title: Brian Boru

text: This was the first of three battles which highlighted Brian's career. This victory was not decisive and eventually there grew up a brief alliance of sorts between Mathgamain, Máel Muad and others to drive the Norse "soldiers" or "officials" out of Munster and destroy their Limerick fortress in 972. The two Gaelic claimants were soon back to fighting and the fortuitous capture of Mathgamain in 976 by Donnubán mac Cathail allowed him to be effortlessly dispatched or murdered by Máel Muad, who would now rule as king of Cashel for two years.


title: Brian Boru

text: Despite the death of Mathgamain, the Dál gCais remained a powerful force. Mathgamain was succeeded as King of Thomond by Brian, who quickly proved to be as fine a commander of armies as his brother was. After attacking and killing the much-weakened Ivar in the year 977, Brian pursued a new target, intending to eradicate the remaining Viking presence in Munster. Upon ascending to the throne, Imar, ruler or governor of the city of Limerick who was loyal to the now-slain Ivar, fled the city by ship down the River Shannon towards the Shannon estuary and took refuge in a monastery on Inis Cathaigh (Scattery Island), accompanied by his sons. However, in an act of revenge for the death of his brother, Brian set aside the sacred traditions and attacked the island with his troops, slaughtered the Vikings and desecrated the church.


title: Brian Boru

text: Around the same time, in 978, Brian challenged Máel Muad to battle, and defeated him in the fateful Battle of Belach Lechta. Máel Muad was killed in the battle and afterwards the Eóganachta were no longer viable for the provincial Kingship, which was based upon lineage. Therefore, the Kingship of Munster passed to the Dál gCais, and Brian became king.


title: Brian Boru

text: Afterwards, the last opposition remaining in Munster was an alliance consisting of the rebellious Irish led by Donnubán (Donovan), the man responsible for Mathgamain's death, and the remaining Norse/Viking forces, possibly led by Ivar's last remaining son and designated successor, Aralt (Harold). Brian attacked them at the Battle of Cathair Cuan, which may have been either a single battle or an extended conflict over the period 977–978. In any case, the event is mentioned in the Annals, and the later source the "Cogadh" describes Brian making a "great slaughter" of his enemies, killing both Donnubán and Aralt, and securing his position within the province.


title: Brian Boru

text: However, he did allow some of the Norse to remain in their settlement, as they were wealthy and now central to trade in the region, particularly the slave trade, and possessed a fleet of great value, which Brian would utilise in his later naval expeditions.


title: Brian Boru

text: Cian, the son of his brother Mathgamain's sworn enemy Máel Muad, later became a loyal ally of Brian and served under him in a number of campaigns. According to some accounts, Cian would later marry one of Brian's daughters, Sadbh (died 1048).


title: Brian Boru

text: Having established unchallenged rule over his home Province of Munster, Brian turned to extending his authority over the neighboring provinces of Leinster to the east and Connacht to the north-west. By doing so, he came into conflict with High King Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill whose power base was the Province of Meath.


title: Brian Boru

text: For the next fifteen years, from 982 to 997, High King Máel Sechnaill repeatedly led armies into Leinster and Munster, while Brian, like his father and brother before him, led his naval forces of around three hundred ships up the Shannon to attack Connacht and Meath on either side of the river. He suffered quite a few reverses in this struggle, but appears to have learned from his setbacks. He developed a military strategy that would serve him well throughout his career: the coordinated use of forces on both land and water, including on rivers and along Ireland's coast. Brian's naval forces, which included contingents supplied by the Hiberno-Norse cities that he brought under his control (particularly Waterford), provided both indirect and direct support for his forces on land. Indirect support involved a fleet making a diversionary attack on an enemy in a location far away from where Brian planned to strike with his army. Direct support involved naval forces acting as one arm in a strategic pincer, the army forming the other arm.


title: Brian Boru

text: The conflict began in 982, when Brian was campaigning against the kingdom of Osraige. With Munster undefended, Maél Sechnaill attacked the Dál gCáis, destroying the sacred tree of Adair, under which many of the chiefs of the Dál gCáis had been crowned, including Brian's father Cénnetig, his brother Mathgamain and Brian himself. In response, Brian led an army into Westmeath where he plundered the land. Brian's fleet did suffer a setback when a squadron of his fleet attacked Connacht, where they killed a prince of Connacht, Muirgius, who was among the defenders. In retaliation, the Connachtmen attacked the ships, massacring the crews.


title: Brian Boru

text: Mael Sechnaill launched a counter-offensive into Munster and in the ensuing battle he defeated the Dál gCáis, killing around six hundred men, including Brian's uncle. There was a period of relative peace between the two afterwards for about nine years, with Brian continuing to campaign elsewhere as he attempted to expand his power in the south and east.


title: Brian Boru

text: Then in 993, Brian, now in control of much of Munster and gaining ground in Leinster, and unable to make significant progress against the High King on land, decided to utilise his naval superiority to attack Mael Sechnaill. His fleet sailed up the Shannon and invaded the Kingdom of Breifne, in what is now counties Leitrim and Cavan. In doing this, he put pressure on the High King as he was now open to attack from both north and south.


title: Brian Boru

text: In 996, Brian finally managed to control the province of Leinster, which may have been what led Máel Sechnaill to reach a compromise with him in the following year. The two kings met at Bleanphottogue, on the banks of Lough Ree in County Fermanagh, where the agreement was made. By recognising Brian's authority over "Leth Moga," that is, the Southern Half, which included the Provinces of Munster and Leinster (and the Hiberno-Norse cities within them), Máel Sechnaill was simply accepting the reality that confronted him and retained control over "Leth Cuinn", that is, the Northern Half, which consisted of the Provinces of Meath, Connacht, and Ulster.


title: Brian Boru

text: Precisely because he had submitted to Brian's authority, the king of Leinster was overthrown in 998 and replaced by Máel Mórda mac Murchada. Given the circumstances under which Máel Mórda had been appointed, it is not surprising that he launched an open rebellion against Brian's authority. With Leinster in rebellion, the kingdoms of both Brian and Mael Sechnaill were threatened, and thus they decided to briefly sideline their own conflict to defeat Leinster.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian assembled the forces of the province of Munster and Mael Sechnaill assembled those of Meath, with the intention of laying siege to the Hiberno-Norse city of Dublin, which was ruled by Máel Mórda's ally and cousin, Sigtrygg Silkbeard. Together Máel Mórda and Sigtrygg determined to meet Brian's army in battle rather than risk a siege. Thus, in 999, the opposing armies fought the Battle of Glenmama. The Irish annals all agree that this was a particularly fierce and bloody engagement, although claims that it lasted from morning until midnight, or that the combined Leinster-Dublin force lost 4,000 killed are open to question. In any case, Brian followed up his victory, as he and his brother had in the aftermath of the Battle of Sulcoit thirty-two years before, by capturing and sacking the enemy's city.


title: Brian Boru

text: Sigtrygg fled the city, seeking support from kings in Ulster, but he was turned away by the Ulaid, leaving Sigtrygg few options but to return to Dublin and submit to Brian. Once again, Brian opted for reconciliation; he requested that Sigtrygg return and resume his position as ruler of Dublin, giving Sigtrygg the hand of one of his daughters in marriage, just as he had with the Eoganacht king, Cian. It may have been on this occasion that Brian married Sigtrygg's mother and Máel Mórda's sister Gormflaith, the former wife of Máel Sechnaill.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian made it clear that his ambitions had not been satisfied by the compromise of 997 when, in the year 1000, he led a combined Munster-Leinster-Dublin army in an attack on High King Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill's home province of Meath. The struggle over who would control all of Ireland was renewed. Máel Sechnaill's most important ally was the king of Connacht, Cathal mac Conchobar mac Taidg, but this presented a number of problems. The provinces of Meath and Connacht were separated by the Shannon River, which served as both a route by which Brian's naval forces could attack the shores of either province and as a barrier to the two rulers providing mutual support for each other. Máel Sechnaill came up with an ingenious solution; two bridges would be erected across the Shannon. These bridges would serve as both obstacles preventing Brian's fleet from traveling up the Shannon and a means by which the armies of the provinces of Meath and Connacht could cross over into each other's kingdoms.


title: Brian Boru

text: The Annals state that, in the year 1002, Máel Sechnaill surrendered his title to Brian, although they do not say anything about how or why this came about. The "Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh" provides a story in which Brian challenges High King Máel Sechnaill to a battle at the Hill of Tara in the province of Meath, but the High King requests a month-long truce so that he can mobilise his forces, which Brian grants him. Máel Sechnaill fails to rally the regional rulers who are nominally his subordinates by the time the deadline arrives, and he is forced to surrender his title to Brian.


title: Brian Boru

text: There have been some doubts expressed about this explanation, given Brian's style of engaging in war; if he had found his opponent at a disadvantage it is most likely he would have taken full advantage of it rather than allowing his enemy the time to even the odds. Also, given the length and intensity of the struggle between Máel Sechnaill and Brian, it seems unlikely that the High King would surrender his title without a fight. In any case, it is generally accepted that in 1002 Brian became the new High King of Ireland.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian, then in his 60s, spent the next decade or so of his life subjugating and accepting the submissions of the last of the lesser kingdoms and regions which had not already submitted to him. Those campaigns included two full circuits of the island in 1005 and 1006, demonstrating his determination and energy despite his age.


title: Brian Boru

text: Unlike some who had previously held the title, Brian intended to be High King in more than name. To accomplish that, he needed to impose his will upon the regional rulers of the only province that did not already recognise his authority, Ulster. The kingdoms of the northern Uí Néill and Ulaid were some of the most powerful in Ireland, and it took Brian considerable time and resources to subdue them.


title: Brian Boru

text: Ulster's geography presented a formidable challenge. There were three main routes by which an invading army could enter the province, and all three favoured the defenders. Brian first had to find a means of getting through or around these defensive choke points and then he had to subdue the fiercely independent regional kings of Ulster. It took Brian ten years of campaigning to achieve his goal, which, considering that he could and did call on all of the military forces of the rest of Ireland, indicates how formidable the kings of Ulster were.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian received naval support throughout his northern campaigns from Sigtrygg Silkbeard of Dublin. Silkbeard was eager to enact revenge against the Ulaid for when they refused to assist him after he was forced out of his kingdom of Dublin by Brian following the Battle of Glenmama in 999, forcing Silkbeard to return to Dublin and submit to him.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian was also greatly helped by the fact that two years before his first campaign in Ulster, in the year 1003, the brutal battle of Craeb Telcha had taken place between the Northern Uí Néill and the Ulaid, in which the king of the Cenél Eoghain and of the Uí Neill was killed and most of the Ulaid royal bloodline was wiped out, with the Uí Néill gaining victory. This then led to a bloody war of succession within and between the clans of the Ulaid, and together with further attacks from the Uí Néill, which led to the kingdom being severely weakened. Brian accepted the submission of the Cenel Eoghain king in 1005 and later accepted the submission of many of the Ulaid clans at a sacred Ulaid site, Emain Macha.


title: Brian Boru

text: However Flaithbertaigh Ua Néill, the new king of the Northern Uí Néill and of the Cenél Eoghan, although having already submitted to Brian, was apparently unwilling to fully accept the High King's authority, and was quite rebellious. He was known for his continued aggression towards his neighbours despite previously accepting Brian's rule. In 1005, after Brian had departed Ulster, he attempted to exert his overlordship over the Ulaid, and seemingly wanted to punish them for submitting to Brian, to which the Northern Uí Néill were vehemently opposed. He attacked the kingdom, killing several kings and princes of the Ulaid. He also took several hostages.


title: Brian Boru

text: This caused Brian to return in 1006 and again in 1007 to deal with Flaithbertach. On the latter occasion, he removed the hostages of the Ulaid from Flaithbertach's custody and took them into his own custody (according to the Annals of Inisfallen, Brian had to forcefully take the hostages). Flaithbertaigh again submitted, and also married one of Brian's daughters, Bé Binn.


title: Brian Boru

text: Despite this, Brian continued to be troubled by the rebellious Flaithbertaigh. In the year 1009, Flaithbertaigh blinded and then executed the king of the Cenél Chonaill. Later that year he would also launch raids in the Midlands going as far south as the River Boyne. This led to Brian return to Ulster yet again, this time taking hostages from the Cenél Eoghain back to his home province, finally gaining the proper submission of Flaithbertaigh.


title: Brian Boru

text: Flaithbertaigh would then take part in campaigns against the Cenél Chonaill, the final kingdom yet to submit to Brian, in the year 1011 alongside Brian's sons Murchad and Domnall. However, they were unsuccessful in gaining the submission of the Cenél Chonaill. Brian proceeded to then personally lead a second invasion later that year, this time successfully subjugating and receiving the submission of the Cenél Chonaill. While Flaithbertaigh would continue attacking the Ulaid and Cenél Chonaill in late 1011 and in 1012, for the time he was no longer of any threat to Brian.


title: Brian Boru

text: Throughout his campaigns in the province, it was once again Brian's coordinated use of forces on land and at sea that allowed him to triumph; while the rulers of Ulster could bring the advance of Brian's army to a halt, they could not prevent his fleet from attacking the shores of their kingdoms. Once Brian entered the province of Ulster, he systematically defeated each of the regional rulers who defied him, forcing them to recognise him as their overlord.


title: Brian Boru

text: It was during this process that Brian pursued an alternative means of consolidating his control, not merely over the province of Ulster, but over Ireland as a whole. In contrast to its structure elsewhere, the Church in Ireland was centred, not around dioceses and archdioceses, but rather around monasteries headed by powerful abbots who were members of the royal dynasties of the lands in which their monasteries resided. Among the most important monasteries was Armagh, located in the Province of Ulster.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian's advisor, Maelsuthain O'Carroll, documented in the 'Book of Armagh' that, in the year 1005, Brian donated 22 ounces of gold to this monastery and declared that Armagh was the religious capital of Ireland, to which all other monasteries should send the funds they collected. This was a clever move, for the supremacy of the monastery of Armagh would last only so long as Brian remained the High King. Therefore, it was in the interest of Armagh to support Brian with all their wealth and power.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian is not referred to in the passage from the 'Book of Armagh' as the 'Ard Rí' —that is, High King— but rather he is declared ""Imperator Scotorum"," or "Emperor of the Gaels".


title: Brian Boru

text: Though it is only speculation, it has been suggested that Brian and the Church in Ireland were together seeking to establish a new form of kingship in Ireland, one that was modelled after the kingships of England and France, in which there were no lesser ranks of regional kings—simply one king who had (or sought to have) power over all others in a unitary state. In any case, whether as High King or emperor, by 1011 all of the regional rulers in Ireland acknowledged Brian's authority. No sooner had Brian achieved this before it was lost again.


title: Brian Boru

text: Máel Mórda mac Murchada of Leinster had only accepted Brian's authority grudgingly, and in 1012 he rose in rebellion. The "Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh" relates a story in which one of Brian's sons insults Máel Mórda, which leads him to declare his independence from Brian's authority and attack his neighbours.


title: Brian Boru

text: Another possible reason was that the kings of Leinster and Dublin believed Maél Sechnaill was weak and that the Kingdom of Meath was vulnerable. This was because Flaithbertaigh Uí Néill, king of the Cenél Eoghain and the northern Uí Néill, was again becoming troublesome for Brian. In 1013, he raided the Midlands, bringing him into direct conflict with Maél Sechnaill who was the king of Meath. The two armies had a stand-off near Kells, but Maél Sechnaill retreated for unknown reasons before any battle could occur. This led to the belief in Leinster that Meath was vulnerable, which would also weaken Brian if Leinster could knock one of his allies out of any conflict.


title: Brian Boru

text: Whatever the actual reason was, Máel Mórda sought allies with which to defy the High King. He found one in Flaithbertach Uí Neill in Ulster who had only recently submitted to Brian. Together, they attacked the province of Meath (again), where the former High King Máel Sechnaill sought Brian's help to defend his kingdom.


title: Brian Boru

text: In 1013, Brian led a force from his own province of Munster and from southern Connacht into Leinster; a detachment under his son, Murchad, ravaged the southern half of the province of Leinster for three months. The forces under Murchad and Brian were reunited on 9 September outside the walls of Dublin. The city was blockaded by Brian's fleet, but it was the High King's army that ran out of supplies first, so that Brian was forced to abandon the siege and return to Munster around Christmas.


title: Brian Boru

text: Máel Mórda was aware that the High King would return to Dublin in 1014 to try once more to defeat him. He may have hoped that by defying Brian, he could enlist the aid of all the other regional rulers. If so, he was sorely disappointed. The province of Connacht and most of the province of Ulster failed to support either side of the conflict, with the exception of Flaithbertach Ua Néill of the northern Uí Néill who sent troops to Máel Mórda. His inability to obtain troops from any rulers in Ireland may explain why Máel Mórda sought support from rulers outside Ireland, sending his subordinate and nephew, Sigtrygg, the ruler of Dublin, overseas to do so.


title: Brian Boru

text: Sigtrygg sailed to Orkney, and on his return stopped at the Isle of Man. These islands had been occupied by the Vikings long before and the Hiberno-Norse had close ties with Orkney and the Isle of Man. There was even a precedent for employing Norsemen from the isles; they had been used by Sigtrygg's father, Amlaíb Cuarán, in 980, and by Sigtrygg himself in 990. Their incentive to fight was loot, not land.


title: Brian Boru

text: It has been argued that, contrary to the assertions made in the "Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh", this was not an attempt by the Vikings to reconquer Ireland. All of the Norsemen, both the Norse-Gaels of Dublin and the Norsemen from the Isles, were in the service of Máel Mórda. The High King had 'Vikings' in his army as well: the Hiberno-Norse of Limerick and probably those of Waterford, Wexford, and Cork as well. Some sources include a rival gang of Norse mercenaries from the Isle of Man, led by Brodir's own brother, Óspak. The two brothers would go on to fight on opposite sides in the battle. Some scholars argus that, essentially, this conflict was an Irish civil war with minor foreign participation. However, the revisionist idea of Brian Boru's campaign and the battle of Clontarf being more akin to a civil war than an international war between the Irish and Norsemen has recently been challenged by researchers from the Universities of Coventry, Oxford and Sheffield. Using Network analysis to mathematically analyze the medieval text, they found over 1000 relationships between about 300 characters; as such, the traditional view may be more accurate after all.


title: Brian Boru

text: Along with whatever troops he obtained from abroad, Brian mustered troops from his home province of Munster, southern Connacht, and the province of Meath, the latter contingent commanded by his old rival Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill. Brian's army may have outnumbered Máel Mórda's, since Brian felt secure enough to dispatch a mounted detachment under the command of his youngest son, Donnchad, to raid southern Leinster, presumably hoping to force Máel Mórda to release his contingents from there to return to defend their homes.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian was also joined by the aforementioned Óspak, a Norseman, brother of Brodir. Initially the two brothers sailed from the Isle of Man to fight against Brian with the Leinster forces. However, after a disagreement, Brodir planned to kill Óspak and his men the next morning. Óspak and his soldiers then fled during the night with 10 ships and sailed around Ireland to Connacht, where Óspak converted to Christianity and swore allegiance to Brian. He fought on the opposite side to his brother at the battle.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian and Máel Sechnaill sent their forces to torch and plunder much of the countryside and hinterland north of Clontarf as far as the Howth Peninsula. However, in one of their raids, one of Máel Sechnaill's sons, Flann, was killed when a raiding party he was leading was ambushed by the Norse, with a total of over 150 Irish killed.


title: Brian Boru

text: A disagreement between Brian and Máel Sechnaill resulted in the latter withdrawing his support. Brian sent a messenger to find Donnchad and ask him to return with his detachment, but the call for help came too late. To compound Brian's problems, Máel Mórda's Norse contingents, led by Sigurd Hlodvirsson, Earl of Orkney, and Brodir of the Isle of Man, arrived on Palm Sunday, 18 April. The battle occurred five days later, on Good Friday, 23 April 1014, just north of the city of Dublin, at Clontarf.


title: Brian Boru

text: All of the accounts state that the Battle of Clontarf lasted all day, but this may be an exaggeration. The fighting was incredibly bloody by all accounts. Brian's army, however, eventually broke the enemy line and the Vikings attempted to flee for their ships which were in the bay. However at this time the tide came in and many of them drowned attempting to swim for their ships as they were relentlessly pursued by the Irish.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian's Irish army won partly through a small numerical advantage, and the use of small spears which they threw at the enemy. According to one account, Maél Sechnaill had a change of heart and arrived late to the battle and, after the death of Brian, led the Irish army and completed the rout.


title: Brian Boru

text: Apart from Brian himself, much of the Irish royal bloodline was wiped out in the battle. The king's son and heir, Murchad, was killed. According to one account he killed over 100 enemies, but the details of his own death are unknown. He died shortly after the Viking line broke.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian's grandson and Murchad's son Toirdelbach was also killed. Aged 15, he led the Irish infantry pursuing the Vikings as they fled to the sea. He was knocked over by a wave, knocking him unconscious after hitting his head, and he drowned.


title: Brian Boru

text: On the Leinster and Viking side, many were also killed. Maél Morda was killed in the fighting. Sigurd the Stout of Orkney was also killed by Murchad. Brodir, who likely killed Brian, was captured and executed after the battle.


title: Brian Boru

text: There are many accounts of how Brian was killed. Some suggest he was killed during heroic man-to-man combat, although others specify that he was not involved in the battle


title: Brian Boru

text: due to his advanced age and frailty. The more common theory is that Brian was killed by the fleeing Viking mercenary Brodir while praying in his tent at Clontarf.


title: Brian Boru

text: After his death on 23 April 1014, Brian's body was taken to Swords, Co. Dublin for the wake and then to Armagh to be buried. His tomb is said to be in the north wall of St Patrick's Cathedral in the city of Armagh.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brodir was later captured and brutally executed by Ulf the Quarrelsome, an ally and possibly a relative of Brian who was fiercely loyal to him. Brodir's stomach was slashed open with a sword, and he was made to walk around a tree resulting in his insides being spun round the tree.


title: Brian Boru

text: There have been further reports that the body of Brian Boru was brought back to his homeland in Munster after his death. While passing an area named Graine, located outside Urlingford on the Leinster/Munster border, Brian's army was attacked and his corpse was tied against a tree to pretend he was directing the army. In later years, artefacts—swords and clothing—strongly suggest that his army was in this area. Graine hill today has a wall which separates the two provinces and a narrow road still exists which used to be the main road connecting the diocese of Ossory and Cashel.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian was succeeded as High King of Ireland by his former enemy, and later ally, Máel Sechnaill (Malachy Mór), who regained the title which he had previously lost to Brian many years before. He ruled until his death in 1022.


title: Brian Boru

text: For the last 250 years there has been a debate among historians about Ireland's Viking age and the Battle of Clontarf. The standard, and "popular", view, is that the battle ended a war between the Irish and Vikings by which Brian Boru broke Viking power in Ireland. However, revisionist historians see it as an Irish civil war in which Brian Boru's Munster and its allies defeated Leinster and Dublin, and that there were Vikings fighting on both sides. In January 2018 researchers from the Universities of Coventry, Oxford and Sheffield, led by Coventry University professor Ralph Kenna, a theoretical physicist, published a paper in the journal "Royal Society Open Science" that used network science to mathematically analyse the 12th-century "Cogadh Gáedhel re Gallaibh" ("The War of the Gaels with the Foreigners", ie. the Danes and other Norsemen), that listed over 1000 relationships between about 300 characters, and concluded that the standard and popular view of the war between the Irish and Germanic Norsemen was broadly correct, but that the picture was nevertheless more complex than "a fully 'clear-cut' Irish versus Viking conflict". However one of the paper's co-authors, PhD student Joseph Yose, added that “Our statistical analysis ... cannot decisively resolve the debate".


title: Brian Boru

text: The revisionist theory is that the popular image of Brian—the ruler who managed to unify the regional leaders of Ireland so as to free the land from a 'Danish' (Viking) occupation—originates from the powerful influence of the "Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh", in which Brian takes the leading role. This work is thought to have been commissioned by Brian's great-grandson Muirchertach Ua Briain as a means of justifying the Ua Briain claim to the High Kingship, a title upon which the Uí Neill had had a near-monopoly. Recent research has suggested that it might have been commissioned by Muirchertach's contemporary and cousin, Brian Glinne Maidhir, or at least someone favourable to the line descended from Brian's son, Donnchad.


title: Brian Boru

text: The influence of this book on both scholarly and popular authors cannot be exaggerated. Until the 1970s most scholarly writing concerning the Vikings' activities in Ireland, as well as the career of Brian Boru, accepted the claims of "Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh" at face value.


title: Brian Boru

text: While Brian may not have freed Ireland from a Norse (Viking) occupation, simply because it was never entirely conquered by the Vikings, his rule saw consistent conflict against Vikings and Viking-founded settlements, the latter all having been founded to give raiders easier access to the interior of Ireland. In the last decade of the 8th century, Norse raiders began attacking targets in Ireland and, beginning in the mid-9th century, these raiders established the fortified camps that later grew into Ireland's first cities: Dublin, Limerick, Waterford, Wexford, and Cork. Within only a few generations, some Norse had converted to Christianity, intermarried with the Irish, and had often adopted the Irish language, dress and customs, thus becoming what historians refer to as the Hiberno-Norse.


title: Brian Boru

text: Such Hiberno-Norse cities occupied a tenuous position within Ireland's political scene long before the birth of Brian. They often suffered attacks from Irish rulers, and made alliances with others. The Norse, who initially attacked and subsequently settled in Ireland, were partially assimilated by the Irish. However, Brian's father was likely slain by the Norse of Limerick and he himself died during a revolt that was supported by multiple Viking leaders, specifically the Norse of Mann.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian's first wife was Mór, daughter of the king of Uí Fiachrach Aidne of Connacht. She is said to have been the mother of his sons Murchad, Conchobar and Flann. Later genealogies claimed that these sons left no descendants, although in fact Murchad's son Tairrdelbach is recorded as being killed at Clontarf along with his father and grandfather.


title: Brian Boru

text: Another wife, Echrad, was a daughter of Carlus mac Ailella, king of Uí Áeda Odba, an obscure branch of the southern Uí Néill. She was the mother of Brian's son Tadc, whose son Toirdelbach and grandson Muirchertach rivalled Brian in power and fame.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian's most famous marriage was with Gormflaith, sister of Máel Mórda of Leinster. Donnchad, who had his half-brother Tadc killed in 1023 and ruled Munster for 40 years thereafter, was the result of this union.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian had a sixth son, Domnall. Although he predeceased his father, Domnall apparently had at least one surviving child, a son whose name is not recorded. Domnall may perhaps have been the son of Brian's fourth known wife, Dub Choblaig, who died in 1009. She was a daughter of King Cathal mac Conchobar mac Taidg of Connacht.


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian had at least three daughters, but their mothers are not recorded. Sadb, whose death in 1048 is recorded by the "Annals of Innisfallen", was married to Cian, son of Máel Muad mac Brain. Bé Binn was married to the northern Uí Néill king Flaithbertach Ua Néill. A third daughter, Sláine, was married to Brian's stepson Sigtrygg Silkbeard of Dublin.


title: Brian Boru

text: The descendants of Brian were known as the Uí Briain (O'Brien) clan, hence the surnames Ó Briain, O'Brien, O'Brian etc. "O" was originally ' which in turn came from ', which means 'grandson or descendant' (of a named person). The prefix is often anglicised to "O'", using an apostrophe instead of the Irish ( ´ ). The O'Briens subsequently ranked as one of the chief dynastic families of the country .


title: Brian Boru

text: Brian's third great-granddaughter was Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd ( 1097 – 1136), Princess consort of Deheubarth in Wales, leader of the patriotic revolt and battle that contributed to the .


title: Brian Boru

text: "Finnegans Wake" (1939), by James Joyce, makes multiple references to Brian Boru and Clontarf, in neologisms typical of that book ("clontarfminded") and obscure references (e.g. "as true as the Vernons have Brian's sword"—McHugh points out that the Vernons, an Italian family, had an ancient sword said to be Brian Boru's).


title: Brian Boru

text: In the 1949 novel "Silverlock" by John Myers Myers, the death of Brian Boru is described from the main character's viewpoint.


title: Brian Boru

text: Donal O'Neill's "Sons of Death" (1988), a historical novel about Brian Boru, is told from the point of view of MelPatrick, a young nobleman at Brian's court. It uses the fictional device of the long-lost "Brjánssaga" as its source. It is the third in a series based on Irish history, beginning c. 800 BC (vol. 1, "Crucible"; vol. 2 "Of Gods and Men").


title: Brian Boru

text: His name is remembered in the title of one of the oldest tunes in Ireland's traditional repertoire: "Brian Boru's March". It is still widely played by traditional Irish musicians. He was the subject of at least two operas: "Brian Boroihme" (1810) by Johann Bernhard Logier (1777–1846) and "Brian Boru" (1896) by Julian Edwards (1855–1910). His burial in St Patrick's Cathedral is referenced in the song "Boys from the County Armagh" by Thomas P. Keenan (1866–1927). His exploits in battle serve as the inspiration for Irish folk metal band Cruachan's song, "Born for War (The Rise of Brian Boru)".


title: Sunrise

text: Sunrise (or sunup) is the moment when the upper rim of the Sun appears on the horizon in the morning. The term can also refer to the entire process of the solar disk crossing the horizon and its accompanying atmospheric effects.


title: Sunrise

text: Although the Sun appears to "rise" from the horizon, it is actually the "Earth's" motion that causes the Sun to appear. The illusion of a moving Sun results from Earth observers being in a rotating reference frame; this apparent motion is so convincing that many cultures had mythologies and religions built around the geocentric model, which prevailed until astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus formulated his heliocentric model in the 16th century.


title: Sunrise

text: Architect Buckminster Fuller proposed the terms "sunsight" and "sunclipse" to better represent the heliocentric model, though the terms have not entered into common language.


title: Sunrise

text: Astronomically, sunrise occurs for only an instant: the moment at which the upper limb of the Sun appears tangent to the horizon. However, the term "sunrise" commonly refers to periods of time both before and after this point:


title: Sunrise

text: The stage of sunrise known as false sunrise actually occurs "before" the Sun truly reaches the horizon because Earth's atmosphere refracts the Sun's image. At the horizon, the average amount of refraction is 34 arcminutes, though this amount varies based on atmospheric conditions.


title: Sunrise

text: Also, unlike most other solar measurements, sunrise occurs when the Sun's "upper limb", rather than its center, appears to cross the horizon. The apparent radius of the Sun at the horizon is 16 arcminutes.


title: Sunrise

text: These two angles combine to define sunrise to occur when the Sun's center is 50 arcminutes below the horizon, or 90.83° from the zenith.


title: Sunrise

text: The timing of sunrise varies throughout the year and is also affected by the viewer's latitude and longitude, altitude, and time zone. These changes are driven by the axial tilt of Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon's paired revolutions around each other. The analemma can be used to make approximate predictions of the time of sunrise.


title: Sunrise

text: In late winter and spring, sunrise as seen from temperate latitudes occurs earlier each day, reaching its earliest time near the summer solstice; although the exact date varies by latitude. After this point, the time of sunrise gets later each day, reaching its latest sometime around the winter solstice. The offset between the dates of the solstice and the earliest or latest sunrise time is caused by the eccentricity of Earth's orbit and the tilt of its axis, and is described by the analemma, which can be used to predict the dates.


title: Sunrise

text: Variations in atmospheric refraction can alter the time of sunrise by changing its apparent position. Near the poles, the time-of-day variation is exaggerated, since the Sun crosses the horizon at a very shallow angle and thus rises more slowly.


title: Sunrise

text: Accounting for atmospheric refraction and measuring from the leading edge slightly increases the average duration of day relative to night. The sunrise equation, however, which is used to derive the time of sunrise and sunset, uses the Sun's physical center for calculation, neglecting atmospheric refraction and the non-zero angle subtended by the solar disc.


title: Sunrise

text: Neglecting the effects of refraction and the Sun's non-zero size, whenever sunrise occurs, in temperate regions it is always in the northeast quadrant from the March equinox to the September equinox and in the southeast quadrant from the September equinox to the March equinox. Sunrises occur approximately due east on the March and September equinoxes for all viewers on Earth. Exact calculations of the azimuths of sunrise on other dates are complex, but they can be estimated with reasonable accuracy by using the analemma.


title: Sunrise

text: The figure on the right is calculated using the solar geometry routine in Ref. as follows: 1.) For a given latitude and a given date, calculate the declination of the Sun using formula_1 longitude and solar noon time as inputs to the routine; 2.) Calculate the sunrise hour angle using the sunrise equation; 3.) Calculate the sunrise time, which is the solar noon time minus the sunrise hour angle in degree divided by 15; 4.) Use the sunrise time as input to the solar geometry routine to get the solar azimuth angle at sunrise.


title: Sunrise

text: An interesting feature in the figure on the right is apparent hemispheric symmetry in regions where daily sunrise and sunset actually occur.


title: Sunrise

text: This symmetry becomes clear if the hemispheric relation in sunrise equation is applied to the x- and y-components of the solar vector presented in Ref.


title: Sunrise

text: Air molecules and airborne particles scatter white sunlight as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere. This is done by a combination of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering.


title: Sunrise

text: As a ray of white sunlight travels through the atmosphere to an observer, some of the colors are scattered out of the beam by air molecules and airborne particles, changing the final color of the beam the viewer sees. Because the shorter wavelength components, such as blue and green, scatter more strongly, these colors are preferentially removed from the beam.


title: Sunrise

text: At sunrise and sunset, when the path through the atmosphere is longer, the blue and green components are removed almost completely leaving the longer wavelength orange and red hues seen at those times. The remaining reddened sunlight can then be scattered by cloud droplets and other relatively large particles to light up the horizon red and orange. The removal of the shorter wavelengths of light is due to Rayleigh scattering by air molecules and particles much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (less than 50 nm in diameter). The scattering by cloud droplets and other particles with diameters comparable to or larger than the sunlight's wavelengths (more than 600 nm) is due to Mie scattering and is not strongly wavelength-dependent. Mie scattering is responsible for the light scattered by clouds, and also for the daytime halo of white light around the Sun (forward scattering of white light).


title: Sunrise

text: Sunset colors are typically more brilliant than sunrise colors, because the evening air contains more particles than morning air. Ash from volcanic eruptions, trapped within the troposphere, tends to mute sunset and sunrise colors, while volcanic ejecta that is instead lofted into the stratosphere (as thin clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets), can yield beautiful post-sunset colors called afterglows and pre-sunrise glows. A number of eruptions, including those of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 and Krakatoa in 1883, have produced sufficiently high stratospheric sulfuric acid clouds to yield remarkable sunset afterglows (and pre-sunrise glows) around the world. The high altitude clouds serve to reflect strongly reddened sunlight still striking the stratosphere after sunset, down to the surface.


title: Victorian literature

text: Victorian literature refers to English literature during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901). The 19th century is considered by some to be the Golden Age of English Literature, especially for British novels. It was in the Victorian era that the novel became the leading literary genre in English. English writing from this era reflects the major transformations in most aspects of English life, from scientific, economic, and technological advances to changes in class structures and the role of religion in society. Famous novelists from this period include Rudyard Kipling, Charles Dickens, William Thackeray, the three Brontë sisters, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy.


title: Victorian literature

text: While the Romantic period was a time of abstract expression and inward focus, essayists, poets, and novelists during the Victorian era began to direct their attention toward social issues. Writers such as Thomas Carlyle called attention to the dehumanizing effects of the Industrial Revolution and what Carlyle called the "Mechanical Age". This awareness inspired the subject matter of other authors, like poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning and novelists Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy. Barrett's works on child labor cemented her success in a male-dominated world where women writers often had to use masculine pseudonyms. Dickens employed humor and an approachable tone while addressing social problems such as wealth disparity. Hardy used his novels to question religion and social structures.


title: Victorian literature

text: Poetry and theatre were also present during the Victorian era. Robert Browning and Alfred Tennyson were Victorian England's most famous poets. With regard to the theatre it was not until the last decades of the 19th century that any significant works were produced. Notable playwrights of the time include Gilbert and Sullivan, George Bernard Shaw, and Oscar Wilde.


title: Victorian literature

text: Charles Dickens is the most famous Victorian novelist. With a focus on strong characterization, Dickens became extraordinarily popular in his day and remains one of the most popular and read authors of the world. His first novel, "The Pickwick Papers" (183637) written when he was twenty-five, was an overnight success, and all his subsequent works sold extremely well. The comedy of his first novel has a satirical edge and this pervades his writing. While at the beginning of the 19th century most novels were published in three volumes, monthly serialization was revived with the publication of Charles Dickens' "Pickwick Papers" in twenty parts between April 1836 and November 1837. Demand was high for each episode to introduce some new element, whether it was a plot twist or a new character, so as to maintain the readers' interest. Dickens worked diligently and prolifically to produce the entertaining writing that the public wanted, but also to offer commentary on social problems and the plight of the poor and oppressed. His most important works include "Oliver Twist" (1837–39), "Nicholas Nickleby" (183839)", A Christmas Carol" (1843), "Dombey and Son" (1846–1848), "David Copperfield" (184950), "Bleak House" (185253), "Little Dorrit" (18551857), "A Tale of Two Cities" (1859), and "Great Expectations" (186061). There is a gradual trend in his fiction towards darker themes which mirrors a tendency in much of the writing of the 19th century.


title: Victorian literature

text: William Thackeray was Dickens' great rival in the first half of Queen Victoria's reign. With a similar style but a slightly more detached, acerbic and barbed satirical view of his characters, he also tended to depict a more middle-class society than Dickens did. He is best known for his novel "Vanity Fair" (1848), subtitled "A Novel without a Hero", which is an example of a popular form in Victorian literature: a historical novel in which recent history is depicted.


title: Victorian literature

text: Anne, Charlotte, and Emily Brontë produced notable works of the period, although these were not immediately appreciated by Victorian critics. "Wuthering Heights" (1847), Emily's only work, is an example of Gothic Romanticism from a woman's point of view, which examines class, myth, and gender. "Jane Eyre" (1847), by her sister Charlotte, is another major 19th-century novel that has gothic themes. Anne's second novel "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall" (1848), written in a realistic rather than romantic style, is mainly considered to be the first sustained feminist novel.


title: Victorian literature

text: Later in this period George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), published "The Mill on the Floss" in 1860, and in 1872 her most famous work "Middlemarch". Like the Brontës she published under a masculine pseudonym.


title: Victorian literature

text: Novelist Thomas Hardy wrote in the later decades of the Victorian era. His most notable works include "Under the Greenwood Tree" (1872), "Far from the Madding Crowd" (1874), "The Mayor of Casterbridge" (1886), "Tess of the d'Urbervilles" (1891), and "Jude the Obscure" (1895). Renowned for his cynical yet idyllic portrayal of pastoral life in the English countryside, Hardy's work pushed back against widespread urbanization that came to symbolize the Victorian age.


title: Victorian literature

text: Other significant novelists of this era were Elizabeth Gaskell (1810–1865), Anthony Trollope (1815–1882), George Meredith (1828–1909), and George Gissing (1857–1903).


title: Victorian literature

text: Robert Browning (1812–1889) and Alfred Tennyson (1809–1892) were notable poets in Victorian England. Thomas Hardy wrote poetry throughout his life, but did not publish a collection until 1898. The poetry of Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–1889) was published posthumously in 1918. Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909) is also considered an important literary figure of the period, especially his poems and critical writings. Early poetry of W. B. Yeats was also published in Victoria's reign. It was not until the last decades of the 19th century that any significant theatrical works were produced, beginning with Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operas of the 1870s, George Bernard Shaw's (1856–1950) plays of the 1890s, and Oscar Wilde's (1854–1900) "The Importance of Being Earnest".


title: Victorian literature

text: Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Robert Browning conducted their love affair through verse and produced many tender and passionate poems. Both Matthew Arnold and Gerard Manley Hopkins wrote poems that sit somewhere in between the exultation of nature of the romantic Poetry and the Georgian Poetry of the early 20th century. However, Hopkins's poetry was not published until 1918. Arnold's works anticipate some of the themes of these later poets, while Hopkins drew inspiration from verse forms of Old English poetry such as "Beowulf".


title: Victorian literature

text: The reclaiming of the past was a major part of Victorian literature with an interest in both classical literature and also medieval literature of England. This movement can be traced back to Letitia Elizabeth Landon, especially her poetry collections, such as and . The Victorians loved the heroic, chivalrous stories of knights of old and they hoped to regain some of that noble, courtly behavior and impress it upon the people both at home and in the wider empire. The best example of this is Alfred Tennyson's "Idylls of the King", which blended the stories of King Arthur, particularly those by Thomas Malory, with contemporary concerns and ideas. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood also drew on myth and folklore for their art, with Dante Gabriel Rossetti contemporaneously regarded as the chief poet amongst them, although his sister Christina is now held by scholars to be a stronger poet.


title: Victorian literature

text: In drama, farces, musical burlesques, extravaganzas and comic operas competed with Shakespeare productions and serious drama by the likes of James Planché and Thomas William Robertson. In 1855, the German Reed Entertainments began a process of elevating the level of (formerly risqué) musical theatre in Britain that culminated in the famous series of comic operas by Gilbert and Sullivan and were followed by the 1890s with the first Edwardian musical comedies. The first play to achieve 500 consecutive performances was the London comedy "Our Boys" by H. J. Byron, opening in 1875. Its astonishing new record of 1,362 performances was bested in 1892 by "Charley's Aunt" by Brandon Thomas. After W. S. Gilbert, Oscar Wilde became the leading poet and dramatist of the late Victorian period. Wilde's plays, in particular, stand apart from the many now-forgotten plays of Victorian times and have a closer relationship to those of the Edwardian dramatists such as George Bernard Shaw, whose career began in the 1890s. Wilde's 1895 comic masterpiece, "The Importance of Being Earnest", was the greatest of the plays in which he held an ironic mirror to the aristocracy while displaying virtuosic mastery of wit and paradoxical wisdom. It has remained extremely popular.


title: Victorian literature

text: The Victorians are credited with "inventing childhood", partly via their efforts to stop child labor and the introduction of compulsory education. As children began to be able to read, literature for young people became a growth industry, with not only established writers producing works for children (such as Dickens' "A Child's History of England") but also a new group of dedicated children's authors. Writers like Lewis Carroll ("Alice's Adventures in Wonderland"), Anna Sewell ("Black Beauty"), and R. M. Ballantyne ("The Coral Island") wrote mainly for children, although they had an adult following. Other authors such as Robert Louis Stevenson ("Treasure Island") and Anthony Hope ("The Prisoner of Zenda") wrote mainly for adults, but their adventure novels are now generally classified as for children. Other genres include nonsense verse, poetry which required a childlike interest (e.g. Lewis Carroll's "Jabberwocky"). School stories flourished: Thomas Hughes' "Tom Brown's Schooldays" and Kipling's "Stalky & Co." are classics.


title: Victorian literature

text: Rarely were these publications designed to capture a child’s pleasure; however, with the increase in the use of illustrations, children began to enjoy literature and were able to learn morals in a more entertaining way. With the newfound acceptance of reading for pleasure, fairy tales and folk tales became popular. Compiling folk tales by many authors with different topics made it possible for children to read literature about many topics which interested them. There were different types of books and magazines written for boys and girls. Girls' stories tended to be domestic and to focus on family life, whereas boys' stories were more about adventures.


title: Victorian literature

text: The Victorian era was an important time for the development of science and the Victorians had a mission to describe and classify the entire natural world. Much of this writing does not rise to the level of being regarded as literature but one book in particular, Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species", remains famous. The theory of evolution contained within the work challenged many of the ideas the Victorians had about themselves and their place in the world. Although it took a long time to be widely accepted, it would dramatically change subsequent thoughts and literature. Much of the work of popularizing Darwin's theories was done by his younger contemporary Thomas Henry Huxley, who wrote widely on the subject.


title: Victorian literature

text: A number of other non-fiction works of the era made their mark on the literature of the period. The philosophical writings of John Stuart Mill covered logic, economics, liberty and utilitarianism. The large and influential histories of Thomas Carlyle, "" (1837), and "On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History" (1841) permeated political thought at the time. The writings of Thomas Babington Macaulay on English history helped codify the Whig narrative that dominated the historiography for many years. John Ruskin wrote a number of highly influential works on art and the history of art and championed such contemporary figures as J. M. W. Turner and the Pre-Raphaelites. The religious writer John Henry Newman's Oxford Movement aroused intense debate within the Church of England, exacerbated by Newman's own conversion to Catholicism, which he wrote about in his autobiography "Apologia Pro Vita Sua".


title: Victorian literature

text: A number of monumental references works were published in this era, most notably the "Oxford English Dictionary" which would eventually become the most important historical dictionary of the English language. Also published during the later Victorian era was the "Dictionary of National Biography" and the ninth edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica".


title: Victorian literature

text: In the United States, Henry David Thoreau's works and Susan Fenimore Cooper's "Rural Hours" (1850) were canonical influences on Victorian nature writing. In the UK, Philip Gosse and Sarah Bowdich Lee were two of the most popular nature writers in the early part of the Victorian era. "The Illustrated London News", founded in 1842, was the world's first illustrated weekly newspaper and often published articles and illustrations dealing with nature; in the second half of the 19th century, books, articles, and illustrations on nature became widespread and popular among an increasingly urbanized reading public.


title: Victorian literature

text: The old Gothic tales that came out of the late 19th century are the first examples of the genre of fantasy fiction. These tales often centered on larger-than-life characters such as Sherlock Holmes, famous detective of the times, Sexton Blake, and other fictional characters of the era, such as Dracula, Edward Hyde, The Invisible Man, and many other fictional characters who often had exotic enemies to foil. Spanning the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a particular type of story-writing known as gothic. Gothic literature combines romance and horror in an attempt to thrill and terrify the reader. Possible features in a gothic novel are foreign monsters, ghosts, curses, hidden rooms, and witchcraft. Gothic tales usually take place in locations such as castles, monasteries, and cemeteries, although the gothic monsters sometimes cross over into the real world, making appearances in cities such as London.


title: Victorian literature

text: Writers from the United States and the British colonies of Australia, New Zealand, and Canada were influenced by the literature of Britain and are often classed as a part of Victorian literature, although they were gradually developing their own distinctive voices. Victorian writers of Canadian literature include Grant Allen, Susanna Moodie and Catherine Parr Traill. Australian literature has the poets Adam Lindsay Gordon and Banjo Paterson, who wrote "Waltzing Matilda", and New Zealand literature includes Thomas Bracken and Frederick Edward Maning. From the sphere of literature of the United States during this time are some of the country's greats including: Emily Dickinson, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., Henry James, Herman Melville, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Henry David Thoreau, Mark Twain and Walt Whitman.


title: Victorian literature

text: The problem with the classification of "Victorian literature" is the great difference between the early works of the period and the later works which had more in common with the writers of the Edwardian period and many writers straddle this divide. People such as Arthur Conan Doyle, Rudyard Kipling, H. G. Wells, Bram Stoker, H. Rider Haggard, Jerome K. Jerome and Joseph Conrad all wrote some of their important works during Victoria's reign but the sensibility of their writing is frequently regarded as Edwardian.


title: Fetishism

text: A fetish (derived from the French , which comes from the Portuguese , and this in turn from Latin , 'artificial' and , 'to make') is an object believed to have supernatural powers, or in particular, a human-made object that has power over others. Essentially, fetishism is the attribution of inherent value, or powers, to an object.


title: Fetishism

text: The term "fetish" has evolved from an idiom used to describe a type of object created in the interaction between European travelers and Africans in the early modern period to an analytical term that played a central role in the perception and study of non-Western art in general and African art in particular to increase the evil in the world.


title: Fetishism

text: William Pietz, who, in 1994, conducted an extensive ethno-historical study of the fetish, argues that the term originated in the coast of West Africa during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Pietz distinguishes between, on the one hand, actual African objects that may be called fetishes in Europe, together with the indigenous theories of them, and on the other hand, "fetish", an idea, and an idea of a kind of object, to which the term above applies.


title: Fetishism

text: According to Pietz, the post-colonial concept of "fetish" emerged from the encounter between Europeans and Africans in a very specific historical context and in response to African material culture.


title: Fetishism

text: My argument, then, is that the fetish could originate only in conjunction with the emergent articulation of the ideology of the commodity form that defined itself within and against the social values and religious ideologies of two radically different types of noncapitalist society, as they encountered each other in an ongoing cross-cultural situation. This process is indicated in the history of the word itself as it developed from the late medieval Portuguese , to the sixteenth-century pidgin "Fetisso" on the African coast, to various northern European versions of the word via the 1602 text of the Dutchman Pieter de Marees... The fetish, then, not only originated from, but remains specific to, the problem of the social value of material objects as revealed in situations formed by the encounter of radically heterogeneous social systems, and a study of the history of the idea of the fetish may be guided by identifying those themes that persist throughout the various discourses and disciplines that have appropriated the term.


title: Fetishism

text: Stallybrass concludes that "Pietz shows that the fetish as a concept was elaborated to demonize the supposedly arbitrary attachment of West Africans to material objects. The European subject was constituted in opposition to a demonized fetishism, through the disavowal of the object."


title: Fetishism

text: Initially, the Portuguese developed the concept of the fetish to refer to the objects used in religious practices by West African natives. The contemporary Portuguese may refer to more neutral terms such as "charm", "enchantment", or "abracadabra", or more potentially offensive terms such as "juju", "witchcraft", "witchery", "conjuration" or "bewitchment".


title: Fetishism

text: The concept was popularized in Europe circa 1757, when Charles de Brosses used it in comparing West African religion to the magical aspects of ancient Egyptian religion. Later, Auguste Comte employed the concept in his theory of the evolution of religion, wherein he posited fetishism as the earliest (most primitive) stage, followed by polytheism and monotheism. However, ethnography and anthropology would classify some artifacts of monotheistic religions as fetishes.


title: Fetishism

text: The eighteenth-century intellectuals who articulated the theory of fetishism encountered this notion in descriptions of "Guinea" contained in such popular voyage collections as Ramusio's "Viaggio e Navigazioni" (1550), de Bry's "India Orientalis" (1597), Purchas's "Hakluytus Posthumus" (1625), Churchill's "Collection of Voyages and Travels" (1732), Astley's "A New General Collection of Voyages and Travels" (1746), and Prevost's "Histoire generale des voyages" (1748).


title: Fetishism

text: The theory of fetishism was articulated at the end of the eighteenth century by G. W. F. Hegel in "Lectures on the Philosophy of History". According to Hegel, Africans were incapable of abstract thought, their ideas and actions were governed by impulse, and therefore a fetish object could be anything that then was arbitrarily imbued with imaginary powers.


title: Fetishism

text: In the 19th and 20th centuries, Tylor and McLennan, historians of religion, held that the concept of fetishism fostered a shift of attention away from the relationship between people and God, to focus instead on a relationship between people and material objects, and that this, in turn, allowed for the establishment of false models of causality for natural events. This they saw as religious fetishism for Santa Claus on Christmas day and does not consider the birth of Jesus a central problem historically and sociologically.


title: Fetishism

text: The use of the concept in the study of religion derives from studies of traditional West African religious beliefs, as well as from Vodun, which in turn derives from those beliefs.


title: Fetishism

text: Fetishes were commonly used in some Native American religions and practices. For example, the bear represented the shaman, the buffalo was the provider, the mountain lion was the warrior, and the wolf was the pathfinder the cause of the war.


title: Fetishism

text: cited jewelry, swords, mirrors, and scarves as examples of fetishism in Shintoism. Kato stated that leaving behind cities and going into rural areas, he could find many traces of animism, fetishism, and phallicism.


title: Fetishism

text: Kato Genchi stated that the were fetishes and the Imperial Regalia of Japan retained the same traits, and pointed out the similarities with the Pusaka of the natives of the East Indies and the Tjurunga of the Central Australians. The Kusanagi no Tsurugi was believed to provide supernatural protection (blessings) through the spiritual experience of the divine sword, and the Kusanagi no Tsurugi was deified and enshrined at Atsuta in Owari Province, which is now the Atsuta Shrine.


title: Fetishism

text: Akaruhime no Kami, the deity of , was said to be a red ball. In the Kami era, the jewel around Izanagi-no-Mikoto's neck was deified and called Mikuratana-kami.


title: Fetishism

text: William George Aston remarked that the sword at Atsuta Shrine was originally an offering and later became a sacred object, as an example of Fetishism. Sword was one of mitama-shiro (spirit representative, spirit-token), or more commonly known as the shintai (god-body). He observed that people tends to think of the mitama (spirit) of a deity first as the seat of his real presence, and second as the deity itself. Many people do not distinguish between mitama (spirit) and shintai (god-body), and some even confused shintai (god-body) with the god's real body. For example, cooking furnace (kamado) itself was worshipped as god. Noting the vagueness between highly imperfect symbol of deity and fetish worship, being worsened by the restricted uses of images (e.g., painting, sculpture), there was a strong tendency to even forget that there is a god by ascribing special virtues to certain physical objects.


title: Fetishism

text: Roy Andrew Miller observed that the Kokutai no Hongi and the Imperial Rescript on Education were also often worshipped as fetishes, and were respectfully placed and kept in household altars (kamidana).


title: Fetishism

text: Made and used by the BaKongo of western DRC, a "nkisi" (plural ) is a sculptural object that provides a local habitation for a spiritual personality. Though some have always been anthropomorphic, they were probably much less naturalistic or "realistic" before the arrival of the Europeans in the nineteenth century; Kongo figures are more naturalistic in the coastal areas than inland. As Europeans tend to think of spirits as objects of worship, idols become the objects of idolatry when worship was addressed to false gods. In this way, Europeans regarded as idols on the basis of false assumptions.


title: Fetishism

text: Europeans often called "fetishes" and sometimes "idols" because they are sometimes rendered in human form. Modern anthropology has generally referred to these objects either as "power objects" or as "charms".


title: Fetishism

text: In addressing the question of whether a is a fetish, William McGaffey writes that the Kongo ritual system as a whole,


title: Fetishism

text: bears a relationship similar to that which Marx supposed that "political economy" bore to capitalism as its "religion", but not for the reasons advanced by Bosman, the Enlightenment thinkers, and Hegel. The irrationally "animate" character of the ritual system's symbolic apparatus, including , divination devices, and witch-testing ordeals, obliquely expressed real relations of power among the participants in ritual. "Fetishism" is about relations among people, rather than the objects that mediate and disguise those relations.


title: Fetishism

text: Therefore, McGaffey concludes, to call a a fetish is to translate "certain Kongo realities into the categories developed in the emergent social sciences of nineteenth century, post-enlightenment Europe."


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Dean Carroll Jones (January 25, 1931 – September 1, 2015) was an American actor. He was best known for his roles as Agent Zeke Kelso in "That Darn Cat!" (1965), Jim Douglas in "The Love Bug" (1968) and "Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo" (1977) and Dr. Herman Varnick in "Beethoven" (1992). He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for his performance as Albert Dooley in "The Million Dollar Duck" (1971). In 1995, he was inducted as a Disney Legends award winner for his film work.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones was born on January 25, 1931, in Decatur, Alabama, to Andrew Guy Jones, a traveling construction worker, and the former Nolia Elizabeth Wilhite.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: As a student at Riverside High School in Decatur, Jones had his own local radio show, "Dean Jones Sings."He served in the United States Navy during the Korean War, and after his discharge worked at the Bird Cage Theater at Knott's Berry Farm in Buena Park, California.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones attended Asbury University in Wilmore near Lexington, Kentucky. A member of its Class of 1953, he did not graduate, but the university in 2003 awarded him an honorary degree. On March 4, 2011, he addressed the community during the dedication ceremony of Asbury's Andrew S. Miller Center for Communications Arts.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: After appearing in minor film and television roles, Jones made his Broadway debut in the 1960 play "There Was a Little Girl". He stepped into the role in Boston, with only one day's notice. In 1960, he also played Dave Manning in the Broadway comedy "Under the Yum-Yum Tree", a role he repeated in the 1963 movie version starring Jack Lemmon.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: After working in film and television, Jones was set to return to Broadway as the star of Stephen Sondheim's musical "Company" in 1970. Shortly after opening night, he withdrew from the show, due to stress that he was undergoing from ongoing divorce proceedings. Director Harold Prince agreed to replace him with Larry Kert if Jones would open the show and record the cast album. He agreed, and his performance is preserved on the original cast album, although it was Kert who received the Tony nomination for Best Actor in a Musical.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: In 1986, Jones, by then having become a fervent born-again Christian, starred in "Into the Light", a musical about scientists and the Shroud of Turin, which closed after only six performances. He had far more success touring in the one-man show "St. John in Exile" as the last surviving Apostle of Jesus Christ, reminiscing about his life while imprisoned on the Greek island of Patmos. One performance was filmed in 1986. He made one more Broadway appearance, in 1993, at the Vivian Beaumont Theater, in a special two-day concert staging of "Company" featuring most of the original Broadway cast.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones began as a contract performer for MGM, beginning with a small role as a soldier in "Somebody Up There Likes Me" (1956) and he later played disc jockey Teddy Talbot in the Elvis Presley film "Jailhouse Rock" (1957). He portrayed a soldier in both "Imitation General" (also 1957) with Glenn Ford and "Never So Few" (1959) with Frank Sinatra.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones subsequently starred in the NBC television sitcom "Ensign O'Toole" (1962–63), produced by Four Star Television, portraying an easy-going and inexperienced officer on a U.S. Navy destroyer. His costars included Jack Mullaney, Jack Albertson, Jay C. Flippen, Harvey Lembeck, and Beau Bridges. He also recorded a singing album, "Introducing Dean Jones", for Valiant Records.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: As "Ensign O'Toole" was the lead-in show on NBC to Walt Disney's "The Wonderful World of Color", Disney ordered a print of Jones' latest film "Under the Yum Yum Tree" to study. Disney signed Jones for Disney film productions beginning with "That Darn Cat!". His performance was well-received. Jones continued with Disney for many years, starring in films such as "The Ugly Dachshund" (1966), "Monkeys, Go Home!" (1966), "Blackbeard's Ghost" (1968), "The Horse in the Gray Flannel Suit" (1968). "The Love Bug" (1969), "The Million Dollar Duck" (1971), "Snowball Express" (1972), "The Shaggy D.A." (1976), and "Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo" (1977).


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones' signature Disney role would be as race car driver Jim Douglas in the successful "Herbie" series. In addition to the two feature films, Jones starred in the short-lived television series "Herbie, the Love Bug" (1982) and the made-for-TV movie "The Love Bug" (1997). In 1969, he was the host of a short-lived sketch-comedy hour on ABC-TV titled "What's It All About, World?" that became a variety show midway into its run, when the title was changed to "The Dean Jones Variety Hour".


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Away from Disney, Jones costarred with Broadway-era co-star Jane Fonda in the romantic comedy, "Any Wednesday" (1966). In a dramatic turn, in the NBC television movie "When Every Day Was the Fourth of July" (1978) he portrayed Ed Cooper, an attorney in the 1930s who agrees to defend a man who has been accused of murder, accepting the case only after urging from his daughter. He reprised the role of Ed Cooper in the ABC television sequel "The Long Days of Summer" (1980). He appeared with Gregory Peck and Danny DeVito as Bill Coles, the president of Peck's company, which was fighting a hostile takeover by DeVito, in "Other People's Money" (1991).


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones, who was known for playing pleasant characters, took on the role as Dr. Herman Varnick, the evil veterinarian in the family film "Beethoven" (1992). He employed method acting for the first time in his career and did not break character off-set throughout the film's shooting period much to the surprise of cast members as well as family and friends who had never seen him so immersed in a role. He maintained his relationship to the Beethoven franchise by providing the voice of George Newton in the animated television version of "Beethoven". He also appeared in a small role as Director of Central Intelligence Judge Arthur Moore in the film adaptation of Tom Clancy's "Clear and Present Danger" (1994), which stars Harrison Ford.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones also appeared in two episodes of the Angela Lansbury series "Murder, She Wrote" in 1984 and 1988.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones became a born-again Christian in 1973 or 1974. His book "Under Running Laughter" (1982) recounts his experience of Christianity. He had previously suffered from bouts of depression. His wife, Lory, said, "One night he got down on his knees and prayed that God would free him from the miserable moods that he had always suffered. He told me that in an instant it was gone and he felt peace and joy flood into his heart."


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones appeared in several Christian films. In 1977 he portrayed Charles Colson in the feature film "Born Again". He voiced the narrator in Birdwing Records' 1979 studio album, "Nathaniel the Grublet". Jones also voiced the standard English narration for the 80 minute Bible overview, "God's Story: From Creation to Eternity" and was the voice of Father Tim for Focus on the Family Radio Theatre audio drama "At Home in Mitford" in 2003.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: On July 25, 1994, Jones was a guest on "100 Huntley Street", a Canadian Christian discussion program.


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: In 1998, Jones founded the Christian Rescue Committee (CRC), an organization that helps provide a "way of escape to Jews, Christians, and others persecuted for their faith."


title: Dean Jones (actor)

text: Jones died of Parkinson's disease in Los Angeles on September 1, 2015 at age 84. His body was cremated.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: The Lodi dynasty (; ) was an Afghan dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 to 1526. It was the fifth and final dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, and was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi when he replaced the Sayyid dynasty.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Bahlul Khan Lodi () was the nephew and son-in-law of Malik Sultan Shah Lodi, the governor of Sirhind in (Punjab), India and succeeded him as the governor of Sirhind during the reign of Sayyid dynasty ruler Muhammad Shah. Muhammad Shah raised him to the status of an Tarun-Bin-Sultan. He was the most powerful of the Punjab chiefs and a vigorous leader, holding together a loose confederacy of Afghan and Turkish chiefs with his strong personality. He reduced the turbulent chiefs of the provinces to submission and infused some vigour into the government. After the last Sayyid ruler of Delhi, Alauddin Alam Shah voluntarily abdicated in favour of him, Bahlul Khan Lodi ascended the throne of the Delhi sultanate on 19 April 1451. The most important event of his reign was the conquest of Jaunpur. Bahlul spent most of his time in fighting against the Sharqi dynasty and ultimately annexed it. He placed his eldest surviving son Barbak on the throne of Jaunpur in 1486.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Sikandar Khan Lodi () (born Nizam Khan), the second son of Bahlul, succeeded him after his death on 17 July 1489 and took up the title "Sikandar Shah". h


title: Lodi dynasty

text: His father nominated him to succeed him and was crowned sultan on 15 July 1489. He founded Agra in 1504 and built mosques. He shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra. He patronized trade and commerce. He was a reputed poet, composing under Guru's pen name. He was also a patron of learning and ordered Sanskrit work in medicine to be translated into Persian. He curbed the individualistic tendencies of his Pashtun nobles and compelled them to submit their accounts to a state audit. He was, thus, able to infuse vigour and discipline in the administration. His greatest achievement was the conquest and annexation of Bihar.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Ibrahim Lodi (), the eldest son of Sikandar, was the last Lodi Sultan of Delhi. He had the qualities of an excellent warrior, but he was rash and impolitic in his decisions and actions. His attempt at royal absolutism was premature and his policy of sheer repression unaccompanied by measures to strengthen the administration and increase the military resources was sure to prove a failure. Ibrahim faced numerous rebellions and kept out the opposition for almost a decade. He was engaged in warfare with the Afghans and the Mughal Empire for most of his reign and died trying to keep the Lodi Dynasty from annihilation. Ibrahim was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Panipat. This marked the end of the Lodi Dynasty and the rise of the Mughal Empire in India led by Babur ().


title: Lodi dynasty

text: By the time Ibrahim ascended the throne, the political structure in the Lodi Dynasty had dissolved due to abandoned trade routes and the depleted treasury. The Deccan was a coastal trade route, but in the late fifteenth century the supply lines had collapsed. The decline and eventual failure of this specific trade route resulted in cutting off supplies from the coast to the interior, where the Lodi empire resided. The Lodi Dynasty was not able to protect itself if warfare were to break out on the trade route roads; therefore, they didn't use those trade routes, thus their trade declined and so did their treasury leaving them vulnerable to internal political problems. In order to take revenge of the insults done by Ibrahim, the governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan Lodi asked the ruler of Kabul, Babur to invade his kingdom. Ibrahim Lodi was thus killed in a battle with Babur. With the death of Ibrahim Lodi, the Lodi dynasty also came to an end.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Another problem Ibrahim faced when he ascended the throne in 1517 were the Pashtun nobles, some of whom supported Ibrahim's older brother, Jalaluddin, in taking up arms against his brother in the area in the east at Jaunpur. Ibrahim gathered military support and defeated his brother by the end of the year. After this incident, he arrested those Pashtun nobles who opposed him and appointed his own men as the new administrators. Other Pashtun nobles supported the governor of Bihar, Dariya Khan, against Ibrahim.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Another factor that caused uprisings against Ibrahim was his lack of an apparent successor. His own uncle, Alam Khan, betrayed Ibrahim by supporting the Mughal invader Babur.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Rana Sanga, the Rajput leader of Mewar (), extended his kingdom, defeated the Lodi king of Delhi and was acknowledged by all the Rajput clans as the leading prince of Rajputana. Daulat Khan, the governor of Punjab region asked Babur to invade the Lodi kingdom, with the thought of taking revenge from Ibrahim Lodi. Rana Sanga also offered his support to Babur to defeat Ibrahim Lodi.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: After being assured of the cooperation of Alam Khan and Daulat Khan, Governor of the Punjab, Babur gathered his army. Upon entering the Punjab plains, Babur's chief allies, namely Langar Khan Niazi advised Babur to engage the powerful Janjua Rajputs to join his conquest. The tribe's rebellious stance to the throne of Delhi was well known. Upon meeting their chiefs, Malik Hast (Asad) and Raja Sanghar Khan, Babur made mention of the Janjua's popularity as traditional rulers of their kingdom and their ancestral support for his patriarch Emir Timur during his conquest of Hind. Babur aided them in defeating their enemies, the Gakhars in 1521, thus cementing their alliance. Babur employed them as Generals in his campaign for Delhi, the conquest of Rana Sanga and the conquest of India.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: The new usage of guns allowed small armies to make large gains on enemy territory. Small parties of skirmishers who had been dispatched simply to test enemy positions and tactics, were making inroads into India. Babur, however, had survived two revolts, one in Kandahar and another in Kabul, and was careful to pacify the local population after victories, following local traditions and aiding widows and orphans.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Despite both being Sunni Muslims, Babur wanted Ibrahim's power and territory. Babur and his army of 24,000 men marched to the battlefield at Panipat armed with muskets and artillery. Ibrahim prepared for battle by gathering 100,000 man (well-armed but with no guns) and 1,000 elephants. Ibrahim was at a disadvantage because of his outmoded infantry and internecine rivalries. Even though he had more men, he had never fought in a war against gunpowder weapons and he did not know what to do strategically. Babur pressed his advantage from the start and Ibrahim perished on the battlefield in April 1526, along with 20,000 of his men.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: After Ibrahim's death, Babur named himself emperor over Ibrahim's territory, instead of placing Alam Khan (Ibrahim's uncle) on the throne. Ibrahim's death marked the end of the Lodi dynasty and led to the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. The remaining Lodi territories were absorbed into the new Mughal Empire. Babur continued to engage in more military campaigns.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Ibrahim Lodi's brother, Mahmud Lodi, declared himself Sultan and continued to resist Mughal forces. He provided around 4,000 Afghan soldiers to Rana Sanga in Battle of Khanwa. After the defeat, Mahmud Lodi fled eastwards and again posed a challenge to Babur two years later at the Battle of Ghaghra


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Like their predecessors, the Lodhi Sultans stylized themselves as the deputies of the Abbasid Caliphs, and thus acknowledged the authority of a united Caliphate over the Muslim World. They provided cash stipends and granted revenue-free lands (including entire villages) to the Muslim ulama, the Sufi "shaikhs", the claimed descendants of Muhammad, and the members of his Quraysh tribe.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: The Muslim subjects of the Lodis were required to pay the zakat tax for religious merit, and the non-Muslims were required to pay the jizya tax for receiving state protection. In some parts of the Sultanate, the Hindus were required to pay an additional pilgrimage tax. Nevertheless, several Hindu officers formed a part of the Sultanate's revenue administration.


title: Lodi dynasty

text: Sikandar Lodi, whose mother was a Hindu, resorted to strong Sunni orthodoxy to prove his Islamic credentials as a political expediency. He destroyed Hindu temples, and under the pressure from the ulama, allowed the execution of a Brahman who declared Hinduism to be as veracious as Islam. He also banned women from visiting the mazars (mausoleums) of Muslim saints, and banned the annual procession of the spear of the legendary Muslim martyr Salar Masud. He also established sharia courts in several towns with significant Muslim population, enabling the qazis to administer the Islamic law to Muslim as well as non-Muslim subjects.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: The Gall–Peters projection is a rectangular, equal-area map projection. Like all equal-area projections, it distorts most shapes. It is a cylindrical equal-area projection with latitudes 45° north and south as the regions on the map that have no distortion.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: The projection is named after James Gall and Arno Peters. Gall described the projection in 1855 at a science convention and published a paper on it in 1885. Peters brought the projection to a wider audience beginning in the early 1970s through his "Peters World Map". The name "Gall–Peters projection" was first used by Arthur H. Robinson in a pamphlet put out by the American Cartographic Association in 1986.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: Maps based on the projection are promoted by UNESCO, and they are also widely used by British schools. The U.S. state of Massachusetts and Boston Public Schools began phasing in these maps in March 2017, becoming the first public school district and state in the United States to adopt Gall–Peters maps as their standard.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: The Gall–Peters projection achieved notoriety in the late 20th century as the centerpiece of a controversy about the political implications of map design.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: where "λ" is the longitude from the central meridian in degrees, "φ" is the latitude, and "R" is the radius of the globe used as the model of the earth for projection. For longitude given in radians, remove the factors.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: where "formula_3" is the longitude from the central meridian (in radians), "formula_4" is the latitude, and "R" is the radius of the globe used as the model of the earth for projection. Hence the sphere is mapped onto the vertical cylinder, and the cylinder is stretched to double its length. The stretch factor, 2 in this case, is what distinguishes the variations of cylindric equal-area projection.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: The various specializations of the cylindric equal-area projection differ only in the ratio of the vertical to horizontal axis. This ratio determines the "standard parallel" of the projection, which is the parallel at which there is no distortion and along which distances match the stated scale. There are always two standard parallels on the cylindric equal-area projection, each at the same distance north and south of the equator. The standard parallels of the Gall–Peters are 45° N and 45° S. Several other specializations of the equal-area cylindric have been described, promoted, or otherwise named.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: The Gall–Peters projection was first described in 1855 by clergyman James Gall, who presented it along with two other projections at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (the BA). He gave it the name "orthographic" and formally published his work in 1885 in the "Scottish Geographical Magazine". The projection is suggestive of the Orthographic projection in that distances between parallels of the Gall–Peters are a constant multiple of the distances between the parallels of the orthographic. That constant is .


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: In 1967, German filmmaker Arno Peters independently devised a similar projection, which he presented in 1973 as the "Peters world map". Peters's original description of his projection contained a geometric error that, taken literally, implies standard parallels of 46°02′ N/S. However the text accompanying the description made it clear that he had intended the standard parallels to be 45° N/S, making his projection identical to Gall's orthographic. In any case, the difference is negligible in a world map.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: The name "Gall–Peters projection" seems to have been used first by Arthur H. Robinson in a pamphlet put out by the American Cartographic Association in 1986. Before 1973 it had been known, when referred to at all, as the "Gall orthographic" or "Gall's orthographic." Most Peters supporters today refer to it only as the "Peters projection." During the years of controversy the cartographic literature tended to mention both attributions, settling on one or the other for the purposes of the article. In recent years "Gall–Peters" seems to dominate.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: The Gall–Peters projection initially passed unnoticed when presented by Gall in 1855. It achieved more widespread attention after Arno Peters reintroduced it in 1973. He promoted it as a superior alternative to the commonly used Mercator projection, on the basis that the Mercator projection greatly distorts the relative sizes of regions on a map. In particular, he criticized that the Mercator projection causes wealthy Europe and North America to appear very large relative to poorer Africa and South America. These arguments swayed many socially concerned groups to adopt the Gall–Peters projection, including the National Council of Churches and the magazine "New Internationalist".


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: His campaign was bolstered by the inaccurate claim that the Gall–Peters projection was the only "area-correct" map. In actuality, some of the oldest projections are equal-area (such as the sinusoidal projection), and hundreds have been described. He also inaccurately claimed that it possessed "absolute angle conformality", had "no extreme distortions of form", and was "totally distance-factual". Peters framed his criticisms of the Mercator projection with criticisms of the broader cartographic community. In particular, Peters wrote in "The New Cartography",


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: As Peters's promotions gained popularity, the cartographic community reacted with hostility to his criticisms, as well as to the inaccuracy and lack of novelty of his claims. They called attention to the long list of cartographers who, over the preceding century, had formally expressed frustration with publishers' overuse of the Mercator and advocated for alternatives. In addition, several scholars criticized the particularly large distortions present in the Gall–Peters projection, and remarked on the irony of its undistorted presentation of the mid latitudes, including Peters's native Germany, at the expense of the low latitudes, which host more of the technologically underdeveloped nations.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: The increasing publicity of Peter's claims in 1986 motivated the American Cartographic Association (now Cartography and Geographic Information Society) to produce a series of booklets (including "Which Map Is Best") designed to educate the public about map projections and distortion in maps. In 1989 and 1990, after some internal debate, seven North American geographic organizations adopted a resolution rejecting all rectangular world maps, a category that includes both the Mercator and the Gall–Peters projections, though the North American Cartographic Information Society notably declined to endorse it.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: The two camps never made any real attempts toward reconciliation. The Peters camp largely ignored the protests of the cartographers, and did not acknowledge Gall's prior work until the controversy had largely run its course, late in Peters's life. While he likely devised the projection independently, his unscholarly conduct and refusal to engage the cartographic community undoubtedly contributed to the polarization and impasse.


title: Gall–Peters projection

text: In the ensuing decades, J. Brian Harley credited the Peters phenomenon with demonstrating the social implications of map projections, while Jeremy Crampton considers all maps to be political, and sees the condemnation from the cartographic community as reactionary and perhaps demonstrative of immaturity in the profession.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: Ashes of Love () is a 2018 Chinese television series based on the novel "Heavy Sweetness, Ash-like Frost" (2009) by Dian Xian. It stars Yang Zi as Jin Mi and Deng Lun as Xu Feng in the lead roles. The series premiered on Jiangsu TV starting August 2, 2018.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: The series reached 100 million views in just 15 minutes after the broadcast of the first episode. As of January 2019, the series has reached over 15 billion views.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: Zifen the Flower Deity dies after giving birth to a daughter, Jinmi. She foresaw a prophecy that her daughter will suffer a great love trial within the first ten thousand years of her life. Therefore, before dying she gives Jinmi a magical pellet that prevents her from feeling and expressing romantic love. Jinmi grows up in the Flower Realm, living as a low-level immortal. Her peaceful life is interrupted when she encounters the Fire Deity, Xufeng, who lives in the Heavenly Realm. Persuading him to take her to see the Heavenly Realm, Jinmi meets Xufeng's half-brother, the Night Deity Runyu. She also meets Princess Sui He, who is a close ally of Xufeng's mother, the Holy Empress, and as a result, Sui He believes she will one day marry Xufeng. Both Xufeng and Runyu take an interest in Jinmi and due to the pellet, Jinmi becomes unwittingly involved in a love triangle between the two brothers, who grow to become rivals due to Jinmi and the machinations of the Holy Empress. Jinmi also learns of her true nature as a child of the late Flower Deity and the current Water Deity.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: Eventually, Jinmi is tricked by Runyu into thinking her father died at the hands of Xufeng and she kills him, coughing up the magic pellet as a consequence. Xufeng is later reborn in the Demon Realm. Soon named as the new Demon King, he wages war against Runyu, who has now ascended the throne as Heavenly Emperor and plans to make Jinmi Holy Empress. Sui He, who went to Demon realm with Xufeng, tricks Xufeng into agreeing to marry her so she can become Demon Queen, but she is finally defeated when Xufeng learns the truth of his rebirth. A final battle arrives, with a duel to the death taking place between Runyu and Xufeng. Jinmi, wanting to stop the loss of innocent lives, ultimately sacrifices herself to end the war and return peace to the world.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: In the aftermath, Xufeng tirelessly travels the six realms to search for the remains of Jinmi's soul. For three years his search is unsuccessful until he discovers that Jinmi was, in fact, a teardrop in his eye. Realising that Jinmi will one day be reincarnated, Xufeng resolves to wait for her.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: Five hundred years pass. Jinmi is reborn alongside her father in the Mortal Realm. On the day of her arranged wedding, Xufeng arrives in his phoenix form and reunites with Jinmi, who has retained her memories. They elope.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: Seven years later, Liuying works to bring a new age of prosperity to the Demon Realm. Suihe, sent mad by her defeat, rambles in the Demon Realm's outskirts. One day, she mistook an entrance to be the Holy Empress' throne, stumbles into the same cave where she once threw the old Demon King's sons when they insulted her. This led to her being eaten alive by one of the remaining sons. He appears to have eaten his brother.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: In the Heavenly Realm, Runyu rules alone as Celestial Emperor. He notes this to his faithful servant Kuanglu. She renews her vow to always be by his side. In the Mortal Realm, Jinmi and Xufeng live a carefree life and have a son, who knows the story of his parents and tells it proudly.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: This drama was commercially successful, placing first among audience ratings in its time slot and reaching over ten billion views.


title: Ashes of Love (TV series)

text: It also received positive reviews, scoring a 7.7 on Douban. The drama was praised for its light-hearted yet grounded storyline, high production quality of beautiful cinematography and exquisite costumes; as well as the well-constructed plot and excellent performance of the actors.


title: Gothika

text: Gothika is a 2003 American supernatural psychological thriller film directed by Mathieu Kassovitz, written by Sebastian Gutierrez, and starring Halle Berry in the title role, Robert Downey Jr., Penélope Cruz, Charles S. Dutton, John Carroll Lynch, and Bernard Hill. The film follows a psychiatrist who finds herself incarcerated in the penitentiary in which she works, accused of brutally murdering her own husband.


title: Gothika

text: The fourth project developed by production company Dark Castle Entertainment, following 2002's "Ghost Ship", "Gothika" was the second film by the company to be co-distributed by Warner Bros. and Columbia Pictures, the first being "Thirteen Ghosts". It was also the first feature by Dark Castle to boast a number of high-profile stars in its lead roles.


title: Gothika

text: "Gothika" was shot in Montreal, Quebec in the spring of 2003. It was released theatrically in the United States on November 21, 2003, the Friday before Thanksgiving. The film grossed $141.6 million internationally, though it received generally negative reviews from critics.


title: Gothika

text: Dr. Miranda Grey, a psychiatrist at Woodward Penitentiary in rural western Connecticut, crashes her car one night on a country road to avoid hitting a young woman. When she awakens, she finds herself an inmate of the women's ward in which she works, receiving treatment from her colleague, Dr. Pete Graham. Miranda is horrified when Pete reveals to her that her husband, Douglas, has been the victim of a brutal axe murder, and that she is the sole suspect. As Miranda attempts to adjust to life as an inmate, she is haunted by visions of the young woman she saw the night of the car accident, and is attacked by her apparition in the showers; the woman carves the phrase "Not Alone" into Miranda's arm, though the hospital staff presume Miranda is self-harming. She later learns that the same phrase was scrawled in Douglas's blood inside their home after his murder. Miranda meets with her lawyer and start preparing for her defense and they bring in Douglas's best friend, Sheriff Bob Ryan, who confronts Miranda in the penitentiary, accusing her of the murder.