title: High-voltage direct current

text: Most monopolar systems are designed for future bipolar expansion. Transmission line towers may be designed to carry two conductors, even if only one is used initially for the monopole transmission system. The second conductor is either unused, used as electrode line or connected in parallel with the other (as in case of Baltic Cable).


title: High-voltage direct current

text: An alternative is to use two high-voltage conductors, operating at about half of the DC voltage, with only a single converter at each end. In this arrangement, known as the "symmetrical monopole", the converters are earthed only via a high impedance and there is no earth current. The symmetrical monopole arrangement is uncommon with line-commutated converters (the NorNed interconnector being a rare example) but is very common with Voltage Sourced Converters when cables are used.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect to ground, in opposite polarity. Since these conductors must be insulated for the full voltage, transmission line cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor. However, there are a number of advantages to bipolar transmission which can make it an attractive option.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Bipolar systems may carry as much as 4 GW at voltages of ±660 kV with a single converter per pole, as on the Ningdong–Shandong project in China. With a power rating of 2,000 MW per twelve-pulse converter, the converters for that project were (as of 2010) the most powerful HVDC converters ever built. Even higher powers can be achieved by connecting two or more twelve-pulse converters in series in each pole, as is used in the ±800 kV Xiangjiaba–Shanghai project in China, which uses two twelve-pulse converter bridges in each pole, each rated at 400 kV DC and 1,600 MW.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Submarine cable installations initially commissioned as a monopole may be upgraded with additional cables and operated as a bipole.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: A bipolar scheme can be implemented so that the polarity of one or both poles can be changed. This allows the operation as two parallel monopoles. If one conductor fails, transmission can still continue at reduced capacity. Losses may increase if ground electrodes and lines are not designed for the extra current in this mode. To reduce losses in this case, intermediate switching stations may be installed, at which line segments can be switched off or parallelized. This was done at Inga–Shaba HVDC.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: A back-to-back station (or B2B for short) is a plant in which both converters are in the same area, usually in the same building. The length of the direct current line is kept as short as possible. HVDC back-to-back stations are used for


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The DC voltage in the intermediate circuit can be selected freely at HVDC back-to-back stations because of the short conductor length. The DC voltage is usually selected to be as low as possible, in order to build a small valve hall and to reduce the number of thyristors connected in series in each valve. For this reason, at HVDC back-to-back stations, valves with the highest available current rating (in some cases, up to 4,500 A) are used.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The most common configuration of an HVDC link consists of two converter stations connected by an overhead power line or undersea cable.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Multi-terminal HVDC links, connecting more than two points, are rare. The configuration of multiple terminals can be series, parallel, or hybrid (a mixture of series and parallel). Parallel configuration tends to be used for large capacity stations, and series for lower capacity stations. An example is the 2,000 MW Quebec - New England Transmission system opened in 1992, which is currently the largest multi-terminal HVDC system in the world.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Multi-terminal systems are difficult to realize using line commutated converters because reversals of power are effected by reversing the polarity of DC voltage, which affects all converters connected to the system. With Voltage Sourced Converters, power reversal is achieved instead by reversing the direction of current, making parallel-connected multi-terminals systems much easier to control. For this reason, multi-terminal systems are expected to become much more common in the near future.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: China is expanding its grid to keep up with increased power demand, while addressing environmental targets. China Southern Power Grid started a three terminals VSC HVDC pilot project in 2011. The project has designed ratings of ±160 kV/200 MW-100 MW-50 MW and will be used to bring wind power generated on Nanao island into the mainland Guangdong power grid through 32 km (20 miles) of combination of HVDC land cables, sea cables and overhead lines. This project was put into operation on December 19, 2013.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: In India, the multi-terminal North-East Agra project is planned for commissioning in 2015–2017. It is rated 6,000 MW, and it transmits power on a ±800 kV bipolar line from two converter stations, at Biswanath Chariali and Alipurduar, in the east to a converter at Agra, a distance of 1,728 km (1074 miles).


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Cross-Skagerrak consisted since 1993 of 3 poles, from which 2 were switched in parallel and the third used an opposite polarity with a higher transmission voltage. This configuration ended in 2014 when poles 1 and 2 again were rebuilt to work in bipole and pole 3 (LCC) works in bipole with a new pole 4 (VSC). This is the first HVDC transmission where LCC and VSC poles cooperate in a bipole.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: A similar arrangement was the HVDC Inter-Island in New Zealand after a capacity upgrade in 1992, in which the two original converters (using mercury-arc valves) were parallel-switched feeding the same pole and a new third (thyristor) converter installed with opposite polarity and higher operation voltage. This configuration ended in 2012 when the two old converters were replaced with a single, new, thyristor converter.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: A scheme patented in 2004 is intended for conversion of existing AC transmission lines to HVDC. Two of the three circuit conductors are operated as a bipole. The third conductor is used as a parallel monopole, equipped with reversing valves (or parallel valves connected in reverse polarity). This allows heavier currents to be carried by the bipole conductors, and full use of the installed third conductor for energy transmission. High currents can be circulated through the line conductors even when load demand is low, for removal of ice. , no tripole conversions are in operation, although a transmission line in India has been converted to bipole HVDC (HVDC Sileru-Barsoor).


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Corona discharge is the creation of ions in a fluid (such as air) by the presence of a strong electric field. Electrons are torn from neutral air, and either the positive ions or the electrons are attracted to the conductor, while the charged particles drift. This effect can cause considerable power loss, create audible and radio-frequency interference, generate toxic compounds such as oxides of nitrogen and ozone, and bring forth arcing.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: Both AC and DC transmission lines can generate coronas, in the former case in the form of oscillating particles, in the latter a constant wind. Due to the space charge formed around the conductors, an HVDC system may have about half the loss per unit length of a high voltage AC system carrying the same amount of power. With monopolar transmission the choice of polarity of the energized conductor leads to a degree of control over the corona discharge. In particular, the polarity of the ions emitted can be controlled, which may have an environmental impact on ozone creation. Negative coronas generate considerably more ozone than positive coronas, and generate it further "downwind" of the power line, creating the potential for health effects. The use of a "positive" voltage will reduce the ozone impacts of monopole HVDC power lines.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The controllability of a current-flow through HVDC rectifiers and inverters, their application in connecting unsynchronized networks, and their applications in efficient submarine cables mean that HVDC interconnectors are often used at national or regional boundaries for the exchange of power (in North America, HVDC connections divide much of Canada and the United States into several electrical regions that cross national borders, although the purpose of these connections is still to connect unsynchronized AC grids to each other). Offshore windfarms also require undersea cables, and their turbines are unsynchronized. In very long-distance connections between two locations, such as power transmission from a large hydroelectric power plant at a remote site to an urban area, HVDC transmission systems may appropriately be used; several schemes of these kind have been built. For interconnectors to Siberia, Canada, India, and the Scandinavian North, the decreased line-costs of HVDC also make it applicable, see List of HVDC projects. Other applications are noted throughout this article.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: AC transmission lines can interconnect only synchronized AC networks with the same frequency with limits on the allowable phase difference between the two ends of the line. Many areas that wish to share power have unsynchronized networks. The power grids of the UK, Northern Europe and continental Europe are not united into a single synchronized network. Japan has 50 Hz and 60 Hz networks. Continental North America, while operating at 60 Hz throughout, is divided into regions which are unsynchronized: East, West, Texas, Quebec, and Alaska. Brazil and Paraguay, which share the enormous Itaipu Dam hydroelectric plant, operate on 60 Hz and 50 Hz respectively. However, HVDC systems make it possible to interconnect unsynchronized AC networks, and also add the possibility of controlling AC voltage and reactive power flow.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: A generator connected to a long AC transmission line may become unstable and fall out of synchronization with a distant AC power system. An HVDC transmission link may make it economically feasible to use remote generation sites. Wind farms located off-shore may use HVDC systems to collect power from multiple unsynchronized generators for transmission to the shore by an underwater cable.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: In general, however, an HVDC power line will interconnect two AC regions of the power-distribution grid. Machinery to convert between AC and DC power adds a considerable cost in power transmission. The conversion from AC to DC is known as rectification, and from DC to AC as inversion. Above a certain break-even distance (about 50 km; 30 miles for submarine cables, and perhaps 600–800 km; 400-500 miles for overhead cables), the lower cost of the HVDC electrical conductors outweighs the cost of the electronics.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The conversion electronics also present an opportunity to effectively manage the power grid by means of controlling the magnitude and direction of power flow. An additional advantage of the existence of HVDC links, therefore, is potential increased stability in the transmission grid.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: A number of studies have highlighted the potential benefits of very wide area super grids based on HVDC since they can mitigate the effects of intermittency by averaging and smoothing the outputs of large numbers of geographically dispersed wind farms or solar farms. Czisch's study concludes that a grid covering the fringes of Europe could bring 100% renewable power (70% wind, 30% biomass) at close to today's prices. There has been debate over the technical feasibility of this proposal and the political risks involved in energy transmission across a large number of international borders.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: The construction of such green power superhighways is advocated in a white paper that was released by the American Wind Energy Association and the Solar Energy Industries Association in 2009. Clean Line Energy Partners is developing four HVDC lines in the U.S. for long-distance electric power transmission.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: In January 2009, the European Commission proposed €300 million to subsidize the development of HVDC links between Ireland, Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, as part of a wider €1.2 billion package supporting links to offshore wind farms and cross-border interconnectors throughout Europe. Meanwhile, the recently founded Union of the Mediterranean has embraced a Mediterranean Solar Plan to import large amounts of concentrated solar power into Europe from North Africa and the Middle East. Japan-Taiwan-Philippines HVDC interconnector was proposed in 2020. The purpose of this interconnector is to facilitate cross-border renewable power trading with Indonesia and Australia, in preparation for the future Asian Pacific Super Grid.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: UHVDC (ultrahigh-voltage direct-current) is shaping up to be the latest technological front in high voltage DC transmission technology. UHVDC is defined as DC voltage transmission of above 800 kV (HVDC is generally just 100 to 800 kV).


title: High-voltage direct current

text: One of the problems with current UHVDC supergrids is that – although less than AC transmission or DC transmission at lower voltages – they still suffer from power loss as the length is extended. A typical loss for 800 kV lines is 2.6% over 800 km (500 miles). Increasing the transmission voltage on such lines reduces the power loss, but until recently, the interconnectors required to bridge the segments were prohibitively expensive. However, with advances in manufacturing, it is becoming more and more feasible to build UHVDC lines.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: In 2010, ABB Group built the world's first 800 kV UHVDC in China. The Zhundong–Wannan UHVDC line with 1100 kV, 3400 km (2100 miles) length and 12 GW capacity was completed in 2018. As of 2020, at least thirteen UHVDC transmission lines in China have been completed.


title: High-voltage direct current

text: While the majority of recent UHVDC technology deployment is in China, it has also been deployed in South America as well as other parts of Asia. In India, a 1830 km (1140 mile), 800 kV, 6 GW line between Raigarh and Pugalur is expected to be completed in 2019. In Brazil, the Xingu-Estreito line over 2076 km (1290 miles) with 800 kV and 4 GW was completed in 2017, and the Xingu-Rio line over 2543 km (1580 miles) with 800 kV and 4 GW was completed in 2019, both to transmit the energy from Belo Monte Dam. As of 2020, no UHVDC line (≥ 800 kV) exists in Europe or North America.


title: Musical Youth

text: Musical Youth are a British-Jamaican reggae band formed in 1979 in Birmingham, England. They are best remembered for their 1982 single "Pass the Dutchie", which was a number 1 in multiple charts around the world. Their other hits include "Youth of Today", "Never Gonna Give You Up", and a collaboration with Donna Summer, "Unconditional Love". Musical Youth recorded two albums and earned a Grammy Award nomination before disbanding in 1985 after a series of personal problems. The band returned in 2001 as a duo.


title: Musical Youth

text: The group was formed in 1979 by the fathers of Kelvin and Michael Grant, and Frederick (known as Junior) and Patrick Waite, respectively, who put together a band featuring their sons. The Waites' father, Frederick Waite Sr., had been a member of the Jamaican reggae group the Techniques. At the start of Musical Youth's career, he sang lead with Junior. Musical Youth were influenced by reggae artists such as Sugar Minott, Aswad, Gregory Isaacs, Dennis Brown, John Holt and Beshara. Although schoolboys (attending the Duddeston Manor School), the group managed to secure gigs at different Birmingham pubs and released a double single in 1981, including songs "Generals" and "Political", on a local label 021 Records, named after the then-Birmingham area code. An appearance on BBC Radio 1 John Peel's evening show brought further attention to the group, and they were signed to MCA Records. By that time, Frederick Waite Jr. was replaced by Dennis Seaton as the group's lead singer.


title: Musical Youth

text: In September 1982, the group issued the single "Pass the Dutchie", adapted from the Mighty Diamonds' "Pass the Kouchie". The record went to number one in the UK Singles Chart in October 1982, as well as Ireland, Australia, Canada, and a number of other countries around the world. It also reached the top 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in the United States, and went on to sell over four million copies. Musical Youth would also be the first black act to have a music video played on the newly founded channel MTV. Their debut album "The Youth of Today", released in the same year, placed in the top 40 in the UK, Germany and the US, and the top 10 in Canada. It was certified gold in the UK and Canada. The follow-up singles, "Youth of Today", released at the end of the year, and "Never Gonna Give You Up", released early in 1983, reached number 13 and 6 in the UK, respectively, and were moderately successful in the international charts. The next single, "Heartbreaker", was only a minor UK success.


title: Musical Youth

text: The band released the new single "Tell Me Why" in mid-1983, a cover of a 1974 John Holt song, which reached the top 40 in several European countries. The follow-up, a cover of Desmond Dekker's "007" was a moderate hit only in the British market. In the meantime, the group featured on Donna Summer's song "Unconditional Love" which was a hit in the UK, reaching number 14. They also took part in her 1983 TV special "A Hot Summer Night with Donna". Musical Youth's second album, "Different Style!", was released in 1983 and showcased a more R&B-influenced repertoire to make the band more accessible in North America. It was reflected in the lead single in that market, "She's Trouble", but it only achieved minor success. The album itself turned out a commercial failure on both European and American markets, though the band received a nomination for the Best New Artist award at the 26th Grammy Awards. After one final UK hit in early 1984 with "Sixteen", featuring Jody Watley, their commercial success ended and the next two singles, "Whatcha Talking 'Bout" and "Let's Go to the Moon", penned by Stevie Wonder and Eddy Grant, respectively, failed to enter the charts.


title: Musical Youth

text: With their careers going downhill, the band members became embroiled in legal, financial and personal problems. In 1985, Dennis Seaton left the band, leading to its dissolution. In 1989, he released a solo album "Imagine That..." which passed without a success. Plans for a reunion of Musical Youth were halted when Patrick Waite suddenly died in February 1993, at the age of 24, having collapsed at home from a hereditary heart condition, awaiting court appearance. 1994 saw the release of a compilation album, "Anthology", and a single with remixes of "Pass the Dutchie", followed by another compilation, "Maximum Volume... The Best of Musical Youth", in 1995. Michael Grant co-founded the band 5am which released two singles in 1996, and went on to produce remixes for Da Brat, Kelly Rowland, and Lemar, among others. In 2000, they founded 5am Records, a label focused mainly on R&B and gospel music. Seaton formed his own band, XMY, and opened a car rental company. Junior Waite had been suffering from mental illness, and his former bandmates stated that he was unlikely to recover.


title: Musical Youth

text: In 2001, Dennis Seaton and Michael Grant reformed Musical Youth as a duo. The planned tour was cancelled due to the September 11 attacks, but in 2003, the band performed as part of the Here and Now tour, an annual series of nostalgia concerts featuring musicians of the 1980s. They featured on Pato Banton's 2004 single "Pretty Woman", and performed at a festival in Wiesen, Austria in 2005. The band's new music was made available for purchase exclusively from their website. In 2008, Musical Youth released a re-recorded version of "Pass the Dutchie", followed by a cover of Boney M.'s "Mary's Boy Child – Oh My Lord" in 2009, and Jimmy Cliff's "The Harder They Come" in 2013. The latter was the lead single from their new album, initially titled "Reggae for the People" and later renamed "When Reggae Was King". It was scheduled for release in 2016, but after several pushbacks, it was eventually released on CD in March 2018 and in digital distribution in 2020. Former member Kelvin Grant has continued solo career, performing and releasing new material, most recently the album "Defend Them" in 2018.


title: Musical Youth

text: Frederick Waite Jr. (born on 23 May 1967) died in Birmingham on 20 July 2022, at the age of 55. His death was announced on 11 August. The cause of death was not immediately available. An inquest into his death has been formally opened and is expected to finish in January 2023.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: Robert Baratheon is a fictional character in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series of epic fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin, and its television adaptation "Game of Thrones", where he is portrayed by English actor Mark Addy.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: Introduced in 1996's "A Game of Thrones", Robert is the eldest son and heir of Lord Steffon Baratheon. He is a close friend to Ned Stark, both being wards of Lord Jon Arryn. After his betrothed Lyanna Stark was allegedly kidnapped by prince Rhaegar Targaryen, Robert, Ned and Jon started a rebellion against the "Mad King" Aerys II Targaryen. After crushing the Targaryen dynasty and winning the war, during which Lyanna died, Robert took the Iron Throne. He married Tywin Lannister's daughter Cersei to ensure political stability. Although Robert's reign is relatively peaceful, he proves to be an ineffective ruler. He is unhappy in both his marriage to Cersei, whom he abuses, and his responsibilities as king, and lives a life of infidelity and wanton excess. He fathers many bastards, and is unaware that his three children with Cersei had been fathered by her twin brother Jaime Lannister.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: Although Robert is killed in the first novel, the legacy of his rebellion and reign continues to have a great impact on the contemporary events of Westeros. His death creates a power vacuum in which his brothers, Cersei's eldest son Joffrey, and several other claimants fight for control of the Seven Kingdoms, known as the War of Five Kings.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: Robert Baratheon was the oldest son and heir of Lord Steffon Baratheon and Lady Cassana Estermont. In his youth, he was the ward of Jon Arryn and was raised at the Eyrie alongside Eddard Stark, with whom he was closer than his brothers. When he was 16, his parents drowned and died during a storm, and he became the Lord of Storm's End. He was betrothed to Ned's younger sister Lyanna, with whom he was madly (and unrequitedly) in love. After Lyanna disappeared with Rhaegar Targaryen, and the execution of Eddard's father, Rickard and brother, Brandon Stark King Aerys II called for Robert and Ned's heads. Jon Arryn refused and began what is now called Robert's Rebellion. Robert played a key role in the downfall of the Targaryen dynasty and killed Rhaegar in single combat. He married Cersei Lannister to ensure House Lannister's support for his rule.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: Robert is in his mid-thirties when the events of the books begin. Although being a quarter Targaryen (through his paternal grandmother Rhaelle), Robert has the classical Baratheon look: black hair and bright blue eyes, with dense black body hair on his chest and around his sex. He is a very tall man, with Eddard estimating his height to be . As a young adult, Robert was handsome, clean-shaven, strong and powerful, and muscled "like a maiden's fantasy". However, after he won the Iron Throne, Robert becomes very obese due to excessive feasting and drinking, gaining at least of weight, and turns into an often red-faced man with dark circles underneath his eyes and appears half-drunk and sweating when walking, with a wild, thick, fierce beard that hides his double chin.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: In his youth, Robert is fearless in battle with a powerful voice, wielding a large spiked iron war hammer too heavy for Eddard Stark to lift, and was a formidable warrior well-loved by soldiers. Though headstrong, rash, and impatient, Robert can be merciful towards his enemies as long as they are honest and brave, and can inspire loyalty and friendship in even enemies via charisma alone. Although deconditioned after becoming king due to weight gain and frequent drinking, Jaime Lannister still believes that Robert is stronger than him.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: Robert is a jovial man of huge appetites and knows to indulge in pleasures. He is quite promiscuous, having fathered multiple bastard children (17 according to the prophecy by Lannisport fortuneteller Maggy the Frog) with whores or any women he encounters, and his lusts are the subject of ribald drinking songs throughout the realms. As king, Robert is known to impose upon the hospitality (voluntarily or not) of his subjects, but at the same time also possesses a rather careless generosity. A proud man, Robert rarely backs down on words spoken in a drunken rant. As king, Robert is no longer used to someone disagreeing with him, which makes him vulnerable to manipulation by others. Robert loathes his responsibilities as king and frequently expresses his preference to winning the throne in battle rather than sitting on it. He has never truly loved his wife and is unaware that none of his three children with her are his, but instead Jaime Lannister's. Under his reign, the realm has been bankrupted, and Robert is deeply in debt to his wife's family. Tyrion Lannister considers Robert to be "a great blustering oaf", while Varys describes him as a fool. His queen wife, Cersei Lannister, considers him to be an ignorant, dumb, slow-witted, drunken brute who does not have the ruthless streak she believes a king requires. According to Petyr Baelish, Robert is practised at closing his eyes to things he would rather not see.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: Robert Baratheon is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are mainly witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of Ned Stark. He only appears in the first book of the series "A Game of Thrones", though he is mentioned numerous times in the later books by characters such as Cersei Lannister.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: King Robert has come to Winterfell to appoint his close friend Eddard Stark the Hand of The King, after the untimely death of Jon Arryn. He was unaware that Cersei's three children were fathered by her twin brother Jaime. More interested in food, drink, and tourneys than in governance, Robert has squandered the royal treasury, leaving the crown heavily in debt. After a hunting accident orchestrated by Cersei, Robert is mortally wounded by a wild boar and appoints Eddard as the regent for his son Joffrey. After Robert's death, Eddard loses the political struggle against the Lannisters and is later publicly executed by beheading. The kingdoms plunge into civil war known as the War of the Five Kings (which encompasses the entirety of the following two books) in which Robert's two brothers Renly and Stannis Baratheon both declare themselves the rightful kings. Eddard's vengeful son Robb and later Balon Greyjoy also secede and declare kingships.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: Mark Addy plays Robert Baratheon in the television adaption of the series of books. According to showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss, Addy's audition for the role was the best they had seen and he was the easiest actor to cast for the show.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: Robert's storyline is the same in the show as it is in the novels. However, his wife Cersei reveals that she had one stillborn son by him, which is not the case in the novels, where Cersei uses guile and trickery to prevent him from ever actually engaging in sexual intercourse with her while drunk.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: After his death, Robert's bastards are ordered to be killed by his heir Joffrey Baratheon, Robert's supposed legal heir and the new king; Gendry, subsequently flees the capital.


title: Robert Baratheon

text: In seasons six and seven, Bran Stark's gift of vision as the Three-Eyed Raven revealed to him the truth of Rhaegar and Lyanna's relationship and states that 'Robert's Rebellion was built on a lie'.


title: Arundel Castle

text: Arundel Castle is a restored and remodelled medieval castle in Arundel, West Sussex, England. It was established during the reign of Edward the Confessor and completed by Roger de Montgomery. The castle was damaged in the English Civil War and then restored in the 18th and 19th centuries by Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk.


title: Arundel Castle

text: Since the 11th century, the castle has been the seat of the Earls of Arundel and the Dukes of Norfolk. It is a Grade I listed building.


title: Arundel Castle

text: The original structure was a motte-and-bailey castle. Roger de Montgomery was declared the first Earl of Arundel as the King granted him the property as part of a much larger package of hundreds of manors. Roger, who was a cousin of William the Conqueror, had stayed in Normandy to keep the peace there while William was away in England. He was rewarded for his loyalty with extensive lands in the Welsh Marches and across the country, together with one fifth of Sussex (Arundel Rape). He began work on Arundel Castle in around 1067.


title: Arundel Castle

text: The castle then passed to Adeliza of Louvain (who had previously been married to Henry I) and her husband William d'Aubigny. Empress Matilda stayed in the castle, in 1139. It then passed down the d'Aubigny line until the death of Hugh d'Aubigny, 5th Earl of Arundel in 1243. John Fitzalan then inherited "jure matris" the castle and honour of Arundel, by which, according to Henry VI's "admission" of 1433, he was later retrospectively held to have become "de jure" Earl of Arundel.


title: Arundel Castle

text: The FitzAlan male line ceased on the death of Henry Fitzalan, 12th Earl of Arundel, whose daughter and heiress Mary FitzAlan married Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk in 1555, to whose descendants the castle and earldom passed.


title: Arundel Castle

text: In 1643, during the First English Civil War, the castle was besieged. The 800 royalists inside surrendered after 18 days. Afterwards in 1653 Parliament ordered the slighting of the castle; however "weather probably destroyed more".


title: Arundel Castle

text: Although the castle remained in the hands of the Howard family over the succeeding centuries, it was not their favourite residence, and the various Dukes of Norfolk invested their time and energy into improving other ducal estates, including Norfolk House in London. Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, was known for his restoration work and improvements to the castle beginning in 1787. The folly that still stands on the hill above Swanbourne Lake was commissioned by and built for the Duke by Francis Hiorne at this time.


title: Arundel Castle

text: In 1846, Queen Victoria and her husband, Prince Albert, visited Arundel Castle for three days. Henry Howard, 13th Duke of Norfolk, internally remodelled the castle in time for her visit. The architectural firm responsible for design of the furniture was named Morant. The work included a suite of six rooms, built on the second floor of the south-east range at this time.


title: Arundel Castle

text: After the 1846 Royal visit the 15th Duke began re-structuring the castle again from 1875-1905. The work, which was done to the designs of Charles Alban Buckler and undertaken by Rattee and Kett of Cambridge, was completed in the late 19th century. The 16th Duke had planned to give the castle to the National Trust but following his death in 1975 the 17th Duke cancelled the plan. He created an independent charitable trust to guarantee the castle's future, and oversaw restorative works.


title: Arundel Castle

text: The extensive gardens had received significant improvements by early 2020 through the efforts of head gardener Martin Duncan and his crew. A horticulturalist and landscape designer, Duncan has been working at the Castle since 2009; in 2018, he received the Kew Guild Medal. The gardeners and volunteers "have worked wonders with their bold and innovative plantings", according to an April 2020 report by "Country Life". Their most recent efforts led to a wild water garden around the ponds.


title: Arundel Castle

text: The cricket field in the castle grounds has, since 1895, seen matches of standards involving teams from local youths to international sides.


title: Arundel Castle

text: Arundel Castle has been used as a filming location for several television and film productions. The BBC filmed extensively at the castle and its grounds in 1988 for the "Doctor Who" serial "Silver Nemesis", where it doubled for Windsor Castle. It also doubled for Windsor Castle in the 1994 film "The Madness of King George". Arundel Castle was also a location for the 2009 film "The Young Victoria", and the 2017 DC film "Wonder Woman".


title: Arundel Castle

text: In Thomas Malory's epic "Morte D'Arthur", Arundel Castle is the castle of Anglides, the mother of Alisander le Orphelin.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga University (GU) () is a private Jesuit university in Spokane, Washington. It is accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities. Founded in 1887 by Joseph Cataldo, an Italian-born priest and Jesuit missionary, the university is named after the young Jesuit saint Aloysius Gonzaga. The campus houses 105 buildings on 152 acres (62 ha) of grassland alongside the Spokane River, in a residential setting a half-mile (800 m) from downtown Spokane.


title: Gonzaga University

text: The university grants bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and doctoral degrees through its college and six schools: the College of Arts & Sciences, School of Business Administration, School of Education, School of Engineering & Applied Science, School of Law, School of Nursing & Human Physiology, and the School of Leadership Studies.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga University was founded in 1887 by Italian-American Joseph Cataldo (1837–1928), who had come in 1865 as a Jesuit missionary to the Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest. In 1880, Cataldo built a schoolhouse about northeast of Spokane on the Peone Prairie, to serve children of the Upper Spokane Indians. Cataldo was concerned about the influence and expansion of Protestant schools on the region's native people, and by 1881 was discussing building a Jesuit college with other Jesuit leaders.


title: Gonzaga University

text: The Jesuits chose a location at Spokane Falls (later Spokane) due to its centrality in the Washington, Idaho and Montana region. The Jesuits purchased 320 acres of prime real estate in the city's central business district north of the Spokane River for $936. The Northern Pacific Railway was holding the land in reserve, but Cataldo was able to convince railroad executive John W. Sprague to allow the sale to build the school.


title: Gonzaga University

text: The City of Spokane offered to help pay to build the new college, on the condition that it be a whites only school, in spite of Cataldo's original purpose to educate the local native population. Cataldo's letters seeking the support of Church leadership in Rome warned that Methodists and other Protestants were building schools and that the city funding could go to them if the school was not built soon enough.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Construction was delayed until 1886, and the school opened in 1887 with Father James Rebmann serving as the first Father Superior and seven boys enrolled. They were taught by 17 faculty, made up of Jesuit priests and Jesuits in training, scholastics. By the end of the year, more students enrolled, and two were expelled, ending the year with a student body of 18 boys, all white. Father Joseph Joset, a Jesuit missionary, attempted to enroll two native American boys but was rebuffed due to the whites-only policy. Father Rebmann told Joset that the school was only open to "Americans," which he did not consider Indians to be. Non-Catholic boys were also rejected, at least in the college's first years.


title: Gonzaga University

text: The students who had been expelled might have run afoul of rules against offenses like theft, disobedience, impurity, or bans on alcohol and tobacco. The boys were supervised at all times, and not allowed off-campus without a chaperone present. They woke at 5:30 AM, and worked continuously until lights out at 8:30 PM. Students attended Mass six days a week, twice on Sundays, and faced often daunting advancement exams. The school was divided into a Preparatory section for elementary school-age boys, an Academic section with Third, Second, and First divisions, and an upper-division like a liberal arts college, for Poetry, Rhetoric and Philosophy. In the second year, enrollment began with 35 boys, 27 of whom were still attending at year's end. By 1890, three of the original 17 faculty members remained. The original Father Superior was followed by Father Charles Mackin, who was replaced in 1891 by Father John Baptist Rene. He served until 1893 and was replaced by Father Leopold Van Gorp.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Students were not allowed to advance to higher forms except upon passage of rigorous examinations. Examinations were rigorous and overseen by the Prefect of Studies. The examinations were so difficult that students would sometimes become very ill from anxiety while preparing for them and some students withdrew rather than face them.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga conferred its first Bachelor of Arts degrees to two students. A four-story building was planned in 1897, and opened in 1899 as the New Gonzaga. In 1892, with an enrollment of 50 boys, football, called "college-down", was first played at Gonzaga on Thanksgiving Day. The same year, Gonzaga added a new dormitory, and a wood-framed St. Aloysius Church, and the campus got electric power service for the first time.


title: Gonzaga University

text: In 2018, the Center for Investigative Reporting published evidence that the Cardinal Bea House, owned by the Jesuit order and located on Gonzaga's campus, was used by the Catholic Church as a retirement home for priests with histories of sexual predation and abuse from across the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, from the 1970s through 2016. Sexually abusive priests were quietly kept there, out of contact with vulnerable populations yet shielded from any liability for the abuse they had committed. The last abusive priest moved out of the Cardinal Bea House in 2016.


title: Gonzaga University

text: The Spokane "Spokesman-Review" newspaper questioned Gonzaga President Thayne McCulloh's statements that he did not know, before or during his time as president, about the abusive priests kept on campus.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga's main campus has 105 buildings on 152 acres in the Logan Neighborhood. The university has two large libraries. Foley Center Library is Gonzaga's main graduate and undergraduate library, opened in 1992. Chastek Law Library primarily serves the Gonzaga University School of Law, erected in 2000. The Rosauer School of Education building was completed in 1994.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga hosts many unique pieces of artwork, largely devoted to historical religious figures and prominent Catholics. Among the most notable are statues of St. Ignatius, St. Joseph, St. Aloysius, and alumnus Bing Crosby by Deborah Copenhaver Fellows. The Jundt Art Center and Museum established in 1995 also has a variety of artwork from differing periods. The spires of St. Aloysius Church are a landmark of the Spokane area.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Due to an expanding student body, Gonzaga completed construction of a $60 million building that serves as the new Circulus Omnium Gonzagaorum (COG) "center of campus," the John J. Hemmingson Center which replaced the former COG that students used for over 60 years. The three-story building with almost 4 acres (1.6 ha; 167,000 sq ft) of floor space has an all-glass exterior. It was completed in time for the Fall 2015 semester. It also earned a Gold LEED certification.


title: Gonzaga University

text: In 2014, the university made plans to build a performing arts center named after benefactor Myrtle Woldson that would have a 750-seat theater.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga's liberal arts tradition lies in its core curriculum, which integrates philosophy, religious studies, mathematics, literature, natural and social sciences, and extensive writing in each major discipline. Gonzaga has studies in 92 fields and 26 graduate programs. It has programs in preparation for professional schools in business, education, engineering, dentistry, divinity/theology, law, medicine, nursing, and veterinary medicine. It sponsors an Army ROTC program which prepares students to become commissioned officers upon graduation.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga partners with Bishop White Seminary, located next to the campus, to prepare Catholic seminarians for the priesthood. Students may study abroad at Gonzaga's campus in Florence, Italy, or at other programs in Australia, Benin, Denmark, China, Costa Rica, England, France, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, Spain and Zambia.


title: Gonzaga University

text: As of 2015, the average class size was 23 students and there were 427 employed faculty; the student-to-faculty ratio was 11.5:1.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga's undergraduate admission standards are considered "more selective" by "U.S. News & World Report".


title: Gonzaga University

text: For the undergraduate Class of 2021 (enrolling fall 2017), Gonzaga received 7,162 applications, accepted 4,835 (67.5%), and enrolled 1,048. The freshman enrolled for 2017 had an average GPA of 3.76, an average ACT of 27, an average SAT Critical Reading score of 597, an average Math score of 607, and an average composite score of 1204.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga is ranked 79th in the "U.S. News & World Report" 2020 rankings of national universities. The School of Engineering and Applied Science is ranked tied for 18th best undergraduate engineering program nationwide at schools where doctorates are not offered. "Forbes" ranks Gonzaga the 170th best school in the country, 110th in private colleges, and 31st overall in the West. Additionally, Gonzaga is listed among "The Princeton Review"'s rankings of the best 382 colleges and in the "Fiske Guide to Colleges", which ranks 321 colleges in the United States, Canada, and England.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga University is part of the NCAA Division I West Coast Conference. Their official mascot is the Bulldog and players are nicknamed the "Zags". Gonzaga has 16 men's and women's varsity sports, including baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, rowing, soccer, tennis, volleyball, and track & field (indoor & outdoor).


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga's men's basketball team has 16 WCC regular titles, 6 "Sweet 16's," produced 15 All Americans, a national CBS-Chevrolet Player of the Year and USBWA Oscar Robertson Trophy in Adam Morrison, and 10 NBA first round picks . Additionally, in 2013, Canadian center Kelly Olynyk, a national Player of the Year finalist, was selected as a first team All American. In the 2012–13 season, Gonzaga was ranked No. 1 by the AP for the first time in school history. Its highest ranking before that came in 2004, when the Bulldogs were ranked No. 2. Gonzaga advanced to the Elite 8 of the 2015 NCAA tournament, losing to eventual national champion and No. 1 ranked Duke.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Basketball games are held in the McCarthey Athletic Center. The university's men's basketball team, which did not make its first appearance in the NCAA tournament until 1995 (more than a decade after NBA Hall of Fame player and Gonzaga alum John Stockton graduated), made the regional finals of the NCAA tournament (the "Elite Eight") in 1999, re-appearing in the tournament every year since (). The women's basketball team made it to the "Sweet Sixteen" in 2010.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Like many colleges, Gonzaga put its football program on hiatus during World War II; the announcement was made in April 1942. After the war the administration decided not to resume it; the program had been in financial difficulty prior to the war. Gonzaga football produced two Pro Football Hall of Famers: Tony Canadeo (1941) of the Green Bay Packers, and Ray Flaherty (1926), head coach of the Washington Redskins. In addition, Flaherty recruited former Bulldog football stars Ed Justice, George "Automatic" Karamatic, and Max Krause to play in the Redskin backfield.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga University has intramural and club sports for each season, open to all students, and over 72% of the student population participates at various levels from competitive to recreational. In the fall, Gonzaga has soccer, flag football, volleyball, dodgeball, 3-on-3 basketball, badminton, and various tournaments. In the winter, it has soccer, ultimate frisbee, pickleball, bench press competitions, innertube basketball, and handball tournaments. In the spring there is softball, volleyball, triathlon, soccer, and home run derbies.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Since the mid-1990s, Gonzaga has become known for its men's basketball program. The Zags (as they are popularly known) have participated in every single March Madness tournament since 1999, and were national runners up in 2017 and 2021. (see Gonzaga Bulldogs men's basketball)


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga also has an Army ROTC Ranger Challenge team, which has won 15 championships in the last 16 years. It has repeatedly won the Douglas MacArthur Award, given annually to the best Army ROTC program in the Western United States.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga Student Body Association is in charge of the clubs and activities on campus. Elections for its offices (e.g., President, Vice President, Senator) take place annually during the spring.


title: Gonzaga University

text: "The Gonzaga Bulletin" is the official, weekly student newspaper of Gonzaga University. The newspaper is primarily staffed by students of the journalism and broadcasting department of the university's communication arts department; it is managed by a faculty adviser and an advisory board, which reports to the university president. During the 1990s, the paper was recognized for its independence and excellence by the Society of Professional Journalists, winning Best Paper in the Inland Northwest Award twice. "The Gonzaga Bulletin" is produced on the fourth floor of Gonzaga's College Hall and printed off-site in Spokane.


title: Gonzaga University

text: "Spires" is Gonzaga's official yearbook. It details the academic year through pictures and articles and is distributed at the beginning of each year free to all students. To ensure being included in the yearbook, students have their pictures taken during the opening weekend or Fall Family weekend.


title: Gonzaga University

text: "Gonzaga Journal of International Law" is the School of Law's second legal journal, founded in 1997, and is published entirely online, allowing for a variety of publishing dates.


title: Gonzaga University

text: Gonzaga University alumni include former Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Tom Foley, former Governor of the State of Washington Christine Gregoire, Academy Award-winning singer and actor Bing Crosby, NBA Hall of Fame basketball player John Stockton, Major League Baseball pitcher Eli Morgan, and world-class mountain climber Jim Wickwire.


title: Roman currency

text: Roman currency for most of Roman history consisted of gold, silver, bronze, orichalcum and copper coinage. From its introduction to the Republic, during the third century BC, well into Imperial times, Roman currency saw many changes in form, denomination, and composition. A persistent feature was the inflationary debasement and replacement of coins over the centuries. Notable examples of this followed the reforms of Diocletian. This trend continued into Byzantine times.


title: Roman currency

text: Due to the economic power and longevity of the Roman state, Roman currency was widely used throughout western Eurasia and northern Africa from classical times into the Middle Ages. It served as a model for the currencies of the Muslim caliphates and the European states during the Middle Ages and the Modern Era. Roman currency names survive today in many countries, such as the Arabic dinar (from the "denarius" coin), the British pound, and the peso (both translations of the Roman "libra").


title: Roman currency

text: The manufacture of coins in the Roman culture, dating from about the 4th century BC, significantly influenced later development of coin minting in Europe. The origin of the word "mint" is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC near the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture. Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new emperor's portrait. Some of the emperors who ruled only for a short time made sure that a coin bore their image; Quietus, for example, ruled only part of the Roman Empire from 260 to 261 AD, and yet he issued thirteen coins bearing his image from three mints. The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they did not know about striking, but because it was not suitable for such large masses of metal.


title: Roman currency

text: Roman adoption of metallic commodity money was a late development in monetary history. Bullion bars and ingots were used as money in Mesopotamia since the 7th millennium BC; and Greeks in Asia Minor had pioneered the use of coinage (which they employed in addition to other more primitive, monetary mediums of exchange) as early as the 7th century BC.


title: Roman currency

text: Coinage proper was only introduced by the republican government c. 300 BC. The greatest city of the Magna Graecia region in southern Italy, and several other Italian cities, already had a long tradition of using coinage by this time and produced them in large quantities during the 4th century BC to pay for their wars against the inland Italian groups encroaching on their territory. For these reasons, the Romans would have certainly known about coinage systems long before their government actually introduced them. Eventually, the economic conditions of the Second Punic War forced the Romans to fully adopt a coinage system.


title: Roman currency

text: The type of money introduced by Rome was unlike that found elsewhere in the ancient Mediterranean. It combined a number of uncommon elements. One example is the large bronze bullion, the ' (Latin for "signed bronze"). It measured about and weighed around , being made out of a highly leaded tin bronze. Although similar metal currency bars had been produced in Italy and northern Etruscan areas, these had been made of ', an unrefined metal with a high iron content.


title: Roman currency

text: Along with the "aes signatum", the Roman state also issued a series of bronze and silver coins that emulated the styles of those produced in Greek cities. Produced using the manner of manufacture then utilised in Greek Naples, the designs of these early coins were also heavily influenced by Greek designs.


title: Roman currency

text: The designs on the coinage of the Republican period displayed a "solid conservatism", usually illustrating mythical scenes or personifications of various gods and goddesses.


title: Roman currency

text: The imagery on coins took an important step when Julius Caesar issued coins bearing his own portrait. While moneyers had earlier issued coins with portraits of ancestors, Caesar's was the third Roman coinage to feature the depiction of a living individual. Although living Romans had appeared on coinage before, in the words of Clare Rowan (2019) "The appearance of Caesar's portrait on Roman denarii in 44 BC is often seen as a revolutionary moment in Roman history..." The appearance of Julius Caesar implemented a new standard, and the tradition continued following Caesar's assassination, although the Roman emperors from time to time also produced coins featuring the traditional deities and personifications found on earlier coins. The image of the emperor took on a special importance in the centuries that followed, because during the Empire the emperor embodied the state and its policies. The names of moneyers continued to appear on the coins until the middle of Augustus' reign. Although the duty of moneyers during the Empire is not known, since the position was not abolished, it is believed that they still had some influence over the imagery of the coins.


title: Roman currency

text: The main focus of the imagery during the Empire was on the portrait of the emperor. Coins were an important means of disseminating this image throughout the Empire. Coins often attempted to make the emperor appear god-like through associating the emperor with attributes normally seen in divinities, or emphasizing the special relationship between the emperor and a particular deity by producing a preponderance of coins depicting that deity. During his campaign against Pompey, Caesar issued a variety of types that featured images of either Venus or Aeneas, attempting to associate himself with his divine ancestors. An example of an emperor who went to an extreme in proclaiming divine status was Commodus. In AD 192 , he issued a series of coins depicting his bust clad in a lion-skin (the usual depiction of Hercules) on the obverse, and an inscription proclaiming that he was the Roman incarnation of Hercules on the reverse. Although Commodus was excessive in his depiction of his image, this extreme case is indicative of the objective of many emperors in the exploitation of their portraits. While the emperor is by far the most frequent portrait on the obverse of coins, heirs apparent, predecessors, and other family members, such as empresses, were also featured. To aid in succession, the legitimacy of an heir was affirmed by producing coins for that successor. This was done from the time of Augustus till the end of the Empire.


title: Roman currency

text: Featuring the portrait of an individual on a coin, which became legal in 44 BC, caused the coin to be viewed as embodying the attributes of the individual portrayed. Cassius Dio wrote that following the death of Caligula the Senate demonetized his coinage and ordered that they be melted. Regardless of whether or not this actually occurred, it demonstrates the importance and meaning that was attached to the imagery on a coin. The philosopher Epictetus jokingly wrote: "Whose image does this sestertius carry? Trajan's? Give it to me. Nero's? Throw it away, it is unacceptable, it is rotten." Although the writer did not seriously expect people to get rid of their coins, this quotation demonstrates that the Romans attached a moral value to the images on their coins. Unlike the obverse, which during the Imperial period almost always featured a portrait, the reverse was far more varied in its depiction. During the late Republic there were often political messages to the imagery, especially during the periods of civil war. However, by the middle of the Empire, although there were types that made important statements, and some that were overtly political or propagandistic in nature, the majority of the types were stock images of personifications or deities. While some images can be related to the policy or actions of a particular emperor, many of the choices seem arbitrary and the personifications and deities were so prosaic that their names were often omitted, as they were readily recognizable by their appearance and attributes alone.


title: Roman currency

text: It can be argued that within this backdrop of mostly indistinguishable types, exceptions would be far more pronounced. Atypical reverses are usually seen during and after periods of war, at which time emperors make various claims of liberation, subjugation, and pacification. Some of these reverse images can clearly be classified as propaganda. An example struck by emperor Philip the Arab in 244 features a legend proclaiming the establishment of peace with Persia; in truth, Rome had been forced to pay large sums in tribute to the Persians.


title: Roman currency

text: Although it is difficult to make accurate generalizations about reverse imagery, as this was something that varied by emperor, some trends do exist. An example is reverse types of the military emperors during the second half of the third century, where virtually all of the types were the common and standard personifications and deities. A possible explanation for the lack of originality is that these emperors were attempting to present conservative images to establish their legitimacy, something that many of these emperors lacked. Although these emperors relied on traditional reverse types, their portraits often emphasized their authority through stern gazes, and even featured the bust of the emperor clad in armor.


title: Roman currency

text: Unlike most modern coins, Roman coins had (at least in the early centuries) significant intrinsic value. However, while the gold and silver issues contained precious metals, the value of a coin could be slightly higher than its precious metal content, so they were not, strictly speaking, equivalent to bullion. Also, over the course of time the purity and weight of the silver coins were reduced. Estimates of the value of the "denarius" range from 1.6 to 2.85 times its metal content, thought to equal the purchasing power of 10 modern British pound sterling at the beginning of the Roman Empire to around 18 pound sterling by its end (comparing bread, wine, and meat prices) and, over the same period, around one to three days' pay for a legionary.


title: Roman currency

text: The coinage system that existed in Egypt until the time of Diocletian's monetary reform was a closed system based upon the heavily debased tetradrachm. Although the value of these tetradrachms can be reckoned as being equivalent to that of the "denarius", their precious metal content was always much lower. Elsewhere also, not all coins that circulated contained precious metals, as the value of these coins was too great to be convenient for everyday purchases. A dichotomy existed between the coins with an intrinsic value and those with only a token value. This is reflected in the infrequent and inadequate production of bronze coinage during the Republic, where from the time of Sulla till the time of Augustus no bronze coins were minted at all; even during the periods when bronze coins were produced, their workmanship was sometimes very crude and of low quality.


title: Roman currency

text: The type of coins issued changed under the coinage reform of Diocletian, the heavily debased "antoninianus" (double "denarius") was replaced with a variety of new denominations, and a new range of imagery was introduced that attempted to convey different ideas. The new government set up by Diocletian was a Tetrarchy, or rule by four, with each emperor receiving a separate territory to rule.


title: Roman currency

text: The new imagery includes a large, stern portrait that is representative of the emperor. This image was not meant to show the actual portrait of a particular emperor, but was instead a character that embodied the power that the emperor possessed. The reverse type was equally universal, featuring the spirit (or genius) of the Romans. The introduction of a new type of government and a new system of coinage represents an attempt by Diocletian to return peace and security to Rome, after the previous century of constant warfare and uncertainty. Diocletian characterizes the emperor as an interchangeable authority figure by depicting him with a generalized image. He tries to emphasize unity amongst the Romans by featuring the spirit of Romans (Sutherland 254). The reverse types of coins of the late Empire emphasized general themes, and discontinued the more specific personifications depicted previously. The reverse types featured legends that proclaimed the glory of Rome, the glory of the Roman army, victory against the "barbarians", the restoration of happy times, and the greatness of the emperor.


title: Roman currency

text: These general types persisted even after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. Muted Christian imagery, such as standards that featured Christograms (the Chi Rho monogram for Jesus Christ's name in Greek) were introduced, but with a few rare exceptions, there were no explicitly Christian themes. From the time of Constantine the Great until the "end" of the Roman Empire, coins featured almost indistinguishable idealized portraits and general proclamations of greatness.


title: Roman currency

text: Although the "denarius" remained the backbone of the Roman economy from its introduction a few years before 211 BC until it ceased to be normally minted in the middle of the third century, the purity and weight of the coin slowly, but inexorably, decreased. The problem of debasement in the Roman economy appears to be pervasive, although the severity of the debasement often paralleled the strength or weakness of the Empire. While it is not clear why debasement became such a common occurrence for the Romans, it's believed that it was caused by several factors, including a lack of precious metals and inadequacies in state finances. When introduced, the "denarius" contained nearly pure silver at a theoretical weight of approximately 4.5 grams, but from the time of Nero onwards the tendency was nearly always for its purity to be decreased.


title: Roman currency

text: The theoretical standard, although not usually met in practice, remained fairly stable throughout the Republic, with the notable exception of times of war. The large number of coins required to raise an army and pay for supplies often necessitated the debasement of the coinage. An example of this is the "denarii" that were struck by Mark Antony to pay his army during his battles against Octavian. These coins, slightly smaller in diameter than a normal "denarius", were made of noticeably debased silver. The obverse features a galley and the name Antony, while the reverse features the name of the particular legion that each issue was intended for (hoard evidence shows that these coins remained in circulation over 200 years after they were minted, due to their lower silver content). The coinage of the Julio-Claudians remained stable at 4 grams of silver, until the debasement of Nero in 64, when the silver content was reduced to 3.8 grams, perhaps due to the cost of rebuilding the city after fire consumed a considerable portion of Rome.


title: Roman currency

text: The "denarius" continued to decline slowly in purity, with a notable reduction instituted by Septimius Severus. This was followed by the introduction of a double "denarius" piece, differentiated from the "denarius" by the radiate crown worn by the emperor. The coin is commonly called the "antoninianus" by numismatists after the emperor Caracalla, who introduced the coin in early 215. Although nominally valued at two "denarii", the "antoninianus" never contained more than 1.6 times the amount of silver of the "denarius". The profit of minting a coin valued at two "denarii", but weighing only about one and a half times as much is obvious; the reaction to these coins by the public is unknown. As the number of "antoniniani" minted increased, the number of "denarii" minted decreased, until the "denarius" ceased to be minted in significant quantities by the middle of the third century. Again, coinage saw its greatest debasement during times of war and uncertainty. The second half of the third century was rife with this war and uncertainty, and the silver content of the "antonianus" fell to only 2%, losing almost any appearance of being silver. During this time the "aureus" remained slightly more stable, before it too became smaller and more base (lower gold content and higher base metal content) before Diocletian's reform.


title: Roman currency

text: The decline in the silver content to the point where coins contained virtually no silver at all was countered by the monetary reform of Aurelian in 274. The standard for silver in the "antonianus" was set at twenty parts copper to one part silver, and the coins were noticeably marked as containing that amount (XXI in Latin or KA in Greek). Despite the reform of Aurelian, silver content continued to decline, until the monetary reform of Diocletian. In addition to establishing the Tetrarchy, Diocletian devised the following system of denominations: an "aureus" struck at the standard of 60 to the pound, a new silver coin struck at the old Neronian standard known as the "argenteus", and a new large bronze coin that contained two percent silver.


title: Roman currency

text: Diocletian issued an Edict on Maximum Prices in 301, which attempted to establish the legal maximum prices that could be charged for goods and services. The attempt to establish maximum prices was an exercise in futility as maximum prices were impossible to enforce. The Edict was reckoned in terms of "denarii", although no such coin had been struck for over 50 years (it is believed that the bronze "follis" was valued at denarii). Like earlier reforms, this too eroded and was replaced by an uncertain coinage consisting mostly of gold and bronze. The exact relationship and denomination of the bronze issues of a variety of sizes is not known, and is believed to have fluctuated heavily on the market.


title: Roman currency

text: The exact reason that Roman coinage sustained continuous debasement is not known, but the most common theories involve inflation, trade with India (which drained silver from the Mediterranean world) and inadequacies in state finances. It is clear from papyri that the pay of the Roman soldier increased from 900 "sestertii" a year under Augustus to 2,000 "sestertii" a year under Septimius Severus, while the price of grain more than tripled, indicating a fall in real wages and moderate inflation during this time.


title: Roman currency

text: The first rows show the values of each boldface coin in the first column in relation to the coins in the following columns:


title: Cornrows

text: Cornrows are a traditional style of braids in which the hair is braided very close to the scalp, using an underhand, upward motion to make a continuous, raised row. Cornrows are often done in simple, straight lines, as the term implies, but they can also be styled in elaborate geometric or curvilinear designs.


title: Cornrows

text: Depending on the region of the world, cornrows are worn by both sexes, and are, on some occasions, adorned with beads, hair cuffs, or cowrie shells. The duration of weaving cornrow braids may take up to about 5 hours, depending on its quantity and width. Often favored for their easy maintenance, cornrows can be left in for weeks at a time if maintained through careful washing of the hair and natural oiling of the scalp. Braids are considered a protective styling on African curly hair as they allow for easy and restorative growth. Braids pulled too tightly or worn for longer lengths of time and on different hair types can cause a type of hair loss known as traction alopecia.


title: Cornrows

text: The oldest known depictions of hairstyles that appear to be cornrows or braids are the statues known as the Venus of Brassempouy and the Venus of Willendorf, which date to 25,000-30,000 years ago and were found in modern day France and Austria.


title: Cornrows

text: Depictions of women with cornrows have been found in Stone Age paintings in the Tassili Plateau of the Sahara, and have been dated as far back as 3000 B.C. As well as the cornrow style is seen in depictions of ancient Cushitic people of the horn of Africa wearing this style of braids as far back as 2000 B.C. The traditional hairstyle of Roman Vestal Virgins incorporated cornrows.


title: Cornrows

text: The tradition of female hairstyling in cornrows has remained popular throughout Africa, particularly in the Horn of Africa and West Africa and the rest of Africa as a whole. Historically, male hairstyling with cornrows can be traced as far back as the early 5th century BC within Ancient Greek sculpture and artwork, typically shown on warriors and heroes. Artwork and statues of different Middle Eastern and Mediterranean civilisations dating back to the 3rd and 4th century BC also suggest that such hairstyles were common amongst warrior cultures. More modern male depictions occur in the 19th century Ethiopia, where warriors and kings such as Tewodros II and Yohannes IV were depicted wearing cornrows.


title: Cornrows

text: The name also refers to either the corn fields or sugar cane fields in the Caribbean. It is most commonly held that this idea originated from Benkos Biohó during his time as a slave in Colombia.


title: Cornrows

text: Cornrow hairstyles in Africa also cover a wide social terrain: religion, kinship, status, age, racial diversity, and other attributes of identity can all be expressed in hairstyle. Just as important is the act of braiding, which passes on cultural values between generations, expresses bonds between friends, and establishes the role of professional practitioner.


title: Cornrows

text: Cornrows have made a comeback in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s, and returned again during the 1990s and 2000s. In the 2000s, some athletes wore cornrows, including NBA basketball players Allen Iverson, Rasheed Wallace, and Latrell Sprewell. Many female mixed martial artists who have more than jaw-length hair choose to wear cornrows for their fights as it prevents their hair from obscuring their vision as they move.


title: Cornrows

text: Over the decades, cornrows, alongside dreadlocks, have been the subject of several disputes in U.S. workplaces, as well as universities. Some employers and educational institutions have considered them unsuitable and banned them. Employees and civil rights groups have countered that such attitudes evidence cultural bias, and some disputes have resulted in litigation.


title: Cornrows

text: In 2011, the High Court of the United Kingdom, in a decision reported as a test case, ruled against a school's decision to refuse entry to a student with cornrows. The school claimed this was part of its policy mandating "short back and sides" haircuts, and banning styles that might be worn as indicators of gang membership. However, the court ruled that the student was expressing a tradition and that such policies, while possibly justifiable in certain cases (e.g. skinhead gangs), had to accommodate reasonable racial diversities and cultural practices.


title: Cornrows

text: In the US state of California, the CROWN Act was passed in 2019 to prohibit discrimination based on hair style and hair texture.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: Anne Spencer Morrow Lindbergh (June 22, 1906 – February 7, 2001) was an American writer and aviator. She was the wife of decorated pioneer aviator Charles Lindbergh, with whom she made many exploratory flights.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: Raised in Englewood, New Jersey, and later New York City, Anne Morrow graduated from Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts in 1928. She married Charles in 1929, and in 1930 became the first woman to receive a U.S. glider pilot license. Throughout the early 1930s, she served as radio operator and copilot to Charles on multiple exploratory flights and aerial surveys. Following the 1932 kidnapping and murder of their first-born infant child, Anne and Charles moved to Europe in 1935 to escape the American press and hysteria surrounding the case, where their views shifted during the preliminary time of World War II towards an alleged sympathy for Nazi Germany and a concern for the United States’ ability to compete with Germany in the war with their opposing air power. When they returned to America in 1939, the couple supported the isolationist America First Committee before ultimately expressing public support for the U.S. war effort after the 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequent German declaration of war against the United States.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: After the war, she moved away from politics and wrote extensive poetry and nonfiction that helped the Lindberghs regain their reputation, which had been greatly damaged since the days leading up to the war. She authored the popular "Gift from the Sea" (1955), and became an inspirational figure for many American women. According to "Publishers Weekly", the book was one of the top nonfiction bestsellers of the 1950s. After suffering a series of strokes throughout the 1990s that left her disoriented and disabled, Anne died in 2001 at the age of 94.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: Anne Spencer Morrow was born on June 22, 1906, in Englewood, New Jersey. Her father was Dwight Morrow, a partner in J.P. Morgan & Co., who became United States Ambassador to Mexico and United States Senator from New Jersey. Her mother, Elizabeth Cutter Morrow, was a poet and teacher, active in women's education, who served as acting president of her alma mater Smith College.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: Anne was the second of four children; her siblings were Elisabeth Reeve, Dwight, Jr., and Constance. The children were raised in a Calvinist household that fostered achievement. Every night, Morrow's mother would read to her children for an hour. The children quickly learned to read and write, began reading to themselves, and writing poetry and diaries. Anne would later benefit from that routine, eventually publishing her later diaries to critical acclaim.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: She first attended the Dwight School for Girls in Englewood. After graduating from The Chapin School in New York City in 1924, where she was president of the student body, she attended Smith College from which she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1928.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: She received the Elizabeth Montagu Prize, for her essay on women of the 18th century such as Madame d'Houdetot, and the Mary Augusta Jordan Literary Prize, for her fictional piece "Lida Was Beautiful".


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: Morrow and Lindbergh met on December 21, 1927, in Mexico City. Her father, Lindbergh's financial adviser at J. P. Morgan and Co., invited him to Mexico to advance good relations between it and the United States.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: At the time, Morrow was a shy 21-year-old senior at Smith College. Lindbergh was a high-profile aviator whose solo flight across the Atlantic made him a hero of immense proportions. The sight of the boyish aviator, who was staying with the Morrows, tugged at Morrow's heartstrings. She would later write in her diary:


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: They were married in a private ceremony on May 27, 1929, at the home of her parents in Englewood, New Jersey.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: That year, Anne Lindbergh flew solo for the first time, and in 1930, she became the first American woman to earn a first-class glider pilot's license. In the 1930s, both together explored and charted air routes between continents. The Lindberghs were the first to fly from Africa to South America and explored polar air routes from North America to Asia and Europe.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: On March 1, 1932, the Lindberghs' first child, 20-month-old Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr., was kidnapped from their home, Highfields, in East Amwell, New Jersey, outside Hopewell. Arriving at the Lindbergh home police began the first search into the disappearance of young Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr., there police witnessed two clear sets of footprints outside of the Lindbergh home. One set specifically led southeast towards a ladder that was believed to be used in the abduction. Upon the discovery of intruders, police returned inside the home to begin their initial search of the nursery. Before calling the police Charles Lindbergh uncovered a plain white envelope located on the windowsill. Believing it was a ransom note, Charles left it for police inspection. Expert in crime-scene photography and fingerprints, Corporal Frank Kelly, was a part of the group that was investigating the disappearance of Charles Augustus Lindbergh. After processing the envelope for any evidence revealed a smudged fingerprint which would later be sent to the state official in charge, Major Schoeffel. Inside the envelope was a detailed ransom note from the kidnapper giving the Lindberghs guided instructions for the return of their child.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: After a massive investigation, a baby's body presumed to be that of Charles Lindbergh Jr. was discovered on May 12, 1932, some 4 miles (6.5 km) from the Lindbergh home, at the summit of a hill on the Hopewell–Mt. Rose highway.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: The press paid frenzied attention to the Lindberghs after the kidnapping of their son and the trial, conviction, and execution of Bruno Richard Hauptmann for the crime. This—and threats and press harassment of their second son Jon—prompted the family to retreat to the United Kingdom, to a house called Long Barn owned by Harold Nicolson and Vita Sackville-West, and later to the small island of Illiec, off the coast of Brittany in France.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: While in Europe during the 1930s, the Lindberghs came to advocate isolationist views and an opposition to American involvement in the impending European conflict, which led to their fall from grace in the eyes of many and many to suspect that the couple may be Nazi sympathizers. There exists evidence to support that Anne was an admirer of Hitler and shared many of her husbands anti-immigrant and antiemetic views. Anne Morrow's work was part of the literature event in the art competition at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: In April 1939, the Lindberghs returned to the United States. Because of his outspoken beliefs about a future war that would envelop their homeland, the antiwar America First Committee quickly adopted Charles as its leader in 1940.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: In 1940, Anne published a 41-page booklet, "The Wave of the Future: A Confession of Faith", which "swiftly became the No. 1 nonfiction bestseller in the country." Writing in support of her husband's lobbying efforts for a U.S.-German peace treaty similar to Hitler's Non-Aggression Treaty with Joseph Stalin, Anne argued that the rise of fascism and communism in Germany, Italy, and Russia were manifestations of an inevitable historical "wave of the future", though "the evils we deplore in these systems are not in themselves the future; they are scum on the wave of the future." She compared these movements to the French Revolution for their deplorable violence, but also for their "fundamental necessity". She therefore urged the futility of any ideological war against them. Her writing echoed authors such as Lawrence Dennis and presaged that of James Burnham.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: The Roosevelt administration subsequently attacked "The Wave of the Future" as, in an April 1941 speech by Interior Secretary Harold Ickes, "the bible of every American Nazi, Fascist, Bundist and Appeaser," and the booklet became one of the most despised writings of the period. She had also written in a letter that Hitler was "a very great man, like an inspired religious leader—and as such rather fanatical—but not scheming, not selfish, not greedy for power".


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and Germany's declaration of war against the U.S., the America First Committee disbanded, and Charles eventually managed to become involved in the military and enter combat only as a civilian consultant, flying 50 missions in this role and even shooting down an enemy aircraft.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: In this period, Anne met the French writer, poet and pioneering aviator Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, author of the novella "The Little Prince". Though Anne found "St-Ex" attractive, the two did not have a secret affair, as is sometimes erroneously reported.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: After the war, she wrote books that helped the Lindberghs rebuild the reputations which they had lost before World War II. The publication of "Gift from the Sea" in 1955 earned her place as "one of the leading advocates of the nascent environmental movement" and became a national bestseller.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: Over the course of their 45-year marriage, the Lindberghs lived in New Jersey, New York, the United Kingdom, France, Maine, Michigan, Connecticut, Switzerland, and Hawaii. Charles died on the island of Maui in 1974.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: According to one biographer, Anne had a three-year affair in the early 1950s with her personal doctor.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: According to Rudolf Schröck, author of "Das Doppelleben des Charles A. Lindbergh" ("The Double Life of Charles A. Lindbergh"), Anne was unaware that Charles had led a double life from 1957 until his death in 1974. His affair with Munich hat maker Brigitte Hesshaimer produced three children whom he supported financially. After Hesshaimer's passing in 2003, DNA tests conducted by the University of Munich proved that her three children were fathered by Lindbergh. Schröck reported that Brigitte's sister Marietta also bore him two sons. Lindbergh had two more children with his former private secretary. A family reconciliation with the German family members later took place with Reeve Lindbergh being actively involved.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: After suffering a series of strokes that left her confused and disabled in the early 1990s, Anne continued to live in her home in Connecticut with the assistance of round-the-clock caregivers. During a visit to her daughter Reeve's family in 1999, she came down with pneumonia, after which she went to live near Reeve in a small home built on Reeve's Passumpsic, Vermont, farm, where Anne died in 2001 at 94, following another stroke. Reeve Lindbergh's book, "No More Words", tells the story of her mother's last years.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: Anne received numerous honors and awards throughout her life in recognition of her contributions to both literature and aviation. In 1933, she received the U.S. Flag Association Cross of Honor for having taken part in surveying transatlantic air routes. The following year, she was awarded the Hubbard Medal by the National Geographic Society for having completed of exploratory flying with her husband, Charles Lindbergh, a feat that took them to five continents. In 1993, Women in Aerospace presented her with an Aerospace Explorer Award in recognition of her achievements in and contributions to the aerospace field.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: She was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame (1979), the National Women's Hall of Fame (1996), the Aviation Hall of Fame of New Jersey, and the International Women in Aviation Pioneer Hall of Fame (1999).


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: Her first book, "North to the Orient" (1935) won one of the inaugural National Book Awards: the Most Distinguished General Nonfiction of 1935, voted by the American Booksellers Association.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: Her second book, "Listen! The Wind" (1938), won the same award in its fourth year after the Nonfiction category had subsumed Biography. She received the Christopher Award for "War Within and Without", the last installment of her published diaries.


title: Anne Morrow Lindbergh

text: In addition to being the recipient of honorary master's and doctor of letters degrees from her alma mater Smith College (1935 and 1970), Anne received honorary degrees from Amherst College (1939), the University of Rochester (1939), Middlebury College (1976), and Gustavus Adolphus College (1985).


title: Subclavian artery

text: In human anatomy, the subclavian arteries are paired major arteries of the upper thorax, below the clavicle. They receive blood from the aortic arch. The left subclavian artery supplies blood to the left arm and the right subclavian artery supplies blood to the right arm, with some branches supplying the head and thorax. On the left side of the body, the subclavian comes directly off the aortic arch, while on the right side it arises from the relatively short brachiocephalic artery when it bifurcates into the subclavian and the right common carotid artery.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The usual branches of the subclavian on both sides of the body are the vertebral artery, the internal thoracic artery, the thyrocervical trunk, the costocervical trunk and the dorsal scapular artery, which may branch off the transverse cervical artery, which is a branch of the thyrocervical trunk. The subclavian becomes the axillary artery at the lateral border of the first rib.


title: Subclavian artery

text: From its origin, the subclavian artery travels laterally, passing between anterior and middle scalene muscles, with the anterior scalene (scalenus anterior) on its anterior side and the middle scalene (scalenus medius) on its posterior. This is in contrast to the subclavian vein, which travels anterior to the scalenus anterior. As the subclavian artery crosses the lateral border of the first rib, it becomes the axillary artery.


title: Subclavian artery

text: On the right side the subclavian artery arises from the brachiocephalic (innominate) artery behind the right sternoclavicular articulation; on the left side it springs from the arch of the aorta. The two vessels, therefore, in the first part of their course, differ in length, direction, and relation with neighboring structures. The left subclavian artery is around 9 cm long in adults, while the right subclavian artery is around 6 cm long. Both have a width of 9-12 mm.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The first portions of the two vessels require separate descriptions; the second and third parts of the two arteries are practically alike.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The first part of the right subclavian artery arises from the brachiocephalic trunk, behind the upper part of the right sternoclavicular articulation. It passes upward and lateralward to the medial margin of the scalenus anterior muscle. It ascends a little above the medial part of the clavicle.


title: Subclavian artery

text: It is covered, in front, by the integument, superficial fascia, the platysma muscle, deep fascia, the clavicular origin of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, the sternohyoid muscle, and the sternothyroid muscle, and another layer of the deep fascia. It is crossed by the internal jugular vein and the vertebral vein, by the vagus nerve and the cardiac branches of the vagus and sympathetic, and by the subclavian loop of the sympathetic trunk which forms a ring around the vessel. The anterior jugular vein is directed laterally in front of the artery, but is separated from it by the sternohyoid muscle and the sternothyroid muscle. Below and behind the artery is the pleura, which separates it from the apex of the lung. Behind the artery is the sympathetic trunk, the longus colli muscle and the first thoracic vertebra (T1). The right recurrent laryngeal nerve winds around the lower and back part of the vessel.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The first part of the left subclavian artery arises from the aortic arch, behind the left common carotid artery, and at the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra. It ascends in the superior mediastinal cavity to the root of the neck, and then arches lateralward to the medial border of the scalenus anterior muscle.


title: Subclavian artery

text: It is in relation, in front, with the vagus nerve, the cardiac nerves, and the phrenic nerves, which lie parallel with it, the left common carotid artery, left internal jugular and vertebral veins, and the commencement of the left innominate vein. It is covered by the sternothyroid muscle, the sternohyoid muscle, and the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Behind, it is in relation with the esophagus, thoracic duct, left recurrent laryngeal nerve, inferior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic trunk, and the longus colli muscle; higher up, however, the esophagus and thoracic duct lie to its right side; the latter ultimately arching over the vessel to join the angle of union between the subclavian and internal jugular veins. Medial to it are the esophagus, trachea, thoracic duct, and left recurrent laryngeal nerve. Lateral to it are the left pleura and lung.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The second portion of the subclavian artery lies behind the scalenus anterior muscle and in front of the scalenus medius muscle. It is very short, and forms the highest part of the arch described by the vessel.


title: Subclavian artery

text: In front, it is covered by the skin, the superficial fascia, the platysma muscle, the deep cervical fascia, the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and the scalenus anterior muscle. On the right side of the neck, the phrenic nerve is separated from the second part of the artery by the scalenus anterior muscle, while on the left side it crosses the first part of the artery close to the medial edge of the muscle. Behind the artery are the pleura and the scalenus medius muscle. Above the artery is the brachial plexus. Below the artery is the pleura. The subclavian vein lies below and anterior to the artery, separated from it by the scalenus anterior muscle.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The third portion of the subclavian artery runs downward and lateralward from the lateral margin of the scalenus anterior muscle to the outer border of the first rib, where it becomes the axillary artery. This is the most superficial portion of the vessel, and is contained in the subclavian triangle.


title: Subclavian artery

text: It is covered, in front, by the skin, the superficial fascia, the platysma muscle, the supraclavicular nerves, and the deep cervical fascia. The external jugular vein crosses its medial part and receives the transverse scapular, transverse cervical, and anterior jugular veins, which frequently form a plexus in front of the artery. Behind the veins, the nerve to the Subclavius descends in front of the artery. The terminal part of the artery lies behind the clavicle and the Subclavius and is crossed by the transverse scapular vessels. The subclavian vein is in front of and at a slightly lower level than the artery. Behind, it lies on the lowest trunk of the brachial plexus, which intervenes between it and the scalenus medius muscle. Above and to its lateral side are the upper trunks of the brachial plexus and the omohyoid muscle. Below, it rests on the upper surface of the first rib.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The subclavian arteries give off five major arteries each: the vertebral artery, the internal thoracic artery, the thyrocervical trunk, the costocervical trunk, and the dorsal scapular artery.


title: Subclavian artery

text: Embryologically, the left subclavian simply arises from the left 7th intersegmental artery, while the right subclavian arises, proximal to distal:


title: Subclavian artery

text: Essentially, the 4th aortic arch and dorsal aorta form the aortic arch on the left, but since the right dorsal aorta regresses distal to the right 7th intersegmental artery, on the right they form the proximal portion of the subclavian artery. Since the left subclavian is then a tributary of the left common carotid, they can be thought of as arising from the brachiocephalic trunk.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The subclavian arteries vary in their origin, their course, and the height to which they rise in the neck.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The origin of the right subclavian from the innominate takes place, in some cases, above the sternoclavicular articulation, and occasionally, but less frequently, below that joint. The artery may arise as a separate trunk from the arch of the aorta, and in such cases it may be either the first, second, third, or even the last branch derived from that vessel; in the majority, however, it is the first or last, rarely the second or third. When it is the first branch, it occupies the ordinary position of the innominate artery; when the second or third, it gains its usual position by passing behind the right carotid; and when the last branch, it arises from the left extremity of the arch, and passes obliquely toward the right side, usually behind the trachea, esophagus, and right carotid, sometimes between the esophagus and trachea, to the upper border of the first rib, whence it follows its ordinary course. In very rare instances, this vessel arises from the thoracic aorta, as low down as the fourth thoracic vertebra. Occasionally, it perforates the Scalenus anterior; more rarely it passes in front of that muscle. Sometimes the subclavian vein passes with the artery behind the Scalenus anterior. The artery may ascend as high as 4 cm. above the clavicle, or any intermediate point between this and the upper border of the bone, the right subclavian usually ascending higher than the left.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The left subclavian is occasionally joined at its origin with the left common carotid artery, forming a left brachiocephalic trunk.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The left subclavian artery is more deeply placed than the right in the first part of its course, and, as a rule, does not reach quite as high a level in the neck. The posterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus corresponds pretty closely to the lateral border of the Scalenus anterior, so that the third portion of the artery, the part most accessible for operation, lies immediately lateral to the posterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus.


title: Subclavian artery

text: The subclavian arteries carry most of the blood that supplies the arms. It also supplies some blood to the neck and brain.


title: Subclavian artery

text: Subclavian steal syndrome occurs when there is occlusion or stenosis of the subclavian artery at a point before the branching of the vertebral artery. This can cause blood to flow the wrong way through the vertebral artery into the distal subclavian artery, allowed by the reduced pressure.


title: Subclavian artery

text: Aberrant right subclavian artery is a condition where the right subclavian artery arises on the arch of aorta distal to the left subclavian artery, instead of brachiocephalic trunk. This condition occurs in about 0.4 to 1.8% of the general population. The aberrant right subclavian artery than has to cross behind the oesophagus to reach the right side of the body. Majority of those having the condition are asymptomatic, but some may be presented with difficulty in breathing, difficulty in swallowing, grating noise during breathing, and chest pain. This condition has to be ruled out during procedures relating to oesophagus because injury to this artery during the procedure can cause massive bleeding.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: In biogeography, the Mediterranean Basin (; also known as the Mediterranean Region or sometimes Mediterranea) is the region of lands around the Mediterranean Sea that have mostly a Mediterranean climate, with mild to cool, rainy winters and warm to hot, dry summers, which supports characteristic Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub vegetation.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The Mediterranean Basin covers portions of three continents: Europe, Africa, and Asia. It is distinct from the drainage basin, which extends much further south and north due to major rivers ending in the Mediterranean Sea, such as the Nile and Rhône. Conversely, the Mediterranean Basin includes regions not in the drainage basin.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: It has a varied and contrasting topography. The Mediterranean Region offers an ever-changing landscape of high mountains, rocky shores, impenetrable scrub, semi-arid steppes, coastal wetlands, sandy beaches and a myriad islands of various shapes and sizes dotted amidst the clear blue sea. Contrary to the classic sandy beach images portrayed in most tourist brochures, the Mediterranean is surprisingly hilly. Mountains can be seen from almost anywhere.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: By definition, the Mediterranean Basin extends from Macaronesia in the west, to the Levant in the east, although some places may or may not be included depending on the view, as is the case with Macaronesia: some definitions only include Madeira and the Canary Islands while others include the whole Macaronesia (with the Azores and Cape Verde).


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: In Western Asia, it covers the western and southern portions of the peninsula of Anatolia, as far as Iraq, but excluding the temperate-climate mountains of central Turkey. It includes the Mediterranean Levant at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, bounded on the east and south by the Syrian and Negev deserts.


title: Mediterranean Basin

text: The northern portion of the Maghreb region of northwestern Africa has a Mediterranean climate, separated from the Sahara Desert, which extends across North Africa, by the Atlas Mountains. In the eastern Mediterranean the Sahara extends to the southern shore of the Mediterranean, with the exception of the northern fringe of the peninsula of Cyrenaica in Libya, which has a dry Mediterranean climate.