title: Bryophyte

text: The sporophyte develops differently in the three groups. Both mosses and hornworts have a meristem zone where cell division occur. In hornworts, the meristem starts at the base where the foot ends, and the division of cells is pushing the sporophyte body upwards. In mosses, the meristem is located between the capsule and the top of the stalk (seta), and produce cells downward, elongating the stalk and elevates the capsule. In liverworts the meristem is absent and the elongation of the sporophyte is caused almost exclusively by cell expansion.


title: Bryophyte

text: Liverworts, mosses and hornworts spend most of their lives as gametophytes. Gametangia (gamete-producing organs), archegonia and antheridia, are produced on the gametophytes, sometimes at the tips of shoots, in the axils of leaves or hidden under thalli. Some bryophytes, such as the liverwort "Marchantia", create elaborate structures to bear the gametangia that are called gametangiophores. Sperm are flagellated and must swim from the antheridia that produce them to archegonia which may be on a different plant. Arthropods can assist in transfer of sperm.


title: Bryophyte

text: Fertilized eggs become zygotes, which develop into sporophyte embryos inside the archegonia. Mature sporophytes remain attached to the gametophyte. They consist of a stalk called a seta and a single sporangium or capsule. Inside the sporangium, haploid spores are produced by meiosis. These are dispersed, most commonly by wind, and if they land in a suitable environment can develop into a new gametophyte. Thus bryophytes disperse by a combination of swimming sperm and spores, in a manner similar to lycophytes, ferns and other cryptogams.


title: Bryophyte

text: The arrangement of antheridia and archegonia on an individual bryophyte plant is usually constant within a species, although in some species it may depend on environmental conditions. The main division is between species in which the antheridia and archegonia occur on the same plant and those in which they occur on different plants. The term monoicous may be used where antheridia and archegonia occur on the same gametophyte and the term dioicous where they occur on different gametophytes.


title: Bryophyte

text: In seed plants, "monoecious" is used where flowers with anthers (microsporangia) and flowers with ovules (megasporangia) occur on the same sporophyte and "dioecious" where they occur on different sporophytes. These terms occasionally may be used instead of "monoicous" and "dioicous" to describe bryophyte gametophytes. "Monoecious" and "monoicous" are both derived from the Greek for "one house", "dioecious" and "dioicous" from the Greek for two houses. The use of the "-oicy" terminology refers to the gametophyte sexuality of bryophytes as distinct from the sporophyte sexuality of seed plants.


title: Bryophyte

text: Monoicous plants are necessarily hermaphroditic, meaning that the same plant has both sexes. The exact arrangement of the antheridia and archegonia in monoicous plants varies. They may be borne on different shoots (autoicous or autoecious), on the same shoot but not together in a common structure (paroicous or paroecious), or together in a common "inflorescence" (synoicous or synoecious). Dioicous plants are unisexual, meaning that the same plant has only one sex. All four patterns (autoicous, paroicous, synoicous and dioicous) occur in species of the moss genus "Bryum".


title: Bryophyte

text: Traditionally, all living land plants without vascular tissues were classified in a single taxonomic group, often a division (or phylum). As early as 1879, the term Bryophyta was used by German bryologist Wilhelm Schimper to describe a group containing all three bryophyte clades (though at the time, hornworts were considered part of the liverworts). Although a 2005 study supported this traditional monophyletic view, by 2010 a broad consensus had emerged among systematists that bryophytes as a whole are not a natural group (i.e., are paraphyletic). However, a 2014 study concluded that these previous phylogenies, which were based on nucleic acid sequences, were subject to composition biases, and that, furthermore, phylogenies based on amino acid sequences suggested that the bryophytes are monophyletic after all. Since then, partially thanks to a proliferation of genomic and transcriptomic datasets, almost all phylogenetics studies based on nuclear and chloroplastic sequences have concluded that the bryophytes form a monophyletic group. Nevertheless, phylogenies based on mitochondrial sequences fail to support the monophyletic view.


title: Bryophyte

text: The three bryophyte clades are the Marchantiophyta (liverworts), Bryophyta (mosses) and Anthocerotophyta (hornworts). However, it has been proposed that these clades are de-ranked to the classes Marchantiopsida, Bryopsida, and Anthocerotopsida, respectively. There is now strong evidence that the liverworts and mosses belong to a monophyletic clade, called Setaphyta.


title: Bryophyte

text: Consistent with this view, compared to other living land plants, all three lineages lack vascular tissue containing lignin and branched sporophytes bearing multiple sporangia. The prominence of the gametophyte in the life cycle is also a shared feature of the three bryophyte lineages (extant vascular plants are all sporophyte dominant). However, if this phylogeny is correct, then the complex sporophyte of living vascular plants might have evolved independently of the simpler unbranched sporophyte present in bryophytes. Furthermore, this view implies that stomata evolved only once in plant evolution, before being subsequently lost in the liverworts.


title: Bryophyte

text: In this alternative view, the Setaphyta grouping is retained, but hornworts instead are sister to vascular plants. (Another paraphyletic view involves hornworts branching out first.)


title: Bryophyte

text: Traditionally, when basing classifications on morphological characters, bryophytes have been disinguished by their lack of vascular structure. However, this distinction is problematic, firstly because some of the earliest-diverging (but now extinct) non-bryophytes, such as the horneophytes, did not have true vascular tissue, and secondly because many mosses have well-developed water-conducting vessels. A more useful distinction may lie in the structure of their sporophytes. In bryophytes, the sporophyte is a simple unbranched structure with a single spore-forming organ (sporangium), whereas in all other land plants, the polysporangiophytes, the sporophyte is branched and carries many sporangia. The contrast is shown in the cladogram below:


title: Bryophyte

text: There have probably been several different terrestrialization events, in which originally aquatic organisms colonized the land, just within the lineage of the Viridiplantae. Between 510 - 630 million years ago, however, land plants emerged within the green algae. Molecular phylogenetic studies conclude that bryophytes are the earliest diverging lineages of the extant land plants. They provide insights into the migration of plants from aquatic environments to land. A number of physical features link bryophytes to both land plants and aquatic plants.


title: Bryophyte

text: Green algae, bryophytes and vascular plants all have chlorophyll a and b, and the chloroplast structures are similar. Like green algae and land plants, bryophytes also produce starch stored in the plastids and contain cellulose in their walls. Distinct adaptations observed in bryophytes have allowed plants to colonize Earth's terrestrial environments. To prevent desiccation of plant tissues in a terrestrial environment, a waxy cuticle covering the soft tissue of the plant may be present, providing protection. In hornworts and mosses, stomata provide gas exchange between the atmosphere and an internal intercellular space system. The development of gametangia provided further protection specifically for gametes, the zygote and the developing sporophyte. The bryophytes and vascular plants (embryophytes) also have embryonic development which is not seen in green algae. While bryophytes have no truly vascularized tissue, they do have organs that are specialized for specific functions, analogous for example to the functions of leaves and stems in vascular land plants.


title: Bryophyte

text: Bryophytes depend on water for reproduction and survival. In common with ferns and lycophytes, a thin layer of water is required on the surface of the plant to enable the movement of the flagellated sperm between gametophytes and the fertilization of an egg.


title: Bryophyte

text: Characteristics of bryophytes make them useful to the environment. Depending on the specific plant texture, bryophytes have been shown to help improve the water retention and air space within soil. Bryophytes are used in pollution studies to indicate soil pollution (such as the presence of heavy metals), air pollution, and UV-B radiation. Gardens in Japan are designed with moss to create peaceful sanctuaries. Some bryophytes have been found to produce natural pesticides. The liverwort, "Plagiochila," produces a chemical that is poisonous to mice. Other bryophytes produce chemicals that are antifeedants which protect them from being eaten by slugs. When "Phythium sphagnum" is sprinkled on the soil of germinating seeds, it inhibits growth of "damping off fungus" which would otherwise kill young seedlings.


title: Bryophyte

text: Peat is a fuel produced from dried bryophytes, typically "Sphagnum." Bryophytes' antibiotic properties and ability to retain water make them a useful packaging material for vegetables, flowers, and bulbs. Also, because of its antibiotic properties, "Sphagnum" was used as a surgical dressing in World War I.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: Robert Morris Sapolsky (born April 6, 1957) is an American neuroendocrinology researcher and author. He is a professor of biology, and professor of neurology and neurological sciences and, by courtesy, neurosurgery, at Stanford University. In addition, he is a research associate at the National Museums of Kenya.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: Sapolsky was born in Brooklyn, New York, to immigrants from the Soviet Union. His father, Thomas Sapolsky, was an architect who renovated the restaurants Lüchow's and Lundy's. Robert was raised an Orthodox Jew and spent his time reading about and imagining living with silverback gorillas. By age 12, he was writing fan letters to primatologists. He attended John Dewey High School and, by that time, was reading textbooks on the subject and teaching himself Swahili.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: Sapolsky describes himself as an atheist. He said in his acceptance speech for the Emperor Has No Clothes Award, "I was raised in an Orthodox household, and I was raised devoutly religious up until around age 13 or so. In my adolescent years, one of the defining actions in my life was breaking away from all religious belief whatsoever."


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: In 1978, Sapolsky received his B.A. in biological anthropology, "summa cum laude," from Harvard University. He then went to Kenya to study the social behaviors of baboons in the wild. When the Uganda–Tanzania War broke out in the neighboring countries, Sapolsky decided to travel into Uganda to witness the war up close, later commenting, "I was twenty-one and wanted adventure. [...] I was behaving like a late-adolescent male primate." He went to Uganda's capital Kampala, and from there to the border with Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), and then back to Kampala, witnessing some fighting, including the Ugandan capital's conquest by the Tanzanian army and its Ugandan rebel allies on 10–11 April 1979. Sapolsky then returned to New York and studied at Rockefeller University, where he received his Ph.D. in neuroendocrinology working in the lab of endocrinologist Bruce McEwen.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: After the initial year-and-a-half field study in Africa, he returned every summer for another 25 years to observe the same group of baboons, from the late 1970s to the early 1990s. He spent 8 to 10 hours a day for approximately four months each year recording the behaviors of these primates.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: Sapolsky is the John A. and Cynthia Fry Gunn Professor at Stanford University, holding joint appointments in several departments, including Biological Sciences, Neurology & Neurological Sciences, and Neurosurgery.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: As a neuroendocrinologist, he has focused his research on issues of stress and neuronal degeneration, as well as on the possibilities of gene therapy strategies for protecting susceptible neurons from disease. He is working on gene transfer techniques to strengthen neurons against the disabling effects of glucocorticoids. Each year, Sapolsky spends time in Kenya studying a population of wild baboons in order to identify the sources of stress in their environment, and the relationship between personality and patterns of stress-related disease in these animals. More specifically, Sapolsky studies the cortisol levels between the alpha male and female and the subordinates to determine stress level. An early but still relevant example of his studies of olive baboons is found in his 1990 "Scientific American" article "Stress in the Wild". He has also written about neurological impairment and the insanity defense within the American legal system.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: Sapolsky's work has been featured widely in the press, most notably in the National Geographic documentary "Stress: Portrait of a Killer", articles in "The New York Times", "Wired" magazine, the Stanford magazine, and "The Tehran Times". His speaking style (e.g., on Radiolab, "The Joe Rogan Experience", and his Stanford human behavioral biology lectures) has garnered attention. Sapolsky's specialization in primatology and neuroscience has made him prominent in the public discussion of mental health—and, more broadly, human relationships—from an evolutionary perspective.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: Sapolsky has received numerous honors and awards for his work, including a MacArthur Fellowship in 1987, an Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship, and the Klingenstein Fellowship in Neuroscience. He was also awarded the National Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator Award, the Young Investigator of the Year Awards from the Society for Neuroscience, the International Society for Psychoneuroendocrinology, and the Biological Psychiatry Society.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: In 2007, he received the John P. McGovern Award for Behavioral Science, awarded by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: In 2008, he received Wonderfest's Carl Sagan Prize for Science Popularization. In February 2010 Sapolsky was named to the Freedom From Religion Foundation's Honorary Board of distinguished achievers, following the Emperor Has No Clothes Award for 2002.


title: Robert Sapolsky

text: Sapolsky is married to Lisa Sapolsky, a doctor in neuropsychology. They have two children. Sapolsky was a passionate amateur soccer player, and used to play three times a week, but stopped due to back problems.


title: Body hair

text: Body hair, or androgenic hair, is the terminal hair that develops on the human body during and after puberty. It is differentiated from the head hair and less visible vellus hair, which is much finer and lighter in color. The growth of androgenic hair is related to the level of androgens (often referred to as male hormones) and the density of androgen receptors in the dermal papillae. Both must reach a threshold for the proliferation of hair follicle cells.


title: Body hair

text: From childhood onward, regardless of sex, vellus hair covers almost the entire area of the human body. Exceptions include the lips, the backs of the ears, palms of hands, soles of the feet, certain external genital areas, the navel, and scar tissue. The density of hair – i.e. the number of hair follicles per unit area of skin – varies from person to person. In many cases, areas on the human body that contain vellus hair will begin to produce darker and thicker body hair during puberty, such as the first growth of beard hair on a male and female adolescent's previously smooth chin; although it may appear thinner on the female.


title: Body hair

text: Androgenic hair follows the same growth pattern as the hair that grows on the scalp, but with a shorter anagen phase and longer telogen phase. While the anagen phase for the hair on one's head lasts for years, the androgenic hair growth phase for body hair lasts a few months. The telogen phase for body hair lasts close to a year. This shortened growing period and extended dormant period explains why the hair on the head tends to be much longer than other hair found on the body. Differences in length seen in comparing the hair on the back of the hand and pubic hair, for example, can be explained by varied growth cycles in those two regions. The same goes for differences in body hair length seen in different people, especially when comparing men and women.


title: Body hair

text: Like much of the hair on the human body, leg, arm, chest, and back hair begin as vellus hair. As people age, the hair in these regions will often begin to grow darker and more abundantly. This will typically happen during or after puberty. Men will often have more abundant, coarser hair on the arms and back, while women tend to have a less drastic change in the hair growth in these areas but do experience a significant change in thickness of hairs. However, some women will grow darker, longer hair in one or more of these regions.


title: Body hair

text: Vellus hair grows on the chest and abdomen of both sexes at all stages of development. After puberty and extending into adulthood, most males grow increasing amounts of terminal hair over the chest and abdomen areas. Adult women also typically can grow terminal hairs around the areola though in many cultures these hairs are typically removed.


title: Body hair

text: Arm hair grows on a human's forearms, sometimes even on the elbow area, and rarely on a human's bicep, triceps, and/or shoulders. Terminal arm hair is concentrated on the wrist end of the forearm, extending over the hand. Terminal hair growth in adolescent males is often much more intense than that in females, particularly for individuals with dark hair. In some cultures, it is common for women to remove arm hair, though this practice is less frequent than that of leg hair removal.


title: Body hair

text: Terminal hair growth on arms is a secondary sexual characteristic in boys and appears in the last stages of puberty. Vellus arm hair is usually concentrated on the elbow end of the forearm and often ends on the lower part of the upper arm. This type of intense arm vellus hair growth sometimes occurs in girls and children of both sexes until puberty. Even though this causes the arms to appear hairy, it is not caused solely by testosterone. The hair is softer and different from terminal arm hair, in texture.


title: Body hair

text: Visible hair appearing on the top surfaces of the feet and toes generally begins with the onset of puberty. Terminal hair growth on the feet is typically more intense in adult and adolescent males than in females.


title: Body hair

text: Leg hair sometimes appears at the onset of adulthood, with the legs of men more often hairier than those of women. For a variety of reasons, people may shave their leg hair, including cultural practice or individual needs. Around the world, women generally shave their leg hair more regularly than men, to conform with the social norms of many cultures, many of which perceive smooth skin as a sign of youth, beauty, and in some cultures, hygiene. However, athletes of both sexes – swimmers, runners, cyclists and bodybuilders in particular – may shave their androgenic hair to reduce friction, highlight muscular development or to make it easier to get into and out of skin-tight clothing.


title: Body hair

text: Pubic hair is a collection of coarse hair found in the pubic region. It will often also grow on the thighs and abdomen. Zoologist Desmond Morris disputes theories that it developed to signal sexual maturity or protect the skin from chafing during copulation, and prefers the explanation that pubic hair acts as a scent trap. Also, both sexes having thick pubic hairs act as a partial cushion during intercourse.


title: Body hair

text: The genital area of males and females are first inhabited by shorter, lighter vellus hairs that are next to invisible and only begin to develop into darker, thicker pubic hair at puberty. At this time, the pituitary gland secretes gonadotropin hormones which trigger the production of testosterone in the testicles and ovaries, promoting pubic hair growth. The average ages pubic hair begins to grow in males and females are 12 and 11, respectively. However, in some females, pubic hair has been known to start growing as early as age 7.


title: Body hair

text: Just as individual people differ in scalp hair color, they can also differ in pubic hair color. Differences in thickness, growth rate, and length are also evident.


title: Body hair

text: Underarm hair normally starts to appear at the beginning of puberty, with growth usually completed by the end of the teenage years.


title: Body hair

text: Today in much of the world, it is common for women to regularly shave their underarm hair. The prevalence of this practice varies widely, though. The practice became popular for cosmetic reasons around 1915 in the United States and United Kingdom, when one or more magazines showed a woman in a dress with shaved underarms. Regular shaving became feasible with the introduction of the safety razor at the beginning of the 20th century. While underarm shaving was quickly adopted in some English speaking countries, especially in the US and Canada, it did not become widespread in Europe until well after World War II. Since then the practice has spread worldwide; some men also choose to shave their armpits.


title: Body hair

text: Facial hair grows primarily on or around one's face. Both men and women experience facial hair growth. Like pubic hair, non-vellus facial hair will begin to grow in around puberty. Moustaches in young men usually begin to grow in at around the age of puberty, although some men may not grow a moustache until they reach late teens or at all. In some cases facial hair development may take longer to mature than the late teens, and some men experience no facial hair development even at an older age.


title: Body hair

text: It is common for many women to develop a few facial hairs under or around the chin, along the sides of the face (in the area of sideburns), or on the upper lip. These may appear at any age after puberty but are often seen in women after menopause due to decreased levels of estrogen. A darkening of the vellus hair of the upper lip in women is not considered true facial hair, though it is often referred to as a "moustache"; the appearance of these dark vellus hairs may be lessened by bleaching. A relatively small number of women are able to grow enough facial hair to have a distinct beard. In some cases, female beard growth is the result of a hormonal imbalance (usually androgen excess), or a rare genetic disorder known as hypertrichosis. Sometimes it is caused by use of anabolic steroids. Cultural pressure leads most women to remove facial hair, as it may be viewed as a social stigma.


title: Body hair

text: Hair follicles are to varying degrees sensitive to androgens, primarily testosterone and its derivatives, particularly dihydrotestosterone, with different areas on the body having different sensitivity. As androgen levels increase, the rate of hair growth and the weight of the hairs increase. Genetic factors determine both individual levels of androgen and the hair follicle's sensitivity to androgen, as well as other characteristics such as hair colour, type of hair and hair retention.


title: Body hair

text: Rising levels of androgens during puberty cause vellus hair to transform into terminal hair over many areas of the body. The sequence of appearance of terminal hair reflects the level of androgen sensitivity, with pubic hair being the first to appear due to the area's special sensitivity to androgen. The appearance of pubic hair in both sexes is usually seen as an indication of the start of a person's puberty. There is a sexual differentiation in the amount and distribution of androgenic hair, with men tending to have more terminal hair in more areas. This includes facial hair, chest hair, abdominal hair, leg hair, arm hair, and foot hair. (See Table 1 for development of male body hair during puberty.) Women retain more of the less visible vellus hair, although leg, arm, and foot hair can be noticeable on women. It is not unusual for women to have a few terminal hairs around their nipples as well.


title: Body hair

text: In the later decades of life, especially after the 5th decade, there begins a noticeable reduction in body hair especially in the legs. The reason for this is not known but it could be due to poorer circulation, lower free circulating hormone amounts or other reasons.


title: Body hair

text: Ref. Reynolds EL. The appearance of adult patterns of body hair in man. Ann NY Acad Sci 1951:53:576–584.


title: Body hair

text: Androgenic hair provides tactile sensory input by transferring hair movement and vibration via the shaft to sensory nerves within the skin. Follicular nerves detect displacement of hair shafts and other nerve endings in the surrounding skin detect vibration and distortions of the skin around the follicles. Androgenic hair extends the sense of touch beyond the surface of the skin into the air and space surrounding it, detecting air movements as well as hair displacement from contact by insects or objects.


title: Body hair

text: Determining the evolutionary function of androgenic hair must take into account both human evolution and the thermal properties of hair itself.


title: Body hair

text: The thermodynamic properties of hair are based on the properties of the keratin strands and amino acids that combine into a 'coiled' structure. This structure lends to many of the properties of hair, such as its ability to stretch and return to its original length. This coiled structure does not predispose curly or frizzy hair, both of which are defined by oval or triangular hair follicle cross-sections.


title: Body hair

text: Hair is a very good thermal conductor and aids heat transfer both into and out of the body. When goose bumps are observed, small muscles (arrector pili muscle) contract to raise the hairs either to provide insulation, by reducing cooling of the skin by air convection, or in response to central nervous stimulus, similar to the feeling of 'hairs standing up on the back of your neck'. This phenomenon also occurs when static charge is built up and stored in the hair. Keratin however can easily be damaged by excessive heat and dryness, suggesting that extreme sun exposure, perhaps due to a lack of clothing, would result in perpetual hair destruction, eventually resulting in the genes being bred out in favor of high skin pigmentation. It is also true that parasites can live on and in hair thus peoples who preserved their body hair would have required greater general hygiene to prevent diseases.


title: Body hair

text: Markus J. Rantala of the Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, said humans evolved by "natural selection" to be hairless when the trade off of "having fewer parasites" became more important than having a "warming, furry coat".


title: Body hair

text: P.E. Wheeler of the Department of Biology at Liverpool Polytechnic said quadrupedal savannah mammals of similar volume to humans have body hair to keep warm while only larger quadrupedal savannah mammals lack body hair, because their body volume itself is enough to keep them warm. Therefore, Wheeler said humans who should have body hair based on predictions of body volume alone for savannah mammals evolved no body hair after evolving bipedalism which he said reduced the amount of body area exposed to the sun by 40%, reducing the solar warming effect on the human body.


title: Body hair

text: Loss of fur occurred at least 2 million years ago, but possibly as early as 3.3 million years ago judging from the divergence of head and pubic lice, and aided persistence hunting (the ability to catch prey in very long distance chases) in the warm savannas where hominins first evolved. The two main advantages are felt to be bipedal locomotion and greater thermal load dissipation capacity due to better sweating and less hair.


title: Body hair

text: Markus J. Rantala of the Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, said the existence of androgen dependent hair on men could be explained by sexual attraction whereby hair on the genitals would trap pheromones and hair on the chin would make the chin appear more massive.


title: Body hair

text: In 1876, Oscar Peschel wrote that North Asiatic Mongols, Native Americans, Malays, Hottentots and Bushmen have little to no body hair, while Semitics, Indo-Europeans, and Southern Europeans (especially the Portuguese and Spanish) have extensive body hair.


title: Body hair

text: Anthropologist Joseph Deniker said in 1901 that the very hirsute peoples are the Ainus, Uyghurs, Iranians, Australian aborigines (Arnhem Land being less hairy), Toda, Dravidians and Melanesians, while the most glabrous peoples are the American Indians, San, and East Asians, who include Chinese, Mongols, and Malays. Deniker said that hirsute peoples tend to have thicker beards, eyelashes, and eyebrows but fewer hairs on their scalp.


title: Body hair

text: C.H. Danforth and Mildred Trotter of the Department of Anatomy at Washington University conducted a study using army soldiers of European origin in 1922 where they concluded that dark-haired white men are generally more hairy than fair-haired white men.


title: Body hair

text: H. Harris, publishing in the "British Journal of Dermatology" in 1947, wrote American Indians have the least body hair, Chinese and black people have little body hair, white people have more body hair than black people and Ainu have the most body hair.


title: Body hair

text: Stewart W. Hindley and Albert Damon of the Department of Anthropology at Stanford University studied, in 1973, the frequency of hair on the middle finger joint (mid-phalangeal hair) of Solomon Islanders, as a part of a series of anthropometric studies of these populations. They summarize other studies on prevalence of this trait as reporting, in general, that Caucasoids are more likely to have hair on the middle finger joint than Negroids and Mongoloids, and collect the following frequencies from previously published literature: Andamanese 0%, Eskimo 1%, African American 16% or 28%, Ethiopians 25.6%, Mexicans of the Yucatan 20.9%, Penobscot and Shinnecock 22.7%, Gurkha 33.6%, Japanese 44.6%, various Hindus 40–50%, Egyptians 52.3%, Near Eastern peoples 62–71%, various Europeans 60–80%. However, they never completed an Androgenic hair map.


title: Body hair

text: According to anthropologist and professor Ashley Montagu in 1989, Asian people and black people such as the San people are less hairy than white people. Montagu said that the hairless feature is a neotenous trait.


title: Body hair

text: Eike-Meinrad Winkler and Kerrin Christiansen of the Institut für Humanbiologie studied, in 1993, Kavango people and !Kung people of body hair and hormone levels to investigate the reason black Africans did not have bodies as hairy as Europeans. Winkler and Christiansen concluded the difference in hairiness between black Africans and Europeans had to do with differences in androgen or estradiol production, in androgen metabolism, and in sex hormone action in the target cells.


title: Body hair

text: Valerie Anne Randall of the Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Bradford, said in 1994 beard growth in Caucasian men increases until the mid-thirties due to a delay caused by growth cycles changing from vellus hair to terminal hair. Randall said white men and women are hairier than Japanese men and women even with the same total plasma androgen levels. Randall says that the reason for some people being hairy and some people not being hairy is unclear, but that it probably is related to differing sensitivity of hair follicles to 5α-reductase.


title: Body hair

text: Rodney P.R. Dawber of the Oxford Hair Foundation said in 1997 that East Asian males have little or no facial or body hair and Dawber also said that Mediterranean males are covered with an exuberant pelage.


title: Body hair

text: Milkica Nešić and her colleagues from the Department of Physiology at the University of Niš, Serbia, cited prior studies in a 2010 publication as indicating that the frequency of hair on the middle finger joint (mid-phalangeal hair) in whites is significantly higher than in Black populations.


title: Body hair

text: It has been shown that individuals can be uniquely identified by their androgenic hair patterns. For example, even when one's particular distinguishing features such as face and tattoos are obscured, persons can still be identified by their hair on other parts of their body.


title: Jane March

text: March was born Jane March Horwood in Edgware, London. Her father, Bernard Horwood, was a design and technology secondary school teacher of English and Spanish ancestry. Her mother, Jean, a newsagent, is Vietnamese and Chinese. March has one brother, a landscape designer.


title: Jane March

text: At age 14, whilst still attending Nower Hill High School in Pinner, north London, March won a local "Become a Model" contest. She signed with Storm Model Management and began working as a print model using her middle name March, which was also her birth month.


title: Jane March

text: After GCSEs, March moved to an apartment in Wimbledon with friends and continued to model before a call to audition in Paris on her 17th birthday following a cover shoot of "Just Seventeen" which had attracted the attention of French director Jean-Jacques Annaud's wife. March was chosen to play the female lead in 1992 film "The Lover", based on a semi-autobiographical novel by Marguerite Duras.


title: Jane March

text: Two years after "The Lover", she co-starred with Bruce Willis in the erotic thriller "Color of Night" (1994), directed by Richard Rush. The script was the first March had received since "The Lover". "Color of Night" became a box office failure, but the film went on to do very well in the home video market and became one of the top 20 most-rented films in the United States in 1995. "Maxim" magazine also ranked her sex scene in the film as "the Best Sex Scene in film history".


title: Jane March

text: While "Color of Night" was in production, March began dating the film's co-producer, Carmine Zozzora. The couple married in June 1993 in an 11-minute ceremony at which Willis was the best man and Demi Moore was the maid of honour. According to "Color of Night" director Richard Rush, March still received many offers from Hollywood studios after the film's release, but Zozzora required the studios to also hire him as the producer for any film in which March would star, a condition most studios rejected. For this reason, March did not star in more films during their marriage.


title: Jane March

text: March and Zozzora separated in 1997 and finally divorced in 2001. A few years later, March married Steven Waddington; they have one child.


title: Bar chart

text: A bar chart or bar graph is a chart or graph that presents categorical data with rectangular bars with heights or lengths proportional to the values that they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally. A vertical bar chart is sometimes called a column chart.


title: Bar chart

text: A bar graph shows comparisons among discrete categories. One axis of the chart shows the specific categories being compared, and the other axis represents a measured value. Some bar graphs present bars clustered in groups of more than one, showing the values of more than one measured variable.


title: Bar chart

text: Many sources consider William Playfair (1759-1824) to have invented the bar chart and the "Exports and Imports of Scotland to and from different parts for one Year from Christmas 1780 to Christmas 1781" graph from his "The Commercial and Political Atlas" to be the first bar chart in history. Diagrams of the velocity of a constantly accelerating object against time published in "The Latitude of Forms" (attributed to Jacobus de Sancto Martino or, perhaps, to Nicole Oresme) about 300 years before can be interpreted as "proto bar charts".


title: Bar chart

text: Bar graphs/charts provide a visual presentation of categorical data. Categorical data is a grouping of data into discrete groups, such as months of the year, age group, shoe sizes, and animals. These categories are usually qualitative. In a column (vertical) bar chart, categories appear along the horizontal axis and the height of the bar corresponds to the value of each category.


title: Bar chart

text: Bar charts have a discrete domain of categories, and are usually scaled so that all the data can fit on the chart. When there is no natural ordering of the categories being compared, bars on the chart may be arranged in any order. Bar charts arranged from highest to lowest incidence are called Pareto charts.


title: Bar chart

text: Bar graphs can also be used for more complex comparisons of data with grouped (or "clustered") bar charts, and stacked bar charts.


title: Bar chart

text: In grouped (clustered) bar charts, for each categorical group there are two or more bars color-coded to represent a particular grouping. For example, a business owner with two stores might make a grouped bar chart with different colored bars to represent each store: the horizontal axis would show the months of the year and the vertical axis would show revenue.


title: Bar chart

text: Alternatively, a stacked bar chart stacks bars on top of each other so that the height of the resulting stack shows the combined result. Stacked bar charts are not suited to data sets having both positive and negative values.


title: Bar chart

text: Grouped bar charts usually present the information in the same order in each grouping. Stacked bar charts present the information in the same sequence on each bar.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Nevada is the only U.S. state where prostitution is legally permitted in some form. Prostitution is legal in all but 7 of Nevada's 17 counties, although only six allow it in every municipality. Seven counties have at least one active brothel, which mainly operate in isolated, rural areas. The state's most populated counties, Clark (which contains Las Vegas) and Washoe (which contains Reno), are among those that do not permit prostitution. It is also illegal in Nevada's capital, Carson City, an independent city.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: The vast majority of prostitution in Nevada takes place illegally in the metropolitan areas of Las Vegas and Reno. About 66 times more money is spent by customers on illegal prostitution in Nevada than in the regulated brothels.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Brothels have been allowed in Nevada since the middle of the 20th century. In 1937, a law was enacted to require weekly health checks of all prostitutes. In 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued an order to suppress prostitution near military bases—affecting the red-light districts of Reno and Las Vegas. When this order was lifted in 1948, Reno officials tried to shut down a brothel as a public nuisance; this action was upheld by the Nevada Supreme Court in 1949. In 1951, both Reno and Las Vegas had closed their red-light districts as public nuisances, but brothels continued to exist throughout the state.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In 1971, Joe Conforte, owner of a brothel called Mustang Ranch, near Reno, managed to convince county officials to enact an ordinance which would provide for the licensing of brothels and prostitutes, thus avoiding the threat of being closed down as a public nuisance.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Officials in Las Vegas, afraid that Conforte would use the same technique to open a brothel nearby, convinced the legislature, in 1971, to enact legislation prohibiting the legalization of prostitution in counties with a population above a certain threshold, tailored to apply only to Clark County.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In 1977, county officials in Nye County tried to shut down Walter Plankinton's Chicken Ranch as a public nuisance; brothels did not have to be licensed in that county at the time, and several others were operating. Plankinton filed suit, claiming that the 1971 state law had implicitly removed the assumption that brothels are public nuisances "per se". The Nevada Supreme Court agreed with this interpretation in 1978, and so the Chicken Ranch was allowed to operate. In another case, brothel owners in Lincoln County protested when the county outlawed prostitution in 1978, having issued licenses for seven years. The Nevada Supreme Court ruled, however, that the county had the right to do so.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: A state law prohibiting the advertising of brothels in counties which have outlawed prostitution was enacted in 1979. It was promptly challenged on First Amendment grounds, but in 1981, the Nevada Supreme Court declared it to be constitutional. (Princess Sea Industries, one of the parties involved in the case, was Plankinton's company that owned the Chicken Ranch.) In July 2007, the law was overturned by a U.S. District judge as "overly broad", and advertising in Las Vegas started soon after. In March 2010, the district judge's decision was reversed back by a three-judge panel of the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. The ACLU appealed to the full Ninth Circuit Court in March 2010. It further appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States in 2011, but the Supreme Court refused to hear the appeal. The ban on brothels advertising therefore remains in force.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: While brothels and prostitutes are subject to federal income tax and also pay local fees, Nevada has no state income tax, and brothels are exempt from the state entertainment tax and do not pay any other state taxes. In 2005, brothel owners lobbied to be taxed in order to increase the legitimacy of the business, but the legislature declined. Brothels pay taxes to their respective counties. Lyon County receives approximately $400,000 to $500,000 per year from these taxes.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In November 2005, former prostitute and madam Heidi Fleiss said that she would partner with brothel owner Joe Richards to turn Richards' existing Cherry Patch Ranch brothel in Crystal, Nye County, Nevada into an establishment that would employ male prostitutes and cater exclusively to female customers, a first in Nevada. In 2009, however, she said that she had abandoned her plans to open such a brothel due to wishing to avoid having to "deal with all the nonsense in the sex business" and preferring to focus on renewable energy which would be "perfect for Nevada..that's the wave of the future."


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: On December 11, 2009, the Nevada State Board of Health unanimously agreed to add urethral examinations to the guidelines, thus allowing male sex workers to be tested for sexually transmitted diseases.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Under Nevada state law, any county with a population of up to 700,000, as of the last decennial census is allowed to license brothels if it so chooses. Incorporated towns and cities in counties that allow prostitution may regulate the trade further or prohibit it altogether.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Currently seven out of Nevada's 16 counties have active brothels (these are all rural counties). As of February 2018 there are 21 legal brothels.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: State law prohibits prostitution in Clark County (which contains Las Vegas), and under county or municipal law in Carson City (an independent city), and these other counties: Douglas, Eureka, Lincoln, Pershing, and Washoe (which contains Reno). The other 10 Nevada counties permit licensed brothels in certain specified areas or cities. All 10 of these rural counties have had at least one legal brothel in operation subsequent to 1971, but many of these brothels were financially unsuccessful or ran afoul of State health regulations. As of 2016, only seven of these counties have active brothels, while the other three (Churchill County, Esmeralda County and Humboldt County) no longer do.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: The precise licensing requirements vary by county. License fees for brothels range from an annual $100,000 in Storey County to an annual $200,000 in Lander County. Licensed prostitutes must be at least 21 years old, except in Storey County and Lyon County (where the minimum age is 18).


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: The brothels and their employees must register with the county sheriff and receive regular medical checkups. Brothels have existed in Nevada since the old mining days of the 1800s and were first licensed in 1971. The legendary Mustang Ranch operated from 1971 through 1999, when it was forfeited to the federal government following a series of convictions for tax fraud, racketeering, and other crimes.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Nevada law requires that registered brothel prostitutes be tested weekly (by a cervical specimen) for gonorrhea and Chlamydia trachomatis, and monthly for HIV and syphilis; furthermore, condoms are mandatory for all oral sex and sexual intercourse. Brothel owners may be held liable if customers become infected with HIV after a prostitute has tested positive for the virus. Women work a legally mandated minimum of nine days for each work period.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Nevada has laws against engaging in prostitution outside of licensed brothels, against encouraging others to become prostitutes, and against living off the proceeds of a prostitute.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In June 2009, then-Nevada Governor Jim Gibbons signed the most stringent punishments nationwide for child prostitution and pandering. Assembly Bill 380, which allows for fines of $500,000 for those convicted of trafficking prostitutes younger than 14 and $100,000 for trafficking prostitutes ages 14 to 17. Both the House and the Senate unanimously approved the bill, which went into effect October 1, 2009.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: As of February 2018, 21 legal brothels exist in the state employing about 200 women at any given time. In some locales, there exist multi-unit complexes of several separate brothels run by the same owner. These include "The Line" in Winnemucca, and Mustang Ranch in Storey County.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Mandatory HIV testing began in 1986 and a mandatory condom law was passed in 1988. A study conducted in 1995 in two brothels found that condom use in the brothels was consistent and sexually transmitted diseases were accordingly absent. The study also found that few of the prostitutes used condoms in their private lives.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Illegal prostitution is the most common form of prostitution in Nevada; the offense is a misdemeanor. The cities of Las Vegas and Reno have worked to expand their tourism base by attracting families to the hotels and casinos. Accordingly, the state legislature has made prostitution illegal in Clark County, and law enforcement agencies have tried to eliminate the once-rampant street prostitution, enacting legislation against it in 1971. Nevertheless, prostitutes continue to work in casinos, where they wait in bars and attempt to make contact with potential clients. Of all the prostitution business in Nevada, only about 10% is legal, and 90% of illegal prostitution occurs in Las Vegas. The vast majority of prostitution in Nevada takes place illegally in the metropolitan areas of Las Vegas and Reno. Legal prostitution in Nevada grosses about $75 million per year while illegal prostitution in the Las Vegas area grosses about $5 billion per year. Some 300–400 prostitutes are arrested each month by the Las Vegas police.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Escort services offering sexual services euphemistically as 'entertainment' or 'companionship' are ubiquitous, with a reported 104 pages of a Las Vegas yellow pages directory devoted to "entertainers". Flyers are dispensed to tourists and others along the Las Vegas Strip by freelance workers. These flyers also graphically depict female 'personal' entertainers or escort services. Despite the attempt to make the Las Vegas Strip more family-friendly, such advertising for these services continues.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In 2009 Las Vegas was identified by the FBI as one of 14 cities in the U.S. with high rates of child prostitution. Las Vegas police claimed that "roughly 400 children are picked off the streets from prostitution each year."


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: The U.S. Justice Department has also named Las Vegas among the 17 most likely destinations for human trafficking.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: The brothels in Nevada's rural counties have been criticized by law enforcement professionals, journalists, sex worker activists, feminists, social and religious conservatives and politicians.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: During the 1970s and early 1980s, several towns had enacted rules prohibiting local brothel prostitutes from frequenting local bars or casinos or associating with local men outside of work. After a lawsuit was filed in 1984, these regulations had to be abandoned, but as a result of collaboration between sheriffs and brothel owners, they remain in effect unofficially. Most brothels do not allow the prostitutes to leave the premises during their work shifts of several days to several weeks.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In 2009, prostitution researcher Melissa Ditmore wrote in "The Guardian" that brothels "impose some extraordinary restrictions on commercial sex workers" in order to "separate sex workers from the local community": some places forbid prostitutes to leave the brothels for extended periods of time, while other jurisdictions require the prostitutes to leave the county when they are not working; some places do not allow the children of the women who work in the brothels to live in the same area; some brothel workers who have cars must register the vehicle with the local police, and workers are not permitted to leave the brothel after 5pm; in some counties registered sex workers are not allowed to have cars at all.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: The Nevada brothel system has also been criticized by activists in the sex worker rights movement, who are otherwise supporters of full decriminalization of prostitution. Organizations and individuals supporting the rights of prostitutes typically favor deregulation and oppose Nevada-style regulation, mainly for three reasons:


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Teri, a prostitute who has worked in a Nevada brothel (and who would like prostitution to be decriminalized), stated that "The brothel owners are worse than any pimp. They abuse and imprison women and are fully protected by the state".


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Another former prostitute who worked in four Nevada brothels attacked the system, saying, "Under this system, prostitutes give up too much autonomy, control and choice over their work and lives" and "While the brothel owners love this profitable solution, it can be exploitative and is unnecessary". She described how the women were subject to various exaggerated restrictions, including making it very difficult for them to refuse clients, not being allowed to read books while waiting for customers, and having to deal with doctors who had a "patronizing or sexist attitude" (the brothels discouraged and in many cases forbade prostitutes to see doctors of their own choosing).


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In an article published in "The Guardian" in 2007, anti-prostitution campaigner, Julie Bindel wrote: "If you believe their PR, Nevada's legal brothels are safe, healthy – even fun – places in which to work. So why do so many prostitutes tell such horrific tales of abuse?"


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In her 2007 report, "Prostitution and trafficking in Nevada: making the connections", anti-prostitution activist Melissa Farley presents the results of numerous interviews with brothel owners and prostitutes, she says that most brothel prostitutes are controlled by outside pimps and that they suffer widespread abuse by brothel owners and customers. Farley said that "What happens in legal brothels is sexual harassment, sexual exploitation and sometimes rape"; she also said more than 80% of the women she had interviewed told her they wanted to leave prostitution.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Alexa Albert, a Harvard medical student who has conducted a public-health study inside one of Nevada's brothels, and authored "Brothel: Mustang Ranch and Its Women", wrote in her book that the brothel owners used to require the prostitutes to have outside pimps, because the pimps were thought to make the women work harder: "The involvement of pimps enabled brothel owners to leave discipline to men who wouldn't hesitate to keep their women in line."


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Bob Herbert also stated that many brothel prostitutes are controlled by outside pimps: "Despite the fiction that they are "independent contractors," most so-called legal prostitutes have pimps — the state-sanctioned pimps who run the brothels and, in many cases, a second pimp who controls all other aspects of their lives (and takes the bulk of their legal earnings)."


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In 1998, pimps from Oregon managed to place at least four underage girls in Nevada's legal brothels; they were arrested and convicted.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: On underage girls being trafficked to Nevada's brothels, Oregon Detective Greg Harvey said, "It's happening right now, it's amazing how many girls are shipped from here to different brothels in northern and southern Nevada. Many are underage." Another detective, Sgt. Pete Kerns, supported Harvey's claims. "Never buy the line that nobody under 18 works in (Nevada brothels)," Kerns said. "It's happening."


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Former Nye County Commissioner Candice Trummell, director of the Nevada Coalition Against Sex Trafficking, said, "It is way past time for Nevada to be the last state in the United States of America to finally stand against all forms of slavery."


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Assemblyman Bob L. Beers said, "A brothel owner is somebody who, when it gets down to the very essence, is nothing more than a slave-owner."


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Some brothel owners have been involved in criminal activities: in March 2009, a Nye County brothel owner pleaded guilty to fraud charges for paying bribes to a former Nye County Commissioner; in 2008, a former brothel owner was sentenced to 15 years in federal prison on two child pornography charges; and in 1991, Joe Conforte fled to Brazil in order to avoid a conviction on tax fraud charges.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Occasionally, lawmakers attempt to introduce legislation outlawing all prostitution in Nevada. These efforts are typically supported by owners of casinos and other large businesses, claiming that legalized prostitution harms the state's image. The Nevada Brothel Owners' Association, led by George Flint, from Reno, lobbies against these laws. Rural lawmakers normally oppose these laws as well, despite the fact that legal brothel prostitution does not provide a significant amount of income for counties.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: A noted opponent of legalized prostitution in Nevada was John Reese. Initially arguing on moral and religious grounds, he switched to health hazard tactics, but had to back down in the face of a threatened libel suit. In 1994, he tried to get a license for a gay brothel in a thinly veiled attempt to galvanize opposition against all brothels. Five years later, he staged his own kidnapping near the Mustang Ranch. His efforts to collect enough signatures to repeal the prostitution laws have so far failed.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Nevada politicians can (and generally do) play both sides of the prostitution dispute by declaring that they are personally opposed to prostitution but feel it should be up to the counties to decide. As almost three-quarters of the population of Nevada lives in a single county (Clark County, where prostitution is illegal), county control over local matters is a hot-button issue. Legislators from the northern counties will often reflexively oppose what is seen as "meddling" from the majority in the south, and the legislators from the south have been too divided on the issue to push through a state-wide ban.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Since 2003, Las Vegas mayor Oscar Goodman has repeatedly stated that he favors legalization of prostitution in the city, perhaps turning East Fremont Street into a "little Amsterdam". Goodman said there are pragmatic reasons to back legalized prostitution. Those include the acknowledgement that illegal prostitution is occurring and that brothels could provide safer, regulated and revenue-generating sex, he said.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: The brothel owners' organization, supported by Democratic State Senator Bob Coffin, has been pushing for taxation of the brothels, to increase the industry's legitimacy. The proposal, which would have instituted a $5 tax per act of prostitution, with the proceeds partly being used for a sex worker counseling agency, was voted down in the Taxation Committee in April 2009.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: The opinions of Nevada residents vary, but the majority appears to support the status quo of prostitution: they support laws allowing licensed brothels in the rural areas, but oppose the legalization of prostitution in Las Vegas. A poll conducted in Nevada in 2002 found that 52% of the 600 respondents favored the existing legal and regulated brothels, while 31% were against laws that allow prostitution and the remainder were undecided, preferred fewer legal constraints on prostitution, or did not offer an opinion. In 2003, nearly 60% of Nevada residents opposed the legalization of brothels and prostitution in Las Vegas (59% opposed this idea, 35% supported it and 6% did not know or did not answer). Again, support was stronger in the rural areas (where most people were born in Nevada) and weaker in Clark County and Washoe County; women were more opposed to the idea than men.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In 2004, after the closure of the last brothel in Churchill County, a county ballot initiative to permanently ban prostitution in that county was defeated by a 2–1 margin.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: A July 2011 Public Policy Polling survey found that 56% of Nevada voters thought that prostitution should be legal, while only 32% thought it should be illegal and 12% were not sure.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: A June 2012 Public Policy Polling survey found that 64% of Nevada voters thought that brothels should be legal in the state, while only 23% thought they should be illegal, and 13% were not sure.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: In 2018, Lyon County voted by a 3-to-1 margin to reject Question 1, which would have repealed the county's brothel ordinance and closed four brothels in Mound House.


title: Prostitution in Nevada

text: Crystal, Nye County, Nevada had a brothel art museum associated with two local brothels. Visitors have reported it was primarily newspaper clippings. As of 2020 both Crystal brothels were closed.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: Brotherhood of the Wolf () is a 2001 French period action horror film directed by Christophe Gans, co-written by Gans and Stéphane Cabel, and starring Samuel Le Bihan, Mark Dacascos, Émilie Dequenne, Monica Bellucci and Vincent Cassel. The story takes place in 18th-century France, where the Chevalier de Fronsac and Mani of the Iroquois tribe are sent to investigate the mysterious slaughter of hundreds by an unknown creature in the province of Gévaudan.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: The plot is loosely based on a real-life series of killings that took place in France in the 18th century and the famous legend of the beast of Gévaudan; parts of the film were shot at Château de Roquetaillade. The film has several extended swashbuckling fight scenes, with martial arts performances by the cast mixed in, making it unusual for a historical drama. The special effects for the creature are a combination of computer generated imagery, as well as puppetry and animatronics designed by Jim Henson's Creature Shop.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: The film received generally positive critical reviews, highlighting its high production values, cinematography, performances and Gans' atmospheric direction. At a $29 million budget, it was a commercial success, grossing over $70 million in worldwide theatrical release. The film also became the sixth-highest-grossing French-language film of all time in the United States, and it also became one of the biggest international successes for French-language films.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: During the French Revolution, Marquis d'Apcher writes his memoirs in his castle. He recounts to 1764, when a mysterious beast terrorized the province of Gévaudan. Grégoire de Fronsac, a knight and the royal naturalist of King Louis XV of France, and his Iroquois companion Mani, arrive to capture the beast. Fronsac becomes interested in Marianne de Morangias, the daughter of a local count, whose brother, Jean-François, was also an avid hunter and a world traveller, whose arm was mangled and rendered useless while overseas. Fronsac is also intrigued by Sylvia, an Italian courtesan at the local brothel.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: While investigating another victim, Fronsac finds a fang made of steel. A traumatized child witness swears that the beast is controlled by what seems to be a human master. As the investigation proves unfruitful, the king's weapons master, Lord de Beauterne, arrives to put an end to the beast, and Fronsac is sent back in Paris. He realizes that the beast is actually an instrument of a secret society: The Brotherhood of the Wolf, which is working to undermine public confidence in the king and ultimately take over the country. Back in Gévaudan, the attacks by the real beast continue, and Fronsac returns to put an end to the beast's killings. At a secret rendezvous with Marianne, they are attacked by the beast, where it mysteriously refrains from attacking her.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: Fronsac, Mani, and a young Marquis set out into the forest and set up an array of traps to capture the beast; it is severely injured but escapes. Mani sets off alone in pursuit, where he finds a catacomb used as the beast's holding pen, inhabited by the Brotherhood. Outnumbered, Mani is shot and killed. Fronsac discovers Mani's body and performs an autopsy, finding a silver bullet—Jean-François' signature choice of ammunition. In a fit of rage, a vengeful Fronsac goes to the catacombs and slaughters many members, but is overpowered by the local authorities and imprisoned.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: Sylvia visits him in jail and reveals that she is a spy for the Holy See. She explains that Henri Sardis, the local priest and leader of the Brotherhood, believes that he is restoring worship of God to France. Pope Clement XIII has decided that Sardis is insane, and has sent her to eliminate him. She then poisons Fronsac, saying that he knows too much. Meanwhile, Jean-François comes to Marianne's room and reveals to her that he is the beast's master; it recognized his scent on her when it came near her, which is why it did not attack. He then rapes her when she rejects his advances.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: Sylvia's agents exhume Fronsac, who had not been killed but merely put into a temporary coma, and he appears at one of the Brotherhood's sermons. He kills several members, including Jean-François, who reveals that he had regained use of his supposedly mangled arm. Sardis escapes into the mountains, but is mauled to death by a pack of wolves. Fronsac and Marquis go to the beast's lair, where it lies severely wounded. It turns out that the beast was a lion that Jean-François brought back from Africa as a cub that was tortured into becoming vicious and trained to wear spiked metal armor. Fronsac takes pity and kills the beast in an act of mercy.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: Marquis finishes writing his account just before he is led to his execution by a revolutionary mob. He states that he doesn't know what happened to Fronsac and Marianne after the death of the beast; but he hopes that somewhere, they are happy together. A final scene shows Fronsac and Marianne sailing on a ship named Frère Loup—Brother Wolf.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: "Brotherhood of the Wolf" garnered mostly positive reviews, with a 72% "Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 119 reviews with the consensus stating: ""Brotherhood of the Wolf" mixes its genres with little logic, but the end result is wildly entertaining." whereas on Metacritic it accumulated a score of 57 from mixed reviews. The usage of various cinematographic techniques employed by Christophe Gans, the fight sequences, the atmosphere and particularly the performance of Marc Dacascos as the native-American Mani attracted particularly strong praise.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" awarded it with a 3/4-star rating, writing: "I would be lying if I did not admit that this is all, in its absurd and overheated way, entertaining." James Berardinelli of "ReelViews" also rated the movie three stars out of four, saying that it "has something in it to appeal to just about everyone" and that it is "daring in its approach and successful in its result - assuming the result is to provide pure entertainment to the viewer." Michael Atkinson of "Village Voice" wrote "It's easily the most disarming and inventive movie made for genre geeks in years." Harry Knowles of "Ain't It Cool News" wrote that this film is "exciting, alluring and thrilling", whereas "Empire" gave the film a three-star rating out of five stating that "An undeniably handsome creation, but its excessive length and surplus of directorial flourishes merely exacerbate the emptiness of an initially promising plot". Lisa from "Variety" gave a positive review mentioning that "a little Sergio Leone here, a little "Sleepy Hollow" there and, uh, martial arts-style confrontations are all deftly melded in "Brotherhood of the Wolf", an attempt to elucidate the French urban legend of the Beast of Gevaudan. This is a home-grown French actioner that wears its sincere desire to entertain on its flamboyantly tailored sleeve".


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: The blend of various movie genres such as martial arts, mystery, costume drama and horror attracted certain amounts of criticism. In particular, Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" wrote "This new take on horror is more of the bloody same", whereas Stephen Hunter of "The Washington Post" said that it is "a mad agglomeration of styles and traditions that ultimately results in nothing so much as a mad agglomeration of styles and traditions", ultimately awarding the film a 0.5/4 score.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: The film was one of the biggest box office hits for 2001 in France, grossing an estimated $24 million. The film also enjoyed commercial success in the United States; Universal Pictures paid $2 million to acquire the film's North American distribution rights and went on to gross $11.3 million in limited theatrical release, making it the sixth-highest-grossing French-language film of all time in the United States (behind "Amelie", "La Cage aux Folles", "Z", "A Man and a Woman" and "Emmanuelle" ). It was also number one at the Italian box office for two weeks. The film grossed $70 million in worldwide theatrical release. The film also did brisk video and DVD sales in the United States.


title: Brotherhood of the Wolf

text: In the United States, Universal Pictures originally released the 143 minute theatrical cut on DVD, on 1 October 2002. Focus Features released a two-disc, special-edition DVD containing the "Director's Cut" on 26 August 2008.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: , known internationally as Sonny Chiba, was a Japanese actor and martial artist. Chiba was one of the first actors to achieve stardom through his skills in martial arts, initially in Japan and later before an international audience.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Born in Fukuoka, Chiba played a variety of sports in high school, including baseball and volleyball. He also practiced gymnastics and participated at the National Sports Festival of Japan in his third year. When he was a university student, he learned martial arts, earning a black belt in Kyokushin Karate in 1965 and later receiving a fourth degree in 1984.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Chiba's career began in the 1960s, when he starred in two "tokusatsu" superhero shows. In his first role, he replaced Susumu Wajima as the main character Kōtarō Ran/Seven Color Mask in "Seven Color Mask" ("Nana-iro kamen") in the second half of the series. However, his breakthrough role was in the 1974 film "The Street Fighter". Before retiring, Chiba had starred in "", and "". Chiba died from complications of COVID-19 on 19 August 2021, at age 82.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Born , he used the stage name "Chiba Shinichi" throughout his professional career. When New Line Cinema released the film in the United States in 1974, they retitled it "The Street Fighter" and billed its star as Sonny Chiba. Later, Chiba modified the name to "JJ Sonny Chiba", wherein the initials stood for "Justice Japan". After appearing in the taiga drama "Fūrin Kazan" in November 2007, he announced the retirement of the stage name "Shinichi Chiba"; henceforth he was billed "JJ Sonny Chiba" as an actor and as a film director.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Chiba was born in Fukuoka, the third of five children. His father was a pilot for the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service; his mother, originally from Kumamoto Prefecture, had competed in track and field in her youth. When he was four years old, his father was transferred to Kisarazu, Chiba, and the family moved to Kimitsu, Chiba Prefecture.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: After Chiba went to junior high school in Kimitsu, the physical education teacher advised him to do artistic gymnastics. He also was passionate about track and field sports, baseball, and volleyball. He participated in those four sports championships of Chiba Prefecture. In high school, Chiba dedicated himself to artistic gymnastics and won the National Sports Festival of Japan while in his third year. He enjoyed watching movies, including Western movies such as "Shane" and "High Noon".


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Chiba went to the Nippon Sport Science University in 1957. He was a serious candidate for a place in the Japanese Olympic team in his late teens until he was sidelined by a back injury. While he was a university student, he began studying martial arts with the renowned Kyokushin Karate master Masutatsu "Mas" Oyama (whom he later portrayed in a trilogy of films), which led to a first-degree black belt on 15 October 1965, later receiving a fourth-degree on 20 January 1984.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Sometime around 1960, he was discovered in a talent search (called "New Face") by the Toei film studio, and he began his screen career soon after. The CEO of Toei at the time gave him the stage name "Shinichi Chiba".


title: Sonny Chiba

text: His acting career began on television, starring in two "tokusatsu" superhero shows, first replacing Susumu Wajima as the main character Kōtarō Ran/ Seven Color Mask in "Seven Color Mask" ("Nana-iro kamen") in the second half of the series and then starring as Gorō Narumi/Messenger of Allah in "Messenger of Allah" ("Allah no Shisha"). His movie debut and first starring movie role was the 1961 science fiction movie "Invasion of the Neptune Men". Later that year, Chiba appeared in the first Kinji Fukasaku film, "", which marked the beginning of a long series of collaborations for the two. Over the next decade, he was cast primarily in crime thrillers. By 1970, Chiba had started his own training school for aspiring martial arts film actors and stunt performers known as , in order to develop the level of martial arts techniques and sequences used in Japanese film and television. Today the organization is known as Japan Action Enterprise (JAE). He starred in "Karate Kiba" ("Bodyguard Kiba") in 1973, which was his first martial arts movie. Chiba's breakthrough international hit was "The Street Fighter" (1974) which was brought to Western audiences (dubbed in English) by New Line Cinema. The film and its sequels established him as the reigning Japanese martial arts actor in international cinema for the next two decades. It was New Line Cinema founder Robert Shaye who gave Chiba the English name "Sonny", which Chiba would adopt as his own (mostly for non-Japanese projects) from that point on.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Chiba's subsequent projects included such pictures as "The Bullet Train" (1975), "Karate Warriors" (1976), "Doberman Cop" (1977), "" (1977), and "The Assassin" (1977). He also occasionally returned to the science fiction genre, in movies such as "Message from Space" (1978). He also began to star on some jidaigeki such as "Shogun's Samurai" (1978), "The Fall of Ako Castle" (1978), "G.I. Samurai" (1979), "Shadow Warriors" (1980), and "Samurai Reincarnation" (1981). He was not only actor in but also stunt coordinator for "G.I. Samurai", "Burning Brave" (1981), and "Shogun's Shadow" (1989). He was executive producer and director for "Yellow Fangs" (1990) and also directed and starred in "Oyaji" (2007).


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Chiba portrayed Yagyū Jūbei Mitsuyoshi multiple times, first in the 1978 film "Shogun's Samurai" and in its TV series remake "The Yagyu Conspiracy", which aired from 1978 to 1979.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: He then appeared as Jūbei in the TV series "Yagyū Abaretabi", which aired from 1980 to 1981 and in the 1981 film Samurai Reincarnation (Makai Tensho) and its theatrical musical version "Yagyu Jubei Makai Tensho". He then reprised his role as Jūbei in the second season of "Yagyū Abaretabi", this time entitled "Yagyū Jūbei Abaretabi", which aired from 1982 to 1983. A few years later he returned to play Jūbei in "Iemitsu, Hikoza, and Isshin Tasuke: A National Crisis", a TV movie that aired in 1989. His final appearance as Jūbei was in 2 direct-to-DVD films entitled "Sarutobi Sasuke and the Army of Darkness 3: Wind Chapter" and "Sarutobi Sasuke and the Army of Darkness 4: Fire Chapter" in 2005. Other notable Japanese television roles for Chiba were the ninja leaders Hattori Hanzō III, Tsuge Shinpachi, Tarao Hanzō, and Hattori Hanzō XV across multiple seasons of the Shadow Warriors TV series and Hattori Hanzō I in the 2003 direct-to-DVD series follow-up "Shin Kage no Gundan" (New Shadow Warriors).


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Chiba was even busier in the 1980s, doing dozens of movies as well as making forays into television, and with roles in such high-profile adventures as the popular Hong Kong comic-based movie "The Storm Riders" (1998), starring alongside Ekin Cheng and Aaron Kwok. His fame in Japan remained unabated into the 1990s.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: In his fifties, the actor resumed working as a choreographer of martial arts sequences. At the dawn of the 21st century, Chiba was as busy as ever in feature films and also starring in his own series in Japan. Roles in Takashi Miike's "" and his work with directors Kenta and Kinji Fukasaku in "Battle Royale II" effectively bridged the gap between modern day and yesteryear cinematic cult legends. Chiba's enduring onscreen career received a tribute when he appeared in a key role as Hattori Hanzo, the owner of a sushi restaurant and retired samurai sword craftsman, in director Quentin Tarantino's bloody revenge epic "" in 2003.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Chiba starred in more than 125 films for Toei Studios and has won numerous awards in Japan for his acting.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Chiba divorced his first wife, actress Yōko Nogiwa, with whom he had a daughter, Juri Manase, who is also an actress. He had two sons from his second marriage to Tamami Chiba. Their sons and are actors.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: In early August 2021, Chiba became ill with COVID-19. Initially, he was treated at home but was hospitalized a few days later on 8 August when he developed pneumonia. He died from complications of COVID-19 on 19 August 2021, at the age of 82. Chiba had not been vaccinated, according to his agency. His body was cremated at the crematorium on 20 August 2021.


title: Sonny Chiba

text: Christian Slater's character Clarence Worley in "True Romance" is a fan of Chiba. In a pivotal early scene he watches a Sonny Chiba triple feature. The writer of "True Romance", Quentin Tarantino, worked with Chiba ten years later in "".


title: Sonny Chiba

text: A modified version of the opening scroll to the English-language version of 1973 movie "Karate Kiba" (English title: "The Bodyguard") was used in the script of Quentin Tarantino's 1994 movie "Pulp Fiction". Tarantino's script changed the speech, swapping out "I am Chiba the Bodyguard" for "my name is the Lord".


title: Sonny Chiba

text: The character Takayuki Chiba from the "shōnen" manga series "Kengan Ashura" is based upon Chiba and Hiroyuki Sanada.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: Luciano Spalletti (; born 7 March 1959) is an Italian football manager and a former player. He is currently the manager of Italian Serie A club Napoli.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: Born in Certaldo, Metropolitan City of Florence, Spalletti started his career as a semi-professional footballer in his mid-20s. Despite relatively old age for a professional debut, he managed to have played for several Serie C teams such as Entella, Spezia, Viareggio and Empoli. After nearly a decade of lower-tier football in Italy, he retired in 1993 and remained at Empoli as a coach.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: Spalletti's early career in management led him to struggling Empoli, where he was head coach between July 1993 and June 1998. He led the Tuscan side to consecutive promotions from Serie C1 to the top-flight Serie A. Spalletti then coached Sampdoria from July 1998 to June 1999, and Venezia from July to October 1999.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: Spalletti had two spells as head coach at Udinese. The first was between March 2001 and June 2001., the second between July 2002 and June 2005. There was a period at Ancona in between spells.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: It was at Udinese where he really began to make an impact as a manager. During the 2004–05 season, Spalletti guided Udinese to a sensational fourth-placed finish in Serie A, exceeding expectations and securing a spot in the UEFA Champions League. Spalletti became coach of Roma in June 2005.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: Such success for a traditionally unexceptional side with limited resources attracted the attention of Roma. The capital side had come off a disappointing season, in which four different coaches had spells in charge of the club. Spalletti was offered the task of attempting to bring order to this chaotic side. After an uninspiring first half of the 2005–06 season, he changed the team's tactics to suit a more offensive playing style, rather than a defensive-minded system. Spalletti's favoured formation was the 4–2–3–1 system, which used four defenders, two defensive midfielders, two wingers (both sides of the 3), one attacking midfielder, and one striker Francesco Totti, who typically functioned also as an attacking midfielder in previous seasons. As such, the team played without any real striker, as Totti occupied what later came to be described as a false-9 role. This system proved effective for Roma upon its introduction during the 2005–06 season, as on 26 February 2006, Roma broke the Serie A record for most consecutive wins with a 2–0 victory over Lazio, following an 11-match winning streak. As a result, Roma climbed from 15th place to 5th place in the table. However, by the end of the season, Roma failed to reach fourth place, therefore failing to qualify for the Champions League. Spalletti did manage to help Roma reach the 2006 Coppa Italia Final, but ultimately lost out on the title to Inter Milan. Nonetheless, as a result of the 2006 Serie A match-fixing scandal, Roma qualified for the 2006–07 UEFA Champions League, as league champions Juventus were relegated, while Fiorentina and Milan both received point deductions for their involvement.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: At the end of 2006, Spalletti was elected Serie A Coach of the Year and, in the following months, led Roma until the Champions League quarter-final after a 2–0 victory over Lyon at the Stade Gerland in the first knockout round. The team, however, succeeded in becoming the first team to defeat Roberto Mancini's Inter Milan in all competitions that year, emerging with a 1–3 result at the San Siro, a match that the "Nerazzurri" had to win to mathematically claim the 2007 "Scudetto" against the only credible rival they had in the championship. Roma would also win the 2007 Coppa Italia Final against Inter, with an aggregate result of 7–4; a resounding 6–2 in the first leg in Rome and followed by a narrow 2–1 defeat in Milan. It was the first important trophy in Spalletti's career, who only had won a "Coppa Italia di Serie C" with Empoli. But he was yet to add another piece of silverware to his cabinet, as Roma would again defeat Inter 0–1 in Milan in the opening fixture of the 2007–08 season to steal their Supercoppa Italiana crown.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: In the 2007–08 Champions League first knockout round, Spalletti's Roma team became the first Italian team to defeat Real Madrid over two legs (2–1 in both ties in Rome and Madrid) and consequently also became the first European side to record two victories over Real Madrid in their Santiago Bernabéu home ground. In a repeat of the previous season's quarter-final, Roma were again eliminated from the Champions League by eventual winners Manchester United. However, they did succeed in their defence of the Coppa Italia, once again defeating "Scudetto" winners Inter in the 2008 Coppa Italia Final — a single match which Roma won 2–1.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: Spalletti faced a difficult 2008–09 season with Roma, only managing to qualify for the UEFA Europa League with a sixth-place position in the league, after a struggling initial period that left the "giallorossi" in the bottom half of the league for the first part of the Serie A season.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: The new season saw Spalletti struggling with a limited squad, that was weakened further by the sale of Alberto Aquilani to Liverpool, and compounded by serious financial problems for the club. Roma started the season by taking part in two 2009–10 UEFA Europa League qualifying rounds, both easily won against Gent (10–2 on aggregate) and Košice (10–4 on aggregate). However, another poor start in the 2009–10 Serie A season, with two consecutive defeats (2–3 to Genoa and 1–3, at home, to Juventus) prompted Spalletti to resign on 1 September 2009.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: In December 2009, it was confirmed Spalletti would join Russian Premier League club Zenit Saint Petersburg on a three-year deal, replacing interim coach Anatoli Davydov, with Italian coaches Daniele Baldini, Marco Domenichini and Alberto Bartali also joining the Russian club. For his first year, Zenit's board of directors expected Spalletti to return the Premier League title, win the Russian Cup and progress past the group stage of the Champions League.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: Zenit won the Russian Cup on 16 May 2010, defeating Sibir Novosibirsk in the final (having beaten Volga Tver in the quarter-final and Amkar Perm in the semi-final). After 16 matches in the 2010 Premier League, with 12 wins and 4 draws under Spalletti, Zenit reached 40 points, a new Russian Premier League record for most points won at that stage of the campaign. In the summer transfer window of 2010, Spalletti made his first signings: forward Aleksandr Bukharov and midfielder Sergei Semak both came from Rubin Kazan, while defenders Aleksandar Luković and Bruno Alves joined from Udinese and Porto respectively. On 25 August 2010, Zenit lost its first match under Spalletti to French side Auxerre and failed to advance to the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League group stage, though Zenit moved on to play in the group stage of the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: On 3 October 2010, Zenit beat Spartak Nalchik to set another Russian Premier League record for most consecutive undefeated matches with 21 since the start of the league season. On 27 October 2010, Zenit suffered its first defeat of the season at the hands of rival club Spartak Moscow, seven matches short of finishing the championship undefeated. On 14 November, Zenit defeated Rostov and, two matches prior to the end of the season, claimed the championship title, the first of Spalletti's coaching career.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: Additionally, Zenit progressed past the Europa League group stage in first place in its group to the round of 16 stage, where they defeated Swiss club Young Boys. On 6 March 2011, Zenit defeated CSKA Moscow in the Russian Super Cup, winning Spalletti his third Russian trophy. On 17 March 2011, Zenit lost in the Europa League quarter-finals to Twente 2–3 on aggregate.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: In the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League, Zenit started the group stage in Group G alongside Porto, Shakhtar Donetsk and APOEL. On 6 December 2011, Zenit finished the group stage in second place and, for the first time in club history, qualified for the spring knockout phase of the Champions League. In the first leg against Benfica, Zenit won 3–2 at home through two goals from Roman Shirokov and one from Sergei Semak. However, in the second leg, Zenit lost 2–0 and was eliminated from the competition. On 9 February, Spalletti signed a three-and-a-half-year contract extension to stay at Zenit until 2015. In April 2012, Zenit won their second-straight Premier League championship after defeating Dynamo Moscow.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: Spalletti was appointed manager of Roma for his second spell on 13 January 2016, after ex-manager Rudi Garcia was sacked due to poor team performances. On 21 February, Francesco Totti publicly criticised Spalletti due to his own lack of playing-time since returning from injury. As a result, Totti was dropped by Spalletti for Roma's 5–0 win over Palermo, with the decision causing an uproar among fans and the media. After their initial disagreements, Spalletti began to use Totti as an immediate impact substitute, which proved to be an effective decision, as Totti rediscovered his form and contributed with four goals and an assist after coming off the bench in five consecutive Serie A matches. As a result, Spalletti was able to lead Roma from a mid-table spot to a second-place finish in Serie A, clinching the Champions League play-off spot.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: On 30 May 2017, two days after finishing the 2016–17 season in second place, Roma confirmed Spalletti had decided to leave the club by mutual consent. During his second stint with Roma, the team qualified for the Champions League for two consecutive seasons.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: On 9 June 2017, Spalletti was confirmed as the new manager of Inter after signing a two-year contract. This came after he travelled to Nanjing, China, to hold talks with Zhang Jindong, managing director of Suning Holdings Group, majority owner of Inter.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: On 29 July, Spalletti won the International Champions Cup friendly tournament in Singapore after defeating Lyon, Bayern Munich and Chelsea. On 20 August, Spalletti won his first league match with Inter after defeating Fiorentina 3–0 at the San Siro. On 26 August, he won his second match with Inter against his former club Roma, 1–3. On 3 December, Inter took first place, after 12 victories and 3 draws, with a 5–0 win over Chievo Verona. Inter retained their first place after a 0–0 draw against Juventus, thus becoming the only Italian team still undefeated after the first 16 weeks.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: On 20 May 2018, at their last game of the season, Inter defeated Lazio 2–3 to finish the league in fourth place and therefore qualify for the UEFA Champions League for the first time in six years. In August 2018, the club extended the contract of Spalletti, adding two more years to 2021.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: In the 2018–19 season the club again secured a hard-fought UEFA Champions League finish on the last day of the competition. However, Spalletti was sacked on 30 May 2019, following speculation of his future.


title: Luciano Spalletti

text: On 29 May 2021, after two years of inactivity, Spalletti was announced as the new head coach of Napoli, replacing Gennaro Gattuso.


title: Committee of Union and Progress

text: The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) (), later the Union and Progress Party (), was a secret revolutionary organization and political party active between 1889 and 1926 in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey. The foremost faction within the Young Turk movement, it instigated the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, which ended absolute monarchy and began the Second Constitutional Era. From 1913 to 1918, the CUP ruled the empire as a one-party state and committed genocides against the Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian peoples as part of a broader policy of ethnic erasure during the late Ottoman period. The CUP was associated with the wider Young Turk movement, and its members have often been referred to as Young Turks, although the movement produced other political parties as well. Within the Ottoman Empire its members were known as ('Unionists') or ('Committeemen').


title: Committee of Union and Progress

text: Beginning as a liberal reform movement, the organization was persecuted and forced into exile by the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II's autocratic government because of its calls for democratization, secularization, and reform in the empire. Inspired by revolutionary groups such as the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, by 1906 the CUP had developed into a clandestine revolutionary group, infiltrating Ottoman army contingents based in Rumelia which were fighting ethnic insurgents in the Macedonian Struggle. In 1908, the Unionists forced Abdul Hamid to reinstate the Ottoman Constitution in the Young Turk Revolution, ushering in an era of political plurality. Mehmed Talât established himself as the leader of the CUP after the revolution, and it developed into a political party following a Turkish nationalist ideology known as İttihadism. Its main rival was the Freedom and Accord Party, another Young Turk party which called for the federalization and decentralization of the empire, in opposition to the CUP's desire for a centralized and unitary Turkish-dominated state.


title: Committee of Union and Progress

text: The CUP consolidated its power at the expense of the Freedom and Accord Party in the 1912 "Election of Clubs" and the 1913 Raid on the Sublime Porte, while also growing increasingly splintered, radical and nationalistic due to defeat in the Balkan Wars. The CUP seized power following Grand Vizier Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassination, with major decisions ultimately being decided by the party's Central Committee. A triumvirate of CUP leader Talât Pasha, Enver Pasha and Cemal Pasha, took control over the country, and sided with Germany in World War I. With the help of their paramilitary, the Special Organization, the İttihadist regime enacted policies resulting in the destruction and expulsion of the empire's Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian citizens in order to Turkify Anatolia.


title: Committee of Union and Progress

text: Following Ottoman defeat in WWI, its leaders escaped into exile in Europe, where many were assassinated in Operation Nemesis in revenge for their genocidal policies, including Talât and Cemal Pasha. Many CUP members were court-martialed and imprisoned in war-crimes trials by a rehabilitated Freedom and Accord Party with support from Sultan Mehmed VI and the Allied powers. However, most former Unionists were able to join the burgeoning Turkish nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, ultimately continuing their political careers in Turkey as members of Atatürk's Republican People's Party. Nationalist and also social reforms introduced by Union and Progress were expanded on by the Republican People's Party, which continued one party rule in Turkey until 1946.


title: Committee of Union and Progress

text: The CUP was first established as the Committee of the Ottoman Union (Ottoman Turkish: "İttihad-ı Osmanî Cemiyeti") in Constantinople (now Istanbul) on 6 February 1889 by a group of medical students of the Imperial Military School of Medicine. Between 1906 and 1908 it was known as the Committee of Progress and Union (CPU) (), but changed its name back to the more recognizable Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) during the Young Turk Revolution.


title: Committee of Union and Progress

text: In the West, the CUP was conflated with the wider Young Turks movement and its members were called Young Turks, while in the Ottoman Empire its members were known as "İttihadçı" or "Komiteci", which means İttihadist (Unionist) and Committeeman respectively. Its ideology is known as "İttihadçılık", or İttihadism (literally Unionism). The Central Committee informally referred to itself as the "Sacred Committee" ("Cemiyet-i mukaddese") or the "Kaaba of Liberty" ("Kâbe-i hürriyet").


title: Committee of Union and Progress

text: The Committee of Ottoman Union, soon renamed as the Committee of Union and Progress, was a Young Turks organization founded in 1889 by Ibrahim Temo, Dr. Mehmed Reşid, Abdullah Cevdet, and İshak Sükuti, all of whom were medical students of the Imperial Military School of Medicine in Constantinople. The Young Turks believed that to maintain the multi-national empire a social contract was necessary in the form of bringing back the Constitution. Sultan Abdul Hamid II promulgated the Constitution and a parliament upon his ascension to the throne in 1876, but suspended both after defeat in the 1877-1878 Russo Turkish War. From 1878 to 1908, Abdul Hamid ruled the empire as a personal dictatorship. Therefore the Young Turks hoped to overthrow Abdul Hamid for one of his brothers: either future Sultan Mehmed V or former Sultan Murad V.


title: Committee of Union and Progress

text: The CUP became the preeminent faction of the Young Turks movement once it established contact with exiled Young Ottomans intellectuals and rapidly gained membership, but after in August 1896, it was repressed and most of its members fled into exile to Paris, London, Geneva, Bucharest, and British occupied Egypt. A congress in November split the organization between Ahmed Rıza's Paris CUP branch and Mizancı Murat's Geneva CUP branch. After the Ottoman Empire's triumph over Greece in 1897 Sultan Abdul Hamid used the prestige he gained from the victory to coerce the exiled Young Turks network back into his fold. Cevdet, Sükuti, and Mizancı Murat accepted, leaving Ahmet Rıza in Paris as leader of the exiled Young Turks network and the CUP. Rıza was a more moderate member of the CUP, as well as an avid follower of positivist theory. Rıza called for the reinstatement of the constitution but without revolution, as well as a more centralized Turkish-dominated Ottoman Empire sovereign of European influence. In Paris, Ahmed Rıza continued resistance against the Hamidian government through his newspaper "Meşveret" which was published in French and (Ottoman) Turkish.


title: Committee of Union and Progress

text: Another set back for the Young Turks came in 1901, when members of the Ottoman dynasty Damat Mahmud Pasha and his sons Sabahaddin and Lütfullah fled to Europe to join the Young Turks. Prince Sabahaddin created a division within the exiled Young Turks. Inspired by Anglo-Saxon values of capitalism and liberalism, Sabahaddin founded the , which called for a more decentralized and federal Ottoman Empire in opposition to Rıza's CUP. Prince Sabahaddin believed that the only reason why separatist movements existed amongst Ottoman Armenians was due to the oppressive policies of Abdul Hamid II, and if only the empire would treat its Armenian minority better, then Armenians would become loyal Ottomans. The in 1902 Paris was an unsuccessful attempt to bridge the divide amongst the Young Turks and deepened the rivalry between Sabahaddin's group and Rıza's CUP. The 20th century began with Abdul Hamid II's rule secure and his opposition scattered and divided.