title: Vice Ganda

text: As cited by Bautista (2012), researchers from University of San Jose - Recoletos studied the role of sarcasm and criticism on Filipino humor. Half of 100 participants stated that they gain more confidence from mimicking Vice Ganda's style of humor, while 64% of the respondents said that they usually imitate Vice Ganda's sarcasm during conversations. In a separate study by Centro Escolar University and Western Mindanao State University titled as "THE PRAGMATICS OF IRONY IN HUMOR: EMERGING DRIFTS IN PHILIPPINE WITTICISM" conducted by Richard M. Rillo and Junette B. Buslon, they have concluded that Ganda's irony in conversational witticisms to appear humorous greatly influenced today's Filipinos to use these strategies in their humorous remarks. They further stated that it is quite unfortunate to think that even children are into this kind of humor when they talk to others of their age, or even to people older than they. The research study stated that this may have been caused by the popularity of Vice Ganda in the different forms of media that the modern Filipinos have access to (e.g. TV; internet).


title: Vice Ganda

text: Ganda is considered a self-made individual and became an icon for Filipinos who work hard and dream big.Ganda's popularity in the Philippines became vital as he significantly influenced the normalisations of gay discussions in the mainstream media. He is an advocate and a stalwart for the LGBT movement, to seek equal opportunities to the members of the LGBT in the Philippines. He fully supports and endorses the SOGIE Equality Bill or The Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Expression (SOGIE, Tagalog: ['sɔdʒi]) Equality Bill, also known as the Anti-Discrimination Bill (ADB), a series of House and Senate bills that were introduced in the 17th and 18th Congress of the Philippines. The support draw inspiration from him, being an openly gay comedian — in an industry where straight actors are often discouraged or criticized for doing gay roles — to attain that level of success he has acquired in show business. On October 15, 2018, episode of It's Showtime, Ganda expressed during the live telecast:


title: Vice Ganda

text: Ganda then called out and plead to Philippine Senators Joel Villanueva and Tito Sotto, to already pass that bill. Further pushing his advocacy, he graced the cover of Mega Magazine in 2018 and 2020 and became the first LGBT member in history to be in the front page. According to Mega founder Sari Yap, she wanted to showcase that the publication is not just for women. She further stated, "...it was decided to end it with inclusivity, proving that MEGA is not only for women, but for the LGBTQ community as well." She also discussed how that very community deserves its moment in the sun, which is why there was no other name on the list to front the issue but Vice Ganda.In 2022, Ganda launched his first ""UnkabogaBALL"", a ball to showcase fashion for the LGBT community in show business. The ball marked the start of a relationship between entertainers and content creators in the LGBTQ+ community.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: Dead Can Dance are an Australian music duo first established in Melbourne. Currently composed of Lisa Gerrard and Brendan Perry, the group formed in 1981. They relocated to London the following year. Australian music historian Ian McFarlane described Dead Can Dance's style as "constructed soundscapes of mesmerising grandeur and solemn beauty; African polyrhythms, Gaelic folk, Gregorian chant, Middle Eastern music, mantras, and art rock."


title: Dead Can Dance

text: Having disbanded in 1998, they reunited briefly in 2005 for a world tour and reformed in 2011 when they released and toured a new album, "Anastasis". They released a new album in 2018 called "Dionysus" and toured Europe in 2022.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: Dead Can Dance was formed in Melbourne, Australia, in August 1981 with Paul Erikson on bass guitar, Lisa Gerrard (ex-Microfilm) on vocals and percussion, Simon Monroe (Marching Girls) on drums and Brendan Perry (also of Marching Girls) on vocals and guitar. Gerrard and Perry were a couple who met as members of Melbourne's Little Band scene. In May 1982, the band left Melbourne and moved to London, England, where they signed with alternative rock label 4AD. With the duo, the initial United Kingdom line-up were Paul Erikson and Peter Ulrich.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: The group's debut album, "Dead Can Dance", was released in February 1984. The artwork, which depicts a ritual mask from New Guinea, "provide[s] a visual reinterpretation of the meaning of the name Dead Can Dance", set in a faux Greek typeface. The album featured "drum-driven, ambient guitar music with chanting, singing and howling", and fit in with the ethereal wave style of label mates Cocteau Twins. They followed with a four-track extended play, "Garden of the Arcane Delights" in August. AllMusic described their early work as "as goth as it gets" (despite the group themselves rejecting the label), while the EP saw them "plunging into a wider range of music and style".


title: Dead Can Dance

text: For their second album, "Spleen and Ideal", the group comprised the core duo of Gerrard and Perry with cello, trombone and tympani added in by session musicians. Released in November 1985, it was co-produced by the duo and John A. Rivers. Raggett describes it as "a consciously medieval European sound [...] like it was recorded in an immense cathedral". The group built a following in Europe, and the album reached No. 2 on the UK indie charts. In 1989, Gerrard and Perry separated domestically – Gerrard moved to Barcelona before returning to Australia and Perry moved to Ireland – but still wrote, recorded and performed as Dead Can Dance.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: The duo's sixth studio album, "Into the Labyrinth", was issued in September 1993 and dispensed with guest musicians entirely; it sold 500,000 copies worldwide and appeared in the "Billboard" 200. The band became 4AD's highest-selling act. They followed with a world tour in 1994 and recorded a live performance in California which was released as "Toward the Within", with video versions on Laserdisc and VHS (later on DVD). Many unofficial bootlegs of concerts spanning its career exist, containing several rare songs that were only performed live. "Toward the Within" is the duo's first official live album, which reached the "Billboard" 200 and was followed by "In Concert" 19 years later. Gerrard released her debut solo recording, "The Mirror Pool", and reunited with Perry on the Dead Can Dance studio album "Spiritchaser" in 1996. The album also charted on "Billboard" 200 and reached No. 1 on the Top World Music Albums Chart.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: In 1998, Dead Can Dance began recording a follow-up album to "Spiritchaser", which was due to be released in early 1999 followed by a planned world tour. However, they separated before it was completed and canceled the tour. One song from the recording sessions, "The Lotus Eaters", was eventually released on the box set "Dead Can Dance (1981-1998)" and on the two-disc compilation "Wake" (2003). Gerrard teamed with Pieter Bourke (Snog, Soma) to issue "Duality" in April 1998. Perry released "Eye of the Hunter" in October 1999.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: Dead Can Dance reunited in 2005 and released limited-edition recordings of thirteen shows from its European tour and eight recordings from the subsequent North American tour, as well as a compilation titled "Selections from Europe 2005". These concerts were recorded and released on The Show record label. In 2005, the song "Nierika" became part of the opening titles for Mexican television station TV Azteca's soap opera "La Chacala".


title: Dead Can Dance

text: On 12 May 2011 Brendan Perry announced on his official web forum that Dead Can Dance would record a new album and then embark on two-month world tour. The band made a formal announcement about its world tour and new album, "Anastasis", for a release date of 13 August 2012.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: On 30 September 2011, Dead Can Dance announced the release of a four track EP entitled "Live Happenings – Part 1" available for free download from their website. Since December, the EP "Live Happenings – Part 2" replaced the first EP. Both EPs contain songs from their 2005 Tour. Since 31 January 2012, the EP available was "Live Happenings – Part 3", to be replaced by "Live Happenings – Part IV" on 20 March 2012.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: In late 2011, the band announced a reunion world tour, including 12 US cities, to be accompanied by the release of a live album on a new label. The tour was scheduled to begin on 9 August 2012 in Canada and continue until 19 September 2012 in Turkey, 21 and 23 September in Greece, 13 October in Russia, then 28 October 2012 in Ireland, then Mexico and South America and then in Lebanon and finally Australia in February 2013. On 15 November 2012 it was announced that the band would be returning to Europe to continue its tour, starting on 28 May 2013 in Portugal. The final show of the Anastasis World Tour was in Santiago, Chile, on 13 July 2013.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: On 8 September 2015, the band announced the sale of Brendan Perry's Quivvy Church Studio. When asked what this decision meant for the future of Dead Can Dance, Perry responded on the band's official Facebook page that the band has relocated to France and that they are in the process of fabricating a new recording and rehearsal studio.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: On 21 April 2018, Perry announced mastering of a new album would be commencing at Abbey Road Studios. The new album, "Dionysus", was released on 2 November 2018.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: In September 2018, their website announced "A Celebration – Life & Works 1980-2019" tour with dates in Europe in May and June 2019. In contrast to previous tours, the setlist drew heavily from the band's older catalogue, featuring some songs the band had never before played live. In October 2019, the band announced a second leg of the tour with dates in North America, Mexico and South America. However, the tour was postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2021 tour as well as rescheduled dates for later in the year were also cancelled citing COVID-19. A 2022 European tour did take place, and a second European leg was scheduled for the later in the year as well as a North American leg for 2023. However, in September 2022 the band announced the cancellation of both the second European leg as well as the North American dates citing unspecified health reasons.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987.


title: Dead Can Dance

text: The Australian Music Prize (AMP) is an annual award of $30,000 given to an Australian band or solo artist in recognition of the merit of an album released during the year of the award. The award commenced in 2005.


title: Age of Earth

text: The age of Earth is estimated to be 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years This age may represent the age of Earth's accretion, or core formation, or of the material from which Earth formed. This dating is based on evidence from radiometric age-dating of meteorite material and is consistent with the radiometric ages of the oldest-known terrestrial and lunar samples.


title: Age of Earth

text: Following the development of radiometric age-dating in the early 20th century, measurements of lead in uranium-rich minerals showed that some were in excess of a billion years old. The oldest such minerals analyzed to date—small crystals of zircon from the Jack Hills of Western Australia—are at least 4.404 billion years old. Calcium–aluminium-rich inclusions—the oldest known solid constituents within meteorites that are formed within the Solar System—are 4.567 billion years old, giving a lower limit for the age of the Solar System.


title: Age of Earth

text: It is hypothesised that the accretion of Earth began soon after the formation of the calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions and the meteorites. Because the time this accretion process took is not yet known, and predictions from different accretion models range from a few million up to about 100 million years, the difference between the age of Earth and of the oldest rocks is difficult to determine. It is also difficult to determine the exact age of the oldest rocks on Earth, exposed at the surface, as they are aggregates of minerals of possibly different ages.


title: Age of Earth

text: Studies of strata—the layering of rocks and earth—gave naturalists an appreciation that Earth may have been through many changes during its existence. These layers often contained fossilized remains of unknown creatures, leading some to interpret a progression of organisms from layer to layer.


title: Age of Earth

text: Nicolas Steno in the 17th century was one of the first naturalists to appreciate the connection between fossil remains and strata. His observations led him to formulate important stratigraphic concepts (i.e., the "law of superposition" and the "principle of original horizontality"). In the 1790s, William Smith hypothesized that if two layers of rock at widely differing locations contained similar fossils, then it was very plausible that the layers were the same age. Smith's nephew and student, John Phillips, later calculated by such means that Earth was about 96 million years old.


title: Age of Earth

text: In the mid-18th century, the naturalist Mikhail Lomonosov suggested that Earth had been created separately from, and several hundred thousand years before, the rest of the universe. Lomonosov's ideas were mostly speculative. In 1779 the Comte du Buffon tried to obtain a value for the age of Earth using an experiment: He created a small globe that resembled Earth in composition and then measured its rate of cooling. This led him to estimate that Earth was about 75,000 years old.


title: Age of Earth

text: Other naturalists used these hypotheses to construct a history of Earth, though their timelines were inexact as they did not know how long it took to lay down stratigraphic layers. In 1830, geologist Charles Lyell, developing ideas found in James Hutton's works, popularized the concept that the features of Earth were in perpetual change, eroding and reforming continuously, and the rate of this change was roughly constant. This was a challenge to the traditional view, which saw the history of Earth as dominated by intermittent catastrophes. Many naturalists were influenced by Lyell to become "uniformitarians" who believed that changes were constant and uniform.


title: Age of Earth

text: In 1862, the physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin published calculations that fixed the age of Earth at between 20 million and 400 million years. He assumed that Earth had formed as a completely molten object, and determined the amount of time it would take for the near-surface temperature gradient to decrease to its present value. His calculations did not account for heat produced via radioactive decay (a then unknown process) or, more significantly, convection inside Earth, which allows the temperature in the upper mantle to remain high much longer, maintaining a high thermal gradient in the crust much longer. Even more constraining were Kelvin's estimates of the age of the Sun, which were based on estimates of its thermal output and a theory that the Sun obtains its energy from gravitational collapse; Kelvin estimated that the Sun is about 20 million years old.


title: Age of Earth

text: Geologists such as Charles Lyell had trouble accepting such a short age for Earth. For biologists, even 100 million years seemed much too short to be plausible. In Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the process of random heritable variation with cumulative selection requires great durations of time, and Darwin himself stated that Lord Kelvin's estimates did not appear to provide enough. According to modern biology, the total evolutionary history from the beginning of life to today has taken place since 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago, the amount of time which passed since the last universal ancestor of all living organisms as shown by geological dating.


title: Age of Earth

text: In a lecture in 1869, Darwin's great advocate, Thomas H. Huxley, attacked Thomson's calculations, suggesting they appeared precise in themselves but were based on faulty assumptions. The physicist Hermann von Helmholtz (in 1856) and astronomer Simon Newcomb (in 1892) contributed their own calculations of 22 and 18 million years, respectively, to the debate: they independently calculated the amount of time it would take for the Sun to condense down to its current diameter and brightness from the nebula of gas and dust from which it was born. Their values were consistent with Thomson's calculations. However, they assumed that the Sun was only glowing from the heat of its gravitational contraction. The process of solar nuclear fusion was not yet known to science.


title: Age of Earth

text: In 1895 John Perry challenged Kelvin's figure on the basis of his assumptions on conductivity, and Oliver Heaviside entered the dialogue, considering it "a vehicle to display the ability of his operator method to solve problems of astonishing complexity."


title: Age of Earth

text: Other scientists backed up Thomson's figures. Charles Darwin's son, the astronomer George H. Darwin, proposed that Earth and Moon had broken apart in their early days when they were both molten. He calculated the amount of time it would have taken for tidal friction to give Earth its current 24-hour day. His value of 56 million years added additional evidence that Thomson was on the right track.


title: Age of Earth

text: The last estimate Thomson gave, in 1897, was: "that it was more than 20 and less than 40 million year old, and probably much nearer 20 than 40". In 1899 and 1900, John Joly calculated the rate at which the oceans should have accumulated salt from erosion processes, and determined that the oceans were about 80 to 100 million years old.


title: Age of Earth

text: By their chemical nature, rock minerals contain certain elements and not others; but in rocks containing radioactive isotopes, the process of radioactive decay generates exotic elements over time. By measuring the concentration of the stable end product of the decay, coupled with knowledge of the half life and initial concentration of the decaying element, the age of the rock can be calculated. Typical radioactive end products are argon from decay of potassium-40, and lead from decay of uranium and thorium. If the rock becomes molten, as happens in Earth's mantle, such nonradioactive end products typically escape or are redistributed. Thus the age of the oldest terrestrial rock gives a minimum for the age of Earth, assuming that no rock has been intact for longer than Earth itself.


title: Age of Earth

text: In 1892, Thomson had been made Lord Kelvin in appreciation of his many scientific accomplishments. Kelvin calculated the age of Earth by using thermal gradients, and he arrived at an estimate of about 100 million years. He did not realize that Earth's mantle was convecting, and this invalidated his estimate. In 1895, John Perry produced an age-of-Earth estimate of 2 to 3 billion years using a model of a convective mantle and thin crust, however his work was largely ignored. Kelvin stuck by his estimate of 100 million years, and later reduced it to about 20 million years.


title: Age of Earth

text: The discovery of radioactivity introduced another factor in the calculation. After Henri Becquerel's initial discovery in 1896, Marie and Pierre Curie discovered the radioactive elements polonium and radium in 1898; and in 1903, Pierre Curie and Albert Laborde announced that radium produces enough heat to melt its own weight in ice in less than an hour. Geologists quickly realized that this upset the assumptions underlying most calculations of the age of Earth. These had assumed that the original heat of Earth and the Sun had dissipated steadily into space, but radioactive decay meant that this heat had been continually replenished. George Darwin and John Joly were the first to point this out, in 1903.


title: Age of Earth

text: Radioactivity, which had overthrown the old calculations, yielded a bonus by providing a basis for new calculations, in the form of radiometric dating.


title: Age of Earth

text: Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was due to a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or gamma radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a "half-life", or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its "decay product".


title: Age of Earth

text: Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives, and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive ("stable") elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a stable element. These "decay chains", such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.


title: Age of Earth

text: The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist Bertram B. Boltwood and the energetic Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904, Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the alpha particles released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as helium atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.


title: Age of Earth

text: Soddy and Sir William Ramsay had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the Royal Institution in 1904:


title: Age of Earth

text: Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate, and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step.


title: Age of Earth

text: Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork, and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.


title: Age of Earth

text: Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had leached out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.


title: Age of Earth

text: Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity. Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.


title: Age of Earth

text: Robert Strutt tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student Arthur Holmes became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating, because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from Ceylon) was about 1.6 billion years old. These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.


title: Age of Earth

text: More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or "isotopes". In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as "neutrons". In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.


title: Age of Earth

text: Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless. Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 Joseph Barrell, a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.


title: Age of Earth

text: Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old, and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published "The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas" in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far. The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the National Research Council of the US National Academy of Sciences decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate. Holmes, being one of the few people on Earth who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member, and in fact wrote most of the final report.


title: Age of Earth

text: Thus, Arthur Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down geological time scales. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.


title: Age of Earth

text: Radiometric dating continues to be the predominant way scientists date geologic timescales. Techniques for radioactive dating have been tested and fine-tuned on an ongoing basis since the 1960s. Forty or so different dating techniques have been utilized to date, working on a wide variety of materials. Dates for the same sample using these different techniques are in very close agreement on the age of the material.


title: Age of Earth

text: Possible contamination problems do exist, but they have been studied and dealt with by careful investigation, leading to sample preparation procedures being minimized to limit the chance of contamination.


title: Age of Earth

text: An age of 4.55 ± 0.07 billion years, very close to today's accepted age, was determined by Clair Cameron Patterson using uranium–lead isotope dating (specifically lead–lead dating) on several meteorites including the Canyon Diablo meteorite and published in 1956.


title: Age of Earth

text: The quoted age of Earth is derived, in part, from the Canyon Diablo meteorite for several important reasons and is built upon a modern understanding of cosmochemistry built up over decades of research.


title: Age of Earth

text: Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by plate tectonics, weathering and hydrothermal circulation.


title: Age of Earth

text: All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter nuclide (a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an isochron. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date.


title: Age of Earth

text: Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed. Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed. To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.


title: Age of Earth

text: Nevertheless, ancient Archaean lead ores of galena have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.


title: Age of Earth

text: The Canyon Diablo meteorite was used because it is both large and representative of a particularly rare type of meteorite that contains sulfide minerals (particularly troilite, FeS), metallic nickel-iron alloys, plus silicate minerals. This is important because the presence of the three mineral phases allows investigation of isotopic dates using samples that provide a great separation in concentrations between parent and daughter nuclides. This is particularly true of uranium and lead. Lead is strongly chalcophilic and is found in the sulfide at a much greater concentration than in the silicate, versus uranium. Because of this segregation in the parent and daughter nuclides during the formation of the meteorite, this allowed a much more precise date of the formation of the solar disk and hence the planets than ever before.


title: Age of Earth

text: The age determined from the Canyon Diablo meteorite has been confirmed by hundreds of other age determinations, from both terrestrial samples and other meteorites. The meteorite samples, however, show a spread from 4.53 to 4.58 billion years ago. This is interpreted as the duration of formation of the solar nebula and its collapse into the solar disk to form the Sun and the planets. This 50 million year time span allows for accretion of the planets from the original solar dust and meteorites.


title: Age of Earth

text: The Moon, as another extraterrestrial body that has not undergone plate tectonics and that has no atmosphere, provides quite precise age dates from the samples returned from the Apollo missions. Rocks returned from the Moon have been dated at a maximum of 4.51 billion years old. Martian meteorites that have landed upon Earth have also been dated to around 4.5 billion years old by lead–lead dating. Lunar samples, since they have not been disturbed by weathering, plate tectonics or material moved by organisms, can also provide dating by direct electron microscope examination of cosmic ray tracks. The accumulation of dislocations generated by high energy cosmic ray particle impacts provides another confirmation of the isotopic dates. Cosmic ray dating is only useful on material that has not been melted, since melting erases the crystalline structure of the material, and wipes away the tracks left by the particles.


title: Age of Earth

text: Altogether, the concordance of age dates of both the earliest terrestrial lead reservoirs and all other reservoirs within the Solar System found to date are used to support the fact that Earth and the rest of the Solar System formed at around 4.53 to 4.58 billion years ago.


title: Lottie Moss

text: Charlotte Moss (born 9 January 1998), known professionally as Lottie Moss, is a British fashion model. She is the half-sister of model Kate Moss.


title: Lottie Moss

text: Moss was born to Peter Moss and Inger Solnordal. Through her father she is the half-sister of model Kate Moss who had already achieved international fame by the time Moss was born.


title: Lottie Moss

text: Moss first appeared in the pages of American Vogue in 2011 as her elder half-sister's wedding was featured in the magazine and Moss was a bridesmaid.


title: Lottie Moss

text: In 2014 Moss signed with Storm Management. Her first featured photoshoot was an appearance in "Dazed" magazine while her first print editorial was in "Teen Vogue". That same year she was also featured in a series of ads for Calvin Klein, whom her sister had also modelled for.


title: Lottie Moss

text: Moss landed her first "Vogue" cover in 2016, appearing on the cover of Paris Vogue alongside model Lucky Blue Smith.


title: Lottie Moss

text: In 2021 Moss announced she would be selling nude photos of herself on the content subscription service OnlyFans. Moss defended the decision by saying she was a "very sexual person". In an interview with the "Private Parts" podcast Moss revealed that because her career had heavily benefitted from nepotism she had an uncomfortable relationship with fame. She further explained that she enjoyed the control she had in the creation of her own content.


title: Bojana Novakovic

text: Bojana Novakovic (, ) is a Serbian-Australian actress. She is best known for her role as Det. Lizzie Needham on the drama television series "Instinct" (2017–2018).


title: Bojana Novakovic

text: Novakovic's film roles include "Drag Me to Hell" (2009), "Edge of Darkness" (2010), "Devil" (2010), "Generation Um..." (2012), "The Little Death" (2014), "I, Tonya" (2017), and "Birds of Prey" (2020).


title: Bojana Novakovic

text: Novakovic was born in Belgrade, SR Serbia, SFR Yugoslavia, to Serbian parents. Her younger sister, Valentina Novakovic, is also an actress. She moved to Australia in 1988, at the age of seven, and was initially interested in becoming a social worker or doctor, but she changed her mind and decided to pursue performing arts. Novakovic studied at The McDonald College in Sydney (where she was dux of 1999) and graduated from the National Institute of Dramatic Art with a bachelor's degree in dramatic arts in 2002.


title: Bojana Novakovic

text: In 2003, Novakovic played Randa in the ABC mini-series "Marking Time", a role which won her an AFI Award for "Best Actress in a Leading Role in a Television Drama or Comedy". As an actress, Novakovic's film credits in Australia include "Blackrock" (1996), "Strange Fits of Passion" (1998), "The Monkey's Mask" (1999), "Thunderstruck" (2004), "Solo" (2005) and the Serbian films "The Optimists" (2005) and "Skinning" (2010).


title: Bojana Novakovic

text: From 2007 to 2009, she played Tippi in TV series "Satisfaction" for Showtime Australia. She also appeared in "Drag Me to Hell" (2009), "Edge of Darkness" (2009), "Devil" (2010), "Burning Man" (2011), and "Generation Um..." (2012).


title: Bojana Novakovic

text: Her theatre credits in Australia include "These People", "Away" and "Strange Fruit" at the Sydney Theatre Company; "The Female of the Species" at the Melbourne Theatre Company; "Woyzeck" (Helpmann award nomination for best supporting actress in 2009), "Criminology" (Green Room award nomination for best actress 2007), "Eldorado" (Helpmann nomination for best supporting actress, 2006) and "Necessary Targets" at the Malthouse Theatre in Melbourne, "Death Variations and Loveplay" (Ride On) for B Sharp, "Romeo and Juliet" with Bell Shakespeare company and "Debris" for Ride on Theatre (which received a Green Room nomination for best Independent production and best actress in 2006).


title: Bojana Novakovic

text: Novakovic runs her own independent theatre company, Ride On Theatre (Sydney and Melbourne) with co-director Tanya Goldberg. She was a producer and performer for the 2004 Ride on Theatre sell out season of "LOVEPLAY" at the Downstairs Belvoir Street Theatre, and the 2006 Green Room nominated production of "Debris" (in which she was also nominated for best actress).


title: Bojana Novakovic

text: In 2008, she translated, adapted and directed "Fake Porno" in Melbourne, which was invited to be part of the Powerhouse season in Brisbane in 2009, and also received three Green Room nominations including best production. Outside of Ride On, she wrote and directed with Melbourne's Black Lung Theatre for the critically acclaimed production of "Sugar" at the 2007 Adelaide Fringe festival. In 2010, Novakovic received an AFI nomination for International Award for Best Actress for her role in "Edge of Darkness". She is currently starring in an improvised theatrical production called "The Blind Date project" for the Sydney Festival.


title: Bojana Novakovic

text: From 2013 to 2014, Novakovic starred on the comedy-drama television series "Rake", which was cancelled after one season. In 2015, she portrayed Clare Hitchens in "The Hallow", a horror film set in Ireland and directed by Corin Hardy. She had a recurring role on the fifth season of "Shameless".


title: William Atherton

text: William Atherton Knight (born July 30, 1947) is an American actor, best known for portraying Richard Thornburg in "Die Hard" and its sequel and Walter Peck in "Ghostbusters".


title: William Atherton

text: Atherton was born in Orange, Connecticut, the son of Myrtle (née Robinson) and Robert Atherton Knight. He studied acting at the Drama School at Carnegie Tech and graduated from Carnegie Mellon University in 1969.


title: William Atherton

text: Atherton was successful on the New York stage immediately after graduating and worked with many of the country's leading playwrights including David Rabe, John Guare, and Arthur Miller, winning numerous awards for his work on and off Broadway.


title: William Atherton

text: He got his big break playing hapless fugitive Clovis Poplin in "The Sugarland Express" (1974), the feature film debut of Steven Spielberg. After this, he garnered major roles in dark dramas such as "The Day of the Locust" (1975) and "Looking for Mr. Goodbar" (1977), as well as the big-budget disaster film "The Hindenburg" (1975). Atherton also starred as cowboy Jim Lloyd in the miniseries "Centennial" (1978), based on the novel by James Michener. He appeared in the comedy "Ghostbusters" (1984) as EPA agent Walter Peck. K. Thor Jensen wrote, "Atherton, who plays cowardly EPA lawyer Walter Peck, is the real villain of the movie (his releasing the ghosts from the containment unit added to the chaos in New York), [he] was so hated that after the movie came out he was harassed on the street and challenged to fights in bars."


title: William Atherton

text: Martha Coolidge chose Atherton to play Professor Jerry Hathaway in the teen comedy "Real Genius" (1985). Atherton played reporter Richard "Dick" Thornburg in the blockbuster action film "Die Hard" (1988), and reprised the role in its sequel "Die Hard 2" (1990).


title: William Atherton

text: Other film credits include "No Mercy" (1986), "The Pelican Brief" (1993), "Bio-Dome" (1996), "Mad City" (1997), "" (2000), "The Last Samurai" (2003), "Grim Prairie Tales" (1990), the TV movies "Buried Alive" (1990), "Headspace" (2005) and "Virus" (1995). He has also made guest appearances on such television series as "The Twilight Zone", "Murder, She Wrote", "Desperate Housewives", "Law & Order", "The Equalizer", "Boston Legal", "Castle" and "Monk". Atherton provided the voice of Dr. Destiny on "Justice League". He had a recurring role in NBC's detective drama "Life".


title: William Atherton

text: While starring in "The Day of the Locust", Atherton was offered and accepted the opportunity to provide lead vocals for "What'll I Do", the main title theme for the Robert Redford film version of "The Great Gatsby". His 2007 appearances included the film "The Girl Next Door", an adaptation of the best-selling Jack Ketchum novel of the same name. He also reprised his role as Walter Peck in "", released on June 16, 2009.


title: William Atherton

text: Atherton was cast in the final season of ABC's "Lost". He appeared in the musical "Gigi" for the Reprise Theatre in Los Angeles as "Honoré Lachailles" in 2011.


title: William Atherton

text: Following his work on the musical, he stepped into a comedic role in "Tim and Eric's Billion Dollar Movie" (2012), produced by Will Ferrell's Funny or Die, Gary Sanchez Productions and Abso Lutely Productions.


title: William Atherton

text: In summer 2014, Atherton was cast in a recurring role as Viceroy Mercado in the Syfy series "Defiance"'s second season.


title: William Atherton

text: Atherton co-starred in the 2017 Netflix thriller, "Clinical", and appears in several upcoming documentaries on his most iconic films. The first to be released is the 2019 "Cleanin' Up the Town: Remembering Ghostbusters" which features the original 1984 cast.


title: William Atherton

text: Atherton has been married to writer Bobbi Goldin since December 8, 1980. On the Phil Donahue show in 1981, William Atherton claimed that he was once homosexual but changed due to the Aesthetic Realism of Eli Siegel.


title: William Atherton

text: Atherton has sung in various productions in later years. In 2011, he performed "I Remember It Well," a popular song from "Gigi" with his former Reprise Theater co-star, Millicent Martin, at a sold-out performance in Palm Springs for Michael Childers' "One Night Only", benefiting the Jewish Family Service of the Desert. He returned in 2013 to the same sold-out event to sing the classic, "Isn't It Romantic?"


title: William Atherton

text: As an avid promoter of education, Atherton has worked with the Library Foundation of Los Angeles in readings benefiting the Los Angeles Public Library. He appeared twice with his former co-star, Stephanie Zimbalist in the Gregory Peck Reading Series and they were directed by the iconic Gregory Peck. One of these evenings was a tribute to actor Roddy McDowall who emceed their evening for the Library's benefactors.


title: William Atherton

text: In December 2018 Atherton participated in the Library Foundation's reading of excerpts from book editor and critic, David Kipen's best-seller, "Dear Los Angeles: The City in Diaries and Letters, 1542 to 2018".


title: William Atherton

text: Atherton has also coached young adults in school programs, working directly with students in their class productions of Shakespearean plays and other well-known works.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: James Jesus Angleton (December 9, 1917 – May 11, 1987) was chief of counterintelligence for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) from 1954 to 1974. His official position within the organization was Associate Deputy Director of Operations for Counterintelligence (ADDOCI). Angleton was significantly involved in the US response to the purported KGB defectors Anatoliy Golitsyn and Yuri Nosenko. Angleton later became convinced the CIA harbored a high-ranking mole, and engaged in an intensive search. Whether this was a highly destructive witch hunt or appropriate caution vindicated by later moles remains a subject of intense historical debate.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: According to Director of Central Intelligence Richard Helms: "In his day, Jim was recognized as the dominant counterintelligence figure in the non-communist world." Investigative journalist Edward Jay Epstein agrees with the high regard in which Angleton was held by his colleagues in the intelligence business, and adds that Angleton earned the "trust ... of six CIA directors—including Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, Allen W. Dulles and Richard Helms. They kept Angleton in key positions and valued his work."


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: James Jesus Angleton was born December 9, 1917, in Boise, Idaho, to James Hugh Angleton (1888–1973) and Carmen Mercedes Moreno (1898–1985). His parents met in Arizona while his father was a U.S. Army cavalry officer serving under General John Pershing. His father then joined the National Cash Register Corporation, rising through its ranks until in the early 1930s he purchased the NCR franchise in Italy, where he became head of the American Chamber of Commerce.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Angleton's boyhood was spent in Milan, Italy, where his family moved after his father bought NCR's Italian subsidiary. He then studied as a boarder at Malvern College in England before attending Yale University. The young Angleton was a poet and, as a Yale undergraduate, editor, with Reed Whittemore, of the Yale literary magazine "Furioso", which published many of the best-known poets of the inter-war period, including William Carlos Williams, E. E. Cummings and Ezra Pound. He carried on an extensive correspondence with Pound, Cummings and T. S. Eliot, among others, and was particularly influenced by William Empson, author of "Seven Types of Ambiguity". Angleton was trained in the New Criticism at Yale by Maynard Mack and others, chiefly Norman Holmes Pearson, a founder of American Studies, and briefly studied law at Harvard, but did not graduate.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: He joined the U.S. Army in March 1943 and in July 1943 married Cicely Harriet d'Autremont, a Vassar alumna from Tucson, Arizona. Together, they had three children: James C. Angleton, Guru Sangat Kaur Khalsa (formerly Truffy Angleton), and Siri Hari Kaur Angleton-Khalsa (formerly Lucy d'Autremont Angleton). They lived in the Rock Spring neighborhood of Arlington, Virginia until Angleton's death in 1987. Angleton's wife and his daughters explored Sikhism. Both of Angleton's daughters became followers of Harbhajan Singh Khalsa.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: During World War II Angleton served in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and led its branch in Italy. He served under Norman Holmes Pearson in the counter-intelligence branch (X-2) of the Office of Strategic Services in London, where he met the famous double agent Kim Philby. Angleton was chief of the Italy desk for X-2 in London by February 1944 and in November was transferred to Italy as commander of SCI [Secret Counterintelligence] Unit Z, which handled Ultra intelligence based on the British intercepts of German radio communications.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: By the end of the war, he was head of X-2 for all of Italy. In this position Angleton helped Junio Valerio Borghese, whose elite unit Decima MAS had collaborated with the SS, escape execution. Angleton was interested in the defense of installations such as ports and bridges and offered Borghese a fair trial, in return for his collaboration. He dressed him up in an American uniform and drove him from Milan to Rome for interrogation by the Allies. Borghese was then tried and convicted of collaboration with the Nazi invaders but not of war crimes, by the Italian court.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Angleton remained in Italy after the war, establishing connections with other secret intelligence services and playing a major role in the victory of the US-supported Christian Democratic Party, over the USSR-supported Italian Communist Party in the 1948 Italian general election.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Returning to Washington, he was employed by the various successor organizations to the OSS, eventually becoming one of the founder-officers of the Central Intelligence Agency in 1947. In May 1949, he was made head of Staff A of the CIA's Office of Special Operations, where he was responsible for the collection of foreign intelligence and liaison with the CIA's counterpart organizations. Beginning in 1951, Angleton was responsible for liaison with Israel's Mossad and Shin Bet agencies, "the Israeli desk", crucial relationships that he managed for the remainder of his career. During the next five years, Angleton helped put in place the structure of the new Agency and participated, to some extent, in the "Rollback" operations, associated with Frank Wisner in Albania, Poland and other countries, concerning all of which Angleton counseled caution and all of which failed. He worked particularly closely with Kim Philby, who being groomed to head the Secret Intelligence Service MI6, was also in Washington. The Angletons developed a varied social set in Washington, including professional acquaintances like the Philbys, poets, painters and journalists. In 1951, Philby's colleagues Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean defected to Moscow. Philby was expelled from Washington, suspected of having tipped them off to imminent exposure based on decoded Soviet communications from the Venona project.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: In 1954 Allen Dulles, who had recently become Director of Central Intelligence, named Angleton chief of the Counterintelligence Staff, a position that Angleton retained for the rest of his CIA career. Dulles also assigned Angleton responsibility for coordination with allied intelligence services. In general, Angleton's career at the CIA can be divided into three areas of responsibility: foreign intelligence activities, counterintelligence and domestic intelligence activities.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Under the heading of foreign intelligence, there was the Israeli desk, the "Lovestone Empire" and a variety of smaller operations. The Israeli connection was at first of interest to Angleton, for the information that could be obtained about the Soviet Union and aligned countries, from émigrés to Israel from those countries and for the utility of the Israeli foreign intelligence units, for proxy operations in third countries. Angleton's connections with the Israeli secret intelligence services were useful, for example, in obtaining from the Israeli Shin Bet a transcript of Nikita Khrushchev's 1956 speech to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Congress denouncing Joseph Stalin. The "Lovestone Empire" is a term for the network run for the CIA by Jay Lovestone, once head of the Communist Party of the United States, later a trade union leader, who worked with foreign unions, using covert funds to construct a worldwide system of anti-communist unions. Finally, there were individual agents, especially in Italy, who reported to Angleton. It is quite possible that there were other foreign intelligence activities for which Angleton was responsible, for example, in Southeast Asia and in the Caribbean.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Angleton's primary responsibilities as chief of the counterintelligence staff of the CIA have given rise to a considerable literature focused on his efforts to identify any Soviet or Eastern Bloc agents, working in American secret intelligence agencies. As such agents have come to be called "moles", operations intended to find them have come to be called "Molehunts".


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Three books dealing with Angleton take these matters as their central theme: Tom Mangold's "", David C. Martin's "" and David Wise's "". Tim Weiner's "" paints Angleton as an incompetent alcoholic. These views have been challenged by Mark Riebling in "".


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Angleton thought that all secret intelligence agencies should be assumed to be penetrated by others, or, at least, that a reasonable chief of counterintelligence should assume so. Angleton had direct experience of ways in which secret intelligence services could be penetrated. There was the manipulation of the German services in World War II by means of Ultra; there was the direct penetration of the British services by the Cambridge Five and their indirect penetration of the American services by means of the liaison activities of Kim Philby, Donald Maclean and perhaps others, and there were the highly successful efforts of the American secret intelligence services in regard to allied, hostile and Third World services. The combination of Angleton's close association with Philby and Philby's duplicity caused Angleton to double-check "potential problems". Philby was confirmed as a Soviet mole, when he eluded those sent to capture him and defected. Philby said that Angleton had been "a brilliant opponent" and a fascinating friend who seemed to be "catching on" before Philby's departure, thanks to CIA employee William King Harvey, a former Federal Bureau of Investigation agent, who had voiced his suspicions regarding Philby and others, who Angleton suspected were Soviet agents.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Angleton's position in the CIA, his close relationship with Richard Helms, in particular, his experience and character, made him particularly influential. As in all bureaucracies, this influence brought him the enmity of those who had different views. The conflict between the "Angletonians" and the "Anti-Angletonians" has played out in the public sphere generally in publications about the mole hunts and, in particular, in regard to two Soviet defectors (among many): Anatoliy Golitsyn and Yuri Nosenko.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Although Golitsyn was a questionable source, Angleton accepted significant information obtained from his debriefing by the CIA. It is claimed that Golitsyn, in asking to defect rather than to become a double agent, implied that the CIA had already been seriously compromised by the KGB. Golitsyn may have concluded that the CIA failed to debrief him correctly because his debriefing was misdirected by a mole in the Soviet Russia Division, limiting his debriefing to a review of photographs of Soviet embassy staff to identify KGB officers and refusing to discuss KGB strategy. After Golitsyn raised this possibility with MI5 in a subsequent debriefing in Britain, MI5 raised the same concern with Angleton, who responded by requesting that DCI Richard Helms allow him to assume responsibility for Golitsyn and his further debriefing.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: In 1964, Yuri Nosenko, a KGB officer working out of Geneva, Switzerland, insisted that he needed to defect to the US, as his role as a double agent had been discovered, prompting his recall to Moscow. Nosenko was allowed to defect, although his credibility was immediately in question because the CIA was unable to verify a KGB recall order. Nosenko made two controversial claims: that Golitsyn was not a defector but a KGB plant, and that he had information on the assassination of President John F. Kennedy by way of the KGB's history with Lee Harvey Oswald during the time that Oswald lived in the Soviet Union.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Regarding the first claim, Golitsyn had said from the beginning that the KGB would try to plant other defectors in an effort to discredit him. Regarding the second, Nosenko told his debriefers that he had been personally responsible for handling Oswald's case and that the KGB had judged Oswald unfit for service due to his mental instability. Nosenko claimed that the KGB had not even attempted to debrief Oswald about his work on the U-2 spy plane during his service in the United States Marine Corps. Although other KGB sources corroborated Nosenko's story, he repeatedly failed lie detector tests. Judging the claim of not interrogating Oswald about the U-2 improbable, given Oswald's familiarity with the U-2 program, and faced with further challenges to Nosenko's credibility (he also falsely claimed to be a lieutenant colonel, a higher rank than he in fact held), Angleton did not object when David Murphy, then head of the Soviet Russia Division, ordered Nosenko held in solitary confinement for approximately three-and-a-half years.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Contrary to some accounts, the detention of Nosenko was neither ordered by Angleton nor kept secret. Without naming Nosenko, the 1975 report of the Rockefeller Commission, also known as the President's Commission on CIA Activities within the United States, affirmed that the CIA's Office of Security, which is responsible for the safety of defectors, the Attorney General, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the United States Intelligence Board, and select members of Congress were all apprised of Nosenko's detention. Nosenko never changed his story. The "Monster Plot" report about Nosenko's detainment and handling, written by John Hart, was feared by him and CIA lawyers to be libelous due to including "literally irrelevant" information and "dramatic rhetorical phrases."


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Angleton became increasingly convinced that the CIA was compromised by the KGB. Golitsyn convinced him that the KGB had reorganized in 1958 and 1959 to consist mostly of a shell, incorporating only those agents whom the CIA and the FBI were recruiting, directed by a small cabal of puppet masters who doubled those agents to manipulate their Western counterparts. Hoover eventually curbed cooperation with the CIA, because Angleton refused to relent on this hypothesis. Angleton also came into increasing conflict with the rest of the CIA, particularly with the Directorate of Operations, over the efficacy of their intelligence-gathering efforts, which he questioned without explaining his broader views on KGB strategy and organization. DCI Helms was not willing to tolerate the resulting paralysis. Golitsyn, who was after all a major in the KGB and had defected years before, was able to marshal few facts to provide concrete support for his far-reaching theoretical views of the KGB. The senior leadership of the CIA came to this conclusion after a hearing in 1968 and Angleton was thereafter unable to draw directly upon Golitsyn.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: In the period of the Vietnam War and Soviet-American détente, Angleton was convinced of the necessity of the war and believed that the strategic calculations underlying the resumption of relations with China were based on a deceptive KGB staging of the Sino-Soviet split. He went so far as to speculate that Henry Kissinger might be under KGB influence. During this period, Angleton's counter-intelligence staff undertook a most comprehensive domestic covert surveillance project (called Operation CHAOS) under the direction of President Lyndon Johnson. The prevailing belief at the time was that the anti-war and civil rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s had foreign funding and support. None was found by them, although the Soviet Union did influence the movements (see Soviet influence on the peace movement).


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: DCI William Colby reorganized the CIA in an effort to curb Angleton's influence, beginning by stripping him of control over the Israeli "account", which had the effect of weakening counter-intelligence. Colby then demanded Angleton's resignation. It has been claimed that Angleton directed CIA assistance to the Israeli nuclear weapons program.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Throughout the 1960s and 1970s Angleton privately accused various foreign leaders of being Soviet spies. He twice informed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police that he believed Prime Minister Lester Pearson and his successor Pierre Trudeau were agents of the Soviet Union. In 1964, under pressure from Angleton, the RCMP detained John Watkins, a close friend of Pearson and formerly Canadian Ambassador to the Soviet Union. Watkins died during interrogation by the RCMP and was subsequently cleared of suspicion. Angleton accused Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, West German Chancellor Willy Brandt and British Prime Minister Harold Wilson of using their access to NATO secrets to benefit the Soviet Union.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Australian journalist Brian Toohey claimed that Angleton considered then Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam a "serious threat" to the US and was concerned after the Commonwealth police raided ASIO headquarters in Melbourne in 1973 at the direction of Attorney General Lionel Murphy. In 1974, Angleton sought to instigate the removal of Whitlam from office by having CIA station chief in Canberra, John Walker, ask Peter Barbour, then head of ASIO, to make a false declaration that Whitlam had lied about the raid in Parliament. Barbour refused to make the statement.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Seymour Hersh published a story in "The New York Times" about domestic counter-intelligence activities under Angleton's direction, against anti-war protesters and other domestic dissident organizations. Following this, Angleton's resignation was announced on Christmas Eve of 1974, just as President Gerald Ford demanded that Colby report on the allegations and as various Congressional committees announced that they would launch their own inquiries. Angleton told reporters from United Press International that he was quitting after 31 years because "my usefulness has ended" and the CIA was getting involved in "police state activities." Three of Angleton's senior aides in counter-intelligence—his deputy Raymond Rocca, executive officer of the counter-intelligence division William J. Hood, and Angleton's chief of operations Newton S. Miller—were coaxed into retirement within a week of Angleton's resignation after it was made clear that they would be transferred elsewhere in the agency rather than promoted, and the counter-intelligence staff was reduced from 300 to 80 people. In 1975, Angleton was awarded the CIA's Distinguished Intelligence Medal. By this time, Angleton had been quietly rehired by the CIA at his old salary through a secret contract. Until September 1975, "operational issues remained solely the preserve of Angleton."


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Angleton's tour of duty in Italy as an intelligence officer is regarded as a critical turn not only in his professional life, wherein he helped recover Nazi looted treasures from other European countries and Africa, but also for the Agency. Angleton's personal liaisons with Italian Mafia figures helped the CIA in the immediate period after World War II. Angleton took charge of the CIA's effort to subvert Italian elections, to prevent communist and communist-related parties from gaining political leverage in the parliament.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: In time, Angleton's zeal and suspicions came to be regarded as counter-productive, if not destructive, for the CIA. In the wake of his departure, counter-intelligence efforts were undertaken with far less enthusiasm. Some believe this overcompensation was responsible for oversights which allowed Aldrich Ames, Robert Hanssen and many others to compromise the CIA, the FBI and other agencies long after Angleton's resignation. Although the American intelligence community quickly bounced back from the embarrassments of the Church Committee, it found itself uncharacteristically incapable of policing itself after Angleton's departure.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Edward Jay Epstein is among those who have argued that the positions of Ames and Hanssen—both well-placed Soviet counter-intelligence agents, in the CIA and FBI respectively—would enable the KGB to deceive the American intelligence community, in the manner that Angleton hypothesized.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: The 1970s were generally a period of upheaval for the CIA. During George H. W. Bush's tenure as DCI, President Ford authorized the creation of a "Team B" under the aegis of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board. This project concluded that the Agency and the intelligence community had seriously underestimated Soviet strategic nuclear strength in Central Europe in their National Intelligence Estimate. The Church Commission brought no small number of skeletons out of the Agency's closet. The organization inherited by Admiral Stansfield Turner on his appointment as DCI by President Jimmy Carter in 1977, was shortly to face further cuts, and Turner used Angleton as an example of the excesses in the Agency that he hoped to curb, both during his service and in his memoirs.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: The suspicions of Angleton and his staff impeded the career advancement of a number of CIA employees. The CIA later paid out compensation to three, under what Agency employees termed the "Mole Relief Act". Forty employees are said to have been investigated and fourteen considered serious suspects by Angleton's staff.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: When Golitsyn defected, he claimed that the CIA had a mole who had been stationed in West Germany, was of Slavic descent, had a last name that might end in "sky" and definitely began with a "K", and operated under the KGB codename "Sasha". Angleton believed this claim, with the result that anyone who approximated this description fell under his suspicion. Some within CIA considered Golitsyn discredited even before Angleton's ousting, but the two did not appear to have lost their faith in one another. They sought the assistance of William F. Buckley, Jr. (himself once in the CIA) in authoring "New Lies for Old", which advanced the argument that the USSR planned to fake its collapse to lull its enemies into a false sense of victory, but Buckley refused. In his book "" (Knopf, 1994), Mark Riebling stated that of 194 predictions made in "New Lies For Old", 139 had been fulfilled by 1993, nine seemed 'clearly wrong', and the other 46 were 'not soon falsifiable'.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: Despite misgivings over his uncompromising and often obsessive approach to his profession, Angleton is highly regarded by a number of his peers in the intelligence business. Former Shin Bet chief Amos Manor, in an interview in "Ha'aretz", revealed his fascination with the man during Angleton's work to forge the U.S.–Israel liaison in the early 1950s. Manor described Angleton as "fanatic about everything", with a "tendency towards mystification". Manor discovered decades later that the real reason for Angleton's visit to him was to investigate Manor, being an Eastern European Jewish immigrant, for James Angleton thought that it would be prudent to "sanitize" the U.S.–Israeli bridge before a more formal intelligence relationship was established.


title: James Jesus Angleton

text: A set of highly sensitive Agency documents, referred to as the "Family Jewels," was publicly released on June 25, 2007, after more than three decades of secrecy. The release was prompted by an internal CIA investigation of the 1970s Church Committee which verified the far-ranging power and influence that Angleton wielded during his long tenure as counter-intelligence czar. The exposé revealed that Angleton-planned infiltration of law enforcement and military organizations in other countries was used to increase the influence of the United States. It also confirmed past rumors that it was Angleton who was in charge of the domestic spying activities of the CIA under Operation CHAOS.


title: Etan Cohen

text: Etan Cohen (; born March 14, 1974) is an Israeli-American screenwriter and film director who has written scripts for Hollywood movies, including "Tropic Thunder", "", "Men in Black 3", and "The Bad Guys".


title: Etan Cohen

text: Born in Israel to a Jewish family, Cohen grew up in the Israeli settlement of Efrat and later in Sharon, Massachusetts. He graduated from the Maimonides School and Harvard College, where he wrote for the "Harvard Lampoon".


title: Etan Cohen

text: His first produced scripts, in 1995 and 1997, were for "Beavis and Butthead", where he was credited as Ethan Cohen. He has since written for other Mike Judge-directed projects, including "King of the Hill" from 2001 to 2005, and for the feature film "Idiocracy" in 2006. In the late 1990s he worked on two other television series – the animated "Recess" and the short lived "It's Like, You Know...". After scripting "Idiocracy", he worked on the animated series, "American Dad!" and wrote the episode, "Failure Is Not a Factory-Installed Option". The "American Dad!" minor character of the same name is named for him.


title: Etan Cohen

text: In 2008, Cohen co-wrote, along with Ben Stiller and Justin Theroux, the action-comedy film "Tropic Thunder". He also wrote "", which earned an Annie Award nomination for best Writing in a Feature Production.


title: Etan Cohen

text: Cohen penned the script for 2012's "Men in Black 3". In 2015, he made his directorial debut with "Get Hard", which he also co-wrote.


title: Etan Cohen

text: Cohen wrote and directed the 2018 film "Holmes & Watson". The film earned him a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Director.


title: Etan Cohen

text: Cohen is an observant Jew. He keeps kosher and does not work on the Jewish Sabbath and he and his wife send their children to a Jewish day school.


title: Model United Nations

text: Model United Nations, also known as Model UN or MUN, is an educational simulation in which students can learn about diplomacy, international relations, and the United Nations. At a MUN conference, students work as the representative of a country, organization, or person, and must solve a problem with other delegates from around the world. MUN teaches participants skills like research, public speaking, debating, and writing, in addition to critical thinking, teamwork, and leadership. While Model UN is typically used as an extracurricular activity, some schools also offer it as a class. Model UN is meant to engage students, and allow them to develop deeper understanding into current world issues.


title: Model United Nations

text: Delegates conduct research before conferences: they must formulate position papers, and create policy proposals that they will debate with other delegates in their committee. At the end of a conference, delegates will vote on written policies (called draft resolutions), with the goal of passing them with a majority vote. The best-performing delegates in each committee, as well as delegations, are sometimes recognized with awards.


title: Model United Nations

text: Model UN organizations have conferences that accommodate students, from elementary school, all the way to college or university levels. Most conferences will often cater to just one of these three levels. Delegates usually attend conferences together, as delegations sent by their respective school or university's model UN clubs, though some delegates attend conferences independently.


title: Model United Nations

text: Model UN began as a series of student-led model League of Nations simulations. The first simulations were called "international assemblies", the first of which was held at Oxford University in November 1921, with the potential first ever simulation being on the 12th of November 1921. Following several simulations in Oxford, Mir Mahmood, the president of the first Oxford International Assembly, traveled to Harvard in 1922 to help spread this idea further. He advocated for the League of Nations, and inspired the Harvard Liberal Club to create the first American International Assembly held at Harvard University in 1923. The Oxford International Assembly ceased to exist in the following years, but the Harvard International Assembly remained strong, and has since encouraged the development of these simulations worldwide.


title: Model United Nations

text: After World War II, model League of Nations transitioned to Model United Nations after the formation of the League's successor organization, the United Nations, in 1945. Today, some Model United Nations conferences include a wide variety of topics in their committee offerings, some even simulating the League of Nations.


title: Model United Nations

text: The first recorded instance of a Model United Nations conference was at Swarthmore College on April 5, 1947. Over 150 students from over 41 colleges were reported as participating. The delegates simulated a General Assembly, and recommended that member states "establish an international control and development of atomic energy", "conclude a treaty on disarmament", that the UN adopt "a uniform system for citizenship of refugees", that the UN amend the charter to adopt a definition of aggression, and that nations "promote the reconstruction of devastated areas through economic assistance through the U.N."


title: Model United Nations

text: Another historic Model United Nations was held at St. Lawrence University from 11 to 13 February 1949. It was initiated by Dr. Harry Reiff, head of the History and Government Department, with the assistance of departmental colleague Otto L. George. The 1949 St. Lawrence University Model UN conference included delegates from regional colleges and universities, including Adelphi University, Alfred University, Champlain College, Clarkson University, McGill University, Middlebury College, Potsdam College, Saint Michael's College, and The University of Vermont. The conference continued annually for many years at St. Lawrence, and has recently been revived on the campus.


title: Model United Nations

text: The three oldest conferences in the world that are still active today were established in the early 1950s. They are Berkeley Model United Nations (BMUN) at Berkeley (1952) Harvard Model United Nations (HMUN) at Harvard (1953) and Model United Nations of the Far West (MUNFW), which has held college-level conferences since 1951. The first being at Stanford University where Ralph Bunche was the honored speaker.


title: Model United Nations

text: Participation in Model UN is meant to foster skills in negotiation, speaking, and communication. Material issues of diplomacy and policy are approached through a quasi-academic process. In addition, crisis committees, which deal with crisis scenarios which can be contemporary or historical, can develop leadership skills, and the ability to adapt and deal with unexpected situations. In preparation for a conference, topics are chosen for each committee. Typically, research and background guides are made available by the organizers of a conference. Based on these guides, delegates of each committee are often expected to research and formulate a position for the country or group they represent, and submit a position paper. The purpose of writing a position paper is to familiarize delegates with the substantial topics of debate, encourage academic research and writing, and to enable substantial preparation for conferences.


title: Model United Nations

text: In order to maintain decorum, most model UN committees use parliamentary procedures derived from Robert's Rules of Order. In addition, the United Nations has spearheaded efforts to introduce new model UN rules of procedure that are more closely aligned with those used by the actual UN. Since there is no governing body for Model UN, each conference differs in their rules of procedure.


title: Model United Nations

text: Points and Motions outline how topics are prioritized, the way resolutions are voted on, and how they facilitate the general flow of debate. Points are used to discuss topics that are outside of substantive debate. They are more personal, and don’t require a vote. Motions are used to discuss procedural matters, and they help to further the discussion on a committee topic. A delegate may request the committee as a whole to perform a particular action. Most motions will require a vote in order to pass; the number of votes required to pass these motions works according to a Quorum – this is the minimum number of delegates required to make decisions in a committee. The motions used at any given time in a Model UN committee change, according to where the committee is with the flow of debate.


title: Model United Nations

text: Most MUN committees follow a flow of debate. This starts with a speakers list, followed by formal/informal debate and then voting procedure. A Dais will maintain a list of speakers and the delegates follow the order written on the 'speaker list'. Delegates may be added to the speaker list by raising their placards or sending a note to the chair. During this time, delegates talk to the entire committee. They make speeches, answer questions, and debate on resolutions and amendments. If there are no other motions, the committee goes back to the speaker list by default.


title: Model United Nations

text: Formal/Informal debate includes both moderated and unmoderated caucuses. Caucus is an opportunity to discuss policy ideas. A Moderated Caucus is more formal and is run by the committee chair, an Unmoderated caucus is a time where delegates move around the room and have a more informal discussion on the topic. In a moderated or unmoderated caucus, the committee goes into a recess and the rules of procedure are suspended. Anyone may speak if recognized by the chair. A vote on a motion is necessary to go into a moderated caucus. There is a comparatively shorter time limit per speech. In an unmoderated caucus, the delegates informally meet with other delegates and the staff for discussions.


title: Model United Nations

text: A resolution is a legal document that expresses the general opinion of the committee. Once passed it can be seen as a list of actions that your committee recommends.


title: Model United Nations

text: Resolutions are the written compilation of the ideas discussed during debate. They are considered the final results of conversations, writings, and negotiations. Resolutions must go through a draft, approval by the dais, and consequent debate and modification.


title: Model United Nations

text: MUN Resolutions are composed of both preambulatory and operative clauses. Preambulatory clauses help to outline the general problems that a resolution will fix, whereas operative clauses help to display solutions in an organized and easily understandable way.


title: Model United Nations

text: MUN societies and conferences are run by a group of administrators known as the secretariat. A secretariat is headed by a Secretary-General. Other members of the secretariat include the Director-General, Under-Secretaries-General and President of General Assembly.


title: Model United Nations

text: Each committee usually has a dais that is composed of a chair (also known as moderator or director), one or more vice-chairs and a team of note-passers (also known as pages, runners, security, admins, or similar).


title: Model United Nations

text: In crisis committees, there can also be a crisis staff composed of a crisis director, assistant director, and crisis staffers. These members are responsible for facilitating the back-room portion of a committee.


title: Model United Nations

text: Traditionally, English has been the official and working language of most conferences. However, as Model UN has become more popular around the world, and as conferences in countries such as the United States have sought to appeal to underrepresented minorities (such as the Spanish-speaking community), committees using languages other than English, or which are bilingual, have become common. However, this is still not a mainstream phenomenon, especially in the United States, where most bilingual or Spanish language committees are found only at conferences hosted in Puerto Rico or the South West.


title: Model United Nations

text: Nearly all Model United Nations conferences require delegates to wear Western business attire. Dressing professionally is an important way to show respect for the nation, organization, or individual one is representing, as well as for the rest of one's committee.


title: Model United Nations

text: Model United Nations conferences regularly simulate the bodies of the United Nations, the European Union, government cabinets, regional bodies such as ASEAN, as well as corporate boards, NGOs or so-called Press Corps. Idiosyncrasies and fictional Committees also exist. An example for such a special committee that does not have a parallel in the actual United Nations which deals with a crisis is known as a 'Crisis Committee.' In this committee, a crisis is given to a team of students and the teams must come up with solutions. The Crisis Committee traditionally focuses on a single historical event, but recently current and future events have been used as well. The event may be fictional or non-fictional.


title: Model United Nations

text: Crisis is a specialized form of model UN where participants can emulate a variety of entities, from a board of directors to historical figures. Crisis committees tend to be much smaller in size than their classic counterparts, and revolve around a quickly-developing series of events known as a "crisis." Delegates are assigned positions, and must create directives consisting purely of operative actions this means that rather than solving problems with Resolutions, delegates pass Directives. While delegates are working to solve the crisis at hand through directives, they are also often tasked with individual objectives that can be achieved with the submission of crisis notes. Delegates may sometimes find out what other committee members have been doing through crisis updates.


title: Model United Nations

text: Unlike regular committees, crisis committees have two distinct forums: the in-room and the out-room (also known as the front-room and the back-room, respectively). The in-room consists of delegate activity in the committee, including the usual speaking, while out-room refers to directives sent to staffers (also known as directors), communication with other crisis committees. Directives can either be written by an individual, several individuals working together, or the whole committee.


title: Model United Nations

text: Staffers can update crisis events based partly on a preset direction and partly on interaction from delegates and committees. Crisis committees are also subject to more variation in rules and experimentation than regular committees. One relatively common variant is the "midnight crisis" where delegates attend a committee session at night to respond to an emergency situation. There also may be crisis committees that interact with each other, where resolutions that are written impact debate in other committees.


title: Model United Nations

text: Although Model United Nations originated in the United States, MUN clubs and conferences are not isolated to that country. Rather, like the actual UN, model UN is found in countries around the globe. Because model UN is decentralized and has grown autonomously around the world, there are significant differences in how MUN is done between regions.


title: Model United Nations

text: MUN is popular amongst university and high school students in . The country's largest conference is (OLMUN).


title: Model United Nations

text: Most Model United Nations Conferences in Germany debate in English language. Exceptions to that are high school conferences including the ones organized by (DMUN e.V.) in (MUNBW), (MUNSH) and (MUNBB), as well as the ones organized by (SvEN, Simulation Vereinte Nationen). On college level, BIMUN/SINUB in takes place as a multi-lingual conference with live interpretation.


title: Model United Nations

text: The largest MUN in the Netherlands is The Hague International Model United Nations (THIMUN) conference, which includes over 3500 participants, coming from around 200 schools and 100 countries. Although it is not located near the United Nations Headquarters in New York, it is one of the pioneer Model United Nations conferences in the world, since it has been founded in 1968 and located in the International Court of Justice's (ICJ) world city of the Hague. A whole network of conferences is marked by its THIMUN affiliation, a label which basically describes the universality of the procedures that rule the conference, and make it part of the UN recognized foundation. In 1995, the THIMUN Foundation was accredited as a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) associated with the United Nations Department of Public Information. Additionally, THIMUN has established its own conferences' network throughout time: THIMUN Qatar, THIMUN Singapore, THIMUN Online MUN (O-MUN) and THIMUN Latin America conferences have been set up from 2005. The second and third biggest MUN-conferences of the Netherlands are MUNISH (Model United Nations at the International School of the Hague) and HMUN (Haarlem Model United Nations). There is also The European International Model UN TEIMUN which was founded in 1987, and is the oldest university Model UN in Europe.


title: Model United Nations

text: The Iberian Model United Nations (IMUN), held in Lisbon, is the largest MUN in Portugal and one of the largest high school MUN conferences in Europe. IMUN's keynote speakers have included prominent politicians, diplomats, United Nations officials, and rights activists, such as internationally awarded author Richard Zimler, U.S. Ambassador Robert A. Sherman, and President of Portugal Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa.


title: Model United Nations

text: There are numerous other conferences throughout the country, including the Oporto Model United Nations.


title: Model United Nations

text: MUN first arrived in Spain in 2006 with the organization of the Catalonia Model United Nations (C'MUN) in Barcelona. In 2019 Madrid hosted the Harvard World Model United Nations (WorldMUN), and among the 2,300 participants were 500 Spanish students belonging to 20 different universities. Madrid's bid for WorldMUN was led by the Spanish Alliance for Model United Nations (SAMUN), which reunited the students of the four public universities of Madrid: Complutense University of Madrid, Autonomous University of Madrid, Charles III University of Madrid and King Juan Carlos University.


title: Model United Nations

text: The Kabul Model United Nations was established in Kabul in 2014. The objectives are to bring young female and male individuals together to discuss global issues and promote diplomacy, human rights, peace building, and social welfare. Participants include university students up to the age of 30. They come from four or five Afghanistan provinces to develop critical thinking and public speaking skills. Pamir International Model United Nations (PIMUN) was established in October 2016.


title: Model United Nations

text: Model United Nations conferences in Australia are typically separated into tertiary and high school levels. At the high school level, the large majority of model United Nations events are organized by the various state and territory branches of UN Youth Australia through the Evatt competition or UN Youth various conferences and summits, or by the many branches of Rotary Australia.


title: Model United Nations

text: Model United Nations is practiced in Bangladesh since 2002, when the Model United Nations on Combating Terrorism – Bangladesh Model United Nations first took place. Since then, plenty of Model United Nations conferences have been held in the country. But the concept of MUN became a popular one in Bangladesh from 2013.


title: Model United Nations

text: MUN in Bangladesh grew rapidly after the formation of the first university based MUN club of the country Dhaka University Model United Nations Association in 2011. Dhaka University National Model United Nations (DUNMUN) started from 2012.


title: Model United Nations

text: Model United Nations first came to China in 1995, when the China Foreign Affairs University held the country's first collegiate Model United Nations conferences. Arriving in Chinese high schools in 2005, model UN expanded rapidly. Peking University (PKU) students, after attending Harvard's HMUN, organized the first national model UN conference for high school students in China. PKU's conference was initially backed by UNA-USA, however support was curtailed in 2010 due to the Great Recession.


title: Model United Nations

text: Between 2005 and 2010, national Model United Nations conferences such as those organized by PKU and the rivaling Fudan University in Shanghai drew the best high school students from around the country, who competed for limited spaces. Over time, lesser-known national conferences, as well as regional and even local conferences for high school students, began to develop and gradually spread to cities beyond Beijing and Shanghai.


title: Model United Nations

text: Most Model United Nations conferences in China are organized through private or academic enterprises, however some government-affiliated MUNs have also flourished, and recently, unofficial student-run grassroots conferences have begun to dominate the Chinese MUN scene.


title: Model United Nations

text: MITMUNC China was jointly organized online by ASDAN and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2020.


title: Model United Nations

text: The Doon School Model United Nations is one of the largest inter-school conferences in the country, with delegates coming from all across the Indian subcontinent and beyond. Harvard MUN India, in which over 1600 students participated in 2018.


title: Model United Nations

text: A high number of Malaysian universities operates their MUN events, including Asia-Pacific Model United Nations Conference (AMUNC), Penang Model United Nations (PenangMUN) and Sunway Model United Nations (SUNMUN).


title: Model United Nations

text: A high number of New Zealand high schools operate their own MUN events, with UN Youth New Zealand functioning as a managing organisation. UN Youth NZ also organises regional and national events, along with Aotearoa Youth Declaration, the Pacific Project, and New Zealand's THIMUN delegation.


title: Model United Nations

text: A major conference in Pakistan is the "Lahore University of Management Sciences Model United Nations" in Lahore, Pakistan which hosts more than 400 delegates (YICMUN).


title: Model United Nations

text: There has been an increasing number of conferences, including invitational ones such as UNISMUN, SAMSUN, and many other non-invitational ones. These conferences are often organized by schools or student-led organizations with varying scales and exclusivity. One of the most inclusive model United Nations conferences in the country is Vietnam National Model United Nations (VNMUN), open to not only Vietnamese in all parts of the country but also international students studying around the world.


title: Model United Nations

text: The United Arab Emirates Universities Model United Nations occur on a yearly basis. It draws more than 300 delegates from local universities and from across the Middle East.


title: Model United Nations

text: The Bahrain Universities Model United Nations occur on a yearly basis. It draws more than 200 delegates from local universities and from across the Middle East.


title: Model United Nations

text: In 2008, Reichman University established the first United Nations Model Club at the academic level in Israel. Since then, university level MUN in Israel has grown to include over 10 universities and colleges and is led by the Israeli Model United Nations Association. Some universities hold a yearly conference of their own such as Tel Aviv University's TLVMUN.


title: Model United Nations

text: Lagos Model United Nations is one of Africa's pioneer MUN Conferences. Set in Lagos, it is the largest MUN Conference in West Africa, and attracts over 400 delegates each year. The Conference is hosted by the Faculty of Law, University of Lagos and simulates up to 10 committees of the United Nations annually. The Conference began in 2016, due to the desire of the founders to organize a conference in Nigeria, after participating in several Model United Nations conferences worldwide including National Model United Nations and Rome Model United Nations.


title: Model United Nations

text: Beyond the simulation of committees, the Conference offers other activities for delegates such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Workshop and the Idea Fair. The SDG Workshop is a platform for SDG experts to share their experiences with the delegates, while the Idea Fair is an opportunity for young innovators working on different SDGs to win a cash grant.


title: Model United Nations

text: Conferences in Tunisia are mostly found in Tunis and they are usually sponsored by the Tunisian International Model United Nations (TIMUN). The most famous conference in Tunisia is the "Grande Simulation annuelle du TIMUN" in Tunis, which host more than 300 delegates. These conferences are usually hosted by the biggest national universities. Since the 6th edition, the "Grande Simulation annuelle" is under the patronage of the Tunisian Minister of Foreign Affairs and welcomes Tunisian ministers and diplomats.


title: Model United Nations

text: The majority of MUN conferences held in Botswana are centred around the capital city, Gaborone. Model United Nations events have also happened online, with Youth International Conclave hosting an event to encourage more of the youth to take part. Some private schools in Gaborone such as Maru-a-Pula School have MUN as an extra curricular activity.


title: Model United Nations

text: The other conferences in Africa include NAIMUN in Marrakech. Established in August 2012 by a coalition of North African youths, NAIMUN is the largest student-run model United Nations conference in Africa and the Middle East, with 4 sub-branches in Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt. It trains and encourages young people to address pressing global issues and engages them in resolving global problems. NAIMUN is a non-profit organization which provides an equal opportunity for all youth to actively participate in an open debate. JoMUN in Johannesburg, and IMIRAMUN in Windhoek took place in Benin, in Cotonou. The first edition of Algeria Model United Nations was held in December 2014.


title: Model United Nations

text: The Americas Model United Nations (AMUN ) was the first MUN Conference to be held in Latin America, accomplishing 21 years of history in 2018 with the edition "Bring Walls Down, Build Up Connections". The event official language of the conference is English, which has enabled AMUN to receive students from various countries worldwide. The committees vary with each edition of the project, as well as its themes addressed, among which are international security, cooperation, human rights, democracy and transnational crimes.


title: Model United Nations

text: Among the cultural activities, there is a tour around Brasília, the city hosting the event, and the Nations Fair, in which the peculiarities and customs of each country are shown by the participants representing them on the Conference.


title: Model United Nations

text: At university level, model United Nations started in Peru in 2006 with the United Nations Studies Circle (CENU), a college team from the University of Lima founded to compete at Harvard National Model United Nations. This team would evolution into a full-scale organization, the Peruvian Association for the Study of the United Nations (AENU Peru for its Spanish acronym), a non-for-profit NGO charged with task of promoting MUN in Peru and creating Peru's first "National Delegation", thus creating the Peruvian Universities Debate Team (PU). Starting their new trademark since 2011, PU's has garnered the Best Large Delegation award at Harvard World Model United Nations 2014 held in Brussels, Belgium, and the Best Large Delegation award at Harvard National Model United Nations - Latin America 2017, held in Lima, Peru.


title: Model United Nations

text: At high school level, MUN has been a popular extracurricular activity since 2012, with the first high school conference Lima Model United Nations (LiMUN) 2012, followed by Villa Maria Model United Nations (VMMUN) 2015, Newton Model United Nations (NewMUN) 2015, and Carmelitas Model United Nations 2015, being the latter school the host for the first Ivy League Model United Nations Conference Peru (ILMUNC 2016). Each school delegation hosts its own conference, including Lima, Cusco, Arequipa and Piura.


title: Model United Nations

text: Model United Nations is popular across the United States, with MUN clubs and conferences being found in every region. However, because Model UN is decentralized and has grown autonomously, there are significant differences in how MUN is done between regions.


title: L7 (band)

text: L7 is an American all-female rock band founded in Los Angeles, California, first active from 1985 to 2001 and re-formed in 2014. Their longest standing lineup consists of Suzi Gardner (guitars, vocals), Donita Sparks (vocals, guitars), Jennifer Finch (bass, vocals), and Dee Plakas (drums, vocals). L7 has released seven studio albums and has toured widely in the US, Europe, Japan, Australia, and South America. "Pretend We're Dead" was heavily played on US alternative radio and entered the top 10 on the "Billboard" Modern Rock chart in 1992.


title: L7 (band)

text: Due to their sound and image, L7 is often associated with the grunge movement of the late 1980s and early 1990s. As an all-female band, L7 formed Rock for Choice in 1991 and have, at times, also been linked to riot grrrl, although they preceded and are outliers of both the grunge and riot grrrl movements. The band's name, L7, derives from a slang term for square, and was deliberately chosen as a gender neutral sign. A documentary film about the band, "L7: Pretend We're Dead", premiered in 2016.