title: The Bionic Woman

text: The character was so popular that ABC asked the writers to find a way to bring her back. In the first episode of the next season, it is revealed that Jaime had not died after all, but Steve was not told. He soon discovers the truth when he is hospitalized after suffering severe damage to his bionic legs; he sees Jaime before slipping into a coma.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: As Steve later learns, Wells' assistant, Dr. Michael Marchetti, urged Rudy (now played by Martin E. Brooks) to try his newly developed cryogenic techniques to keep Jaime in suspended animation until the cerebral clot could be safely removed, after which she was successfully revived. A side effect of the procedure causes Jaime to develop retrograde amnesia, preventing her from recalling previous events including her relationship with Steve. Any attempt to remember causes her headaches and pain. Realizing that he is the primary trigger for her painful memories, Steve reluctantly asks Oscar to transfer Jaime to another medical facility away from him. There, she undergoes a successful surgery to restore her memory — she remembers everything except her love for Steve and the skydiving accident that led to her bionics. When they meet again, she tells Steve that they can start again with friendship and that it can be a whole new beginning for them. Steve agrees.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: Jaime retires as a tennis player and takes a job as a schoolteacher at an Air Force base in Ojai, California. She lives in an apartment over a barn located on the ranch owned by Steve's mother and stepfather, both of whom are aware of Steve and Jaime's bionic implants and their lives as secret agents. Season three opened with the two-part episode "The Bionic Dog", in which Jaime discovers Max (short for Maximillion), a German Shepherd dog that has been given a bionic jaw and legs and can run at speeds up to 90 mph. His bionics pre-date Steve's and Jamie's, as he was a lab animal used to test early bionic prosthetics. He was named "Maximillion" because his bionics cost "a million" dollars. When he was introduced, he experienced symptoms suggesting bionic rejection and was due to be put to sleep. Jaime discovered the condition was psychological, stemming from a traumatic lab fire that injured him when he was a puppy. With Jaime's help, Max was cured and went to live with her, proving himself to be of considerable help in some of her adventures. The original intent was to create a spin-off series featuring The Bionic Dog, and at the end of the two-part episode that introduced him, it was implied Max would stay with Jaime's forest ranger friend Roger Grette in the Sierra Mountains and Jaime would visit occasionally. However, the network rejected the proposed spin-off series and Max stayed with Jaime instead, making several appearances throughout the third season of "The Bionic Woman".


title: The Bionic Woman

text: To maintain the show's plausibility, creator/executive producer Kenneth Johnson set very specific limits on Jaime Sommers' abilities. He elaborated, "When you're dealing with the area of fantasy, if you say, 'Well, they're bionic so they can do whatever they want,' then it gets out of hand, so you've got to have really, really tight rules. [Steve and Jaime] can jump up two stories but not three. They can jump down three stories but not four. Jaime can't turn over a truck but she can turn over a car." These limits were occasionally incorporated into episodes, such as "Kill Oscar Part 1," in which Jaime is forced to make a jump that's too far down for her bionic legs, causing massive damage to them and nearly causing her death as a result.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: The series premiered on ABC in January 1976, as a mid-season replacement for the sitcoms "When Things Were Rotten" and "That's My Mama". With fourteen episodes airing from January 1976 to May 1976, it became the fifth-most-watched television show of the whole 1975–76 season—despite running for only half the season—ranking behind "Maude", "Laverne & Shirley", "Rich Man, Poor Man", and "All In The Family", and slightly ahead of "The Six Million Dollar Man". Season two ran from September 1976 to May 1977 with 22 episodes and finished with good ratings (number 14 overall, slightly behind "The Six Million Dollar Man"). Season two also had its most notable episodes, "Kill Oscar" in which Jaime fights the fembots, and "Deadly Ringer", for which Wagner won an Emmy Award. Although the show performed well during season two, ABC elected not to renew the series, feeling it was no longer attracting the kind of demographic that ABC wanted (ABC head Fred Silverman was notorious for his focus on demographics). NBC picked up the show for a third (and final) season, which ran from September 1977 to May 1978 with 22 episodes and featured a new character, Chris Williams (Christopher Stone), as a recurring love interest for Jaime. This was due in part to the change of networks, which prevented further crossovers by Jaime's former love interest, Steve Austin; however, in a situation still considered unique, Anderson and Brooks continued to play their roles in both series, despite the network differential.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: The series proved popular worldwide, particularly so in the United Kingdom, where it was shown on the ITV network and achieved unusually high audience figures for a science fiction show. The first episode of the series ("Welcome Home Jaime") was shown on 1 July 1976 and was the most watched programme of the week. It was watched in 7 million homes, giving it an average of 14 million viewers. Two weeks later, the show's third episode ("Angel of Mercy") also became the most watched programme of the week. Its success continued with a further 10 episodes scoring in the top 20 during 1976. (By contrast, "The Six Million Dollar Man" never once entered the top 10 rating during its five seasons, though this was most likely because the show was never broadcast across all ITV stations at the same time). The second season also proved popular, with seven episodes finishing in the weekly top 20, the highest of these being the episode "The Vega Influence" on 12 May 1977, which reached 8 with 14.8 million viewers. The third season was not broadcast simultaneously across all ITV stations in the UK, however, and therefore no episodes reached the weekly Top 20.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: The most notable of the frequent crossovers between the two shows included a two-part episode in which Steve and Jaime square off against Austin's sometimes-friend/sometimes-enemy Bigfoot and a three-part story arc entitled "Kill Oscar" that aired the first and third parts as "Bionic Woman" episodes and the second part as an episode of "The Six Million Dollar Man". The close connection between "The Six Million Dollar Man" and "The Bionic Woman" was highlighted by the fact that Richard Anderson and Martin E. Brooks played their same characters on two television shows (eventually) running concurrently on two networks.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: On her own, Jaime's enemies include the Fembots, a line of powerful robots that she fights twice in the series over several episodes. She also thwarts the plan of an aging nuclear scientist named Elijah Cooper to destroy all life on Earth using a doomsday device in "Doomsday Is Tomorrow". Jaime's missions frequently involved undercover work in which she takes on a secret identity, such as a nun, a police officer, a college student, an air-steward, a singer, and a professional wrestler. Her tennis background also came into play occasionally, and she was also from time to time seen having adventures with some of her students in Ojai.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: As with spy shows at this time, Jaime was frequently kidnapped (more often than not with the use of chloroform or a drugged drink) and placed in dangerous situations from which she would need her bionic abilities to escape. Typically, she would be bound or handcuffed to a bomb from which she could escape with ease once she woke up. However, on one occasion she was handcuffed to a friend, so she could not use her bionic strength to escape as this would pull off the friend's hand.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: Jaime dealt with a number of bizarre cases, such as a villain who operates a hair salon using a "truth serum" shampoo to extract information from OSI agents. In another episode, a convict named Lisa Galloway (also portrayed by Lindsay Wagner) is given plastic surgery and tries to replace Jaime. In a later episode, Lisa ingests a paste-like substance called Adrenalizine that gives her temporary super-strength, allowing her to fully replace Jaime at OSI while the real Jaime is imprisoned and led to question her own identity. Lisa, however, did not know of Jaime's bionic implants and believed her powers to have come from the Adrenalizine. After Jaime's eventual escape, Dr. Wells discovers that the Adrenalizine was breaking down and becoming toxic to Lisa's health. Further complicating the issue was Lisa's increasing belief that she was in fact, the real Jaime.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: During the series, it is shown that Jaime's enhanced abilities have their limitations. In one of the "Kill Oscar" chapters, Jaime jumps from the window of a particularly tall building while trying to escape the Fembots. However, due to the height from which she jumped, her legs explode upon landing, nearly killing her. Extreme cold is shown to inhibit her bionic implants, causing them to freeze up and malfunction (a scenario also common with Steve Austin). However, her right ear, as it is encased in her body, is typically not subject to these negative effects.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: While Steve Austin occasionally (particularly in early episodes) employed violence in order to complete missions, Jaime's approach tended to be less-violent and as such she was rarely shown directly using her bionic strength against a human opponent (and even when she did, never with deadly force).


title: The Bionic Woman

text: In the last episode ("On the Run"), Jaime is called "Robot Lady" by a little girl who has learned about her bionics. Like Steve Austin in the original book "Cyborg", she has to come to terms with the fact that she is not quite human. After three years with too many assignments to allow her time to herself, she resigns. However, the people in charge decide that she cannot just be allowed to leave and want to put her into a safe community where they can keep their eye on her. She goes on the run but later realises that she is still the same woman, despite her mechanical parts and goes back to work for the OSI, but with fewer missions and more time to herself. The final episode was inspired by "The Prisoner" as Jaime is similarly being pursued by entities concerned about the secret information she possesses.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: Despite being on different networks, both "The Bionic Woman" and "The Six Million Dollar Man" were simultaneously cancelled in the spring of 1978. Unlike "The Six Million Dollar Man", which ended with a standard episode, "On the Run" was written and filmed as a resolution to the series.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: Three made-for-TV movies were produced that expanded the "bionic family" and explored a rekindled love between Jaime and Steve.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: In the first reunion, "The Return of the Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman" (1987), Jaime and Steve are reunited after nearly ten years of living separate lives. Jaime's memory is fully restored (according to Oscar, Jaime was involved in an explosion at the American Embassy in Budapest and "she remembered everything" after she recovered from her concussion) and she tries to reconcile her feelings for Steve while at the same time helping train Steve's son Michael in the use of his own recently acquired updated bionics. Jaime challenges Michael to a friendly race. He overtakes her and she makes the comment that she feels like an "obsolete model". Michael is kidnapped by Fortress. Steve and Jaime along with the Air Force infiltrate the abandoned glass factory to "rescue" Michael.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: The second film, "" (1989), introduced Sandra Bullock as paraplegic Kate Mason who becomes a next-generation bionic woman and Sommers again helps train the neophyte cyborg.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: In the final reunion film, "Bionic Ever After?" (1994), a computer virus corrupts Jaime's bionic systems. Dr. Wells informs Steve that "she may never be bionic again," but Steve's main regard is he wants her alive above all else. She undergoes a major upgrade, which not only increases the power of her bionics but gives her night vision. Finally, after many years, the bionic couple get married.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: Jerry Fielding was the regular composer for the series and wrote its opening and closing themes. His friend Joe Harnell took over regular music duties midway through season one and wrote new opening and closing themes for season two. When Fielding expressed disappointment at this, the show instituted a policy where they used Fielding's opening theme and Harnell's closing theme.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: In the UK, Universal released three single-disc volumes of selected episodes of "The Bionic Woman" in 2001/02. Each volume contained three episodes. Universal then released the first two full seasons of "The Bionic Woman" on DVD in the UK and Australia in 2005/06. There were no special features on any of the sets. Season three was eventually released in the UK by Fabulous Films in December 2012, along with repackaged versions of the first two seasons and a complete 18-disc boxed set of all three seasons. These versions contained various special features as found on the Region 1 sets (see below), though the season three release also contains all three of the Bionic reunion movies from the 1980s and 1990s.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: In Germany, Koch Media has released all three seasons on DVD under the name "Die Sieben Millionen Dollar Frau" ("The Seven Million Dollar Woman"), though these sets do not contain special features.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: Plans for a North American DVD release were first announced in 2004 by Universal Home Video. Those plans were made public via a listing in a TV-DVD release guide sent to retailers, a mention in an otherwise unrelated studio press release, and as a trailer included on a DVD given away through retail chain Best Buy. However, that release never happened due to rights issues which prevented both "The Bionic Woman" and "The Six Million Dollar Man" from being released on DVD in North America at that time.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: In April 2010, creator Kenneth Johnson said that the rights issues had been solved and he was taping interviews for the DVD. On July 15, 2010, Universal Studios announced the release of the first season on DVD in North America, which took place on October 19, 2010. Season Two was released on May 17, 2011. On October 4, 2011, Universal released "The Bionic Woman: The Complete Third & Final Season" on Region 1 DVD.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: Two novels adapting various episodes were published to coincide with the series: "Welcome Home, Jaime" and "Extracurricular Activities", both by Eileen Lottman. The UK editions of these two books were credited to "Maud Willis" and were retitled "Double Identity" and "A Question of Life", respectively. Although the closing credits of every episode says the series was based upon Martin Caidin's 1972 novel, "Cyborg", this only refers to the bionics concept, the characters of Rudy Wells and Oscar Goldman, and the occasional appearance by Steve Austin; Jaime Sommers does not appear in any of Caidin's novels.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: A short-lived comic book series by Charlton Comics that lasted five issues was published in the US in 1976–77. UK comic "Look-In" ran a colour comic strip between 1976 and 1979, written by Angus P. Allan and drawn by artists including John Bolton and Arthur Ranson. The character was also to have appeared in a 1996 comic miniseries entitled "Bionix" by Maximum Press. Although the magazine was advertised in comic book trade publications, it was ultimately never published.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: The French comic magazine "Télé-Junior" published strips based on the TV series. This included their own versions of "The Six Million Dollar Man" and the "Bionic Woman" which was renamed "Super Jaimie". The artist behind this was Pierre Dupuis.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: In March 2012, Dynamite Entertainment launched a new "The Bionic Woman" comic book title, based upon the revised continuity established in the Kevin Smith-written "The Bionic Man" comic (a reimagining of "The Six Million Dollar Man"), in which the character of Jaime Sommers was reintroduced. A crossover mini-series, "The Bionic Man vs. The Bionic Woman", was launched in January 2013. Unlike the "Bionic Man" title, which (depending on the artist) occasionally renders Steve Austin in the likeness of actor Lee Majors, the Dynamite version of Jaime Sommers generally is not rendered in the likeness of Lindsay Wagner. In late 2013, Dynamite ended both series and in the spring of 2014 launched "The Six Million Dollar Man Season 6", a more faithful adaptation of the original "Six Million Dollar Man" TV series. Jaime Sommers, based on the Wagner interpretation, was reintroduced in issue 3 and in June 2014 Dynamite announced it will publish "The Bionic Woman Season 4", a continuation of the TV series, beginning in the fall of 2014.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: Like its parent program "The Bionic Woman" spawned its own line of toys. Kenner produced a 12-inch doll of the character, with similar features to the Steve Austin version (bionic modules and removable bionic limbs), except instead of a bionic eye the doll's head would click when turned, simulating the sound of Jaime's bionic ear. Accessories for the doll released by Kenner included additional fashions, and a Bionic Beauty Salon playset.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: A metal lunchbox for children was available, as was a vinyl story record produced by Wonderland Records. Kenner produced a series of stickers and temporary tattoos featuring Jaime Sommers individually and with Steve Austin.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: A board game based on "The Bionic Woman" series was also created. It was sold by Parker Brothers in the US, and was a 2–4 player game suited for children between 7 and 12 years of age.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: In July 2016, prior to Comic-Con International, "The New York Times" ran a story about Dynamite Entertainment. In it, best-selling author Andy Mangels was revealed to be writing a prestigious new intercompany crossover mini-series for the company, in conjunction with DC Comics: "Wonder Woman '77 Meets The Bionic Woman", bringing together the Lynda Carter television character with Lindsay Wagner's fellow 1970s television super-heroine. The series was released in December 2016. A crossover comic book series with "Charlie's Angels" titled, "Charlie's Angels vs. the Bionic Woman" was released in July 2019.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: In August 2002 it was announced that the show was to be remade by producers Jennifer and Suzanne Todd ("Team Todd") for the USA Network. After the initial press release was issued, the show never made it out of pre-production and no other announcements were made as to the show's fate.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: On October 9, 2006, NBC Universal announced that it was bringing the project back, with new producers and a reworking of the concept. The project's one-hour pilot was given an official greenlight by NBC on January 3, 2007. English actress Michelle Ryan (affecting an American accent) was cast in the title role for this pilot, and Katee Sackhoff played Sarah Corvus, the bionic woman's nemesis. The series was subsequently picked up by NBC and debuted on September 26, 2007. Eight more episodes were produced and aired before the Writers Guild of America strike forced a halt to production. Series developer and producer David Eick told the official website of the Sci-Fi Channel (now known as Syfy) on March 18, 2008, that the series had been cancelled.


title: The Bionic Woman

text: The new series featured very few elements of the original script and focused on a much darker concept, but received generally negative reviews. Lindsay Wagner, the original Bionic Woman, was not involved in the new series and was very critical of this version. Wagner said, "On a technical level, it was very good, but I don't think they understood the show. It was steeped in that old-school thinking. It was like a lot of things today, angry and dark."


title: Freaky Styley

text: Freaky Styley is the second studio album by American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers, released August 16, 1985 on EMI America. "Freaky Styley" marks founding guitarist Hillel Slovak's studio album debut, following his return to the band earlier in the year. The album is the last to feature drummer Cliff Martinez. "Freaky Styley" was produced by George Clinton, of Parliament-Funkadelic, and the sessions benefitted from Clinton's chemistry with the band but suffered from the band's drug use during recording.


title: Freaky Styley

text: The music on the record draws influence from funk, punk rock, and psychedelic rock, while the lyrical content was inspired by the band members' lives in Hollywood. "Jungle Man" and "Hollywood (Africa)" were released as promotional singles while "Catholic School Girls Rule" and "Jungle Man" had music videos made for them. Critics viewed the album as an improvement upon the band's debut album, praising "Freaky Styley"'s musical experimentation and production. However, it did not achieve mainstream success and failed to enter the "Billboard" 200. The band embarked on the Infinity Tour to promote the album.


title: Freaky Styley

text: Red Hot Chili Peppers was formed by Anthony Kiedis, Hillel Slovak, Flea, and Jack Irons while they attended Fairfax High School in Los Angeles. Originally named Tony Flow & the Miraculously Majestic Masters of Mayhem, the group was originally meant as a one-off band for playing only one show. However, after a positive crowd reception, the band changed its name to Red Hot Chili Peppers. The group was noticed by EMI, and the band signed with the record label. Slovak and Irons still considered the Peppers a side project, so they quit to focus on their band What Is This?; that group had signed a record contract two weeks earlier. Kiedis and Flea subsequently recruited guitarist Jack Sherman and drummer Cliff Martinez to complete the band's lineup for its debut album. The band ended disappointed in the first album's overall sound, thinking it was overly polished, as if it had "gone through a sterilizing Goody Two-shoes machine".


title: Freaky Styley

text: During the tour in support of the band's first album, continuing musical and lifestyle tension between Kiedis and Sherman complicated the transition between concert and daily band life. Sherman was fired soon after, with Slovak returning to the Chili Peppers after growing tired of What is This?. Because the Peppers did not have a positive experience working with Andy Gill on their previous record, they began searching for a new producer for their next album. The first potential producer the band worked with was Malcolm McLaren, who had worked with the Sex Pistols and Bow Wow Wow. However, McLaren suggested they changed their style to play more simplified, 1950s-style rock and roll and make Kiedis the central character, a change the group vehemently opposed. After receiving comparisons from fans to Parliament-Funkadelic, the band indicated to EMI Records its desire to work with frontman George Clinton. The band contacted Clinton and sent him their debut album and demo tapes, and Flea and the band's manager, Lindy, traveled to Detroit to meet him. Clinton agreed to work with the band, and EMI paid him $25,000 to produce the album. The song "Blackeyed Blonde" was performed by the band in the 1985 skateboarding movie "Thrashin'" starring Josh Brolin.


title: Freaky Styley

text: The band had already written approximately 70 percent of the album (mostly with Sherman, not Slovak) by the time the group traveled to Michigan to record the album. Clinton decided that the band would spend a month with him before recording to bond and create ideas for new songs. Before renting a house of their own, the group members stayed in Clinton's house in the village of Brooklyn, about an hour away from Detroit, for a week. The band was excited to live with Clinton, but as soon as Kiedis moved in, he began experiencing severe heroin withdrawal, and became very ill. He attempted to offset his desire for heroin by using cocaine instead, but his relief was short-lived. After a few days, however, his symptoms subsided and he was able to join the group in playing music and connecting with Clinton. The Red Hot Chili Peppers felt a strong chemistry with Clinton and enjoyed his quirky personality and storytelling abilities. After a week of living with him, the band moved into a house on a nearby golf course.


title: Freaky Styley

text: "Freaky Styley" was recorded at United Sound Studios in Detroit. Martinez recalled that "George had a party atmosphere in the studio all the time, but a productive party atmosphere. You took care of business, but he made sure you had a lot of fun doing it." The band and Clinton began using copious amounts of cocaine together, which had a negative effect on the band's overall health. When the time came for Kiedis to record his vocals, he decided to abstain from cocaine use for two weeks, an experience he likened to "deciding to be celibate when you're living in a brothel." The track "Yertle the Turtle" incorporates several verses directly from Dr. Seuss' poem also named "Yertle the Turtle." As stated by Kiedis in his autobiography, "Scar Tissue", the spoken lyrics at the beginning and throughout the song saying "Look at that turtle go bro," were by George Clinton's drug dealer who demanded debts be paid by Clinton. Unable to repay the dealer, Clinton offered him a part in the album.


title: Freaky Styley

text: According to Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic, "Freaky Styley" is "the closest the Red Hot Chili Peppers ever came to straight funk." The album marks the return of guitarist Hillel Slovak, and Kiedis observed that Slovak's playing evolved during his time away from the group in What Is This?, with the guitarist adopting a more fluid style featuring "sultry" elements as opposed to his original hard rock techniques. The band also experimented with a more diverse variety of musical genres on "Freaky Styley". "Jungle Man" contains psychedelic rock-styled guitar, layered background vocals, and an "urgent, aggressive dance beat". "Catholic School Girls Rule" draws influence from punk rock music, while "Blackeyed Blonde" has been described as "Aerosmith meets Isaac Hayes". The album features covers of "If You Want Me to Stay" by Sly and the Family Stone, and "Africa" by The Meters. Clinton helped with the vocal arrangements and provided his own vocals for a portion of "Hollywood (Africa)".


title: Freaky Styley

text: "Catholic School Girls Rule" was inspired by a sexual encounter Kiedis had with a fourteen-year-old Catholic school student in New Orleans while on tour in 1984. "Jungle Man" was dedicated to Flea, whom Kiedis used to create a fictionalized persona of "this half-man, half-beast born in the belly of the volcano in Australia coming to the world and using his thumb as the conductor of thunder on the bass." The lyrics of the band's cover of "Africa" by The Meters differ slightly from the original, intended to reflect the group's hometown of Hollywood. At the time, Flea listened repeatedly to the Meters and wanted to cover one of the group's songs, and Clinton suggested that the group use the opportunity to dedicate a song to Hollywood, saying, "What if you did the song 'Africa' but had Anthony do a rewrite so it's no longer 'Africa', but it's your 'Africa', which is Hollywood?"


title: Freaky Styley

text: "Freaky Styley" did not garner mainstream success and failed to enter the "Billboard" 200. In the liner notes to the 2003 remastered edition of the album, bassist Flea states:


title: Freaky Styley

text: However, the album was more positively received by critics than the band's debut album. Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic felt that Clinton's production helped to make "Freaky Styley" an improvement over "The Red Hot Chili Peppers", and enjoyed Slovak's return, noting that the guitarist "makes a major contribution to practically every song". He further wrote that "the Peppers have a good clutch of songs to work with in addition to excellent production. And too, they seem relaxed and at ease here, playing quirky songs without any self-consciousness, a quality lacking on their debut." Ira Robbins of "Rolling Stone" called the album "wilder, rougher, funnier and funkier" than "The Red Hot Chili Peppers", and opined that "the Chili Peppers are taking advantage of the current crossover free-for-all to universalize funk by expanding its limits and incorporating new ingredients without diluting the basic bump. Fed up with the empty calories of effete high-tech dance records? Freaky Styley is stick-to-the-ribs rock that puts meat back in the motion." Greg Kot was more critical in "The Rolling Stone Album Guide" (2004), believing that like the group's debut album, "Freaky Styley" had "not a single memorable song" while the band's "funk-monkey shtick camouflaged serious musical deficiencies".


title: Freaky Styley

text: The tour for "Freaky Styley" known as the Infinity Tour began in 1985. Both Kiedis and Slovak were beginning their long (and in Slovak's case soon to be fatal) battles with drugs on this tour. The band decided to begin recording their third album in the spring of 1986 but by this time drummer Cliff Martinez decided he just didn't have the heart to continue, though rather than quitting, Kiedis and Flea fired Martinez. To the band's amazement, founding drummer Jack Irons decided to return and for the first time since 1983 the original lineup was together. Together, the reunited lineup finished the remainder of the "Freaky Styley" tour. Following the end of the tour, Kiedis's drug problems were so bad that he was briefly fired from the band.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: In software engineering, behavior-driven development (BDD) is an agile software development process that encourages collaboration among developers, quality assurance experts, and customer representatives in a software project. It encourages teams to use conversation and concrete examples to formalize a shared understanding of how the application should behave. It emerged from test-driven development (TDD). Behavior-driven development combines the general techniques and principles of TDD with ideas from domain-driven design and object-oriented analysis and design to provide software development and management teams with shared tools and a shared process to collaborate on software development.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Although BDD is principally an idea about how software development should be managed by both business interests and technical insight, the practice of BDD does assume the use of specialized software tools to support the development process. Although these tools are often developed specifically for use in BDD projects, they can be seen as specialized forms of the tooling that supports test-driven development. The tools serve to add automation to the ubiquitous language that is a central theme of BDD.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: BDD is largely facilitated through the use of a simple domain-specific language (DSL) using natural-language constructs (e.g., English-like sentences) that can express the behaviour and the expected outcomes. Test scripts have long been a popular application of DSLs with varying degrees of sophistication. BDD is considered an effective technical practice especially when the "problem space" of the business problem to solve is complex.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Behavior-driven development is an extension of test-driven development, a development process that makes use of a simple DSL. These DSLs convert structured natural language statements into executable tests. The result is a closer relationship to acceptance criteria for a given function and the tests used to validate that functionality. As such it is a natural extension of TDD testing in general.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: At its heart, BDD is about rethinking the approach to unit testing and acceptance testing in order to avoid issues that naturally arise. For example, BDD suggests that unit test names be whole sentences starting with a conditional verb ("should" in English for example) and should be written in order of business value. Acceptance tests should be written using the standard agile framework of a user story: "Being a [role/actor/stakeholder] I want a [feature/capability] yielding a [benefit]". Acceptance criteria should be written in terms of scenarios and implemented in classes: Given [initial context], when [event occurs], then [ensure some outcomes].


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Starting from this point, many people developed BDD frameworks over a period of years, finally framing it in terms of a communication and collaboration framework for developers, QA and non-technical or business participants in a software project. During the "Agile specifications, BDD and Testing eXchange" in November 2009 in London, Dan North gave the following description of BDD:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: BDD is a second-generation, outside-in, pull-based, multiple-stakeholder, multiple-scale, high-automation, agile methodology. It describes a cycle of interactions with well-defined outputs, resulting in the delivery of working, tested software that matters.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: It's using examples to talk through how an application behaves... And having conversations about those examples.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Dan North created a BDD framework, JBehave, followed by a story-level BDD framework for Ruby called RBehave which was later integrated into the RSpec project. He also worked with David Chelimsky, Aslak Hellesøy and others to develop RSpec and also to write "The RSpec Book: Behaviour Driven Development with RSpec, Cucumber, and Friends". The first story-based framework in RSpec was later replaced by Cucumber mainly developed by Aslak Hellesøy. Capybara, which is a part of the Cucumber testing framework is one such web-based test automation software.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Test-driven development is a software-development methodology which essentially states that for each unit of software, a software developer must:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: This definition is rather non-specific in that it allows tests in terms of high-level software requirements, low-level technical details or anything in between. One way of looking at BDD therefore, is that it is a continued development of TDD which makes more specific choices than TDD.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Behavior-driven development specifies that tests of any unit of software should be specified in terms of the desired behavior of the unit. Borrowing from agile software development the "desired behavior" in this case consists of the requirements set by the business — that is, the desired behavior that has business value for whatever entity commissioned the software unit under construction. Within BDD practice, this is referred to as BDD being an "outside-in" activity.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Following this fundamental choice, a second choice made by BDD relates to "how" the desired behavior should be specified. In this area BDD chooses to use a semi-formal format for behavioral specification which is borrowed from user story specifications from the field of object-oriented analysis and design. The scenario aspect of this format may be regarded as an application of Hoare logic to behavioral specification of software units using the domain-specific language of the situation.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: BDD specifies that business analysts and developers should collaborate in this area and should specify behavior in terms of user stories, which are each explicitly written down in a dedicated document. Each user story should, in some way, follow the following structure:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: BDD does not have any formal requirements for exactly how these user stories must be written down, but it does insist that each team using BDD come up with a simple, standardized format for writing down the user stories which includes the elements listed above. However, in 2007 Dan North suggested a template for a textual format which has found wide following in different BDD software tools. A very brief example of this format might look like this:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: The scenarios are ideally phrased declaratively rather than imperatively — in the business language, with no reference to elements of the UI through which the interactions take place.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: This format is referred to as the Gherkin language, which has a syntax similar to the above example. The term "Gherkin", however, is specific to the Cucumber, JBehave, Lettuce, behave and Behat software tools.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Behavior-driven development borrows the concept of the "ubiquitous language" from domain driven design. A ubiquitous language is a (semi-)formal language that is shared by all members of a software development team — both software developers and non-technical personnel. The language in question is both used and developed by all team members as a common means of discussing the domain of the software in question. In this way BDD becomes a vehicle for communication between all the different roles in a software project.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: A common risk with software development includes communication breakdowns between Developers and Business Stakeholders. BDD uses the specification of desired behavior as a ubiquitous language for the project Team members. This is the reason that BDD insists on a semi-formal language for behavioral specification: some formality is a requirement for being a ubiquitous language. In addition, having such a ubiquitous language creates a domain model of specifications, so that specifications may be reasoned about formally. This model is also the basis for the different BDD-supporting software tools that are available.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: The example given above establishes a user story for a software system under development. This user story identifies a stakeholder, a business effect and a business value. It also describes several scenarios, each with a precondition, trigger and expected outcome. Each of these parts is exactly identified by the more formal part of the language (the term Given might be considered a keyword, for example) and may therefore be processed in some way by a tool that understands the formal parts of the ubiquitous language.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Most BDD applications use text-based DSLs and specification approaches. However, graphical modeling of integration scenarios has also been applied successfully in practice, e.g., for testing purposes.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Much like test-driven design practice, behavior-driven development assumes the use of specialized support tooling in a project. BDD can be seen as a more specific version of TDD, as it requires to supply not only test code but a separate document in addition to describe the behavior in a more human-readable language. This requires a two-step process for executing the tests, reading and parsing the descriptions, and reading the test code and finding the corresponding test implementation to execute. This process makes BDD slightly more laborious to work with as a developer, but due to its human-readable nature the value of those documents extends to an even less technical audience, and can hence serve as a communication means for describing requirements ("features").


title: Behavior-driven development

text: In principle a BDD support tool is a testing framework for software, much like the tools that support TDD. However, where TDD tools tend to be quite free-format in what is allowed for specifying tests, BDD tools are linked to the definition of the ubiquitous language discussed earlier.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: As discussed, the ubiquitous language allows business analysts to write down behavioral requirements in a way that will also be understood by developers. The principle of BDD support tooling is to make these same requirements documents directly executable as a collection of tests. If this cannot be achieved because of reasons related to the technical tool that enables the execution of the specifications, then either the style of writing the behavioral requirements must be altered or the tool must be changed. The exact implementation of behavioral requirements varies per tool, but agile practice has come up with the following general process:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Dan North has developed a number of frameworks that support BDD (including JBehave and RBehave), whose operation is based on the template that he suggested for recording user stories. These tools use a textual description for use cases and several other tools (such as CBehave) have followed suit. However, this format is not required and so there are other tools that use other formats as well. For example, Fitnesse (which is built around decision tables), has also been used to roll out BDD.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: There are several different examples of BDD software tools in use in projects today, for different platforms and programming languages.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Possibly the most well-known is JBehave, which was developed by Dan North, Elizabeth Keogh and several others. The following is an example taken from that project:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Consider an implementation of the Game of Life. A domain expert (or business analyst) might want to specify what should happen when someone is setting up a starting configuration of the game grid. To do this, he might want to give an example of a number of steps taken by a person who is toggling cells. Skipping over the narrative part, he might do this by writing up the following scenario into a plain text document (which is the type of input document that JBehave reads):


title: Behavior-driven development

text: The bold print is not part of the input; it is included here to show which words are recognized as formal language. JBehave recognizes the terms "Given" (as a precondition which defines the start of a scenario), "When" (as an event trigger) and "Then" (as a postcondition which must be verified as the outcome of the action that follows the trigger). Based on this, JBehave is capable of reading the text file containing the scenario and parsing it into clauses (a set-up clause and then three event triggers with verifiable conditions). JBehave then takes these clauses and passes them on to code that is capable of setting a test, responding to the event triggers and verifying the outcome. This code must be written by the developers in the project team (in Java, because that is the platform JBehave is based on). In this case, the code might look like this:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: The code has a method for every type of clause in a scenario. JBehave will identify which method goes with which clause through the use of annotations and will call each method in order while running through the scenario. The text in each clause in the scenario is expected to match the template text given in the code for that clause (for example, a Given in a scenario is expected to be followed by a clause of the form "a X by Y game"). JBehave supports the matching of clauses to templates and has built-in support for picking terms out of the template and passing them to methods in the test code as parameters. The test code provides an implementation for each clause type in a scenario which interacts with the code that is being tested and performs a test based on the scenario. In this case:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: The primary function of this code is to be a bridge between a text file with a story and the code being tested. Note that the test code has access to the code being tested (in this case an instance of codice_4) and is very simple in nature. The test code has to be simple, otherwise a developer would end up having to write tests for his tests.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Finally, in order to run the tests, JBehave requires some plumbing code that identifies the text files which contain scenarios and which inject dependencies (like instances of codice_4) into the test code. This plumbing code is not illustrated here, since it is a technical requirement of JBehave and does not relate directly to the principle of BDD-style testing.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: A separate subcategory of behavior-driven development is formed by tools that use specifications as an input language rather than user stories. An example of this style is the RSpec tool that was also originally developed by Dan North. Specification tools don't use user stories as an input format for test scenarios but rather use functional specifications for units that are being tested. These specifications often have a more technical nature than user stories and are usually less convenient for communication with business personnel than are user stories. An example of a specification for a stack might look like this:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Such a specification may exactly specify the behavior of the component being tested, but is less meaningful to a business user. As a result, specification-based testing is seen in BDD practice as a complement to story-based testing and operates at a lower level. Specification testing is often seen as a replacement for free-format unit testing.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: Specification testing tools like RSpec and JDave are somewhat different in nature from tools like JBehave. Since they are seen as alternatives to basic unit testing tools like JUnit, these tools tend to favor forgoing the separation of story and testing code and prefer embedding the specification directly in the test code instead. For example, an RSpec test for a hashtable might look like this:


title: Behavior-driven development

text: This example shows a specification in readable language embedded in executable code. In this case a choice of the tool is to formalize the specification language into the language of the test code by adding methods named codice_6 and codice_7. Also there is the concept of a specification precondition – the codice_8 section establishes the preconditions that the specification is based on.


title: Behavior-driven development

text: The Three Amigos, also referred to as a "Specification Workshop", is a meeting where the Product Owner discusses the requirement in the form of Specification by Example with different stakeholders like the QA and development team. The key goal for this discussion is to trigger conversation and identify any missing specifications. The discussion also gives a platform for QA, development team and Product owner to converge and hear out each other's perspective to enrich the requirement and also make sure if they are building the right product.


title: Porsche SE

text: Porsche Automobil Holding SE, usually shortened to Porsche SE (), is a German multinational corporation primarily known as a holding company of Volkswagen Group with investments in the automotive industry. Porsche SE is headquartered in Zuffenhausen, a city district of Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg and is majority owned by the Austrian-German Porsche-Piëch family. The company was founded in Stuttgart as "Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche GmbH" in 1931 by Ferdinand Porsche (1875–1951) and his son-in-law Anton Piëch (1894–1952).


title: Porsche SE

text: Porsche SE was created in June 2007 by renaming the old Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, and became a holding company for the families' stake in Porsche Zwischenholding GmbH (50.1%) (which in turn held 100% of the old Porsche AG) and currently is the major shareholder in Volkswagen AG (31.3%) and holds the majority voting rights (53.1%). At the same time, the new Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG (Porsche AG) was created for the car manufacturing business.


title: Porsche SE

text: In August 2009, Porsche SE and Volkswagen AG reached an agreement that the car manufacturing operations of the two companies would merge in 2011, to form an "Integrated Automotive Group". The management of Volkswagen AG agreed to 50.7% of Volkswagen AG being controlled by Porsche SE in return for Volkswagen AG management taking Porsche SE management positions (in order for Volkswagen management to remain in control), and for Volkswagen AG acquiring ownership of Porsche AG.


title: Porsche SE

text: As of 2019, the 31.3% stake in Volkswagen AG is the predominant investment by Porsche SE, and Volkswagen AG in turn controls brands and companies such as Volkswagen, Audi, SEAT, Škoda, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, Porsche AG, Ducati, VW Commercial Vehicles, Scania, MAN, as well as Volkswagen Financial Services.


title: Porsche SE

text: Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG (which stands for "Doktor Ingenieur honoris causa Ferdinand Porsche Aktiengesellschaft"), as a 100% subsidiary of Volkswagen AG, is responsible for the actual production and manufacture of the Porsche automobile line.


title: Porsche SE

text: Josef Michael Ahorner, Stefan Piëch and Peter Daniell Porsche, are members of board of directors of Porsche Automobil Holding along with Wolfgang Porsche, Hans Michel Piech, Ferdinand Oliver Porsche and Hans-Peter Porsche.


title: Porsche SE

text: In addition to Volkswagen AG, other subsidiaries of Porsche SE include Porsche Engineering and Porsche Design Group.


title: Porsche SE

text: Volkswagen and its principal factory (with the newly built town that hosted it, called Wolfsburg today) were designed by Ferdinand Porsche and his design office, and the factory with supporting town facilities were established by the German government then led by the National Socialist (Nazi) Party in 1937–1938. When the government-owned Volkswagenwerk GmbH was privatized in 1960 into Volkswagen AG (VW AG), the German parliament enacted the law known as Volkswagen Law to govern the privatization process. In order to maintain government control in the privately owned company, the law stipulated that the votes on major shareholder meeting resolutions would require 4/5th (80%) agreement. This effectively gave any shareholder with more than 20% ownership (the government of Lower Saxony held 20.1%) a veto of any resolution that is proposed. This not only secured government control, but also prevented the possibility of a hostile takeover in the future.


title: Porsche SE

text: When the European Union was founded in 1993, a European Union law was signed with the principle of promoting free movement of goods, people and capital within the Union. It became somewhat clear that the anti-takeover measure (the 80% agreement requirement) in Volkswagen Law would violate the European company law (as a part of the EU law), and it was feared that suitors would eventually be able to take over Volkswagen AG, as amendments to the German law and the bylaws of VW AG were seen to be likely.


title: Porsche SE

text: In late 2005, Porsche took an 18.65% stake in the Volkswagen Group, further cementing their relationship, and preventing a takeover of Volkswagen Group, which was rumoured at the time. Hypothetical suitors included DaimlerChrysler AG, BMW, and Renault. As of June 2006, the Porsche AG stake in VW AG had risen to 25.1%, giving Porsche the veto rights along with the government.


title: Porsche SE

text: On 26 March 2007, amidst the rumours that hedge funds were trying to takeover VW AG with the intent to dismantle and dispense the components of Volkswagen Group, Porsche took its holding of Volkswagen AG shares to 30.9%, triggering a takeover bid under German law which required other shareholders to be given the opportunity to sell the shares at least at the price paid by the new major shareholder. Porsche then formally announced in a press statement that it did not intend to take over Volkswagen Group (it would set its bid price at the lowest possible legal value) but intended to move to avoid a competitor taking a large stake. Porsche's move came after the European Union announced that it intends to take steps against the Volkswagen Law.


title: Porsche SE

text: In October 2007, the European Court of Justice ruled against the law, potentially paving the way for a takeover.


title: Porsche SE

text: On 16 September 2008, Porsche increased its holdings to 35.14%, in effect almost taking control of the company, with more than 35% of the voting rights. It again triggered a takeover bid, but this time over Audi AG. Porsche dismissed the bid as a mere formality, since it was Porsche's intention to keep the corporate structure of the Volkswagen Group.


title: Porsche SE

text: In October 2008, Porsche SE announced its intent to raise its stake in Volkswagen AG to 75% during 2009, and on 7 January 2009, Porsche SE's holding in VW AG was raised to 50.76%. At 75% ownership level, Porsche SE would have been able to bring VW AG's cash position onto Porsche SE books. Porsche's move automatically triggered a bid for Scania AB, because VW AG already had a controlling position in the Swedish truck-maker. As Porsche had no strategic interest in Scania, they offered the minimum price in that mandatory takeover bid on 19 January 2009. There has been some tension and anxiety among the VW AG management and the workers, who feared that Porsche might replace the management after the takeover, and it may signify a hardened production efficiency control, rejection of demands for pay rises or even personnel cuts. Ferdinand Piëch (Chairman of VW AG) and his cousin, Wolfgang Porsche (Chairman of Porsche SE), also seemed to be on a collision course.


title: Porsche SE

text: However, on 13 August 2009, Scania was bought in totality by a Chinese investment firm, Volkswagen AG's supervisory board signed the agreement to create an "integrated automotive group" with Porsche AG, led by Volkswagen AG. Volkswagen would initially take a 49.9 percent stake in Porsche AG by the end of 2009, and it would also see the Porsche-Piëch family shareholders selling the VW distributor ownership of Porsche Holding Salzburg to Volkswagen AG, which is the largest car distributor in Europe.


title: Porsche SE

text: On 5 July 2012, Volkswagen AG announced a deal with Porsche SE, resulting in VW's full ownership of Porsche AG on 1 August 2012. The deal was classified as a restructuring rather than a takeover due to the transfer of a single share as part of the deal. Volkswagen AG paid Porsche AG shareholders $5.61 billion for the remaining 50.1% it did not own. The families later used the amounts they received for Porsche AG and the dealership shares to buy back the Porsche SE shares from Qatar Investment Authority as described in the following section.


title: Porsche SE

text: In October 2013, the EU Court of Justice ruled that a redraft of the Volkswagen law "complied in full" with EU rules, bringing "the matter to a close," as the 80% agreement requirement was taken off. This officially made Porsche SE the controlling owner of Volkswagen AG.


title: Porsche SE

text: Porsche reformed the company's structure, with Dr Ing. h. c. F. Porsche AG becoming a holding company, renamed "Porsche Automobil Holding SE", and a new Dr Ing. h. c. F. Porsche AG operating company being formed in 2007. Thus the operating activities are separated from holding activities of the company. There was an Extraordinary General Meeting for Porsche AG shareholders which took place on 26 June 2007, at the Porsche Arena in Stuttgart, Germany to discuss the change to the company structure.


title: Porsche SE

text: By March 2009, Porsche SE was aiming for its first ever credit ratings from U.S. rating agencies Standard & Poor's and Moody's.


title: Porsche SE

text: In its process to acquire a majority holding in Volkswagen AG, Porsche SE built up a large debt burden, aggravated by taxes due on very large paper profits on Volkswagen AG options. By July 2009, Porsche SE was faced with debts exceeding 10 billion euros. The supervisory board of Porsche SE finally agreed to a number of arrangements whereby the Qatar Investment Authority would inject a large amount of capital into Porsche SE, and Porsche automobile manufacturing business would be merged with Volkswagen Group. On 23 July 2009, Michael Macht was appointed CEO of Porsche AG, to replace Wendelin Wiedeking, who was expected to receive a compensation package of 50 million euros.


title: Porsche SE

text: In July 2010, Porsche AG appointed Volkswagen executive Matthias Müller to its new CEO position, moving Michael Macht to another executive position within Volkswagen AG.


title: Porsche SE

text: In July 2012, it was announced that Volkswagen AG was taking over the Porsche AG automotive company completely, which bears the same name, but is only a subsidiary of Porsche SE. In June 2013, Qatar Holdings, through the Qatar Investment Authority, sold its 10% holding in Porsche SE back to the founding Porsche-Piëch family, giving them 100% voting rights in the holding company. Porsche SE currently owns 50.73% of the voting rights in Volkswagen AG as the largest (controlling) shareholder.


title: 2nd millennium

text: The second millennium of the "Anno Domini" or Common Era was a millennium spanning the years 1001 to 2000 (11th to 20th centuries; in astronomy: JD – ).


title: 2nd millennium

text: It encompassed the High and Late Middle Ages of the Old World, the Islamic Golden Age and the period of Renaissance, followed by the Early Modern period, characterized by the Wars of Religion in Europe, the Age of Enlightenment, the Age of Discovery and the colonial period. Its final two centuries coincide with Modern history, characterized by industrialization, the rise of nation states, the rapid development of science, widespread education, and universal health care and vaccinations in the Western world. The 20th century saw increasing globalization, most notably the two World Wars and the subsequent formation of the United Nations. 20th-century technology includes powered flight, television and semiconductor technology, including integrated circuits. The term "Great Divergence" was coined to refer the unprecedented cultural and political ascent of the Western world in the second half of the millennium, emerging by the 18th century as the most powerful and wealthy world civilization, having eclipsed Qing China and the Islamic world. This allowed the colonization by European countries of much of the world during this millennium, including the Americas, Africa, Oceania, and South and Southeast Asia.


title: 2nd millennium

text: World population grew without precedent over the millennium, from about 310 million in 1000 to about 6 billion in 2000. The population growth rate increased dramatically during this time; world population approximately doubled to 600 million by 1700, and doubled more than three more times by 2000, ultimately reaching about 1.8% per year in the second half of the 20th century.


title: 2nd millennium

text: The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, and all countries that once used the Julian calendar had adopted the Gregorian calendar by the end of it. For this reason, the end date of the 2nd millennium is usually calculated based on the Gregorian calendar, while the beginning date is based on the Julian calendar (or occasionally the proleptic Gregorian calendar).


title: 2nd millennium

text: In the late 1990s, there was a dispute as to whether the millennium should be taken to end on December 31, 1999, or December 31, 2000.


title: 2nd millennium

text: Associated Press reported that the third millennium began on 1 January 2001, but also reported that celebrations in the US were generally more subdued at the beginning of 2001, compared to the beginning of 2000.


title: 2nd millennium

text: Many public celebrations for the end of the second millennium were held on December 31, 1999 – January 1, 2000—with a few people marking the end of the millennium a year later.


title: Chinatown

text: A Chinatown () is an ethnic enclave of Chinese people located outside mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau or Taiwan, most often in an urban setting. Areas known as "Chinatown" exist throughout the world, including Europe, North America, South America, Asia, Africa and Australasia.


title: Chinatown

text: The development of most Chinatowns typically resulted from mass migration to an area without any or with very few Chinese residents. Binondo in Manila, established in 1594, is recognized as the world's oldest Chinatown. Notable early examples outside Asia include San Francisco's Chinatown in the United States and Melbourne's Chinatown in Australia, which were founded in the mid-19th century during the California and Victoria gold rushes, respectively. A more modern example, in Montville, Connecticut, was caused by the displacement of Chinese workers in the Manhattan Chinatown following the September 11th attacks in 2001.


title: Chinatown

text: Oxford Dictionaries defines "Chinatown" as "...a district of any non-Asian town, especially a city or seaport, in which the population is predominantly of Chinese origin". However, some Chinatowns may have little to do with China. Some "Vietnamese" enclaves are in fact a city's "second Chinatown", and some Chinatowns are in fact pan-Asian, meaning they could also be counted as a Koreatown or Little India. One example includes Asiatown in Cleveland, Ohio. It was initially referred to as a Chinatown but was subsequently renamed due to the influx of non-Chinese Asian Americans who opened businesses there. Today the district acts as a unifying factor for the Chinese, Taiwanese, Korean, Japanese, Filipino, Indian, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Laotian, Nepalese and Thai communities of Cleveland.


title: Chinatown

text: Further ambiguities with the term can include Chinese ethnoburbs which by definition are "...suburban ethnic clusters of residential areas and business districts in large metropolitan areas where the intended purpose is to be "...as isolated from the white population as Hispanics". An article in "The New York Times" blurs the line further by categorizing very different Chinatowns such as Chinatown, Manhattan, which exists in an urban setting as "traditional"; Monterey Park's Chinatown, which exists in a "suburban" setting (and labeled as such); and Austin, Texas's Chinatown, which is in essence a "fabricated" Chinese-themed mall. This contrasts with narrower definitions, where the term only described Chinatown in a city setting.


title: Chinatown

text: In some cities in Spain, the term "barrio chino" ('Chinese quarter') denotes an area, neighborhood or district where prostitution or other businesses are concentrated; i.e. a red-light district. Some examples of this are the Chinatown of Salamanca and Barri Xinès, the Chinatown of Barcelona a part of El Raval, although in Barcelona there was a small Chinese community in the 1930s.


title: Chinatown

text: Trading centers populated predominantly by Chinese men and their native spouses have long existed throughout Southeast Asia. Emigration to other parts of the world from China accelerated in the 1860s with the signing of the Treaty of Peking (1860), which opened China's borders to free movement. Early emigrants came primarily from the coastal provinces of Guangdong (Canton, Kwangtung) and Fujian (Fukien, Hokkien) in southeastern China – where the people generally speak Toishanese, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew (Chiuchow) and Hokkien. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, a significant amount of Chinese emigration to North America originated from four counties called Sze Yup, located west of the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong province, making Toishanese a dominant variety of the Chinese language spoken in Chinatowns in Canada and the United States.


title: Chinatown

text: As conditions in China have improved in recent decades, many Chinatowns have lost their initial mission, which was to provide a transitional place into a new culture. As net migration has slowed into them, the smaller Chinatowns have slowly decayed, often to the point of becoming purely historical and no longer serving as ethnic enclaves.


title: Chinatown

text: Along the coastal areas of Southeast Asia, several Chinese settlements existed as early as the 16th century according to Zheng He and Tomé Pires' travel accounts. Melaka during the Portuguese colonial period, for instance, had a large Chinese population in Campo China. They settled down at port towns under the authority's approval for trading. After the European colonial powers seized and ruled the port towns in the 16th century, Chinese supported European traders and colonists, and created autonomous settlements.


title: Chinatown

text: Several Asian Chinatowns, although not yet called by that name, have a long history. Those in Nagasaki, Kobe, and Yokohama, Japan, Binondo in Manila, Hoi An and Bao Vinh in central Vietnam all existed in 1600. Glodok, the Chinese quarter of Jakarta, Indonesia, dates to 1740.


title: Chinatown

text: Chinese presence in India dates back to the 5th century CE, with the first recorded Chinese settler in Calcutta named Young Atchew around 1780. Chinatowns first appeared in the Indian cities of Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai. There is also a huge presence of Chinese in Pakistan numbering around 60,000 but they are mostly recent immigrated workers, Architects and professionals who came to Pakistan after China Pakistan Economic Corridor was launched. Large investments in Pakistan by the Chinese government have led to a mass immigration of Chinese citizens to Pakistan because of shortage of a skilled workers. But there is also a large number of Chinese who came to Pakistan in 1949 due to fears of Communist persecution. They are mostly situated in Karachi and represent the oldest Chinese in Pakistan after independence.


title: Chinatown

text: The Chinatown centered on Yaowarat Road in Bangkok, Thailand, was founded at the same time as the city itself, in 1782.


title: Chinatown

text: Many Chinese immigrants arrived in Liverpool in the late 1850s in the employ of the Blue Funnel Shipping Line, a cargo transport company established by Alfred Holt. The commercial shipping line created strong trade links between the cities of Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Liverpool, mainly in the importation of silk, cotton, and tea. They settled near the docks, but the area was heavily bombed during World War II, with the Chinese community moving a few blocks to the current Liverpool Chinatown on Nelson Street.


title: Chinatown

text: The Chinatown in San Francisco is one of the largest in North America and the oldest north of Mexico. It served as a port of entry for early Chinese immigrants from the 1850s to the 1900s. The area was the one geographical region deeded by the city government and private property owners which allowed Chinese persons to inherit and inhabit dwellings within the city. Many Chinese found jobs working for large companies seeking a source of labor, most famously as part of the Central Pacific on the Transcontinental Railroad. Since it started in Omaha, that city had a notable Chinatown for almost a century. Other cities in North America where Chinatowns were founded in the mid-nineteenth century include almost every major settlement along the West Coast from San Diego to Victoria. Other early immigrants worked as mine workers or independent prospectors hoping to strike it rich during the 1849 Gold Rush.


title: Chinatown

text: Economic opportunity drove the building of further Chinatowns in the United States. The initial Chinatowns were built in the Western United States in states such as California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, Colorado and Arizona. As the transcontinental railroad was built, more Chinatowns started to appear in railroad towns such as St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh and Butte, Montana. Chinatowns then subsequently emerged in many East Coast cities, including New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, Providence and Baltimore. With the passage of the Emancipation Proclamation, many southern states such as Arkansas, Louisiana and Georgia began to hire Chinese for work in place of slave labor.


title: Chinatown

text: The history of Chinatowns was not always peaceful, especially when labor disputes arose. Racial tensions flared when lower-paid Chinese workers replaced white miners in many mountain-area Chinatowns, such as in Wyoming with the Rock Springs Massacre. Many of these frontier Chinatowns became extinct as American racism surged and the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed.


title: Chinatown

text: In Australia, the Victorian gold rush, which began in 1851, attracted Chinese prospectors from the Guangdong area. A community began to form in the eastern end of Little Bourke Street, Melbourne by the mid-1850s; the area is still the center of the Melbourne Chinatown, making it the oldest continuously occupied Chinatown in a western city (since the San Francisco one was destroyed and rebuilt). Gradually expanding, it reached a peak in the early 20th century, with Chinese business, mainly furniture workshops, occupying a block wide swath of the city, overlapping into the adjacent 'Little Lon' red light district. With restricted immigration it shrunk again, becoming a strip of Chinese restaurants by the late 1970s, when it was celebrated with decorative arches. However, with a recent huge influx of students from mainland China, it is now the center of a much larger area of noodle shops, travel agents, restaurants, and groceries. The Australian gold rushes also saw the development of a Chinatown in Sydney, at first around The Rocks, near the docks, but it has moved twice, first in the 1890s to the east side of the Haymarket area, near the new markets, then in the 1920s concentrating on the west side. Nowadays, Sydney's Chinatown is centered on Dixon Street.


title: Chinatown

text: Other Chinatowns in European capitals, including Paris and London, were established at the turn of the 20th century. The first Chinatown in London was located in the Limehouse area of the East End of London at the start of the 20th century. The Chinese population engaged in business which catered to the Chinese sailors who frequented the Docklands. The area acquired a bad reputation from exaggerated reports of opium dens and slum housing.


title: Chinatown

text: France received a large settlement of Chinese immigrant laborers, mostly from the city of Wenzhou, in the Zhejiang province of China. Significant Chinatowns sprung up in Belleville and the 13th arrondissement of Paris.


title: Chinatown

text: By the late 1970s, refugees and exiles from the Vietnam War played a significant part in the redevelopment of Chinatowns in developed Western countries. As a result, many existing Chinatowns have become pan-Asian business districts and residential neighborhoods. By contrast, most Chinatowns in the past had been largely inhabited by Chinese from southeastern China.


title: Chinatown

text: In 2001, the events of September 11 resulted in a mass migration of about 14,000 Chinese workers from Manhattan's Chinatown to Montville, Connecticut, due to the fall of the garment industry. Chinese workers transitioned to casino jobs fueled by the development of the Mohegan Sun casino.


title: Chinatown

text: In 2012, Tijuana's Chinatown formed as a result of availability of direct flights to China. The La Mesa District of Tijuana was formerly a small enclave, but has tripled in size as a result of direct flights to Shanghai. It has an ethnic Chinese population rise from 5,000 in 2009 to roughly 15,000 in 2012, overtaking Mexicali's Chinatown as the largest Chinese enclave in Mexico.


title: Chinatown

text: The New York metropolitan area, consisting of New York City, Long Island, and nearby areas within the states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, is home to the largest Chinese-American population of any metropolitan area within the United States and the largest Chinese population outside of China, enumerating an estimated 893,697 in 2017, and including at least 12 Chinatowns, including nine in New York City proper alone. Steady immigration from Mainland China, both legal and illegal, has fueled Chinese-American population growth in the New York metropolitan area. New York's status as an alpha global city, its extensive mass transit system, and the New York metropolitan area's enormous economic marketplace are among the many reasons it remains a major international immigration hub. The Manhattan Chinatown contains the largest concentration of ethnic Chinese in the Western hemisphere, and the Flushing Chinatown in Queens has become the world's largest Chinatown, though it has also emerged as the epicenter of organized prostitution in the United States.


title: Chinatown

text: The COVID-19 pandemic has adversely affected tourism and business in Chinatown, San Francisco and Chinatown, Chicago, Illinois as well as others worldwide.


title: Chinatown

text: The early Chinatowns such as those in San Francisco and Los Angeles in the United States were naturally destinations for people of Chinese descent as migration were the result of opportunities such as the California Gold Rush and the Transcontinental Railroad drawing the population in, creating natural Chinese enclaves that were almost always 100% exclusively Han Chinese, which included both people born in China and in the enclave, in this case American-born Chinese. In some free countries such as the United States and Canada, housing laws that prevent discrimination also allows neighborhoods that may have been characterized as "All Chinese" to also allow non-Chinese to reside in these communities. For example, the Chinatown in Philadelphia has a sizeable non-Chinese population residing within the community. A recent study also suggests that the demographic change is also driven by gentrification of what were previously Chinatown neighborhoods. The influx of luxury housing is speeding up the gentrification of such neighborhoods. The trend for emergence of these types of natural enclaves is on the decline (with the exceptions being the continued growth and emergence of newer Chinatowns in Queens and Brooklyn in New York City), only to be replaced by newer "Disneyland-like" attractions, such as a new Chinatown that will be built in the Catskills region of New York. This includes the endangerment of existing historical Chinatowns that will eventually stop serving the needs of Chinese immigrants. Newer developments like those in Norwich, Connecticut, and the San Gabriel Valley, which are not necessarily considered "Chinatowns" in the sense that they do not necessarily contain the Chinese architectures or Chinese language signs as signatures of an officially sanctioned area that was designated either in law or signage stating so, differentiate areas that are called "Chinatowns" versus locations that have "significant" populations of people of Chinese descent. For example, San Jose, California in the United States has 63,434 people (2010 U.S. Census) of Chinese descent, and yet "does not have a Chinatown". Some "official" Chinatowns have Chinese populations much lower than that.


title: Chinatown

text: Many tourist-destination metropolitan Chinatowns can be distinguished by large red arch entrance structures known in Mandarin Chinese as "Paifang" (sometimes accompanied by imperial guardian lion statues on either side of the structure, to greet visitors). Other Chinese architectural styles such as the Chinese Garden of Friendship in Sydney Chinatown and the Chinese stone lions at the gate to the Victoria, British Columbia Chinatown are present in some Chinatowns. Mahale Chiniha, the Chinatown in Iran, contains many buildings that were constructed in the Chinese architectural style.


title: Chinatown

text: Paifangs usually have special inscriptions in Chinese. Historically, these gateways were donated to a particular city as a gift from the Republic of China and People's Republic of China, or local governments (such as Chinatown, San Francisco) and business organizations. The long-neglected Chinatown in Havana, Cuba, received materials for its paifang from the People's Republic of China as part of the Chinatown's gradual renaissance. Construction of these red arches is often financed by local financial contributions from the Chinatown community. Some of these structures span an entire intersection, and some are smaller in height and width. Some paifang can be made of wood, masonry or steel and may incorporate an elaborate or simple design.


title: Chinatown

text: A major component of many Chinatowns is the family benevolent association, which provides some degree of aid to immigrants. These associations generally provide social support, religious services, death benefits (members' names in Chinese are generally enshrined on tablets and posted on walls), meals, and recreational activities for ethnic Chinese, especially for older Chinese migrants. Membership in these associations can be based on members sharing a common Chinese surname or belonging to a common clan, spoken Chinese dialect, specific village, region or country of origin, and so on. Many have their own facilities.


title: Chinatown

text: Some examples include San Francisco's prominent Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (中華總會館 "Zhōnghuá Zǒng Huìguǎn"), aka Chinese Six Companies and Los Angeles' Southern California Teochew Association. The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association is among the largest umbrella groups of benevolent associations in the North America, which branches in several Chinatowns. Politically, the CCBA has traditionally been aligned with the Kuomintang and the Republic of China.


title: Chinatown

text: The London Chinatown Chinese Association is active in Chinatown, London. Chinatown, Paris has an institution in the "Association des Résidents en France d'origine indochinoise" and it servicing overseas Chinese immigrants in Paris who were born in the former French Indochina.


title: Chinatown

text: Traditionally, Chinatown-based associations have also been aligned with ethnic Chinese business interests, such as restaurant, grocery, and laundry (antiquated) associations in Chinatowns in North America. In Chicago's Chinatown, the On Leong Merchants Association was active.


title: Chinatown

text: Although the term "Chinatown" was first used in Asia, it is not derived from a Chinese language. Its earliest appearance seems to have been in connection with the Chinese quarter of Singapore, which by 1844 was already being called "China Town" or "Chinatown" by the British colonial government. This may have been a word-for-word translation into English of the Malay name for that quarter, which in those days was probably "Kampong China" or possibly "Kota China" or "Kampong Tionghua/Chunghwa/Zhonghua".


title: Chinatown

text: The first appearance of a Chinatown outside Singapore may have been in 1852, in a book by the Rev. Hatfield, who applied the term to the Chinese part of the main settlement on the remote South Atlantic island of St. Helena. The island was a regular way-station on the voyage to Europe and North America from Indian Ocean ports, including Singapore.


title: Chinatown

text: One of the earliest American usages dates to 1855, when San Francisco newspaper "The Daily Alta California" described a "pitched battle on the streets of [SF's] Chinatown". Other "Alta" articles from the late 1850s make it clear that areas called "Chinatown" existed at that time in several other California cities, including Oroville and San Andres. By 1869, "Chinatown had acquired its full modern meaning all over the U.S. and Canada. For instance, an Ohio newspaper wrote: "From San Diego to Sitka..., every town and hamlet has its 'Chinatown'."


title: Chinatown

text: In British publications before the 1890s, "Chinatown" appeared mainly in connection with California. At first, Australian and New Zealand journalists also regarded Chinatowns as Californian phenomena. However, they began using the term to denote local Chinese communities as early as 1861 in Australia and 1873 in New Zealand. In most other countries, the custom of calling local Chinese communities "Chinatowns" is not older than the twentieth century.


title: Chinatown

text: Several alternate English names for Chinatown include China Town (generally used in British and Australian English), The Chinese District, Chinese Quarter and China Alley (an antiquated term used primarily in several rural towns in the western United States for a Chinese community; some of these are now historical sites). In the case of Lillooet, British Columbia, Canada, China Alley was a parallel commercial street adjacent to the town's Main Street, enjoying a view over the river valley adjacent and also over the main residential part of Chinatown, which was largely of adobe construction. All traces of Chinatown and China Alley there have disappeared, despite a once large and prosperous community.


title: Chinatown

text: In Chinese, Chinatown is usually called , in Cantonese "Tong jan gai", in Mandarin "Tángrénjiē", in Hakka "Tong ngin gai", and in Toisan "Hong ngin gai", literally meaning "Tang people's street(s)". The Tang Dynasty was a zenith of the Chinese civilization, after which some Chinese call themselves. Some Chinatowns are indeed just one single street, such as the relatively short Fisgard Street in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.


title: Chinatown

text: A more modern Chinese name is (Cantonese: Waa Fau, Mandarin: Huábù) meaning "Chinese City", used in the semi-official Chinese translations of some cities' documents and signs. "Bù", pronounced sometimes in Mandarin as "fù", usually means "seaport"; but in this sense, it means "city" or "town". "Tong jan fau" ( "Tang people's town") is also used in Cantonese nowadays. The literal word-for-word translation of "Chinatown"—"Zhōngguó Chéng" () is also used, but more frequently by visiting Chinese nationals rather than immigrants of Chinese descent who live in various Chinatowns.


title: Chinatown

text: Chinatowns in Southeast Asia have unique Chinese names used by the local Chinese, as there are large populations of people who are Overseas Chinese, living within the various major cities of Southeast Asia. As the population of Overseas Chinese, is widely dispersed in various enclaves, across each major Southeast Asian city, specific Chinese names are used instead.


title: Chinatown

text: For example, in Singapore, where 2.8 million ethnic Chinese constitute a majority 74% of the resident population, the Chinese name for Chinatown is "Niúchēshǔi" (, Hokkien POJ: "Gû-chia-chúi"), which literally means "ox-cart water" from the Malay 'Kreta Ayer' in reference to the water carts that used to ply the area. The Chinatown in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, (where 2 million ethnic Chinese comprise 30% of the population of Greater Kuala Lumpur) while officially known as Petaling Street (Malay: "Jalan Petaling"), is referred to by Malaysian Chinese by its Cantonese name "ci cong gaai" (, pinyin: "Cíchǎng Jiē"), literally "tapioca factory street", after a tapioca starch factory that once stood in the area. In Manila, Philippines, the area is called Mínlúnluò Qū , literally meaning the "Mín and Luò Rivers confluence district" but is actually a transliteration of the local term "Binondo" and an allusion to its proximity to the Pasig River.


title: Chinatown

text: In Francophone regions (such as France and Quebec), Chinatown is often referred to as le quartier chinois ("the Chinese Quarter"; plural: "les quartiers chinois"). The most prominent Francophone Chinatowns are located in Paris and Montreal.


title: Chinatown

text: The Spanish-language term is usually barrio chino ("Chinese neighborhood"; plural: "barrios chinos"), used in Spain and Latin America. (However, "barrio chino" or its Catalan cognate "barri xinès" do not always refer to a Chinese neighborhood: these are also common terms for a disreputable district with drugs and prostitution, and often no connection to the Chinese.).


title: Chinatown

text: The Vietnamese term for Chinatown is "Khu người Hoa" (Chinese district) or "phố Tàu" (Chinese street). Vietnamese language is prevalent in Chinatowns of Paris, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, Toronto, and Montreal as ethnic Chinese from Vietnam have set up shop in them.


title: Chinatown

text: In Japanese, the term "chūkagai" (中華街, literally "Chinese Street") is the translation used for Yokohama and Nagasaki Chinatown.


title: Chinatown

text: In Indonesia, chinatown is known as Pecinan, a shortened term of "pe-cina-an", means everything related to the Chinese people. Most of these pecinans usually located in Java.


title: Chinatown

text: There are three noteworthy Chinatowns in Africa located in the coastal African nations of Madagascar, Mauritius and South Africa. South Africa has the largest Chinatown and the largest Chinese population of any African country and remains a popular destination for Chinese immigrants coming to Africa. Derrick Avenue in Cyrildene, Johannesburg, hosts South Africa's largest Chinatown.


title: Chinatown

text: In the Americas, which includes North America, Central America and South America, Chinatowns have been around since the 1800s. The most prominent ones exist in the United States and Canada in New York, Boston, San Francisco, Toronto and Vancouver. The New York City metropolitan area is home to the largest ethnic Chinese population outside of Asia, comprising an estimated 893,697 uniracial individuals as of 2017, including at least 12 Chinatowns – six (or nine, including the emerging Chinatowns in Corona and Whitestone, Queens, and East Harlem, Manhattan) in New York City proper, and one each in Nassau County, Long Island; Edison, New Jersey; and Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey, not to mention fledgling ethnic Chinese enclaves emerging throughout the New York City metropolitan area. San Francisco, a Pacific port city, has the oldest and longest continuous running Chinatown in the Western Hemisphere. In Canada, Vancouver's Chinatown is the country's largest.


title: Chinatown

text: The oldest Chinatown in the Americas is in Mexico City and dates back to at least the early 17th century. Since the 1970s, new arrivals have typically hailed from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Latin American Chinatowns may include the descendants of original migrants – often of mixed Chinese and Latin parentage – and more recent immigrants from East Asia. Most Asian Latin Americans are of Cantonese and Hakka origin. Estimates widely vary on the number of Chinese descendants in Latin America. Notable Chinatowns also exist in Chinatown, Lima, Peru.


title: Chinatown

text: Chinatowns in Asia are widespread with a large concentration of overseas Chinese in East Asia and Southeast Asia and ethnic Chinese whose ancestors came from southern China – particularly the provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, and Hainan – and settled in countries such as Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam centuries ago—starting as early as the Tang Dynasty, but mostly notably in the 17th through the 19th centuries (during the reign of the Qing Dynasty), and well into the 20th century. Today the Chinese diaspora in Asia is largely concentrated in Southeast Asia however the legacy of the once widespread overseas Chinese communities in Asia is evident in the many Chinatowns that are found across East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.


title: Chinatown

text: The Chinatown of Melbourne lies within the Melbourne central business district and centers on the eastern end of Little Bourke Street. It extends between the corners of Swanston and Exhibition Streets. Melbourne's Chinatown originated during the Victorian gold rush in 1851, and is notable as the oldest Chinatown in Australia. It has also been claimed to be the longest continuously running Chinese community outside of Asia, but only because the 1906 San Francisco earthquake all but destroyed the Chinatown in San Francisco in California.


title: Chinatown

text: Sydney's main Chinatown centers on Sussex Street in the Sydney downtown. It stretches from Central Station in the east to Darling Harbour in the west, and is Australia's largest Chinatown.


title: Chinatown

text: The Chinatown of Adelaide was originally built in the 1960s and was renovated in the 1980s. It is located near Adelaide Central Market and the Adelaide Central bus station.


title: Chinatown

text: Chinatown Gold Coast is a precinct in the Central Business District of Southport, Queensland, that runs through Davenport Street and Young Street. The precinct extends between Nerang Street in the north and Garden Street/Scarborough Street east-west. Redevelopment of the precinct was established in 2013 and completed in 2015 in time for Chinese New Year celebrations.


title: Chinatown

text: Several urban Chinatowns exist in major European capital cities. There is Chinatown, London, England as well as major Chinatowns in Birmingham, Liverpool, Newcastle, and Manchester. Berlin, Germany has one established Chinatown in the area around Kantstrasse of Charlottenburg in the West. Antwerp, Belgium has also seen an upstart Chinese community, that has been recognized by the local authorities since 2011. The city council of Cardiff has plans to recognize the Chinese Diaspora in the city.


title: Chinatown

text: The Chinatown in Paris, located in the 13th arrondissement, is the largest in Europe, where many Vietnamese – specifically ethnic Chinese refugees from Vietnam – have settled and in Belleville in the northeast of Paris as well as in Lyon. In Italy, there is a Chinatown in Milan between Via Luigi Canonica and Via Paolo Sarpi and others in Rome and Prato. In the Netherlands, Chinatowns exist in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and the Hague.


title: Chinatown

text: In the United Kingdom, several exist in Birmingham, Liverpool, London, Manchester and Newcastle Upon Tyne. The Chinatown in Liverpool is the oldest Chinese community in Europe. The Chinatown in London was established in the Limehouse district in the late 19th century. The Chinatown in Manchester is located in central Manchester.


title: Chinatown

text: Chinatowns have been portrayed in various films including "The Joy Luck Club", "Big Trouble in Little China", "Year of the Dragon", "Flower Drum Song", "The Lady from Shanghai" and "Chinatown". Within the context of the last film "Chinatown" is used primarily as an extended metaphor for any situation in which an outside entity seeks to intervene without having the local knowledge required to understand the consequences of that intervention. The neighborhood or district is often associated with being outside the normal rule of law or isolated from the social norms of the larger society.


title: Chinatown

text: Chinatowns have also been mentioned in the song "Kung Fu Fighting" by Carl Douglas whose song lyrics says "...There was funky China men from funky Chinatown..."


title: Chinatown

text: The martial arts actor Bruce Lee is well known as a person who was born in the Chinatown of San Francisco. Other notable Chinese Americans such as politician Gary Locke and NBA player Jeremy Lin grew up in suburbs with lesser connections to traditional Chinatowns. Neighborhood activists and politicians have increased in prominence in some cities, and some are starting to attract support from non-Chinese voters.


title: IIT Madras

text: Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IIT Madras) is a public technical university located in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. As one of the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), it is recognized as an Institute of National Importance and has been consistently rated as one of India's most prestigious universities. Founded in 1959 with technical and financial assistance from the former government of West Germany, it was the third IIT established by the Government of India. IIT Madras is ranked the top engineering institute in India by the Ministry of Education's National Institutional Ranking Framework since its inception in 2016.


title: IIT Madras

text: IIT Madras is a residential institute that occupies a campus that was formerly part of the adjoining Guindy National Park. The institute has nearly 600 faculty, 10,000 students and 1,250 administrative and supporting staff. Growing ever since it obtained its charter from the Indian Parliament in 1961, much of the campus is a protected forest, carved out of the Guindy National Park, home to large numbers of chital (spotted deer), black buck, bonnet macaque, and other rare wildlife. A natural lake, deepened in 1988 and 2003, drains most of its rainwater.


title: IIT Madras

text: In 1956, the West German Government offered technical assistance for establishing an institute of higher education in engineering in India. The first Indo-German agreement was signed in Bonn, West Germany in 1959 for the establishment of the Indian Institute of Technology at Madras. IIT Madras was started with technical, academic and financial assistance from the Government of West Germany and was at the time the largest international educational project sponsored by the West German government. The Government of the Federal Republic of Germany has agreed to provide the following assistance in the establishment of a higher technological institute at Madras:


title: IIT Madras

text: This has led to several collaborative research efforts with universities and institutions in Germany over the years. Although official support from the German government has ended, several research efforts involving the DAAD programme and Humboldt Fellowships still exist.


title: IIT Madras

text: The Higher Technological Institute at Madras known as the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras has started functioning The first batch of 120 students was admitted in July 1959 to the first year of the Engineering Course. The institute was inaugurated in 1959, by the then Union Minister for Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs. The first batch had an overall strength of 120 students from across India. In 1961, the IITs were declared to be Institutes of National Importance. The first convocation ceremony was held on 11 July 1964, with Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, then the President of India, delivering the convocation address and awarding the degrees to the inaugural batch of students. The institute got its first women students in the BTech batch of 1966. IIT Madras celebrated its Golden Jubilee in 2009, and its Diamond Jubilee in 2019.


title: IIT Madras

text: The main entrance of IIT Madras is on Sardar Patel Road, flanked by the residential districts of Adyar and Velachery. The campus is close to the Raj Bhavan, the official seat of the Governor of Tamil Nadu. Other entrances are located in Velachery (near Anna Garden MTC bus stop, Velachery Main Road), Gandhi Road and Taramani gate (close to Ascendas Tech Park).


title: IIT Madras

text: The campus is located from the Chennai Airport, from the Chennai Central Railway station, and is connected by city buses. Kasturba Nagar is the nearest station on the Chennai MRTS line.


title: IIT Madras

text: Two parallel roads, Bonn Avenue and Delhi Avenue, cut through the faculty residential area before they meet at the Gajendra Circle, near the Administrative Block. Buses regularly ply between the Main Gate, Gajendra Circle, the Academic Zone, and the Hostel Zone.


title: IIT Madras

text: Most students at IIT Madras reside in hostels, where extracurricular activities complement the academic routine. The campus has 20 hostels, of which four, Sharavati, Sarayu, Sabarmati and the recently constructed Tunga are exclusively for women. In earlier times, each hostel had attached dining facilities but all of them have since been closed down. Dining facilities are provided in three centralised halls: Nilgiri, Vindhya and Himalaya. Students are assigned to hostels upon matriculation, where they usually reside for the entire duration of their course of study.


title: IIT Madras

text: Sindhu, Pampa, Mahanadhi and Tamiraparani are seven-storeyed whereas all the other hostels are three or four storeyed. These four hostels can accommodate more than 1,200 students. The older hostels were all three-storeyed till the early 2000s when extra rooms were added. An additional new floor in the three-storeyed hostels which generally house the undergraduate students and a new block in place of the mess halls of these hostels have been constructed to accommodate for the increased intake of the students. These new blocks could be used as entrances for these hostels. As of 2020, Mandakini has been demolished and a multi-storey block is under construction, with provision to accommodate approximately 1000 students.


title: IIT Madras

text: IIT Madras provides residential accommodation for its students, faculty, administrative and supporting staff, and their families. The residential houses employ private caterers. The self-contained campus includes two schools (Vanavani and Kendriya Vidyalaya), three temples (Jalakanteshwara, Durga Peliamman and Ganapathi), three bank branches (SBI, ICICI, Canara Bank), a hospital, shopping centres, food shops, a gym, sleeping room and cricket, football, hockey and badminton stadiums. Internet is available in the academic zone and the faculty and staff residential zone. Earlier Internet was limited in hostel-zone from 2:00 pm till midnight and from 5:00 am to 8:00 am, but increasing demand during academic semester led to round-the-clock Internet service.


title: IIT Madras

text: IIT Madras also has supercomputing capability, with the IBM Virgo Super Cluster with 97 teraflops worth of computational power.