gallery is a collection of the most viral images from around the web based on an algorithm that computes views, shares and votes based on time. As opposed to private account uploads, images added to the gallery are publicly searchable by title. Members of the Imgur community can vote and comment on the images, earning reputation points and trophies. Images from the gallery are often later posted to social news sites such as Huffington Post. Random mode was released on July 30, 2012, and allows users to browse the entire history of the public gallery randomly.


title: Imgur

text: Since October 2014, Imgur had automatically converted uploaded animated GIF files into WebM and MP4 video files, which are much smaller.


title: Imgur

text: In February 2015 Imgur announced "Topics" which was a way for users to sort and view specific images that belonged to a specific group determined by tags.


title: Imgur

text: In order to reward users for their interactions, Imgur provides a series of Trophies for achievements including being a member for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 years, "Best Post of the Day", "Best Post of the Month", "Best Post of the Year", "Top Comment of The Day", "Top Comment of The Month", and "Top Comment of The Year".


title: Imgur

text: At the beginning of 2015, Imgur's director of community Sarah Schaaf announced its first ever "Camp Imgur". Five hundred tickets were sold at $150 each. The camp was created as a celebratory event to bring users of the site together in August 2015, on a four-day retreat at Camp Navarro in Mendocino, California. It included hiking, stand-up comedians, and meetings with the staff of Imgur and other users.


title: Imgur

text: On November 23, 2017, Imgur was notified of a potential security breach that had occurred in 2014 and affected the email addresses and passwords of 1.7 million user accounts. On November 24, 2017, Imgur began notifying affected users via their registered email address to change their password.


title: Yonsei University

text: Yonsei University (; ) is a private research university in Seoul, South Korea. As a member of the "SKY" universities, Yonsei University is deemed one of the three most prestigious institutions in the country. It is particularly respected in the studies of medicine and business administration.


title: Yonsei University

text: The student body consists of 26,731 undergraduate students, 11,994 graduate students, 4,518 faculty members, 6,788 staff, and 257,931 alumni. Yonsei operates its main campus in Seoul and offers graduate, postgraduate and doctoral programs in Korean and English.


title: Yonsei University

text: The university was established in January 1957 through the union of Yonhi College (연희전문학교; 延禧專門學校) and Severance Union Medical College (세브란스 의과대학; 세브란스 醫科大學). This was a result of a lasting bilateral cooperation between the colleges that began in the 1920s. The institutions were the first of their kinds in Korea. Yonhi College was one of the first modern colleges, founded as Chosun Christian College (조선기독교대학; 朝鮮基督教大學) in March 1915. Severance has its roots in the first modern medical center in Korea, "Gwanghyewon" (광혜원 廣惠院, House of Extended Grace), founded in April, 1885. As a tribute, the name "Yonsei" was derived from the first syllables of the names of its two parent institutions, "Yon; 연; 延" from Yonhi College and "Sei; 세; 世" from Severance Union Medical College.


title: Yonsei University

text: The Yonsei University Medical School dates to April 10, 1885, when the first modern hospital to practice Western medicine in Korea, "Gwanghyewon", was established.


title: Yonsei University

text: The hospital was founded by Horace Newton Allen, the American Protestant missionary appointed to Korea by the Presbyterian Church in the USA. The hospital was renamed Chejungwon (제중원 濟衆院, House of Universal Helpfulness) on April 26. As there appeared difficulties, the church appointed Canadian Oliver R. Avison to run "Chejungwon" on July 16, 1893. "Gwanghyewon" was financed at first by the Korean government, while the medical staff was provided by the church. However, by 1894 when the First Sino-Japanese War and Gabo reforms (갑오개혁) took place, the government was not able to continue its financial support, thus management of "Chejungwon" came fully under the church. In 1899, Avison returned to the US and attended a conference of missionaries in New York City where he elaborated on the medical project in Korea. Louis Severance, a businessman and philanthropist from Cleveland, Ohio, was present and was deeply moved. He later paid for the major portion of the construction costs of new buildings for the medical facility. "Chejungwon" (제중원) was renamed Severance Hospital after him.


title: Yonsei University

text: "Chejungwon" (later Severance Hospital) was primarily a hospital, but it also performed medical education as an attachment. The hospital admitted its first class of 16 medical students selected through examinations in 1886, one year after its establishment. By 1899, Chejungwon Medical School was independently recognized. Following the increase of diversity in missionary denominations in Korea, collaboration began to form. "Chejungwon" began to receive medical staff, school faculty, and financial support from the Union Council of Korean Missionaries (한국연합선교협의회; 韓國聯合宣敎協議會) in 1912. Accordingly, the medical school was renamed as Severance Union Medical College in 1913.


title: Yonsei University

text: The rest of Yonsei University traces its origins to Chosun Christian College, which was founded on March 5, 1915, by an American Protestant missionary, Horace Grant Underwood sent by the church. Underwood became the first president, and Avison became the vice president. It was located at the YMCA. Courses began in April with 60 students and 18 faculty members.


title: Yonsei University

text: On August 22, 1910, Japan annexed Korea with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910. The first Governor-General of Korea, Terauchi Masatake, introduced the "Ordinance on Chosun Education" (조선교육령; 朝鮮敎育令) in 1911, and subsequently "Regulations on Professional Schools" (전문학교 규칙) and "Revised Regulations on Private Schools" (개정사립학교 규칙) in March, 1915. These were intended to stifle private education in Korea; any establishment of schools, any change in school regulations, location, purpose, coursework, or textbooks must all be reported to and authorized by the governor-general, and all courses must be in Japanese.


title: Yonsei University

text: Severance Union College struggled to meet these requirements; school regulations and coursework were altered, faculty evaluated and enlarged, its foundation and its board clarified. It received its recognition as a professional medical school on May 14, 1917. In 1922 the governor-general Makoto Saito issued "Revised Ordinance on Chosun Education" (개정조선교육령). It called for stricter qualifications for the faculty, and Severance reacted obediently and further recruited more members with degrees from accredited institutions in North America and Europe. Japan did not completely ignore the competence of this institution; in 1923, Severance recovered its right to give medical licenses to its graduates without state examination, a right which had been lost since 1912. Moreover, in March 1934, the Japanese Ministry of Education and Culture further recognized Severance in allowing its graduates the right to practice medicine anywhere in Japanese sovereignty.


title: Yonsei University

text: Ordinances in 1915 and 1922 also affected the fate of Chosun Christian College. Intended as a college, it was not legally recognized as such, since the Ordinance of 1915 did not allow the establishment of Korean private colleges. Hence, Chosun Christian College, now renamed Yonhi College, was accepted only as a "professional school" on April 17, 1917, then a joint project from diverse missionary denominations. However, Yonhi had formed the organization and faculty becoming a university. It consisted of six departments: humanities, agriculture, commerce, theology (this department did not open due to differences among the founding denominations), mathematics and physics, and applied chemistry. The ordinances, furthermore, prohibited coursework in Korean history, its geography, or in the Bible outside the department of theology. The council of missionaries reacted with "A Resolution on the Revised Educational Ordinance" (개정교육령에 관한 결의문) which carefully pointed out that Japan did not apply such rigorous absurdities to its private schools in mainland Japan.


title: Yonsei University

text: After the March First Independence Movement swept the peninsula in 1919, Japan somewhat relaxed its grip on Korea, and this is reflected in the Ordinance of 1922. It ceased the arbitrary control of governor-general over the coursework and the qualification of faculty members, and altered its stance on strict separation of religion from all education. It also recognized Yonhi as a professional school equal to its counterparts in Japan, and permitted the Christian programs and the Bible in its coursework. Nevertheless, Japanese literature became mandatory. Under Japanese intervention, Korean history was taught under the name Eastern History, and the Korean language was taught whenever possible.


title: Yonsei University

text: The department of agriculture was closed after 1922 when its first graduates left Yonhi. Efforts were made to revive this department, without much success. However, Yonhi installed a training center for agricultural leaders on campus, with impressive results.


title: Yonsei University

text: Yonhi was liberal in its admission of non-Christians. Its policy was to admit non-Christians relatively freely and allow the majority Christian students to gradually influence and assimilate them.