title: Jerry Siegel

text: Unable to afford college, he worked various delivery jobs, all the while courting publishers. In the summer of 1935, still living in Cleveland, he and Shuster began selling comic-book stories to National Allied Publications, the primary precursor of DC Comics, in New York.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel and Shuster had been developing the Superman story and character since 1933, hoping to sell it as a syndicated newspaper comic-strip. But after years of fruitless soliciting to the syndicates, Siegel and Shuster agreed to publish Superman in a comic book. In March 1938, they sold all rights to Superman to the comic-book publisher Detective Comics, Inc., another forerunner of DC, for $130 ($ when adjusted for inflation).


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel and Shuster later regretted their decision to sell Superman after he became an astonishing success. DC Comics now owned the character and reaped the royalties. Nevertheless, DC Comics retained Siegel and Shuster as the principal writer and artist for the Superman comics, and they were well-paid because they were popular with the readers. For instance, in 1942 they together earned $63,776.46 (AFI $). Siegel bought a house in University Heights and a car.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel was conscripted into the United States Army on June 28, 1943. His service number was 35067731. He was trained at Fort George G. Meade, where he was trained as an "Airplane Engine Mechanic, a Film Editor, Motion Picture Cutter, Public Relations Man or Playwright (Motion Picture Writer) or Reporter". He was posted in Honolulu, where he was assigned a writing job at the military newspaper "Stars and Stripes". He focused mainly on comedy columns. Siegel was discharged on January 21, 1946, at the rank of Technician 4th Grade.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: During his military service in Hawaii, Siegel learned from his friend Shuster that DC Comics had published a story featuring a child version of Superman called "Superboy", which was based on a story that Siegel had submitted to DC Comics, but which DC Comics hadn't bought. Because DC Comics never bought the copyright to Superboy from Siegel, Siegel sued DC Comics for the rights to Superboy. A second issue they had with DC Comics was that DC cheated them out of royalties from the Superman radio show and the merchandise. Siegel and Shuster simultaneously sued for the rights to Superman as well. At the conclusion of the trial, Siegel and Shuster agreed to relinquish the copyrights of both Superman and Superboy in exchange for a settlement of just over $94,000 (AFI $). Siegel's 1948 divorce papers suggest he was left with $29,000 after paying his court fees but prior to settling his divorce.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Between 1937 and 1947 (i.e., during the span of their contract), Siegel and his friend Shuster had together earned more than $400,000 (AFI $) while working at DC Comics.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: After leaving DC Comics in late 1947, Siegel and Shuster created the comedic superhero Funnyman, which proved unsuccessful. This was their last collaboration. Siegel then took freelance writing jobs. Some of them include the newspaper strip "Tallulah", "Lars of Mars", and "G.I. Joe". The publisher Ziff-Davis hired him as a comic-book editor in 1951, but its comics division closed after less than a year in business. Siegel never found steady work, and fell upon hard times. By 1959, he and his family were living in a one-bedroom apartment in Great Neck, Long Island, and struggling to pay their bills.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel returned to DC Comics in 1959 at the prompting of his second wife. Although he did write some Superman stories, he no longer had any creative control, but instead answered to the direction of his editor. During this time, he wrote extensively about the team the Legion of Super-Heroes, adding many enduring characters to its cast. Siegel's contributions during this time are difficult to determine because DC Comics did not generally give creator bylines. His last work for DC was a short story included in "Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen" #89 (December 1965). DC Comics ceased giving him work in 1966, when the company learned Siegel and Shuster were planning a second lawsuit to reclaim the copyright to Superman. He lost that lawsuit.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel again fell into hard financial times after this second dismissal, as he was unable to find regular writing work. In 1975, upon hearing that Warner Bros. was producing a Superman film, Siegel alerted the press to his condition. In response, Warner Bros, agreed to give Siegel and Shuster a lifetime stipend of $20,000 a year, later increased to $30,000, in exchange for never again contesting ownership of the copyright to Superman.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: After leaving DC Comics, Siegel wrote "The Spider" for the British comic "Lion", published by Amalgamated Press.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel wrote for his school's weekly newspaper, "The Glenville Torch". One of his known works for that newspaper was "Goober the Mighty", a parody of Tarzan. Joseph Shuster provided illustrations for some of Siegel's Goober stories. This was their first known collaboration as writer and artist.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel also self-published a fanzine called "Science Fiction: The Advance Guard of Future Civilization". In the third issue of this fanzine, he published a short story titled "The Reign of the Superman" under the pseudonym "Herbert S. Fine". The story is about a vagrant named Bill Dunn who gains vast psychic powers after taking an experimental drug. Dunn then calls himself "the Superman" and proceeds to use his powers maliciously.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: In 1933, Siegel and Shuster began making amateur comic strips together. They self-published their work in a fanzine titled "Popular Comics".


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel and Shuster began working for DC Comics (then known as National Allied Publications) in 1935. Siegel's writing career there was interrupted in June 1943 when he was conscripted into the Army, though he continued to receive credit for stories written by ghostwriters. After his discharge, he sued DC Comics for the rights to Superman and Superboy, and was consequently given no more freelance work from the publisher. In 1959, he returned to DC as a writer, and was dropped again in 1967 when he again attempted to take back the copyright to Superman.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: During his second tenure as writer at DC Comics, Siegel did not receive any byline for his stories, which was the normal policy of DC Comics at the time.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel and Shuster conceived Funnyman, a clownish superhero, while they were still working for DC Comics. They anticipated a decline in the popularity of conventional superheroes, and thought a comedy hybrid character would have sustainable appeal. Unlike other characters they created, Siegel and Shuster were determined to retain the copyright to Funnyman. This was unacceptable to DC Comics, so they instead made a deal with Magazine Enterprises, a comic-book publishing company owned by Vin Sullivan. The series "Funnyman" lasted six issues, and a subsequent newspaper strip also was unsuccessful. It was the last collaboration of Siegel and Shuster. By this time, Shuster's vision had deteriorated to the point he could not work.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel first worked for Marvel in 1963, under the pseudonym "Joe Carter". With Stan Lee, he co-created the villain Plantman ("Strange Tales" #113). He also scripted the "Human Torch" feature in "Strange Tales" #112–113 (Sept.–Oct. 1963), introducing the teenaged Torch's high school girlfriend, Doris Evans; and, under his own name, a backup feature starring the X-Men member Angel, which ran in "Marvel Tales" and "Ka-Zar". According to then-Marvel editor-in-chief Stan Lee, Siegel "was down on his luck" and in ill health at the time, so he gave him a job at Marvel as a proofreader, during which time Siegel wrote the Angel story.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel worked for Archie Comics in 1966, on series including "The Fly", "The Mighty Crusaders", "The Web", and "Steel Sterling", all starring characters revived from the 1940s. Archie canceled its superhero line later that year, and Siegel was let go.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: When Siegel served in the Army (1943–1946), he was posted in Honolulu, Hawaii and wrote for "Stars and Stripes", "Midpacifican", and "Yank, the Army Weekly", all military publications written by soldiers. In "Stars and Stripes", he had a small humor column titled "Take a Break wit T/5 Jerry Siegel". In "Midpacifican", he wrote the comic strip "Super Sam", in which an Army private gains superpowers after receiving a blood transfusion from Superman. This was not authorized by DC Comics.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: In 1956, Siegel created two superheroes for Charlton Comics: Mr. Muscles and Nature Boy. The series "Mr. Muscles" ran two issues, and "Nature Boy" three.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: In 1968, he worked for Western Publishing, for which he wrote (along with Carl Barks) stories in the "Junior Woodchucks" comic book. In the 1970s, he worked for Mondadori Editore (at that time the Italian Disney comics licensee) on its title "Topolino", listed in the mastheads of the period as a scriptwriter ("soggettista e sceneggiatore").


title: Jerry Siegel

text: In the 1980s, he worked with Val Mayerik on the feature "The Starling", which appeared in the comic book "Destroyer Duck". A projected series, "The Starling", about a woman struggling to raise her half-alien, shapeshifting son after his deadbeat alien father abandoned them, went unfinished due to Siegel's death in 1996. Also in the 1980s, Seigel wrote for the comics publisher Aardvark-Vanaheim.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel remained somewhat active in science fiction fandom after starting work for DC. He attended Chicon, the 1940 2nd World Science Fiction Convention, and appeared in the convention's masquerade as Clark Kent.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel married Bella Lifshitz on June 10, 1939. She was a Jewish woman from his neighborhood of Glenville. With Bella, he had a son named Michael (January 27, 1944 – January 17, 2006). The couple divorced in 1948.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: In November 1948, Siegel married Joanne Carter. She and Siegel first met in January 1935, when she worked with his colleague Joe Shuster as the model for Lois Lane. They reacquainted at a costume ball in New York on April 1, 1948. On March 1, 1951, Joanne gave birth to their daughter, Laura. The couple settled in Long Island, before moving to California in 1968. Siegel and Joanne remained married until his death in 1996.


title: Jerry Siegel

text: Siegel died on January 28, 1996, of a heart attack. He had been suffering from cardiac disease for years, and had a bypass operation.


title: Lipton

text: Lipton is a British brand of tea, owned by Ekaterra. Lipton was also a supermarket chain in the United Kingdom, later sold to Argyll Foods, after which the company sold only tea. The company is named after its founder, Sir Thomas Lipton, who founded it in 1890. The Lipton ready-to-drink beverages are sold by "Pepsi Lipton International", a company jointly owned by Ekaterra and PepsiCo. They also make soup, but this is not as widespread.


title: Lipton

text: In 1871, Thomas Lipton (1848–1931) of Glasgow, Scotland, used his small savings to open his own shop, and by the 1880s the business had grown to more than 200 shops. In 1929, the Lipton grocery retail business was one of the companies that merged with Home and Colonial Stores, Maypole Dairy Company, Vyes & Boroughs, Templetons, Galbraiths & Pearks to form a food group with more than 3,000 shops. The group traded in the high street under various names, but was registered on the UK stock market as Allied Suppliers. Lipton's became a supermarket chain focused on small towns. Allied was acquired by Argyll Foods in 1982; the supermarket business was rebranded as Presto during the 1980s.


title: Lipton

text: Shortly after opening his shop Thomas Lipton began travelling the world for new items to stock. One such item was tea, a rare and expensive luxury at the time. Sales had doubled from £40 million in the late 1870s to £80 million by the mid-1880s. In 1890 Lipton purchased tea gardens in Ceylon, now Sri Lanka, from where he packaged and sold the first Lipton tea. He arranged packaging and shipping at low cost, and sold his tea in packets by the pound (454g), half-pound (227g), and quarter-pound (113g), with the advertising slogan: "Direct from the tea gardens to the teapot." Lipton teas were an immediate success in the United States.


title: Lipton

text: The Lipton tea business was acquired by consumer goods company Unilever in a number of separate transactions, starting with the purchase of the United States and Canadian Lipton business in 1938 and completed in 1972 when Unilever bought the remainder of the global Lipton business from Allied Suppliers.


title: Lipton

text: In 1991, Unilever created a first joint venture with PepsiCo, the Pepsi Lipton Partnership, for the marketing of ready to drink (bottled and canned) teas in North America. This was followed in 2003 by a second joint venture, Pepsi-Lipton International (PLI), covering many non-United States markets. PLI was expanded in September 2007 to include a number of large European markets. PepsiCo and Unilever each control 50 percent of the shares of these joint ventures.


title: Lipton

text: Due to the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, food giant Unilever started recalling its Lipton milk tea powder in Hong Kong and Macau on 30 September 2008. The tea powder, which used Chinese milk powder as its raw ingredient, was recalled after the company's internal checks found traces of melamine in the powder.


title: Lipton

text: In 2011, PETA criticized Unilever for conducting and funding experiments on rabbits, pigs and other animals in an attempt to make human health claims about the tea’s ingredients. According to the animal rights organization, Unilever decided to end the practice of Lipton products after receiving more than 40,000 appeals from PETA supporters and days before PETA made plans to launch its "Lipton CruelTEA" campaign. Unilever no longer tests their products on animals unless required to by governments as part of their regulatory requirements.


title: Lipton

text: Lipton produces instant soup mixes. In the 1950s in the United States, Lipton ran an advertisement campaign promoting French onion dip prepared at home using Lipton's French onion soup mix, thus helping to popularize chips and dip. Hundreds of new commercially produced varieties of dips were later introduced in the U.S.


title: Lipton

text: Lipton teas are a blend selected from many different plantations around the world, from well-known producing countries including Sri Lanka, India, Kenya, and China. Lipton Yellow Label is blended from about 20 different teas.


title: Lipton

text: Apart from the usual black leaves tea (with the long-standing Lipton Yellow Label brand), the company markets many other varieties, both as leaf and ready-to-drink beverages. These include green teas, flavoured black teas, herbal teas, Lipton Linea (a "slimming tea") in Europe, and Lipton Milk Tea in various Asian markets. Lipton's owner Ekaterra sells PG-Tips tea in the UK, and does not retail any Lipton-branded products except Lipton Ice Tea which is still part of Unilever.


title: Lipton

text: In a number of markets, including Japan, Russia and Australia, the company is advertising the benefits of theanine, which has psychoactive properties.


title: Lipton

text: Lipton still owns plantations in East Africa (Kericho, Kenya and Mufindi, Tanzania). In May 2007, Unilever became the first company to commit to sourcing all its tea in a sustainable manner. Working with the Rainforest Alliance, an international environmental NGO, Lipton and its parent company, Unilever, announced all Lipton Yellow Label tea bags sold in Western Europe would be certified by 2010 and all Lipton tea bags sold globally by 2015. Lipton's own tea estates were among the first to be certified. Product bearing the Rainforest Alliance seal appeared on Western European markets in 2008 and started appearing in North America in 2009.


title: Lipton

text: On 6 May 2009, Lipton received a Corporate Green Globe Award for its work with the Rainforest Alliance.


title: Lipton

text: Lipton's main pillar brands are Lipton Yellow Label and Lipton Iced Tea. Other product lines include the Lipton pyramid (tetrahedron) range in Europe and North America, and Lipton Milk Tea in East Asia. In 2008, the brand launched Lipton Linea in Western Europe.


title: Lipton

text: Lipton Yellow Label has been sold since 1890, when Thomas Lipton introduced the first version of the Yellow pack with a red Lipton shield, still in use. It is sold in 150 countries worldwide. Lipton Yellow Label is a blend of several types of tea, sold both in tea bags and as open tea, rolled into small leaves like gunpowder green tea.


title: Lipton

text: Lipton Iced Tea or Lipton Ice Tea is sold in five flavours, lemon, peach, peach & nectarine, mango and raspberry. Green Tea and Rooibos flavours are also available in some regions.


title: Lipton

text: Brisk, formerly Lipton Brisk, is an iced tea brand distributed primarily in North America as a joint venture between Lipton and PepsiCo. It differs from Lipton's other iced tea brands in that phosphoric acid is added to the blend, giving the beverage a distinctive sharp flavour.


title: Lipton

text: Lipton also produces tea using the tetrahedral bag format as seen in other tea brands. Lipton Clear was launched in five variants, Earl Grey Tea, English Breakfast Tea, Peach Mango Tea, Green Tea Mandarin Orange, Mint and Camomile Tea.


title: Lipton

text: Pure Leaf is an iced tea brand distributed primarily in The Americas by the PepsiCo-Lipton joint venture. Unlike Lipton Iced Tea and Brisk, which use a freeze-dried instant tea powder, Pure Leaf is brewed in liquid. The brand is sold in square bottles made of recyclable PET plastic.


title: Lipton

text: Available in over 110 countries, Lipton is particularly popular in Europe, North America, Africa and the Middle East, parts of Asia and Australasia (Australia and New Zealand) as well as Latin America, and the Caribbean. Despite its British origins, Lipton black tea (such as Yellow Label) is not marketed in the UK, as owner Ekaterra sells PG Tips tea there. Lipton Ice Tea and fruit teas are available in the UK. Due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Ekaterra decided in August of the same year to completely withdraw from the Russian market and stop the production and sale of Lipton tea.


title: Lipton

text: In 1914, Lipton's tea were one of the sponsors for the first flight from Melbourne to Sydney by French aviator Maurice Guillaux, at the time the longest air mail and air freight flight in the world. Sponsor Lipton printed 250,000 copies of a letter Guillaux wrote saying "I found it the most delicious tea I have ever tasted...I found it very soothing to the nerves", and these could be had by sending Lipton a one-penny stamp. For a threepenny stamp, Lipton would send out a quarter-pound pack of tea.


title: Lipton

text: In an attempt to change the negative perception of Lipton Ice Tea in the United Kingdom – as 60% claimed they did not like the taste before even trying it – Lipton carried out a London-based summer marketing campaign in 2010 under the slogan "Don't knock it 'til you’ve tried it!"; roaming demonstrators handed out 498,968 samples over the 58-day run. After the campaign, 87% of consumers claimed to enjoy Lipton Ice Tea, while 73% said they were more likely to purchase in the future. A similar campaign, with slogan "Let's Go!", was carried out in summer 2017. Lipton also made commercials starring The Muppets for the 2014 Disney film "Muppets Most Wanted".


title: Lipton

text: In November 2011, the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of China found high levels of pesticides such as bifenthrin in one variety of Lipton tea. Unilever responded by clearing the shelves of all affected products. In April 2012, Greenpeace raised further questions about Lipton products in China, after two varieties of Lipton tea the group purchased in Beijing supermarkets failed safety tests, with the results allegedly failing to meet the regulations enforced in the European Union. The group also stated, "Some of the detected pesticides are also banned for use in tea production by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture." Unilever China denied the findings, stating all Lipton products within the country were safe.


title: Lipton

text: "Lipton's Seats is a high observation point in the hills of Poonagala, Bandarawela, Sri Lanka. It is also near the Dambatenne Tea Factory. The point of Lipton's Seat is reached by climbing for around 8 km surrounded by peaceful green tea plantations and an occasional colourful tea plucker. From Lipton's Seat the Uva province, Sabaragamuywa and Central province spread out from before the feet of the viewer in a display rivalling that of the famed World's End observation point."


title: David O. Selznick

text: David O. Selznick (May 10, 1902June 22, 1965) was an American film producer, screenwriter and film studio executive who produced "Gone with the Wind" (1939) and "Rebecca" (1940), both of which earned him an Academy Award for Best Picture.


title: David O. Selznick

text: Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, he was the son of Florence Anna (née Sachs) and Lewis J. Selznick, a silent movie producer and distributor of Jewish origin. His father was born in Lithuania in 1870.


title: David O. Selznick

text: David had four siblings, including his brother Myron, also a film producer and later a talent agent. David Selznick added the "O" to distinguish himself from an uncle with the same name, and because he thought it had flair. The "O" stands for nothing, and he never had his name legally changed to incorporate it.


title: David O. Selznick

text: He studied at Columbia University in New York City and started training as an apprentice for his father until the elder's bankruptcy in 1923. In 1926, Selznick moved to Hollywood, and with the help of his father's connections, he gained a job as an assistant story editor at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. He left MGM for Paramount Pictures in 1928, where he worked until 1931. While at Paramount he married Irene Gladys Mayer, daughter of MGM mogul Louis B. Mayer.


title: David O. Selznick

text: David Sarnoff, head of RKO, hired Selznick as Head of Production in October 1931. In addition to implementing rigorous cost-control measures, Selznick championed the unit production system, which gave the producers of individual movies much greater independence than they had under the prevailing central producer system. "Under the factory system of production you rob the director of his individualism", said Selznick, "and this being a creative industry that is harmful to the quality of the product made." Instituting unit production, he predicted, would also result in cost savings of 30–40 percent.


title: David O. Selznick

text: To make films under the new system, Selznick recruited prize behind-the-camera personnel, such as director George Cukor and producer/director Merian C. Cooper, and gave producer Pandro S. Berman, aged twenty-six, increasingly important projects. Selznick discovered and signed a young actress who was quickly counted as one of the studio's big stars, Katharine Hepburn. John Barrymore was also enlisted for a few memorable performances.


title: David O. Selznick

text: Selznick spent a mere fifteen months as RKO production chief, resigning over a dispute with new corporate president Merlin Aylesworth concerning creative control. One of his last acts at RKO was to approve a screen test for a thirty-three-year-old, balding Broadway song-and-dance man named Fred Astaire. In a memo, Selznick wrote, "I feel, in spite of his enormous ears and bad chin line, that his charm is ... tremendous".


title: David O. Selznick

text: Selznick's tenure was widely considered masterful: In 1931, before he arrived, the studio had produced forty-two features for $16 million in total budgets. In 1932, under Selznick, forty-one features were made for $10.2 million, with clear improvement in quality and popularity. He backed several major successes, including "A Bill of Divorcement" (1932), with Cukor directing Hepburn's debut, and the monumental "King Kong" (1933)—largely Merian Cooper's brainchild, brought to life by the astonishing special effects work of Willis O'Brien.


title: David O. Selznick

text: In 1933 he returned to MGM where his father-in-law, Louis B. Mayer, was studio CEO. Mayer established a second prestige production unit for Selznick, parallel to that of Irving Thalberg, who was in poor health. Selznick's unit output included the all-star cast movie "Dinner at Eight" (1933), "David Copperfield" (1935), "Anna Karenina" (1935), and "A Tale of Two Cities" (1935).


title: David O. Selznick

text: Greta Garbo's contract with MGM supposedly provided that only Selznick or Thalberg could produce her pictures for the studio. When Selznick later announced his departure from MGM, Garbo asked him to stay, offering to allow him the exclusive right to produce her films. Selznick declined the offer.


title: David O. Selznick

text: Selznick longed to be an independent producer with his own studio. In 1935 he realized that goal by leasing RKO's Culver City studios and back lot, forming Selznick International Pictures, and distributing his films through United Artists. His successes continued with classics such as "The Garden of Allah" (1936), "The Prisoner of Zenda" (1937), "A Star Is Born" (1937), "Nothing Sacred" (1937), "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" (1938), "The Young in Heart" (1938), "Made for Each Other" (1939), "Intermezzo" (1939) and "Gone with the Wind" (1939), which remains the highest-grossing film of all time (adjusted for inflation). "Gone with the Wind" won eight Oscars and two special awards. Selznick also won the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award that same year.


title: David O. Selznick

text: The following year he produced his second Best Picture Oscar winner, "Rebecca" (1940), the first Hollywood production of British director Alfred Hitchcock. Selznick had brought Hitchcock over from England, launching the director's American career. "Rebecca" was Hitchcock's only film to win Best Picture.


title: David O. Selznick

text: After "Rebecca", Selznick closed Selznick International Pictures and took some time off. His business activities included the loan of his contracted artists to other studios, including Alfred Hitchcock, Ingrid Bergman, Vivien Leigh and Joan Fontaine. He formed The Selznick Studio and returned to producing pictures with "Since You Went Away" (1944), which he also wrote. He followed that with the Hitchcock films "Spellbound" (1945) and "The Paradine Case" (1947), as well as "Portrait of Jennie" (1948) with Jennifer Jones.


title: David O. Selznick

text: He also developed film projects and sold the packages to other producers. Among the movies that he developed but then sold was Hitchcock's "Notorious" (1946). In 1949 he co-produced the Carol Reed picture "The Third Man" with Alexander Korda.


title: David O. Selznick

text: "Gone with the Wind" overshadowed the rest of Selznick's career. Later, he was convinced that he had wasted his life trying to outdo it. The closest he came to matching the film was with "Duel in the Sun" (1946) featuring future wife Jennifer Jones in the role of the primary character Pearl. With a huge budget, the film is known for causing moral upheaval because of the then risqué script written by Selznick. And though it was a troublesome shoot with a number of directors, the film would be a major success. The film was the second highest-grossing film of 1947 and was the first movie that Martin Scorsese saw, inspiring Scorsese's own directorial career.


title: David O. Selznick

text: "I stopped making films in 1948 because I was tired," Selznick later wrote. "I had been producing, at the time, for twenty years...Additionally it was crystal clear that the motion-picture business was in for a terrible beating from television and other new forms of entertainment, and I thought it a good time to take stock and to study objectively the obviously changing public tastes...Certainly I had no intention of staying away from production for nine years." Selznick spent most of the 1950s nurturing the career of his second wife, Jennifer Jones. His last film, the big budget production "A Farewell to Arms" (1957) starring Jones and Rock Hudson, was ill-received. But in 1954, he ventured into television, producing a two-hour extravaganza called "Light's Diamond Jubilee," which, in true Selznick fashion, made TV history by being telecast simultaneously on all four TV networks: CBS, NBC, ABC, and DuMont.


title: David O. Selznick

text: In 1928, Selznick began an on-again off-again affair with Jean Arthur, one of the actresses under contract at Paramount while he was an executive there. Simultaneously he was dating Irene Gladys Mayer, daughter of MGM mogul Louis B. Mayer.


title: David O. Selznick

text: In 1930, Selznick married Mayer and after living in a series of rented houses they moved into an estate in Beverly Hills, California. It was purchased for them by Mayer's father and designed by architect Roland Coate in 1933–1934. They separated in 1945 and divorced in 1948. They had two sons, Jeffrey Selznick (1932–1997) and Daniel Selznick (born 1936).


title: David O. Selznick

text: In 1949, he married actress Jennifer Jones, whom he had discovered early in her career and mentored. They had one daughter, Mary Jennifer Selznick (1954–1976), who committed suicide by jumping from a 20th-floor window in Los Angeles on May 11, 1976.


title: David O. Selznick

text: Selznick was an amphetamine user, and often dictated long, rambling memos to his directors, writers, investors, staff and stars. The documentary "Shadowing The Third Man" relates that Selznick introduced "The Third Man" director Carol Reed to the use of amphetamines, which allowed Reed to bring the picture in below budget and on schedule by filming nearly 22 hours at a time.


title: David O. Selznick

text: Selznick was a Republican. On October 18, 1944, the Hollywood Committee, led by Selznick and Cecil B. DeMille, held the Hollywood for Dewey Rally in the Los Angeles Coliseum in support of the Dewey-Bricker ticket, as well as Governor Earl Warren of California, who was Dewey's running mate in 1948. The gathering drew 93,000, with Lionel Barrymore as the master of ceremonies and short speeches by Hedda Hopper and Walt Disney.


title: David O. Selznick

text: Selznick was a sexual predator. Selznick International Pictures employee Anita Colby warned Shirley Temple to be careful if she “found Selznick in stockings.” Temple-Black wrote in her autobiography "Child Star" that this gave her “the impression that casual sex could be a condition of employment” with Selznick. When she was 17, he locked Temple in his office and unsuccessfully attempted to rape her. About the incident Temple-Black wrote:


title: David O. Selznick

text: Jonathan Shields, the lead character in the 1952 film "The Bad and the Beautiful", was loosely based on Selznick, to the point that Selznick contemplated suing the makers of the film for defamation.


title: David O. Selznick

text: Selznick died on June 22, 1965 at age 63 following several heart attacks, and was interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. There he joined his older brother Myron Selznick (who had died in 1944) in the family crypt.


title: David O. Selznick

text: For his contribution to the motion picture industry, David O. Selznick has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7000 Hollywood Blvd in front of the historic Hollywood Roosevelt hotel.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: Yvon Chouinard (born November 9, 1938) is an American rock climber, environmentalist, philanthropist and outdoor industry businessman. His company, Patagonia, is known for its commitment to protecting the environment.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: Chouinard is also a surfer, kayaker, and falconer and is particularly fond of "tenkara" fly-fishing. He has written about climbing issues and ethics and on mixing environmentalism and business.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: Chouinard's father was a French-Canadian handyman, mechanic, and plumber. In 1947, Yvon and his family moved from Lewiston, Maine to Southern California. They were Catholic.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: His early climbing partners included Royal Robbins and Tom Frost. A Sierra Club member, in his youth he founded the Southern California Falconry Club, and it was his investigations of falcon aeries that led him to rock climbing. To save money, and make adaptations for the way he was climbing, he decided to make his own climbing tools, teaching himself blacksmithing, and eventually started a business.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: Chouinard was one of the leading climbers of the "Golden Age of Yosemite Climbing." He was one of the protagonists of the film made about this era: "Valley Uprising" (2014). He participated in the first ascent of the North America Wall in 1964 (with Royal Robbins, Tom Frost and Chuck Pratt), using no fixed ropes. The next year, his and TM Herbert's ascent of the Muir Wall on El Capitan improved the style of previous first ascents. Chouinard became the most articulate advocate of the importance of style, the basis of modern rock climbing.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In 1961, he visited Western Canada with Fred Beckey, and made several important first ascents, including the North Face of Mount Edith Cavell (Rockies), the Beckey-Chouinard Route on South Howser Tower in the Bugaboos (Purcell Mountains), and the North Face of Mount Sir Donald (Selkirk Mountains). These climbs opened his eyes to the idea of applying Yosemite big-wall climbing techniques to mountain climbing, and his advocacy was important to modern, high-grade alpinism. Also in 1961, he visited Shawangunk Ridge for the first time, freeclimbing the first pitch of Matinee (the hardest free climb done at Shawangunk Ridge at the time); and introducing chrome-molybdenum steel pitons to the area, which revolutionized climbing protection. In 1968, he climbed Cerro Fitzroy in Patagonia by a new route (The Californian Route, 3rd overall ascent of the mountain) with Dick Dorworth, Chris Jones, Lito Tejada-Flores and Douglas Tompkins.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In 1957, he bought a second-hand coal-fired forge, and started making hardened steel pitons for use in Yosemite Valley. Between time spent surfing and climbing, he sold pitons out of the back of his car to support himself. The improved pitons were a big factor in the birth of big-wall climbing from 1957 to 1960 in Yosemite. The success of his pitons caused him to found Chouinard Equipment, Ltd.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In the late 1960s, Chouinard and business partner Tom Frost began studying ice climbing equipment, and re-invented the basic tools (crampons and ice axes) to perform on steeper ice. These new tools and his book "Climbing Ice" (1978) started the modern sport of ice climbing.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: Around 1970, he became aware that the use of steel pitons made by his company was causing significant damage to the cracks of Yosemite. These pitons composed 70 percent of his income. In 1971 and 1972, Chouinard and Frost introduced new aluminum chockstones, called Hexentrics and Stoppers, along with the less successful steel Crack-n-Ups, and committed the company to the advocacy of the new tools and a new style of climbing called "clean climbing." This concept revolutionized rock climbing and led to further success of the company, despite cannibalizing the sales of pitons, formerly his most important product.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: They applied for a U.S. patent on Hexentrics in 1974, and it was granted on April 6, 1976. These are still manufactured by Black Diamond Equipment.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In the latter 1960s, Chouinard attempted a number of significant technological and technique changes to ice climbing after trips to the Alps in Europe and Sierra Nevada ice gullies in autumn. He removed the flex from crampons, making them more rigid for front-pointing. He drew the taper of a rock hammer into a point for better ice purchase. He increased the cross section of ice screws while also using lighter materials. He experimented with pick and blade issues with ice axes. Prior to this, much of ice climbing was seen as mere step cutting. He attempted to replace hand ice picks (climbing type) with a small ice axe head called a Climaxe.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In 1989, Chouinard Equipment, Ltd. filed for bankruptcy protection in order to protect it from liability lawsuits. The hard assets of Chouinard Equipment, Ltd. were acquired by its employees through the Chapter 11 process, and the company was reestablished as Black Diamond Equipment, Ltd.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: Chouinard is most known for founding the clothing and gear company Patagonia. Chouinard started to sell clothes by chance as a way to support his moderately profitable equipment business. In 1970 on a trip to Scotland, he purchased some rugby shirts and sold them with great success. From this small start, the Patagonia company developed a wide selection of rugged technical clothing. According to Chouinard, the intent of Patagonia is to make clothes for people under the rugged, southern Andes/Cape Horn conditions of places like Patagonia.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: Recognizing that the financial success of the company provided the opportunity to also achieve personal goals, Chouinard committed the company to being an outstanding place to work, and to be an important resource for environmental activism. In 1984, Patagonia opened an on-site cafeteria offering "healthy, mostly vegetarian food," and started providing on-site child care. In 1986, Chouinard committed the company to "tithing" for environmental activism, committing one percent of sales or ten percent of profits, whichever is the greater. The commitment included paying employees working on local environmental projects so they could commit their efforts full-time.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In the early 1990s, an environmental audit of Patagonia revealed the surprising result (at the time), that corporate cotton, although it was a natural material, had a heavy environmental footprint. In 1996, Chouinard committed the company to using all organic cotton.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In 2002, Yvon Chouinard founded 1% for the Planet and Patagonia became the first business to commit 1% of annual sales to the environment.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In 2014, Patagonia supported the advocacy documentary film "DamNation", which is about changing attitudes in America towards its dams. Chouinard was the executive producer of the film, and he was also featured in the film commenting about dams.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In 2018, in acknowledgment that sustainability and responsible practices are core to Patagonia, Yvon Chouinard was recognized with the Sierra Club's top award, the John Muir Award.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In 2022, Chouinard announced that he was donating ownership in Patagonia to a trust to ensure profits are used for addressing climate change.


title: Yvon Chouinard

text: In 1971, Chouinard met and married his wife, Malinda Pennoyer, who was an art and home economics student at California State University, Fresno. They have a son (Fletcher) and a daughter (Claire).


title: My Sharona

text: "My Sharona" () is the debut single by the Knack. The song was written by Berton Averre and Doug Fieger, and it was released in 1979 from their debut album, "Get the Knack". It reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 singles chart, where it remained for six weeks, and was number one on "Billboard"s 1979 Top Pop Singles year-end chart.


title: My Sharona

text: It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, representing 500,000 copies sold, and was Capitol Records' fastest gold status debut single since the Beatles' "I Want to Hold Your Hand" in 1964. It has since gone on to sell more than 10 million copies as of 2010.


title: My Sharona

text: When Doug Fieger was 25 years old, he met 17-year-old Sharona Alperin, who inspired a two-month-long run of songwriting, as well as eventually becoming his girlfriend for the next four years. Fieger recounted that "It was like getting hit in the head with a baseball bat; I fell in love with her instantly. And when that happened, it sparked something and I started writing a lot of songs feverishly in a short amount of time." Fieger and Averre worked out the structure and melody of the song. Averre was originally averse to using Alperin's name in the song, but Fieger wanted it to be a direct expression of his feelings; Averre ultimately relented. Fieger claimed that "My Sharona" was written in 15 minutes; moreover, it was purportedly mixed in an additional 15 minutes after the recording of the song was made in a single take (not including background vocals).


title: My Sharona

text: Fieger and Alperin were engaged at one point but never married. In a 2005 interview, Fieger said that they remained "great friends"; additionally, she would visit him frequently as Fieger was dying of cancer. Alperin went on to have a successful career as a realtor in Los Angeles.


title: My Sharona

text: The music of the song echoes many elements of songs from the 1960s. According to a "Trouser Press" reviewer, the song's main melodic hook is "an inversion of the signature riff" from "Gimme Some Lovin'", a 1966 song by the Spencer Davis Group. Fieger acknowledged that the song's tom-tom drum rhythm is "just a rewrite" of "Going to a Go-Go", a song from Smokey Robinson and the Miracles from 1965. Drummer Bruce Gary has stated that although he did not particularly like the song when Fieger introduced it to the band, he came up with the stuttering beat for the song similar to a surf stomp, with just tom-tom and snare. He also decided to incorporate a flam, in which two drum strokes are staggered, creating a fuller sound, which Gary considered to be crucial to the song's success.


title: My Sharona

text: In an interview with "The Washington Post", Fieger claimed that the song was written from the perspective of a 14-year-old boy.


title: My Sharona

text: The song's stuttering vocal effect of the repeated "muh muh muh my Sharona" phrase is reminiscent of Roger Daltrey's vocals in the 1965 song "My Generation" by the Who.


title: My Sharona

text: The music video features the band performing the song in a white room. Another music video features clips from the film Reality Bites, concert footage and "Another Lousy Day in Paradise" music video.


title: My Sharona

text: In addition to being the inspiration for the song, Sharona Alperin posed for the single's picture sleeve holding a copy of the Knack's debut studio album "Get the Knack".


title: My Sharona

text: Produced by Mike Chapman, the song's clean sound was also reminiscent of the sound of the 1960s British Invasion. "Billboard Magazine" described "My Sharona" as "an energetic raker with a subtle melody." Dick Nusser of "Billboard" remarked on the song's "catchy, deliberately awkward, stop-go drum and guitar breaks", its "quirky lyrics" and "suggestive tone", and that the song will "make you ready, willing and able to hum the refrain at the right moment." "Cash Box" said it begins with "slamming drums and rock steady, building guitar work." In the Pazz & Jop 1979 Critic's Poll, "My Sharona" and Fleetwood Mac's "Tusk" were tied for sixth place in the list of top singles of the year.


title: My Sharona

text: Chris Woodstra of AllMusic has subsequently referred to the song as an "unforgettable hit." "The New Rolling Stone Album Guide" claimed that the song "was a hit for a good reason. The beat is urgent, the chorus calls out for drunken shouting along and the guitar solo is a firecracker flash."


title: My Sharona

text: "The New York Times" called the song "an emblem of the new wave era in rock and a prime example of the brevity of pop fame."


title: My Sharona

text: During the making of Michael Jackson's 1982 "Thriller" album, producer Quincy Jones aspired to include a rock-and-roll-inspired song in the vein of "My Sharona." Jackson subsequently wrote "Beat It".


title: My Sharona

text: In 2008, "My Sharona" was ranked in two "Billboard" 50th anniversary charts. It ranked 75 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 All-Time Top Songs and 16 on the Top "Billboard" Hot 100 Rock Songs".


title: My Sharona

text: In 1994, "My Sharona" re-entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and peaked at number 91, when it was released as part of the "Reality Bites" soundtrack album. In the film itself, the characters dance to the song at a convenience store. This version was remixed by Dave Jerden and features, among other changes, a much more prominent drum sound.


title: My Sharona

text: In 2005, the song gained some attention when it appeared on the playlist of U.S. President George W. Bush's iPod.


title: My Sharona

text: "Girl U Want" by Devo, from the album "Freedom of Choice", was allegedly inspired by "My Sharona", although Devo's Gerald Casale has denied this.


title: My Sharona

text: During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, band bassist Prescott Niles released a guitar solo instruction video, in response to the many parodies of the song which had appeared during the pandemic.


title: My Sharona

text: In video games, a cover of "My Sharona" is featured as downloadable content for the "Rock Band" series. This version was later updated for "Rock Band 3" to support the Pro Guitar feature. The original version of the song, along with its music video, is featured on "" on Xbox 360.


title: My Sharona

text: In films, the song was heard in the 1994 film "Reality Bites", the 1997 Disney film "RocketMan", the trailer for "", in J. J. Abrams' "Super 8", Richard Linklater's "Everybody Wants Some!!", and "Changing Sides".


title: My Sharona

text: "My Sharona" was also used constantly in "Saturday Night Live", for its recurring sketch "Janet Reno's Dance Party". It also appears in Dumb and Dumber.


title: My Sharona

text: The B-side of the "My Sharona" single was "Let Me Out". It was written by Fieger and Averre to fill the band's need for a strong opening track for concerts and later for their "Get the Knack" album. Averre has stated that the song is "absurdly fast." Drummer Bruce Gary felt that the words of "Let Me Out" helped make the song a perfect opener since the band wanted to "let out", and bassist Prescott Niles noted that, with the song, the band was all of a sudden "out of the box." Gary has also claimed that the song was "me trying to be Buddy Rich in a rock 'n' roll band. It was just full on."


title: My Sharona

text: "Billboard" described "Let Me Out" as "a teen anthem delivered at full throttle" and praised the song's "delightful" harmonies, "slapping" guitars and "perfectly tuned" drumming. Superchunk and The Mountain Goats drummer Jon Wurster commented on the "full force" of Gary's drumming on "Let Me Out." Ira Robbins and Michael Sandlin of "Trouser Press" described the song as "tight guitar pop." Author John Borack described the song as "a damn fine pop tune." "Audio" magazine called it a "basher" with "plenty of style." AllMusic critic Mark Deming stated that the live version of "Let Me Out" has "a joyous force nearly any act would envy." Dave Swanson of "Ultimate Classic Rock" called it "one of the most powerful album openers ever."


title: My Sharona

text: A 1979 live performance of "Let Me Out" from Carnegie Hall was included on the laser disc of "Live at Carnegie Hall". The song was included on their compilation album, "Premium Gold Collection". A 2012 vinyl EP for Record Store Day includes 1978 live performances of "Let Me Out" and "My Sharona" from Los Angeles and two other songs. The two performances are also included on the live CD of the entire 1978 Los Angeles concert "Havin' a Rave-Up".


title: Justice of the peace

text: A justice of the peace (JP) is a judicial officer of a lower or "puisne" court, elected or appointed by means of a commission (letters patent) to keep the peace. In past centuries the term commissioner of the peace was often used with the same meaning. Depending on the jurisdiction, such justices dispense summary justice or merely deal with local administrative applications in common law jurisdictions. Justices of the peace are appointed or elected from the citizens of the jurisdiction in which they serve, and are (or were) usually not required to have any formal legal education in order to qualify for the office. Some jurisdictions have varying forms of training for JPs.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In 1195, Richard I ("the Lionheart") of England and his Minister Hubert Walter commissioned certain knights to preserve the peace in unruly areas. They were responsible to the King in ensuring that the law was upheld and preserving the "King's peace". Therefore, they were known as "keepers of the peace".


title: Justice of the peace

text: An act of 1327 had referred to "good and lawful men" to be appointed in every county in the land to "guard the peace"; such individuals were first referred to as conservators of the peace, or wardens of the peace. The title "justice of the peace" derives from 1361, in the reign of Edward III. The "peace" to be guarded is the sovereign's, the maintenance of which is the duty of the Crown under the royal prerogative. Justices of the peace still use the power conferred or re-conferred on them since 1361 to bind over unruly persons "to be of good behaviour". The bind over is not a punishment, but a preventive measure, intended to ensure that people thought likely to offend will not do so. The justices' alternative title of "magistrate" dates from the 16th century, although the word had been in use centuries earlier to describe some legal officials of Roman times.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In the centuries from the Tudor period until the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the JPs constituted a major element of the English (later British) governmental system, which in modern times has sometimes been termed a squirearchy (i.e., dominance of the land-owning gentry). For example, historian Tim Blanning notes that while in Britain the royal prerogative was decisively curbed by the Bill of Rights 1689, in practice the central government in London had a greater ability to get its policies implemented in the rural outlying regions than could contemporary absolute monarchies such as France – a paradox due especially to JPs belonging to the same social class as the Members of Parliament and thus having a direct interest in getting laws actually enforced and implemented on the ground.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Being an unpaid office, undertaken voluntarily and sometimes more for the sake of renown or to confirm the justice's standing within the community, the justice was typically a member of the gentry. The justices of the peace conducted arraignments in all criminal cases, and tried misdemeanours and infractions of local ordinances and bylaws. Towns and boroughs with enough burdensome judicial business that could not find volunteers for the unpaid role of justice of the peace had to petition the Crown for authority to hire a paid stipendiary magistrate.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 stripped the power to appoint normal JPs from those municipal corporations that had it. This was replaced by the present system, where the Lord Chancellor nominates candidates with local advice, for appointment by the Crown.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Until the introduction of elected county councils in the 19th century, JPs, in quarter sessions, also administered the county at a local level. Their many roles included regulating wages and food supplies, managing roads, bridges, prisons and workhouses and undertook to provide and supervise locally those services mandated by the Crown and Parliament for the welfare of the county. To this end they set the County Rate, where one was set at all.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Women were not allowed to become JPs in the United Kingdom until 1919, the first woman being Ada Summers, the Mayor of Stalybridge, who was a JP by virtue of her office. In October 1920 Summers was appointed a JP in her own right, alongside other pioneers including Edith Sutton and Miriam Lightowler OBE in Halifax. Emily Murphy of Edmonton, Canada, preceded her by some three and a half years. As at 2018 in England and Wales, about one-third of JPs are women.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In special circumstances, a justice of the peace can be the highest governmental representative, so in fact 'gubernatorial', in a colonial entity. This was the case in the Tati Concessions Land, a gold-mining concession (territory) in the Matabele kingdom, until its annexation by the British Bechuanaland protectorate.


title: Justice of the peace

text: A justice of the peace in Australia is typically someone of good stature in the community who is authorised to witness and sign statutory declarations and affidavits and to certify copies of original documents.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In contrast to other national jurisdictions, there are no Federal level JPs in Australia, as this power is devolved to the State and Territory Governments. Where a Federal Government document or task requires the services of a JP, the rules of each individual State or Territory government will dictate if they have the authority to assist. Criteria for appointment vary widely, depending on the state.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In the Australian Capital Territory (Colloquially, "The ACT"), there is only the single level of 'Justice of the Peace'. They are appointed on an as-needed basis, and a potential appointee must be an Australian Citizen, and both a resident of, and enrolled on the electoral roll, of the territory. They must also not be an undischarged bankrupt, and consent to criminal history checks being undertaken prior to appointment.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Appointment is for life, unless a JP resigns, is suspended/dismissed from office, or resides outside of the ACT for a period of more than 12 consecutive months.


title: Justice of the peace

text: JPs for the ACT also cover the Australian External Territory of Norfolk Island, and the Internal Jervis Bay Territory, subject to local law variations in those two jurisdictions.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In the state of Queensland, a "justice of the peace (qualified)" has the additional powers to issue search warrants and arrest warrants and, in conjunction with another justice of the peace (qualified) constitute a magistrates' court for exercising powers to remand defendants in custody, grant bail, and adjourn court hearings.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Some justices are appointed as justice of the peace (magistrates' court), usually in remote Aboriginal communities, to perform many of the functions that might otherwise fall to a stipendiary magistrate.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Queensland, a lawyer may be appointed as a Justice of the Peace without further education or qualification and has the full powers of a JP (Magistrate's Court). A commissioner for declarations (C.dec) has powers limited to witnessing documents, witnessing statutory declarations, witnessing affidavits, witnessing and administering oaths and affirmations.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The first woman to become a JP in Queensland was Matilda (Maud) Hennessey of Mackay on 24 April 1918.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the peace and bail justices, who are also volunteers, are appointed to serve a semi-judicial function in all areas of the Victorian community. The main official roles in the Victorian community include witnessing statutory declarations, witnessing affidavits and hearing bail matters outside court hours (bail justices only).


title: Justice of the peace

text: The first woman to become a JP in Victoria was Mary Catherine Rogers who, in 1920, became the first woman councillor in Australia when she was elected in the City of Richmond.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the peace (JPs) provide a service to the community as independent witnesses of statutory declarations, powers of attorney and affidavits. JPs, who are also volunteers, are selected through an extensive interview, written exam and practical testing. They are recommended by the state attorney-general and appointed by the governor-in-council, and it is their job to authorise and witness statutory declarations and affidavits within the state of Victoria. There are currently around 4,800 JPs serving in all areas of the state.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The role of a bail justice is to hear bail applications (under the Bail Act 1977) and to hear applications for interim accommodation orders for children (under the Children and Young Persons Act 1989) within Victoria. Bail justices, once appointed, may remain in their role until they turn 70 years of age (although they must be under 65 at the time of their appointment). They are often required to attend call outs and rule on bail applications or protection applications for children in danger on weekends and late at night when the courts are closed, but they can also witness Victorian statutory declarations and affidavits. Candidates must successfully complete a three-day training course run by the Department of Justice. Bail justices, who are also volunteers, also have some limited powers under federal legislation, including the power to conduct interstate extradition hearings and extending question time for federal police. Bail Justices may use the post-nominals BJ after their names.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The most common functions performed by a justice of the peace in New South Wales are to witness the signing of a statutory declaration, witness the signing of an affidavit and certify that a copy of an original document is a true copy.


title: Justice of the peace

text: JPs are appointed by the Governor of New South Wales for five-year terms. They are volunteers, who come from all walks of life and all sections of the community. JPs are people who are trusted to be honest, careful and impartial when performing the functions of a JP. They must not charge a fee or accept a gift for providing JP services, tell people what to write in a statutory declaration or affidavit or write it for them or give them legal advice.


title: Justice of the peace

text: 1. Search the JP Public Register. The register lists all JPs for each postcode area and provides a telephone contact number for JPs who serve the community directly.


title: Justice of the peace

text: 2. Check a public listing of scheduled JP services to find when JPs are available at scheduled times and locations across the state.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In the early years of the Colony of New South Wales, justices of the peace had far greater responsibilities and broader roles in the administration of justice than now.


title: Justice of the peace

text: A justice of the peace (JP) in South Australia is typically someone of good stature in the community who is authorised to witness and sign statutory declarations, affidavits, waiver rights, search warrants, drug warrants, divorce documents, and to certify copies of original documents and to witness the signing of power of attorney and guardianship documents, providing the JP is satisfied with the capability of the signatory.


title: Justice of the peace

text: A Special Justice (SJ) is a higher level of justice of the peace in South Australia; they sit on the bench of the magistrates' court hearing cases in the petty sessions division.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The South Australian Attorney-General has set up a web site to locate justices of the peace. The majority of metropolitan and many regional Councils (Local Government authorities) have a rotational justice of the peace in residence at nominated times.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the peace in Western Australia are appointed by the Governor who authorises them to carry out a wide range of official administrative and judicial duties in the community.


title: Justice of the peace

text: As well as presiding in the Magistrates Court, justices of the peace are regularly called upon by the WA Police to sign search warrants and authorise the issuing of summonses. The administrative tasks include witnessing affidavits and documents such as wills and statutory declarations.


title: Justice of the peace

text: "Visiting justices" are a special group of justices of the peace, appointed to preside over cases within the prison system.


title: Justice of the peace

text: JPs for Western Australia also cover the Australian External Territories of Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Christmas Island.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Belgium, the justices of the peace (, , ) function as the small claims courts in the country's judicial system; they stand at the bottom of the Belgian judicial hierarchy and only handle civil cases. There is a justice of the peace in each judicial canton of Belgium, of which there are 187 in total as of 2017. The justices of the peace have original jurisdiction over cases in which the disputed amount does not exceed 5,000 euro (as of September 2018), except for the matters over which another court or tribunal has exclusive jurisdiction. In addition, the justices of the peace have original jurisdiction over a number of matters irrespective of the disputed amount, such as cases involving the renting or leasing of real estate, evictions, easement, land consolidation, consumer credit or unpaid utility bills. The justices of the peace also have original jurisdiction in certain aspects of family law, most notably legal guardianships for incapacitated seniors, and the involuntary commitment of the mentally ill to psychiatric facilities. The judgments made by the justices of the peace can, with some exceptions, be appealed to the tribunals of first instance.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Canada, justices of the peace play a role in the administration of justice at the provincial level. Justices are generally appointed by the lieutenant governors of Canada's provinces, and by the commissioners of Canada's territories, on the advice of their relevant premier or Attorney General. Canada made the second (first was in South Australia a year earlier) appointment in the then British Empire of a woman as a magistrate, namely Emily Murphy, who was sworn in as a police magistrate in the Women's Court of the City of Edmonton (Alberta) on 19 June 1916.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In British Columbia, pursuant to the "Provincial Court Act", all judges are justices of the peace, and hence all of them are peace officers.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In the Northwest Territories, justices may hear summary conviction matters, municipal by-laws, and certain criminal matters. However, in more populated provinces justices usually preside over bail hearings and provincial offences courts. When not in a court session, a justice can perform other judicial functions, such as issuing search warrants.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Ontario, justices of the peace can preside over judicial interim release (bail) hearings and other criminal hearings. JPs can also exercise jurisdiction over provincial regulatory offences and municipal by-law prosecutions. JPs must retire by reaching the age of 65, but may continue working until 75 subject to the approval of the Chief Justice of the Ontario Court of Justice.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Quebec, there are two type of justices of the peace, administrative justice of the peace and presiding justice of the peace.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Administrative justice of the peace are court officers appointed by the Minister of Justice, and perform duties such as receiving criminal informations and issuing warrants. Presiding justice of the peace are appointed by commission under the Great Seal, and can try some criminal matters and issue warrants. They are appointed from advocates of at least ten years' standing and serve full-time until the age of 70.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Yukon, justices of the peace are lay officers of the court. They sit in the Justice of the Peace Court, which is part of the Territorial Court of Yukon.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Hong Kong, the historical functions of justices of the peace have been replaced by full-time, legally qualified magistrates. Nowadays, justices of the peace are essentially titles of honour given by the Government to community leaders, and to certain officials while they are in their terms of offices. They have no judicial functions, and their main duties include visiting prisons, institutions for young offenders and drug addicts, psychiatric hospitals, remand homes, places of refuge, reception and detention centres, administering statutory declarations, and serving as members of advisory panels. They also monitor the drawing of the Mark Six to ensure fairness.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In India, justices of the peace exist, but no longer occupy a prominent post. One of the famous justices in India was Kavasji Jamshedji Petigara.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Maharaja Prabirendra Mohan Tagore, who was the son of Maharaja Sir Prodyut Kumar Tagore KCSI of Calcutta, was designated a Justice of the Peace in 1932. He played a great part in saving more than 200 Muslim lives during the infamous riots that occurred during the 1947 partition of India, by sheltering Muslims around Calcutta, and within his palace.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the peace existed in Ireland prior to 1922, sitting in a bench under the supervision of resident magistrates at petty sessions to try minor offences summarily, and with a county court judge (in his capacity of chairman of quarter sessions) and jury to try more serious offences at quarter sessions. In the Irish Free State the position was effectively abolished by the District Justices (Temporary Provisions) Act 1923 and permanently abolished by the Courts of Justice Act 1924. Their judicial powers were replaced by full-time, salaried, legally qualified district justices (now called district judges) and their quasi-judicial powers by unpaid lay peace commissioners. Peace commissioners may sign statutory declarations, and may issue summons and search warrants to the Garda Síochána (Irish police). A peace commissioner can witness the signature of an affidavit. In addition Peace Commissioners can sign custody agreements between legal guardians in relation to visitation etc . These agreements are legally binding and can be altered only by a Judge in the regular courts .Peace Commissioners are appointed on the basis of good character and usually prominent standing in their local communities.


title: Justice of the peace

text: A justice of the peace (JP), according to the Ministry of Justice, is a person of unquestionable integrity who seeks to promote and protect the rights of the individual and helps to provide justice to persons in a particular community. Additionally, the JP serves as a justice in petty court sessions, attends juvenile court sessions, issues summonses, considers applications for bail, explains and signs legal documents, sits on licensing panels, and gives counsel/advice. Any Jamaican citizen that can speak and write English is eligible to become a JP. Any club/organisation/citizen can recommend someone to become JP for a community. JPs are chosen under the Governor-General's discretion.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Malaysia, justices of the peace ("jaksa pendamai" in Malay, also abbreviated "JP") have largely been replaced in magistrates' courts by legally qualified (first-class) stipendiary magistrates. However, state governments continue to appoint justices of the peace as honours. In 2004, some associations of justices of the peace pressed the federal government to allow justices of the peace to sit as second-class magistrates in order to reduce the backlog of cases in the courts.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The legal framework for the office of Justice of the Peace within New Zealand is derived from the Act of Parliament 'Justices of the Peace Act 1957', and subsequent amendments.


title: Justice of the peace

text: There are two levels of this position within New Zealand: The standard level of 'Justice of the Peace', and a separate 'Judicial Justice of the Peace'. Persons so appointed may use the post-nominals JP and JJP respectively. A JP who is retired may apply to the Secretary for Justice for permission to use the post-nominals 'JP (retired)'.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Appointment as a JP is for life, until unless a voluntary resignation is tendered in writing, or a JP is suspended or dismissed from office due to misconduct, bankruptcy, or other specific reasons.


title: Justice of the peace

text: A JP in New Zealand is someone of good stature in the community who is authorised to witness and sign a number of documents, including statutory declarations, affidavits, and producing certified copies of documents, amongst others. In some limited circumstances they may also perform citizenship ceremonies, and act as a 'Visiting Justice' in prisons. They are nominated for office by local Members of Parliament and appointed by the Governor-General. They must take both the Oath of Allegiance and the Judicial Oath.


title: Justice of the peace

text: If a local JP Federation determines that a need for one or more JJPs exists, they will issue a call for nominations to JPs in their territory. Following closure of nominations, a shortlist will be drawn up, and interviews undertaken. If a prospective applicant passes the interview stage, and the relevant training, exams, and assignments are successfully completed, they can be sworn in as a JJP. This means they can then be assigned to the bench in the relevant District Court to oversee minor criminal cases. These would involve tasks such as the exercise of powers to remand defendants in custody, grant bail, and adjourn court hearings.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Appointment as a JJP is at the pleasure of the Secretary for Justice, generally for a minimum of 5 years, and for as long as there is a need in the area an individual resides. Should an individual move abroad, to an area of New Zealand where the service is no longer required, or the local area no longer requires it, the JJP appointment will be terminated.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Prior to 2012 all JPs were able to issue search and arrest warrants, but with the passage of the NZ Act of Parliament "Search and Surveillance Act 2012", this power was spun off to the separate position of Issuing Officer.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Under the law, an Issuing Officer does not have to be a Justice of the Peace - Holders of some positions within the judicial system (e.g. Registrar or Deputy Registrar of a court) are Issuing Officers automatically under the law while serving in those roles, and cease to be so when they are not. For a JP or JJP to exercise this power after 2012, they must apply to become an Issuing Officer separately. The application process involves a further training course and exam, followed by a vetting and approval process by the Attorney-General. Appointment as an Issuing Officer is for a maximum of 3 years, and may be renewed for a further 3 years at expiry as needed.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Sections 22, 22-A and 22-B of the Code of Criminal Procedure Code, 1898 provide for the appointment of justices of the peace by the provincial governments, their powers and duties respectively. However, seldom are justices of the peace appointed in Pakistan outside the judiciary. Session and additional session judges act as ex-officio justices of the peace as per Section 25 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898. An Ex-officio Justice of the Peace may issue appropriate directions to the police authorities concerned on a complaint regarding-


title: Justice of the peace

text: (iii) neglect, failure or excess committed by a police authority in relation to its functions and duties.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Such functions being quasi-judicial in nature could not be termed as executive, administrative or ministerial.(PLD 2016 Supreme Court 581)


title: Justice of the peace

text: It is pertinent to note however, as many academics have pointed out, that there is great utility in the appointment of such justices especially in rural areas where enmity between rival groups can lead to the inability of registration of cognizable offences and biased judicial proceedings.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the peace in Singapore derives their vested powers from statute law. They are appointed by the President of the Republic of Singapore, under the provisions of section 11(l) of the State Courts Act (Cap.321). The President may revoke the appointment of any justice of the peace. Newly appointed justices of the peace are required by section 17 of the State Courts Act, to take the oath of office and allegiance as set out in the schedule to the State Courts Act, before exercising the functions of their good office.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In their main role, JPs serve as visiting justices of Singapore prisons, mediators or neutral referees in the state courts. In addition, they regularly solemnise marriages in the Registry of Marriages or perform the duties of the magistrate conferred on them by any written law.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Sri Lanka, Justice of the Peace (JP) is an honorary post, with authorisation to witness and sign statutory declarations and affidavits as well as certify documents. Persons appointed as a Justice of the Peace may use the post-nominal JP. Current appointments are made under the "Judicature Act No 02 of 1978", by the Minister of Justice at his/her discretion by publishing a list in "The Gazette" and appointee taking oaths before a high court, district court judge or magistrate with registrar of the supreme court recording it. There are four types of appointments of Justice of the Peace;


title: Justice of the peace

text: Senior Attorney at laws are appointed as Justice of the Peace and Unofficial magistrates to preside in the absence of a sitting Magistrate. Any citizen of Sri Lanka can apply to the Ministry of Justice giving his or her credentials to be appointed as a justice of the peace. However, the applicant should be one who has served the public and carries out social service and should be of good standing. These JPs would be appointed with legal authority in all parts of the island or limited to a judicial district. The President of Sri Lanka and his/her officers are "ex officio" justices of the peace. There about 100,000 JPs in the island.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The post was introduced in the island during the British colonial era by the Governor Frederick North in 1801 and was later reformed in 1871. Until 1938, appointments were made by the Governor, after which appointments were made by the Legal Secretary until 1947. After Ceylon gained its independence in 1948, appointments were made by the Governor General and the Minister of Justice. Justice of the Peace had the power to administer oaths and affirmations per the "Courts Ordinance No. 1 on 1889 section 84" and they could formally appoint members of the public to act as special police officers in times of turmoil and riots. Since certain government officers were ex-officio justices of the peace, this allowed British colonial officers to appoint special police officers from the European planters in times of crisis such as the 1915 riots. The Village Councils Law (No. 6 of 1964) made the Chairman of the Village Council an "ex officio" justices of the peace for that village area.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In 2014, for the first time, Justices of the Peace were authorised in Tonga. JPs are appointed by the Crown, but the Lord Chief Justice regulates their duties and defines their powers. The first JPs were warranted with duties including granting bail; issuing search warrants and subpoenas; taking affidavits, declarations and oaths; and having the power to witness documents. Term of office is one year and officials can be reappointed. The initial 19 JPs appointed were: ‘Aisea Ta’ofi and Sione Hinakau of Niuatoputapu; ‘Inoke Tuaimei’api of Niuafo'ou; Siosiua Hausia from ʻEua; Sione Palu, Sione Fakahua, Me’ite Fukofuka and Kisione Taulani of Ha’apai; Salesi Kauvaka, Viliami Pasikala, Haniteli Fa’anunu, Meli Taufaeteau and Moleni Taufa from Vava’u; and Salote Fukofuka, ‘Amelia Helu, ‘Ofa Likiliki, Tevita Fakatou, Sioape Tu’iono and Semisi Tongia of Tongatapu.


title: Justice of the peace

text: A magistrates' court in England and Wales is typically composed of a bench of (usually three) Justices of the Peace (otherwise known as magistrates) who dispense summary justice. They decide on offences which carry a community sentence, a prison sentence (maximum of 6 months for any one offence, up to 1 year for multiple offences), or an unlimited fine. They are advised on points of law and procedure by a legally qualified justices' clerk and their assistants. In practice, JPs have a wide range of sentencing options, which include issuing fines, imposing community orders, or dealing with offences by means of a discharge. In more serious cases, where magistrates' consider that their sentencing powers are insufficient, they can send 'either-way' offenders to the Crown Court for sentencing.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the Peace are trained volunteers. No formal qualifications are required but magistrates need intelligence, common sense, integrity and the capacity to act fairly. Membership is widely spread throughout the local area and drawn from all walks of life following a rigorous selection process undertaken by a local advisory committee, who recommends to the Lord Chancellor those individuals who have demonstrated the six key qualities for appointment which are: (1) good character, (2) commitment and reliability, (3) social awareness, (4) sound judgement, (5) understanding and communication, and (6) maturity and sound temperament. Justices of the Peace are trained volunteers, but those who are employed in some occupations ( Police Officers) cannot be appointed due to potential conflict of interest.


title: Justice of the peace

text: All new Justices of the Peace (JPs) undergo comprehensive training before sitting. There is a mentoring program to help guide new appointees (mentors are magistrates with at least three years' service). The training is delivered by the Judicial College and covers the necessary law and procedure required for their role. They continue to receive training throughout their judicial career, and are appraised every 4 years (every 2 years for a Presiding Justice) to check that they continue to remain competent in their role. Additional training is given to justices choosing to sit in the Youth Court, or those dealing with family matters. New JPs sit with mentors on at least six occasions during their first eighteen months. Justices of the Peace are unpaid appointees, but they may receive allowances to cover travelling expenses, subsistence, and loss of earnings for those not paid by their employer while sitting as a magistrate, up to £116.78 a day. Such person may sit at any magistrates' court in England and Wales, but in practice they are appointed to their local bench (a colloquial and legal term for the local court). Justices of the Peace often sit as a panel of three; two as a minimum in most cases, save for cases under the Single Justice Procedure. Many are members of the Magistrates' Association, which provides advice, training and represents magistrates. Justices of the Peace must sit for a minimum of 26 sessions (half-days) per year. An employer must, by law, allow a Justice of the Peace reasonable time off work to serve as such.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The lead magistrate is known as a Presiding Justice (PJ) and should be addressed in court as "sir" or "ma'am" or "your worship", and the magistrates collectively as "your worships". In writing they are their usual name followed by "JP" (for Justice of the Peace). Other magistrates on the bench are known as "wingers". All three magistrates contribute equally to the decision-making and carry equal authority, but the Presiding Justice will speak on their behalf in open court.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Magistrates' courts today can deal with lesser offences such as all summary offences, and some more serious triable 'either-way' matters, but where the magistrates' deem that their sentencing powers are sufficient. However all criminal cases start in the magistrates' court. They handle over 95% of the criminal cases in England and Wales and Northern Ireland. With more serious offences, magistrates are responsible for indictment and committal to the Crown Court (a task in former times dealt with by a grand jury). Magistrates also have a civil jurisdiction, such as a family jurisdiction, or appeals against matters relating to licensing. Although they had a licensing jurisdiction dealing liquor, betting and clubs licensing applications, this was transferred under the Licensing Act 2003 to local authorities. The magistrates now act in licensing matters only as an appeal court from the decisions of the local authority. Justices of the Peace are responsible for granting orders such as search warrants to the Police and other authorities. They used to have to live within 15 miles of where they sit in case needed to sign a warrant after hours. were replaced with "Local Justice Areas" by the Courts Act 2003, meaning this is not formally required. Section 7 of the Courts Act 2003 states that "There shall be a commission of the peace for England and Wales—…b) addressed generally, and not by name, to all such persons as may from time to time hold office as justices of the peace for England and Wales". Thus, every magistrate in England and Wales may act as a magistrate anywhere there.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Cardiff Magistrates' Court is the only court in the country which deals with offences under the Companies Act 2006, such as for late filing of accounts or directors' offences. Westminster Magistrates' Court has special responsibilities for dealing with terrorism and extradition offences throughout the UK.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The Courts Act 2003 provides the current framework for appointment of the justices, which is done by the Lord Chancellor in the name of sovereign. Justices can also be removed by the same mechanism.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Before 1714, magistrates were liable to be approached at any time and in any place by people legally recognised as paupers, appealing for aid if parish authorities refused to provide any. It was relatively common for these magistrates to write out, on the spot, an order requiring aid to be granted. The magistracy is an ancient institution, dating in England from at least 1327. The role is underpinned by the principles of 'local justice' and 'justice by one's peers.'


title: Justice of the peace

text: As at 2021, 56% of sitting magistrates were women, 13% were Black, Asian and minority ethnic, and 82% aged above 50 as at 1 April 2021.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Within the Scottish legal system Justices of the Peace are trained volunteers who currently sit in the Justice of the Peace courts. These courts were introduced in 2009 as a replacement for the district courts (established in 1975), which in turn replaced burgh police courts. Justices sit alone or in threes with a qualified legal assessor as convener or clerk of court. They handle many cases of breaches of the peace – drunkenness, minor assaults, petty theft, and offences under the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The maximum sentencing power of a justice of the peace is 60 days imprisonment, or a fine up to £2,500, or both, and the ability to disqualify drivers.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In 2006, the Scottish Government announced its intention to unify the management of the sheriff and district courts in Scotland but retain lay justices, as part of its initiative to create a unified judiciary under the Lord President. Following the passage of the Criminal Proceedings etc. (Reform) (Scotland) Act 2007 the justice of the peace courts were implemented on a sheriffdom-by-sheriffdom basis.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Glasgow, the volume of business required the employment of three solicitors as "stipendiary magistrates" who sat in place of the lay justices. The stipendiary magistrates' court had the same sentencing power as the summary sheriff court in summary proceedings, which was the ability to sentence an offender to up to one year in prison or fine them up to . Stipendiary magistrates were replaced by summary sheriffs.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Northern Ireland, the situation initially continued as it had in pre-1922 Ireland. However, justices of the peace no longer sat out of petty sessions after 1935 (Summary Jurisdiction and Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1935). Since then, magistrates' courts in Northern Ireland have consisted of legally qualified resident magistrates (now known as district judges (magistrates' courts)) sitting alone, except in cases involving children, where two lay panelists sat with the magistrate. Justices of the peace were confined to the power to conduct committal hearings, bind persons over to the peace, sign warrants, summons, and other official documents. They were appointed by the Lord Chancellor on the recommendation of a committee in each county court division.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2002 introduced a new office of lay magistrate, to sit alongside resident magistrates at magistrates' courts in certain matters. Unlike in England and Wales, "lay magistrate" is the official title of the position, to distinguish from existing justices of the peace who do not sit in the magistrates' courts. The first lay magistrates were appointed in 2005. Two lay magistrates sit with the district judge (magistrates' court) in criminal proceedings involving children (replacing the former lay panelists) and Family Proceedings Court matters. The district judge (magistrates' court), who is a barrister or solicitor of at least seven years standing, presides over the bench. Most criminal justice functions of JPs were transferred to lay magistrates. It is expected that there will be no further appointments of justices of the peace in Northern Ireland, although those already appointed retain the title and any functions not transferred to lay magistrate under the 2002 Act.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In some US states, the justice of the peace is a judge of a court of limited jurisdiction, a magistrate, or a quasi-judicial official with certain statutory or common law magisterial powers. Some states have special qualifications or unique features for the office.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The justice of the peace typically presides over a court that hears misdemeanor cases, traffic violations, and other petty criminal infractions. The justice of the peace may also have authority over cases involving small debts, landlord and tenant disputes, or other small claims court proceedings. Proceedings before justices of the peace are often faster and less formal than the proceedings in other courts. In some jurisdictions a party convicted or found liable before a justice of the peace may have the right to a trial de novo before the judge of a higher court rather than an appeal strictly considered.


title: Justice of the peace

text: A justice of the peace has the same jurisdiction as a municipal magistrate with respect to traffic and misdemeanor cases and restraining orders, though over cases whose affairs are not contained within the confines of a single municipality. Additionally, the Justice Court hears cases involving county ordinances (ordinances enacted by the board of supervisors that apply only to unincorporated areas), civil lawsuits up to a limit of $10,000, small claims cases up to $2,500 (up to $3,500 in Maricopa County), and issues evictions, called writs of restitution (after a forcible detainer or special detainer action (eviction) being successfully completed by a landlord). Justices of the peace, also called JPs, or Judges of the Justice Court, are elected in partisan elections for four-year terms from specific districts called precincts. They have the same authority and responsibility as all other judges in the state with respect to performing marriages, administrating oaths, adhering to the code of judicial conduct, and all aspects of justice administration. However, Arizona law does not require justices of the peace to be lawyers. Many justices of the peace are not legally trained, although all are required by the Arizona Supreme Court to complete a course at the Arizona Judicial College. As with JPs, municipal judges in Arizona are not required to be lawyers.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Arkansas, a justice of the peace is an elected official equivalent to a county commissioner or county supervisor in some other states. Arkansas JPs sit on a county quorum court, composed of 9, 11, 13 or 15 JPs. The quorum court is a part-time body, elected from single-member districts, that has overall responsibility for county affairs. Among their responsibilities are passing the budget, creating new ordinances (at the misdemeanor level), setting property tax millage levels, and working with other elected officials. The full-time elected county administrator, who presides over the quorum court, is the county judge. Neither JPs nor the county judge have any judicial authority, though they do have the power to preside over civil marriages. Justices of the peace are elected every two years to these partisan offices.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the peace in Connecticut can preside over marriages. Unlike some states, Connecticut JPs are not penalized for refusing to perform such ceremonies. They have the same general oath-giving powers as a notary public.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Florida had justices of the peace (with corresponding constables) from the time of its acquisition from Spain in 1821 until the Florida Constitution was amended in 1968 to abolish the post. From about 1940 to 1968, Florida counties had the ability to hold local referendums to allow county voters to abolish the post on a county-by-county basis. For example, Leon County, the location of Tallahassee, Florida's capital city, voted to abolish justices of the peace (and their associated constables) in the Fall elections of 1958. By 1958, the county commission had reduced the number of JOP districts from a turn-of-the-century peak of 13 districts to just two districts. The automobile age made the county sheriff able to patrol the entire county and made it possible for the citizenry to travel to the courthouse for legal proceedings.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the peace in Louisiana are elected to serve six-year terms as the judicial authority of a ward or district, but not where city courts exist. The have jurisdiction in civil matters when the amount in dispute does not exceed $5,000. They do not have jurisdiction when a title to real estate is involved, when the state or any political subdivision is a defendant, or in successions or probate matters. They are authorized to perform marriage ceremonies. There are around 390 such Justices of the peace.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Maine, the office of the Justice of the Peace was merged with Notary Public, a process that took place from 1981 to 1988. The duties that were attached to the office of Justice of the Peace were fully transferred to the Notary Public in 1988. The office currently named as "Justice of the Peace" in Maine is a court officer, an attorney, involved in the process of issuing warrants and responding to complaints. The office however is not related to either the current Notary Public office or the previous Justice of the Peace office and is part of the Maine Bureau of Corporations, Elections & Commissions.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the peace in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts are commissioned by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Council for seven-year terms. They are often called on to solemnize non-religious marriages, especially same-sex marriages, which certain religious officials are not willing to oversee. They have the same general oath-giving powers as a notary public, and are also empowered to issue certain writs.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In Minnesota, the office of the Justice of the Peace was abolished in 1977 (Minn. Stat. 487.35). It has not existed for 40-plus years although some people who offer private wedding officiant services erroneously claim to be Justices of the Peace, this term may not properly be used inasmuch as the office has been abolished. Under Minnesota law, however, judges, retired judges, court administrators, retired court administrators, and other public officials designated in statute may officiate or solemnize marriage ceremonies in addition to licensed or ordained ministers of any religious denomination who have filed their credentials with a county registrar (Minn, Stat. 517.04).


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justice courts are courts in New York State that handle traffic tickets, criminal and environmental conservation law matters, small claims and local code violations such as zoning. Though justice courts constitutionally are part of the New York State Unified Court System, state law generally makes justice courts independent of New York's Office of Court Administration (OCA) and instead makes justice Ccourts the responsibility of their sponsoring localities. Town justice courts are often called town court, and village justice courts are often called village court. City courts in New York State handle mostly the same types of cases but are not justice courts.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The official title for judges in justice courts is justice, the same as in New York Supreme Court. However, in common usage, most people, including lawyers, call them judge. In general, justices in justice court do not have to be lawyers, except for justice courts with jurisdiction in villages. The vast majority are not. Many of these courts are in small towns and villages where none of the residents are lawyers. In the larger towns, the justices are almost always lawyers.


title: Justice of the peace

text: While justices and their court clerks receive training from OCA, there is tremendous variability in how cases are handled. This includes court procedures and substantive results. Some courts will dismiss a traffic ticket if the officer does not appear for a trial, while others will adjourn the matter to give the officer another chance. In some courts the police prosecute their own tickets, while in others an assistant district attorney from the county or a town or village attorney will prosecute the tickets. This may even vary by the type of officer, with state troopers and deputies prosecuting their tickets and a town attorney prosecuting tickets written by the town police.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Larger towns can have very busy caseloads, including several sessions a week with dozens of cases at each session, and people may have to wait hours before their cases are heard. In some small towns the caseload is extremely light, and a court might meet once a month and have only a few cases.


title: Justice of the peace

text: All criminal prosecutions that occur in towns and villages are commenced in a justice court. Misdemeanors are handled exclusively in the justice court, while felonies generally move up to county court after defendants are arraigned in a Justice Court before the case moves forward.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Town and village Justices also possess limited powers of a New York notary public, ex-officio, only within the county in which the town or village for which they serve is located; they may administer oaths and affirmations and take acknowledgments and proofs of execution. Some Justices seek and obtain a formal New York notary public commission to permit free travel statewide and enjoy the additional privileges and international legal recognition of a notary public.


title: Justice of the peace

text: New Hampshire justices of the peace are commissioned magisterial officers, appointed by the Governor and Executive Council to terms of five years, with the power to administer oaths, acknowledge instruments, perform marriage ceremonies and, effective 1 January 2008, solemnize civil unions for same-sex couples. They may also order compulsory mental examinations for good cause, act as a magisterial official regarding enforcement complaints on orders for isolation or quarantine issued by the Commissioner of Health and Human Services, administer oaths of office to public officials, take depositions and issue subpoenas. New Hampshire justices of the peace are also authorized, upon a showing of probable cause supported by affidavit, to issue arrest warrants, search warrants, administrative inspection warrants and by court appointment, to fix and receive bail in criminal cases.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices of the peace existed during the time of the Province of North Carolina (17121776.) They were appointed by the colonial Governor and served in counties or districts. Justices were essential for conducting court business. After independence, the 1776 Constitution of North Carolina and an act passed by the North Carolina General Assembly of 1777 re-defined justices of peace in the State of North Carolina. Justices of the peace were authorized to marry and had other court duties and assisted in collecting taxes. Duties of the justices were further reduced after the 1868 North Carolina Constitution and inferior courts were abolished.