title: Tangerine (film)

text: Outside the donut shop, Chester tells Sin-Dee that he also slept with Alexandra. Hurt, Sin-Dee leaves and tries to pick up some clients; they throw urine in her face and drive away shouting transphobic slurs. Alexandra takes Sin-Dee to a laundromat to clean her clothes and wig, and gives her her own wig to wear while they wait.


title: Tangerine (film)

text: Mark Duplass offered to fund a micro-budget film of Sean Baker's before Baker considered "Tangerine". After a two year festival run for his previous film, "Starlet", and inspired by the independent films he saw while at the New Zealand Film Festival, Baker called up Duplass to see if the offer still stood, and began work on his next film. The film was executive-produced by the Duplass brothers, and produced by Karrie Cox and Marcus Cox with Through Films, Darren Dean and Shih-Ching Tsou.


title: Tangerine (film)

text: Baker and Chris Bergoch collaborated on the screenplay from September through December 2013. Baker and Bergoch met transgender actresses Mya Taylor and Kitana Kiki Rodriguez, who had no major acting experience, at a Los Angeles LGBT Center in 2013.


title: Tangerine (film)

text: Principal photography took place in Hollywood, California (including West Hollywood clubs and Santa Monica Boulevard), on December 24, 2013 and wrapped on January 18, 2014. After viewing iPhone experiments on Vimeo, Baker and Radium Cheung shot the film using three iPhone 5S smartphones. The money saved on camera equipment was used to pay for shooting locations and to pay extras. They used the FiLMIC Pro app, a video app (to control focus, aperture and color temperature, as well as capture video clips at higher bit-rates) and an anamorphic adapter from Moondog Labs (to capture widescreen), as well as Tiffen's Steadicam Smoothee to capture smooth moving shots.


title: Tangerine (film)

text: Baker was able to get some of the kit for free after reaching out to Moondog Labs (whose anamorphic adapters were still in their prototype stage on Kickstarter); they sent him three. He had informed them that he was working with Mark Duplass on the project; "It would let us shoot the way Sergio Leone would shoot westerns."


title: Tangerine (film)

text: Baker used Final Cut Pro for a preliminary look of the film and DaVinci Resolve to correct contrast and saturation.


title: Tangerine (film)

text: "Tangerine" made its world premiere January 23, 2015, at the Sundance Film Festival as part of their NEXT program. Magnolia Pictures bought world rights to the film on January 27, 2015, and confirmed they planned releasing the film later in 2015. The film went on to screen at the San Francisco International Film Festival on May 6, 2015. the Seattle International Film Festival on June 4, 2015, and the Oak Cliff Film Festival on June 11, 2015. The film had its Australian debut at the Sydney Film Festival on June 12, 2015.


title: Tangerine (film)

text: The film then played at the Provincetown International Film Festival on June 17, 2015, and the BAMcinemaFest on June 28, 2015. In the Czech Republic, the film premiered at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival on July 8, 2015. The film was released in a North American limited release on July 10, 2015. The film was released in the United Kingdom on November 13, 2015, by Metrodome Group.


title: Tangerine (film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that of critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads: ""Tangerine" shatters casting conventions and its filmmaking techniques are up-to-the-minute, but it's an old-fashioned comedy at heart—and a pretty wonderful one at that." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Tangerine (film)

text: "The Hollywood Reporter" described the film as "a singularly delightful girlfriend movie with an attitude". "Variety"s Justin Chang wrote that "Tangerine" is "an exuberantly raw and up-close portrait of one of Los Angeles' more distinctive sex-trade subcultures." "A. V. Wire"s Seth Malvín Romero said, ""Tangerine" is a stylistic tour-de-force. An original, dazzling, and unforgettable portrayal of betrayal and friendship that easily bests any other film this year." In a positive review, The A.V. Clubs Ignatiy Vishnevetsky wrote that "for all of "Tangerine's" movement [...] and all of its slapping and arguing, it's the movie's quietest, softest moments that register most strongly." He concludes, "Perhaps these moments feel so graceful because they are oases; they matter because of the harsh, unforgiving terrain that has to be crossed in order to reach them. This terrain is drawn garishly, vividly, and with a sense of fun."


title: Tangerine (film)

text: The first Academy Awards campaigns for openly transgender actresses supported by a film producer were launched for this film, in 2015, for actresses Kitana Kiki Rodriguez and Mya Taylor, though neither was nominated.


title: Brainstorming

text: Brainstorming is a group creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members.


title: Brainstorming

text: In other words, brainstorming is a situation where a group of people meet to generate new ideas and solutions around a specific domain of interest by removing inhibitions. People are able to think more freely and they suggest as many spontaneous new ideas as possible. All the ideas are noted down without criticism and after the brainstorming session the ideas are evaluated.


title: Brainstorming

text: In 1939, advertising executive Alex F. Osborn began developing methods for creative problem-solving. He was frustrated by employees' inability to develop creative ideas individually for ad campaigns. In response, he began hosting group-thinking sessions and discovered a significant improvement in the quality and quantity of ideas produced by employees. He first termed the process as "organized ideation", but participants later came up with the term "brainstorm sessions", taking the concept after the use of "the brain to storm a problem".


title: Brainstorming

text: During the period when Osborn made his concept, he started writing on creative thinking, and the first notable book where he mentioned the term brainstorming was "How to Think Up" (1942).


title: Brainstorming

text: Osborn outlined his method in the subsequent book "Your Creative Power" (1948), in chapter 33, "How to Organize a Squad to Create Ideas".


title: Brainstorming

text: One of Osborn's key recommendations was for all the members of the brainstorming group to be provided with a clear statement of the problem to be addressed prior to the actual brainstorming session. He also explained that the guiding principle is that the problem should be simple and narrowed down to a single target. Here, brainstorming is not believed to be effective in complex problems because of a change in opinion over the desirability of restructuring such problems. While the process can address the problems in such a situation, tackling all of them may not be feasible.


title: Brainstorming

text: Following these two principles were his four general rules of brainstorming, established with intention to:


title: Brainstorming

text: Osborn notes that brainstorming should address a specific question; he held that sessions addressing multiple questions were inefficient.


title: Brainstorming

text: Further, the problem must require the generation of ideas rather than judgment; he uses examples such as generating possible names for a product as proper brainstorming material, whereas analytical judgments such as whether or not to marry do not have any need for brainstorming.


title: Brainstorming

text: Osborn envisioned groups of around 12 participants, including both experts and novices. Participants are encouraged to provide wild and unexpected answers. Ideas receive no criticism or discussion. The group simply provide ideas that might lead to a solution and apply no analytical judgment as to the feasibility. The judgments are reserved for a later date.


title: Brainstorming

text: Participants are asked to write their ideas anonymously. Then the facilitator collects the ideas and the group votes on each idea. The vote can be as simple as a show of hands in favor of a given idea. This process is called distillation.


title: Brainstorming

text: After distillation, the top-ranked ideas may be sent back to the group or to subgroups for further brainstorming. For example, one group may work on the color required in a product. Another group may work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to the whole group for ranking the listed ideas. Sometimes ideas that were previously dropped may be brought forward again once the group has re-evaluated the ideas.


title: Brainstorming

text: It is important that the facilitator is trained in this process before attempting to facilitate this technique. The group should be primed and encouraged to embrace the process. Like all team efforts, it may take a few practice sessions to train the team in the method before tackling the important ideas.


title: Brainstorming

text: Each person in a circular group writes down one idea, and then passes the piece of paper to the next person, who adds some thoughts. This continues until everybody gets his or her original piece of paper back. By this time, it is likely that the group will have extensively elaborated on each idea.


title: Brainstorming

text: The group may also create an "idea book" and post a distribution list or routing slip to the front of the book. On the first page is a description of the problem. The first person to receive the book lists his or her ideas and then routes the book to the next person on the distribution list. The second person can log new ideas or add to the ideas of the previous person. This continues until the distribution list is exhausted. A follow-up "read out" meeting is then held to discuss the ideas logged in the book. This technique takes longer, but it allows individuals time to think deeply about the problem.


title: Brainstorming

text: This method of brainstorming works by the method of association. It may improve collaboration and increase the quantity of ideas, and is designed so that all attendees participate and no ideas are rejected.


title: Brainstorming

text: The process begins with a well-defined topic. Each participant brainstorms individually, then all the ideas are merged onto one large idea map. During this consolidation phase, participants may discover a common understanding of the issues as they share the meanings behind their ideas. During this sharing, new ideas may arise by the association, and they are added to the map as well. Once all the ideas are captured, the group can prioritize and/or take action.


title: Brainstorming

text: Directed brainstorming is a variation of electronic brainstorming (described below). It can be done manually or with computers. Directed brainstorming works when the solution space (that is, the set of criteria for evaluating a good idea) is known prior to the session. If known, those criteria can be used to constrain the ideation process intentionally.


title: Brainstorming

text: In directed brainstorming, each participant is given one sheet of paper (or electronic form) and told the brainstorming question. They are asked to produce one response and stop, then all of the papers (or forms) are randomly swapped among the participants. The participants are asked to look at the idea they received and to create a new idea that improves on that idea based on the initial criteria. The forms are then swapped again and respondents are asked to improve upon the ideas, and the process is repeated for three or more rounds.


title: Brainstorming

text: In the laboratory, directed brainstorming has been found to almost triple the productivity of groups over electronic brainstorming.


title: Brainstorming

text: A guided brainstorming session is time set aside to brainstorm either individually or as a collective group about a particular subject under the constraints of perspective and time. This type of brainstorming removes all cause for conflict and constrains conversations while stimulating critical and creative thinking in an engaging, balanced environment.


title: Brainstorming

text: Participants are asked to adopt different mindsets for pre-defined period of time while contributing their ideas to a central mind map drawn by a pre-appointed scribe. Having examined a multi-perspective point of view, participants seemingly see the simple solutions that collectively create greater growth. Action is assigned individually.


title: Brainstorming

text: Following a guided brainstorming session participants emerge with ideas ranked for further brainstorming, research and questions remaining unanswered and a prioritized, assigned, actionable list that leaves everyone with a clear understanding of what needs to happen next and the ability to visualize the combined future focus and greater goals of the group nicely.


title: Brainstorming

text: "Individual brainstorming" is the use of brainstorming in solitary situations. It typically includes such techniques as free writing, free speaking, word association, and drawing a mind map, which is a visual note taking technique in which people diagram their thoughts. Individual brainstorming is a useful method in creative writing and has been shown to be superior to traditional group brainstorming.


title: Brainstorming

text: This process involves brainstorming the "questions", rather than trying to come up with immediate answers and short-term solutions. Theoretically, this technique should not inhibit participation as there is no need to provide solutions. The answers to the questions form the framework for constructing future action plans. Once the list of questions is set, it may be necessary to prioritize them to reach to the best solution in an orderly way.


title: Brainstorming

text: Groups can improve the effectiveness and quality of their brainstorming sessions in a number of ways.


title: Brainstorming

text: Although the brainstorming can take place online through commonly available technologies such as email or interactive web sites, there have also been many efforts to develop customized computer software that can either replace or enhance one or more manual elements of the brainstorming process.


title: Brainstorming

text: Early efforts, such as GroupSystems at University of Arizona or Software Aided Meeting Management (SAMM) system at the University of Minnesota, took advantage of then-new computer networking technology, which was installed in rooms dedicated to computer supported meetings. When using these electronic meeting systems (EMS, as they came to be called), group members simultaneously and independently entered ideas into a computer terminal. The software collected (or "pools") the ideas into a list, which could be displayed on a central projection screen (anonymized if desired). Other elements of these EMSs could support additional activities such as categorization of ideas, elimination of duplicates, assessment and discussion of prioritized or controversial ideas. Later EMSs capitalized on advances in computer networking and internet protocols to support asynchronous brainstorming sessions over extended periods of time and in multiple locations.


title: Brainstorming

text: Introduced along with the EMS by Nunamaker and colleagues at University of Arizona was electronic brainstorming (EBS). By utilizing customized computer software for groups ("group decision support systems" or "groupware"), EBS can replace face-to-face brainstorming. An example of groupware is the "GroupSystems", a software developed by University of Arizona. After an idea discussion has been posted on "GroupSystems", it is displayed on each group member's computer. As group members simultaneously type their comments on separate computers, those comments are anonymously pooled and made available to all group members for evaluation and further elaboration.


title: Brainstorming

text: Compared to face-to-face brainstorming, not only does EBS enhanced efficiency by eliminating travelling and turn-taking during group discussions, it also excluded several psychological constraints associated with face-to-face meetings. Identified by Gallupe and colleagues, both production blocking (reduced idea generation due to turn-taking and forgetting ideas in face-to-face brainstorming) and evaluation apprehension (a general concern experienced by individuals for how others in the presence are evaluating them) are reduced in EBS. These positive psychological effects increase with group size. A perceived advantage of EBS is that all ideas can be archived electronically in their original form, and then retrieved later for further thought and discussion. EBS also enables much larger groups to brainstorm on a topic than would normally be productive in a traditional brainstorming session.


title: Brainstorming

text: Computer supported brainstorming may overcome some of the challenges faced by traditional brainstorming methods. For example, ideas might be "pooled" automatically, so that individuals do not need to wait to take a turn, as in verbal brainstorming. Some software programs show all ideas as they are generated (via chat room or e-mail). The display of ideas may cognitively stimulate brainstormers, as their attention is kept on the flow of ideas being generated without the potential distraction of social cues such as facial expressions and verbal language. EBS techniques have been shown to produce more ideas and help individuals focus their attention on the ideas of others better than a brainwriting technique (participants write individual written notes in silence and then subsequently communicate them with the group). The production of more ideas has been linked to the fact that paying attention to others' ideas leads to non-redundancy, as brainstormers try to avoid to replicate or repeat another participant's comment or idea. Conversely, the production gain associated with EBS was less found in situations where EBS group members focused too much on generating ideas that they ignored ideas expressed by others. The production gain associated with "GroupSystem" users' attentiveness to ideas expressed by others has been documented by Dugosh and colleagues. EBS group members who were instructed to attend to ideas generated by others outperformed those who were not in terms of creativity.


title: Brainstorming

text: According to a meta-analysis comparing EBS to face-to-face brainstorming conducted by DeRosa and colleagues, EBS has been found to enhance both the production of non-redundant ideas and the quality of ideas produced. Despite the advantages demonstrated by EBS groups, EBS group members reported less satisfaction with the brainstorming process compared to face-to-face brainstorming group members.


title: Brainstorming

text: Some web-based brainstorming techniques allow contributors to post their comments anonymously through the use of avatars. This technique also allows users to log on over an extended time period, typically one or two weeks, to allow participants some "soak time" before posting their ideas and feedback. This technique has been used particularly in the field of new product development, but can be applied in any number of areas requiring collection and evaluation of ideas.


title: Brainstorming

text: Some limitations of EBS include the fact that it can flood people with too many ideas at one time that they have to attend to, and people may also compare their performance to others by analyzing how many ideas each individual produces (social matching).


title: Brainstorming

text: Some research indicates that incentives can augment creative processes. Participants were divided into three conditions. In Condition I, a flat fee was paid to all participants. In the Condition II, participants were awarded points for every unique idea of their own, and subjects were paid for the points that they earned. In Condition III, subjects were paid based on the impact that their idea had on the group; this was measured by counting the number of group ideas derived from the specific subject's ideas. Condition III outperformed Condition II, and Condition II outperformed Condition I at a statistically significant level for most measures. The results demonstrated that participants were willing to work far longer to achieve unique results in the expectation of compensation.


title: Brainstorming

text: A good deal of research refutes Osborn's claim that group brainstorming could generate more ideas than individuals working alone. For example, in a review of 22 studies of group brainstorming, Michael Diehl and Wolfgang Stroebe found that, overwhelmingly, groups brainstorming together produce fewer ideas than individuals working separately. However, this conclusion is brought into question by a subsequent review of 50 studies by Scott G. Isaksen showed that a misunderstanding of the tool, and weak application of the methods (including lack of facilitation), and the artificiality of the problems and groups undermined most such studies, and the validity of their conclusions.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Sahara India Pariwar has operated a vast number of businesses such as Aamby Valley City, Sahara Movie Studios, Air Sahara, hockey sports, Filmy, among others.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Roy was named among the 10 Most Powerful People of India in 2012 by "India Today". In 2004, Sahara group was termed by "Time" magazine as 'the second largest employer in India after Indian Railways. The group operates through more than 5,000 establishments spread across India and has a workforce of around 1.2 million (both field and office) under the Sahara India umbrella.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Subrata Roy was born in Bengali Hindu family in Araria on 10 June 1948 to Sudhir Chandra Roy and Chhabi Roy. He studied at Holy Child Institute in Kolkata and later studied mechanical engineering from Government Technical Institute, Gorakhpur. Roy started his first business in Gorakhpur.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Roy joined Sahara Finance, a struggling company, in 1976, that ran a chit fund and took it over. He changed its financial model in 1978. Sahara is said to have used the financial model of much older Peerless Group. They are termed residuary non-banking companies (RNBCs) that accept deposits of very low amounts.


title: Subrata Roy

text: In the 1990s, Roy moved to Lucknow which became the base of his group. His Sahara City project covering 217 self-sufficient townships was launched in the 1990s. From there, it went on to become the largest conglomerate of India with a diversified range of business interests. The company now has interests in financial services, education, real estate, media, entertainment, tourism, healthcare, and hospitality.


title: Subrata Roy

text: The Hindi newspaper Rashtriya Sahara was started in 1992. In the late 1990s, the ambitious Aamby Valley City project near Pune was initiated. In 2000, Sahara TV was launched which was later renamed Sahara One.


title: Subrata Roy

text: In 2003, Sahara started three weeklies: Sahara Time (English), Sahara Samay (Hindi) and Sahara Aalmi (Urdu).


title: Subrata Roy

text: In 2010, Sahara purchased the iconic Grosvenor House Hotel in London, and 2012 the historic Plaza Hotel and Dream Downtown Hotel in New York City.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Sahara has a workforce of around 1.2 million including Salaried Employees, Consultants, Field Workers, Agents & Business Associates, etc. In 2004, Sahara group was termed by Time magazine as "the second-largest employer in India" after the Government-run Indian Railways.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Sahara is said to have 9 crore plus investors and depositors, representing about 13% of all households in India.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Roy has been planning to foray into online education (edunguru) in India, which is targeted at small towns and villages. He has put a team in place which consists of members from top universities and colleges across India, and even abroad. The route map of the program has been prepared, and 14,000 hours of lectures have been developed for this.


title: Subrata Roy

text: In June 2019 Roy announced his foray into the automobile sector under the brand name 'Sahara Evols'. The Sahara Evols venture will offer a wide range of electric vehicles (EVs) along with advanced allied services.


title: Subrata Roy

text: In 2013, Sahara contributed to the relief efforts in flood hit Uttarakhand region wherein one lakh bottles of drinking water, packaged juice and food packets along with candles and match boxes were said to be provided by them. There were 25 medical health unit vans equipped with doctors and free medicines made available and it was said by the group that, they will contribute to the rehabilitation programme by constructing 10,000 pre-fabricated houses.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Post Kargil War, the then Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee praised Sahara India led by Subrata Roy Sahara for providing financial support to the 127 families of martyrs.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Subrata Roy owned Hotel Sahara Star Mumbai has joined hands with Feeding India to give back to the society. As a part of its CSR initiatives, the hotel will be providing food to the ones in need.


title: Subrata Roy

text: He also received the Business Icon of the Year award at the Powerbrands Hall of Fame Awards in London in 2011.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Subrata Roy received Businessmen of the Year Award in 2002, the Best Industrialist Award in 2002, Vishisht Rashtriya Udaan Samman (2010) by a daily from one of India's top publication houses, Vocational Award for Excellence (2010) by Rotary International, Karmaveer Samman (1995), Udyam Shree (1994), Baba-E-Rozgar Award (1992) and the National Citizen Award in 2001.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Moreover, he has been featured regularly in the "India Today" list of 50 Most Powerful People of India, since 2003.


title: Subrata Roy

text: In 2004, Sahara India was termed by "Time" magazine as "the second largest employer in India" after Indian Railways.


title: Subrata Roy

text: In 2012, Roy was named among the 10 most influential businessmen in India by the news magazine "India Today".


title: Subrata Roy

text: Roy has propounded the corporate philosophy of 'Collective Materialism', that advocates collective growth through collective sharing and caring. He has given lectures on the corporate philosophy propounded by him at Harvard University, IIT (Indian Institute of Technology), IIM (Indian Institute of Management), Banares Hindu University and many other institutions.


title: Subrata Roy

text: On 26 February 2014, the Supreme Court of India ordered the detention of Roy for failing to appear before it in connection with legal dispute with Market Regulator - SEBI. In a statement after the arrest, his lawyer said Roy's 92-year-old mother was in poor health and needed "her eldest son" by her side, and hence he failed to appear at the court. As he failed to appear in the court during the ongoing legal battle, Roy was held in custody in the Tihar Jail, Delhi and is now out on parole since May 2016. Sahara was allowed to sell a part of its assets in India to raise part of the money in question.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Roy has rejected allegations of misconduct and has alleged Indian National Congress of witch hunt due to his opposition to Sonia Gandhi over becoming the country's prime minister.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Initially he was granted interim bail by Supreme Court of India on 26 March 2014 on condition of depositing ₹10,000 crore to the market regulator SEBI. His deposit of ₹10,000 crore has not been made. As of August 2014, Roy was trying to sell some of his hotel properties to raise enough money. Roy was granted his first bail in May 2017 for four weeks to perform the last rites for his deceased mother, later extended to 24 October. Since then he has been successful in getting his bail extended on various grounds. As of 31 January 2019, Sahara still had to pay ₹10,621 crore to meet its total liability.


title: Subrata Roy

text: Roy claims that the company's fundamentals are intact and assets are greater (3 to 5 times) than the liabilities. Sahara also has deposited ₹22,500 crores which will in due course of justice come back to Sahara India as it has already repaid 95% of its investors.


title: Subrata Roy

text: The Securities And Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has repaid only ₹64 crore to the investors since 2012. It is also been reported that Sahara has paid ₹725.97 crore as TDS (tax deducted at source) to the Income Tax Departments on the interest which along with investment was repaid to 95 percent of the investors, between 2009–2010 and 2012–2013. The income tax authorities had found that the beneficiary investors were existent and accordingly confirmed the repayments made in those particular years. One of Sahara's arguments in the apex court revolves around the fact that if one government body has found investors, why the other cannot do so.


title: Subrata Roy

text: On 28 August 2020, two petitions were filed against the release of the Netflix documentary in the Bihar district court. The Bihar court passed an interim stay order on the petition filed by Subrata Roy against the release of the documentary on the Netflix platform. Following the stay order by the Bihar court, Netflix threatened to move the Supreme Court against the court order for restraining the documentary release.


title: Subrata Roy

text: On 5 October 2020, Netflix released three out of four films in the anthology, including those featuring Vijay Mallya ("The King of Good Times"), Nirav Modi ("Diamonds Aren't Forever") and Subrata Roy ("The World's Biggest Family"), while the final episode about Ramalinga Raju remained encumbered by legal injunctions and as of December 2020 has yet to be released.


title: Impulse (physics)

text: In classical mechanics, impulse (symbolized by or Imp) is the integral of a force, , over the time interval, , for which it acts. The impulse is a standard mechanical quantity. Since force is a vector quantity, impulse is also a vector quantity. Impulse applied to an object produces an equivalent vector change in its linear momentum, also in the resultant direction. The SI unit of impulse is the newton second (N⋅s), and the dimensionally equivalent unit of momentum is the kilogram meter per second (kg⋅m/s). The corresponding English engineering unit is the pound-second (lbf⋅s), and in the British Gravitational System, the unit is the slug-foot per second (slug⋅ft/s).


title: Impulse (physics)

text: A resultant force causes acceleration and a change in the velocity of the body for as long as it acts. A resultant force applied over a longer time, therefore, produces a bigger change in linear momentum than the same force applied briefly: the change in momentum is equal to the product of the average force and duration. Conversely, a small force applied for a long time produces the same change in momentum—the same impulse—as a larger force applied briefly.


title: Impulse (physics)

text: where is the change in linear momentum from time to . This is often called the impulse-momentum theorem (analogous to the work-energy theorem).


title: Impulse (physics)

text: As a result, an impulse may also be regarded as the change in momentum of an object to which a resultant force is applied. The impulse may be expressed in a simpler form when the mass is constant:


title: Impulse (physics)

text: Impulse has the same units and dimensions as momentum. In the International System of Units, these are . In English engineering units, they are .


title: Impulse (physics)

text: The term "impulse" is also used to refer to a fast-acting force or impact. This type of impulse is often "idealized" so that the change in momentum produced by the force happens with no change in time. This sort of change is a step change, and is not physically possible. However, this is a useful model for computing the effects of ideal collisions (such as in game physics engines). Additionally, in rocketry, the term "total impulse" is commonly used and is considered synonymous with the term "impulse".


title: Impulse (physics)

text: The application of Newton's second law for variable mass allows impulse and momentum to be used as analysis tools for jet- or rocket-propelled vehicles. In the case of rockets, the impulse imparted can be normalized by unit of propellant expended, to create a performance parameter, specific impulse. This fact can be used to derive the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, which relates the vehicle's propulsive change in velocity to the engine's specific impulse (or nozzle exhaust velocity) and the vehicle's propellant-mass ratio.


title: Hussites

text: The Hussites ( or "Kališníci"; "Chalice People") were a Czech proto-Protestant Christian movement that followed the teachings of reformer Jan Hus, who became the best known representative of the Bohemian Reformation.


title: Hussites

text: The Hussite movement began in the Kingdom of Bohemia and quickly spread throughout the remaining Lands of the Bohemian Crown, including Moravia and Silesia. It also made inroads into the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (now Slovakia), but was rejected and gained infamy for the plundering behaviour of the Hussite soldiers. There were also very small temporary communities in Poland-Lithuania and Transylvania which moved to Bohemia after being confronted with religious intolerance. It was a regional movement that failed to expand anywhere farther. Hussites emerged as a majority Utraquist movement with a significant Taborite faction, and smaller regional ones that included Adamites, Orebites and Orphans. Major Hussite theologians included Petr Chelčický, Jerome of Prague, and others. A number of Czech national heroes were Hussite, including Jan Žižka, who led a fierce resistance to five consecutive crusades proclaimed on Hussite Bohemia by the Papacy. Hussites were one of the most important forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness.


title: Hussites

text: After the Council of Constance lured Jan Hus in with a letter of indemnity, then tried him for heresy and put him to death at the stake on 6 July 1415, the Hussites fought the Hussite Wars (1420–1434) for their religious and political cause. After the Hussite Wars ended, the Catholic-supported Utraquist side came out victorious from conflict with the Taborites and became the most common representation of the Hussite faith in Bohemia. Catholics and Utraquists were emancipated in Bohemia after the religious peace of Kutná Hora in 1485.


title: Hussites

text: Bohemia and Moravia, or what is now the territory of the Czech Republic, remained majority Hussite for two centuries until Roman Catholicism was reimposed by the Holy Roman Emperor after the 1620 Battle of White Mountain during the Thirty Years' War. That event and centuries of Habsburg persecution caused Hussite traditions to be merely represented in the Moravian Church, Unity of the Brethren and the refounded Czechoslovak Hussite churches among present-day Christians.


title: Hussites

text: The arrest of Hus in 1414 caused considerable resentment in Czech lands. The authorities of both countries appealed urgently and repeatedly to King Sigismund to release Jan Hus.


title: Hussites

text: When news of his death at the Council of Constance in 6. of June 1415 arrived, disturbances broke out, directed primarily against the clergy and especially against the monks. Even the Archbishop narrowly escaped from the effects of this popular anger. The treatment of Hus was felt to be a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country and his death was seen as a criminal act. King Wenceslaus IV., prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at the course of events in Constance. His wife openly favoured the friends of Hus. Avowed Hussites stood at the head of the government.


title: Hussites

text: A league was formed by certain lords, who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates and to obey the power of the Bishops only where their orders accorded with the injunctions of the Bible. The university would arbitrate any disputed points. The entire Hussite nobility joined the league. Other than verbal protest of the council's treatment of Hus, there was little evidence of any actions taken by the nobility until 1417. At that point several of the lesser nobility and some barons, signatories of the 1415 protest letter, removed Catholic priests from their parishes, replacing them with priests willing to give communion in both wine and bread. The chalice of wine became the central identifying symbol of the Hussite movement. If the king had joined, its resolutions would have received the sanction of the law; but he refused, and approached the newly formed Roman Catholic League of lords, whose members pledged themselves to support the king, the Catholic Church, and the Council. The prospect of a civil war began to emerge.


title: Hussites

text: Pope Martin V as Cardinal Otto of Colonna had attacked Hus with relentless severity. He energetically resumed the battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the Council of Constance. He wished to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus, for which purpose the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained. In 1418, Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother over to the standpoint of the council by pointing out the inevitability of a religious war if the heretics in Bohemia found further protection. Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave the country and Roman Catholic priests were reinstated. These measures caused a general commotion which hastened the death of King Wenceslaus by a paralytic stroke in 1419. His heir was Sigismund.


title: Hussites

text: Hussitism organised itself during the years 1415–1419. From the beginning, there formed two parties, with a smaller number of people withdrawing from both parties around the pacifist Petr Chelčický, whose teachings would form the foundation of the Unitas Fratrum.


title: Hussites

text: The moderate party, who followed Hus more closely, sought to conduct reform while leaving the whole hierarchical and liturgical order of the Church untouched.


title: Hussites

text: The more radical party identified itself more boldly with the doctrines of John Wycliffe, sharing his passionate hatred of the monastic clergy, and his desire to return the Church to its supposed condition during the time of the apostles. This required the removal of the existing hierarchy and the secularisation of ecclesiastical possessions. The radicals preached the ""sufficientia legis Christi""—the divine law (i.e. the Bible) is the sole rule and canon for human society, not only in the church, but also in political and civil matters. They rejected therefore, as early as 1416, everything that they believed had no basis in the Bible, such as the veneration of saints and images, fasts, superfluous holidays, the oath, intercession for the dead, auricular Confession, indulgences, the sacraments of Confirmation and the Anointing of the Sick and chose their own priests. But above all they clung to Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, denying transubstantiation, and this is the principal point by which they are distinguished from the moderate party.


title: Hussites

text: The programme of the more conservative Hussites (the moderate party) is contained in the Four Articles of Prague, which were written by Jacob of Mies and agreed upon in July 1420, promulgated in the Latin, Czech, and German languages. The full text is about two pages long, but they are often summarized as:


title: Hussites

text: The views of the moderate Hussites were widely represented at the University and among the citizens of Prague; they were therefore called the Prague Party, but also Calixtines (Latin "calix" chalice) or Utraquists (Latin "utraque" both), because they emphasized the second article of Prague, and the chalice became their emblem.


title: Hussites

text: The radicals (the radical party) had their gathering-places all around the country. Their first armed assault fell on the small town of Ústí, on the river Lužnice, south of Prague (today's Sezimovo Ústí). However, as the place did not prove to be defensible, they settled in the remains of an older town upon a hill not far away and founded a new town, which they named Tábor (a play on words, as "Tábor" not only meant "camp" or "encampment" in Czech, but is also the traditional name of the mountain on which Jesus was expected to return; see Mark 13); hence they were called Táborité (Taborites). They comprised the essential force of the radical Hussites. Their aim was to destroy the enemies of the law of God, and to defend his kingdom (which had been expected to come in a short time) by the sword. Their end-of-world visions did not come true. In order to preserve their settlement and spread their ideology, they waged bloody wars; in the beginning they observed a strict regime, inflicting the severest punishment equally for murder, as for less severe faults as adultery, perjury and usury, and also tried to apply rigid Biblical standards to the social order of the time. The Taborites usually had the support of the Orebites (later called Orphans), an eastern Bohemian sect of Hussitism based in Hradec Králové.


title: Hussites

text: Hussites were not a unitary movement, but a diverse one with multiple factions that held different views and opposed each other in the Hussite Wars.


title: Hussites

text: The news of the death of King Wenceslaus in 1419 produced a great commotion among the people of Prague. A revolution swept over the country: churches and monasteries were destroyed, and church property was seized by the Hussite nobility. It was then, and remained till much later, in question whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom (Čeněk of Wartenberg) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted. Sigismund could get possession of "his" kingdom only by force of arms. Pope Martin V called upon Catholics of the West to take up arms against the Hussites, declaring a crusade, and there followed twelve years of warfare.


title: Hussites

text: The Hussites initially campaigned defensively, but after 1427 they assumed the offensive. Apart from their religious aims, they fought for the national interests of the Czechs. The moderate and radical parties were united, and they not only repelled the attacks of the army of crusaders but crossed the borders into neighboring countries. On March 23, 1430, Joan of Arc dictated a letter that threatened to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic faith, but her capture by English and Burgundian troops two months later would keep her from carrying out this threat.


title: Hussites

text: Eventually, the opponents of the Hussites found themselves forced to consider an amicable settlement. The Hussites were sent an invitation to attend the Council of Basel on October 15, 1431. The discussions began on 10 January 1432, focusing chiefly on the four articles of Prague. No agreement emerged. After repeated negotiations between the Basel Council and Bohemia, a Bohemian–Moravian state assembly in Prague accepted the ""Compactata"" of Prague on 30 November 1433. The agreement granted communion in both kinds to all who desired it, but with the understanding that Christ was entirely present in each kind, though on the condition that the rest of the Hussite reforms would no longer be emphasised. Free preaching was granted conditionally: the Church hierarchy had to approve and place priests, and the power of the bishop must be considered. The article which prohibited the secular power of the clergy was almost reversed.


title: Hussites

text: The Taborites refused to conform. The Calixtines united with the Roman Catholics and destroyed the Taborites at the Battle of Lipany on 30 May 1434. From that time, the Taborites lost their importance, though the Hussite movement would continue in Poland for another five years, until the Royalist forces of Poland defeated the Polish Hussites at the Battle of Grotniki. The state assembly of Jihlava in 1436 confirmed the ""Compactata"" and gave them the sanction of law. This accomplished the reconciliation of Bohemia with Rome and the Western Church, and at last Sigismund obtained possession of the Bohemian crown. His reactionary measures caused a ferment in the whole country, but he died in 1437. The state assembly in Prague rejected Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was obnoxious to the Utraquists, as heresy in 1444. Most of the Taborites now went over to the party of the Utraquists; the rest joined the "Brothers of the Law of Christ" () (see history of the Moravian Church).


title: Hussites

text: In 1462, Pope Pius II declared the ""Compacta"" null and void, prohibited communion in both kinds, and acknowledged King George of Podebrady as king on condition that he would promise an unconditional harmony with the Roman Church. This he refused, leading to the Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478). His successor, King Vladislaus II, favored the Roman Catholics and proceeded against some zealous clergymen of the Calixtines. The troubles of the Utraquists increased from year to year. In 1485, at the Diet of Kutná Hora, an agreement was made between the Roman Catholics and Utraquists that lasted for thirty-one years. It was only later, at the Diet of 1512, that the equal rights of both religions were permanently established. The appearance of Martin Luther was hailed by the Utraquist clergy, and Luther himself was astonished to find so many points of agreement between the doctrines of Hus and his own. But not all Utraquists approved of the German Reformation; a schism arose among them, and many returned to the Roman doctrine, while other elements had organised the ""Unitas Fratrum"" already in 1457.


title: Hussites

text: Under Emperor Maximilian II, the Bohemian state assembly established the ""Confessio Bohemica"", upon which Lutherans, Reformed, and Bohemian Brethren agreed. From that time forward Hussitism began to die out. After the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620 the Roman Catholic Faith was re-established with vigour, which fundamentally changed the religious conditions of the Czech lands.


title: Hussites

text: Leaders and members of Unitas Fratrum were forced to choose to either leave the many and varied southeastern principalities of what was the Holy Roman Empire (mainly Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia and parts of Germany and its many states), or to practice their beliefs secretly. As a result, members were forced underground and dispersed across northwestern Europe. The largest remaining communities of the Brethren were located in Lissa (Leszno) in Poland, which had historically strong ties with the Czechs, and in small, isolated groups in Moravia. Some, among them Jan Amos Comenius, fled to western Europe, mainly the Low Countries. A settlement of Hussites in Herrnhut, Saxony, now Germany, in 1722 caused the emergence of the Moravian Church.


title: Hussites

text: In 1918, as a result of World War I, the Czech lands regained independence from Austria-Hungary controlled by the Habsburg monarchy as Czechoslovakia (due to Masaryk and Czechoslovak legions with Hussite tradition, in the name of the troops).


title: Hussites

text: Today, the Hussite tradition is represented in the Moravian Church, Unity of the Brethren, and Czechoslovak Hussite Church.


title: Human geography

text: Human geography or anthropogeography is the branch of geography that studies spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their interactions with the environment. It analyzes spatial interdependencies between social interactions and the environment through qualitative and quantitative research methods.


title: Human geography

text: Geography was not recognized as a formal academic discipline until the 18th century, although many scholars had undertaken geographical scholarship for much longer, particularly through cartography.


title: Human geography

text: The Royal Geographical Society was founded in England in 1830, although the United Kingdom did not get its first full Chair of geography until 1917. The first real geographical intellect to emerge in the United Kingdom was Halford John Mackinder, appointed reader at Oxford University in 1887.


title: Human geography

text: The National Geographic Society was founded in the United States in 1888 and began publication of the "National Geographic" magazine which became, and continues to be, a great popularizer of geographic information. The society has long supported geographic research and education on geographical topics.


title: Human geography

text: The Association of American Geographers was founded in 1904 and was renamed the American Association of Geographers in 2016 to better reflect the increasingly international character of its membership.


title: Human geography

text: One of the first examples of geographic methods being used for purposes other than to describe and theorize the physical properties of the earth is John Snow's map of the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak. Though Snow was primarily a physician and a pioneer of epidemiology rather than a geographer, his map is probably one of the earliest examples of health geography.


title: Human geography

text: The now fairly distinct differences between the subfields of physical and human geography developed at a later date. The connection between both physical and human properties of geography is most apparent in the theory of environmental determinism, made popular in the 19th century by Carl Ritter and others, and has close links to the field of evolutionary biology of the time. Environmental determinism is the theory that people's physical, mental and moral habits are directly due to the influence of their natural environment. However, by the mid-19th century, environmental determinism was under attack for lacking methodological rigor associated with modern science, and later as a means to justify racism and imperialism.


title: Human geography

text: A similar concern with both human and physical aspects is apparent during the later 19th and first half of the 20th centuries focused on regional geography. The goal of regional geography, through something known as regionalisation, was to delineate space into regions and then understand and describe the unique characteristics of each region through both human and physical aspects. With links to possibilism and cultural ecology some of the same notions of causal effect of the environment on society and culture remain with environmental determinism.


title: Human geography

text: By the 1960s, however, the quantitative revolution led to strong criticism of regional geography. Due to a perceived lack of scientific rigor in an overly descriptive nature of the discipline, and a continued separation of geography from its two subfields of physical and human geography and from geology, geographers in the mid-20th century began to apply statistical and mathematical models in order to solve spatial problems. Much of the development during the quantitative revolution is now apparent in the use of geographic information systems; the use of statistics, spatial modeling, and positivist approaches are still important to many branches of human geography. Well-known geographers from this period are Fred K. Schaefer, Waldo Tobler, William Garrison, Peter Haggett, Richard J. Chorley, William Bunge, and Torsten Hägerstrand.


title: Human geography

text: From the 1970s, a number of critiques of the positivism now associated with geography emerged. Known under the term 'critical geography,' these critiques signaled another turning point in the discipline. Behavioral geography emerged for some time as a means to understand how people made perceived spaces and places, and made locational decisions. The more influential 'radical geography' emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. It draws heavily on Marxist theory and techniques, and is associated with geographers such as David Harvey and Richard Peet. Radical geographers seek to say meaningful things about problems recognized through quantitative methods, provide explanations rather than descriptions, put forward alternatives and solutions, and be politically engaged, rather than using the detachment associated with positivists. (The detachment and objectivity of the quantitative revolution was itself critiqued by radical geographers as being a tool of capital). Radical geography and the links to Marxism and related theories remain an important part of contemporary human geography (See: "Antipode"). Critical geography also saw the introduction of 'humanistic geography', associated with the work of Yi-Fu Tuan, which pushed for a much more qualitative approach in methodology.


title: Human geography

text: The changes under critical geography have led to contemporary approaches in the discipline such as feminist geography, new cultural geography, settlement geography, "demonic" geographies, and the engagement with postmodern and post-structural theories and philosophies.


title: Human geography

text: Cultural geography is the study of cultural products and norms - their variation across spaces and places, as well as their relations. It focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language, religion, economy, government, and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant from one place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially.


title: Human geography

text: Development geography is the study of the Earth's geography with reference to the standard of living and the quality of life of its human inhabitants, study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities, across the Earth. The subject matter investigated is strongly influenced by the researcher's methodological approach.


title: Human geography

text: Economic geography examines relationships between human economic systems, states, and other factors, and the biophysical environment.


title: Human geography

text: Medical or health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care. Health geography deals with the spatial relations and patterns between people and the environment. This is a sub-discipline of human geography, researching how and why diseases are spread and contained.


title: Human geography

text: Historical geography is the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of the past. Historical geography studies a wide variety of issues and topics. A common theme is the study of the geographies of the past and how a place or region changes through time. Many historical geographers study geographical patterns through time, including how people have interacted with their environment, and created the cultural landscape.


title: Human geography

text: Political geography is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures.


title: Human geography

text: Population geography is the study of ways in which spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to their environment or location.


title: Human geography

text: Settlement geography, including urban geography, is the study of urban and rural areas with specific regards to spatial, relational and theoretical aspects of settlement. That is the study of areas which have a concentration of buildings and infrastructure. These are areas where the majority of economic activities are in the secondary sector and tertiary sectors. In case of urban settlement, they probably have a high population density.


title: Human geography

text: Urban geography is the study of cities, towns, and other areas of relatively dense settlement. Two main interests are site (how a settlement is positioned relative to the physical environment) and situation (how a settlement is positioned relative to other settlements). Another area of interest is the internal organization of urban areas with regard to different demographic groups and the layout of infrastructure. This subdiscipline also draws on ideas from other branches of Human Geography to see their involvement in the processes and patterns evident in an urban area.


title: Human geography

text: Within each of the subfields, various philosophical approaches can be used in research; therefore, an urban geographer could be a Feminist or Marxist geographer, etc.


title: Human geography

text: As with all social sciences, human geographers publish research and other written work in a variety of academic journals. Whilst human geography is interdisciplinary, there are a number of journals that focus on human geography.


title: Iceberg

text: An iceberg is a piece of freshwater ice more than 15 m long that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open (salt) water. Smaller chunks of floating glacially-derived ice are called "growlers" or "bergy bits". The sinking of the "Titanic" in 1912 led to the formation of the International Ice Patrol in 1914. Much of an iceberg is below the surface, which led to the expression "tip of the iceberg" to illustrate a small part of a larger unseen issue. Icebergs are considered a serious maritime hazard.


title: Iceberg

text: Icebergs vary considerably in size and shape. Icebergs that calve from glaciers in Greenland are often irregularly shaped while Antarctic ice shelves often produce large tabular (table top) icebergs. The largest iceberg in recent history (2000), named B-15, measured nearly 300 km × 40 km. The largest iceberg on record was an Antarctic tabular iceberg of over [] sighted west of Scott Island, in the South Pacific Ocean, by the USS "Glacier" on November 12, 1956. This iceberg was larger than Belgium. Big icebergs are also often compared in size to the area of Manhattan.


title: Iceberg

text: The word "iceberg" is a partial loan translation from the Dutch word "ijsberg", literally meaning " ice mountain", cognate to Danish "isbjerg", German "Eisberg", Low Saxon "Iesbarg" and Swedish "isberg".


title: Iceberg

text: Typically about one-tenth of the volume of an iceberg is above water, which follows from Archimedes's Principle of buoyancy; the density of pure ice is about 920 kg/m (57 lb/cu ft), and that of seawater about . The contour of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface.


title: Iceberg

text: The largest icebergs recorded have been calved, or broken off, from the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica. Icebergs may reach a height of more than above the sea surface and have mass ranging from about 100,000 tonnes up to more than 10 million tonnes. Icebergs or pieces of floating ice smaller than 5 meters above the sea surface are classified as "bergy bits"; smaller than 1 meter—"growlers". The largest known iceberg in the North Atlantic was above sea level, reported by the USCG icebreaker "Eastwind" in 1958, making it the height of a 55-story building. These icebergs originate from the glaciers of western Greenland and may have interior temperatures of .


title: Iceberg

text: where "m" is the iceberg mass, "v" the drift velocity, and the variables "f", "k", and "F" correspond to the Coriolis force, the vertical unit vector, and a given force. The subscripts a, w, r, s, and p correspond to the air drag, water drag, wave radiation force, sea ice drag, and the horizontal pressure gradient force.


title: Iceberg

text: Icebergs deteriorate through melting and fracturing, which changes the mass "m", as well as the surface area, volume, and stability of the iceberg. Iceberg deterioration and drift, therefore, are interconnected iceberg thermodynamics, and fracturing must be considered when modelling iceberg drift.


title: Iceberg

text: Winds and currents may move icebergs close to coastlines, where they can become frozen into pack ice (one form of sea ice), or drift into shallow waters, where they can come into contact with the seabed, a phenomenon called seabed gouging.


title: Iceberg

text: Air trapped in snow forms bubbles as the snow is compressed to form firn and then glacial ice. Icebergs can contain up to 10% air bubbles by volume. These bubbles are released during melting, producing a fizzing sound that some may call "Bergie Seltzer". This sound results when the water-ice interface reaches compressed air bubbles trapped in the ice. As each bubble bursts it makes a "popping" sound and the acoustic properties of these bubbles can be used to study iceberg melt.


title: Iceberg

text: An iceberg may flip, or capsize, as it melts and breaks apart, changing the center of gravity. Capsizing can occur shortly after calving when the iceberg is young and establishing balance. Icebergs are unpredictable and can capsize anytime and without warning. Large icebergs that break off from a glacier front and flip onto the glacier face can push the entire glacier backwards for a few minutes, producing earthquakes that give off as much energy as an atomic bomb.


title: Iceberg

text: Icebergs are generally white because they are covered in snow, but can be green, blue, yellow, black, striped, or even rainbow-colored. Seawater, algae and lack of air bubbles in the ice can create diverse colors. Sediment can create the dirty black coloration present in some icebergs.


title: Iceberg

text: In addition to size classification (Table 1), icebergs can be classified on the basis of their shapes. The two basic types of iceberg forms are "tabular" and "non-tabular". Tabular icebergs have steep sides and a flat top, much like a plateau, with a length-to-height ratio of more than 5:1.


title: Iceberg

text: This type of iceberg, also known as an "ice island", can be quite large, as in the case of Pobeda Ice Island. Antarctic icebergs formed by breaking off from an ice shelf, such as the Ross Ice Shelf or Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, are typically tabular. The largest icebergs in the world are formed this way.


title: Iceberg

text: Prior to 1914 there was no system in place to track icebergs to guard ships against collisions. despite fatal sinkings of ships by icebergs. In 1907, "SS Kronprinz Wilhelm", a German liner, rammed an iceberg and suffered a crushed bow, but was still able to complete her voyage. The advent of steel ship construction led designers to declare their ships "unsinkable".


title: Iceberg

text: The April 1912 sinking of the "Titanic", which killed 1,496 of its 2,223 passengers and crew, discredited this claim. For the remainder of the ice season of that year, the United States Navy patrolled the waters and monitored ice movements. In November 1913, the International Conference on the Safety of Life at Sea met in London to devise a more permanent system of observing icebergs. Within three months the participating maritime nations had formed the International Ice Patrol (IIP). The goal of the IIP was to collect data on meteorology and oceanography to measure currents, ice-flow, ocean temperature, and salinity levels. They monitored iceberg dangers near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and provided the "limits of all known ice" in that vicinity to the maritime community. The IIP published their first records in 1921, which allowed for a year-by-year comparison of iceberg movement.


title: Iceberg

text: Aerial surveillance of the seas in the early 1930s allowed for the development of charter systems that could accurately detail the ocean currents and iceberg locations. In 1945, experiments tested the effectiveness of radar in detecting icebergs. A decade later, oceanographic monitoring outposts were established for the purpose of collecting data; these outposts continue to serve in environmental study. A computer was first installed on a ship for the purpose of oceanographic monitoring in 1964, which allowed for a faster evaluation of data. By the 1970s, ice-breaking ships were equipped with automatic transmissions of satellite photographs of ice in Antarctica. Systems for optical satellites had been developed but were still limited by weather conditions. In the 1980s, drifting buoys were used in Antarctic waters for oceanographic and climate research. They are equipped with sensors that measure ocean temperature and currents.


title: Iceberg

text: Side looking airborne radar (SLAR) made it possible to acquire images regardless of weather conditions. On November 4, 1995, Canada launched RADARSAT-1. Developed by the Canadian Space Agency, it provides images of Earth for scientific and commercial purposes. This system was the first to use synthetic aperture radar (SAR), which sends microwave energy to the ocean surface and records the reflections to track icebergs. The European Space Agency launched ENVISAT (an observation satellite that orbits the Earth's poles) on March 1, 2002. ENVISAT employs advanced synthetic aperture radar (ASAR) technology, which can detect changes in surface height accurately. The Canadian Space Agency launched RADARSAT-2 in December 2007, which uses SAR and multi-polarization modes and follows the same orbit path as RADARSAT-1.


title: Iceberg

text: Iceberg concentrations and size distributions are monitored worldwide by the U.S. National Ice Center (NIC), established in 1995, which produces analyses and forecasts of Arctic, Antarctic, Great Lakes and Chesapeake Bay ice conditions. More than 95% of the data used in its sea ice analyses are derived from the remote sensors on polar-orbiting satellites that survey these remote regions of the Earth.


title: Iceberg

text: The NIC is the only organization that names and tracks all Antarctic Icebergs. It assigns each iceberg larger than along at least one axis a name composed of a letter indicating its point of origin and a running number. The letters used are as follows:


title: Iceberg

text: The Danish Meteorological Institute monitors iceberg populations around Greenland using data collected by the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) on the Sentinel-1 satellites.


title: Iceberg

text: In Labrador and Newfoundland, iceberg management plans have been developed to protect offshore installations from impacts with icebergs.


title: Iceberg

text: In the late 2010s, a business from the UAE wanted to tow an iceberg from Antarctica to the Middle East, but the plan failed as the estimated cost of $200 million was too high. In 2019, a German company, Polewater, announced plans to tow Antarctic icebergs to places like South Africa.


title: Iceberg

text: Companies have used iceberg water in products such as bottled water, fizzy ice cubes and alcoholic drinks. For example, Iceberg Beer by Quidi Vidi Brewing Company is made from icebergs found around St. John's, Newfoundland. Although annual iceberg supply in Newfoundland and Labrador exceeds the total freshwater consumption of the United States, in 2016 the province introduced a tax on iceberg harvesting and imposed a limit on how much fresh water can be exported yearly.


title: Iceberg

text: The freshwater injected into the ocean by melting icebergs can change the density of the seawater in the vicinity of the iceberg. Fresh melt water released at depth is lighter, and therefore more buoyant, than the surrounding seawater causing it to rise towards the surface. Icebergs can also act as floating breakwaters, impacting ocean waves.


title: Iceberg

text: Icebergs contain variable concentrations of nutrients and minerals that are released into the ocean during melting. Iceberg-derived nutrients, particularly the iron contained in sediments, can fuel blooms of phytoplankton. Samples collected from icebergs in Antarctica, Patagonia, Greenland, Svalbard, and Iceland, however, show that iron concentrations vary significantly, complicating efforts to generalize the impacts of icebergs on marine ecosystems.


title: Iceberg

text: Iceberg B15 calved from the Ross Ice Shelf in 2000 and initially had an area of . It broke apart in November 2002. The largest remaining piece of it, Iceberg B-15A, with an area of , was still the largest iceberg on Earth until it ran aground and split into several pieces October 27, 2005, an event that was observed by seismographs both on the iceberg and across Antarctica. It has been hypothesized that this breakup may also have been abetted by ocean swell generated by an Alaskan storm 6 days earlier and away.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tara (, ; , ), Ārya Tārā, or Shayama Tara, also known as Jetsun Dölma (Tibetan: "rje btsun sgrol ma") is an important figure in Buddhism, especially revered in Tibetan Buddhism. She appears as a female bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism, and as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is known as the "mother of liberation", and represents the virtues of success in work and achievements. She is known as "Duōluó Púsà" (多羅菩薩) in Chinese Buddhism, and as "Tara Bosatsu" (多羅菩薩) in Japan.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā is a meditation deity revered by practitioners of the Tibetan branch of Vajrayana Buddhism to develop certain inner qualities and to understand outer, inner and secret teachings such as karuṇā (compassion), mettā (loving-kindness), and shunyata (emptiness). Tārā may more properly be understood as different aspects of the same quality, as bodhisattvas are often considered personifications of Buddhist methods.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: There is also recognition in some schools of Buddhism of "twenty-one Tārās". A practice text entitled "Praises to the Twenty-One Taras", is the most important text on Tara in Tibetan Buddhism. Another key text is the "Tantra Which is the Source for All the Functions of Tara, Mother of All the Tathagatas".


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: The main Tārā mantra is the same for Buddhists and Hindus alike: . It is pronounced by Tibetans and Buddhists who follow the Tibetan traditions as . The literal translation would be "Oṃ O Tārā, I pray O Tārā, O Swift One, So Be It!"


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Within Tibetan Buddhism Tārā is regarded as a bodhisattva of compassion and action. She is the female aspect of Avalokiteśvara and in some origin stories she comes from his tears:


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: "Then at last Avalokiteshvara arrived at the summit of Marpori, the 'Red Hill', in Lhasa. Gazing out, he perceived that the lake on Otang, the 'Plain of Milk', resembled the Hell of Ceaseless Torment. Myriad beings were undergoing the agonies of boiling, burning, hunger, thirst, yet they never perished, sending forth hideous cries of anguish all the while. When Avalokiteshvara saw this, tears sprang to his eyes. A teardrop from his right eye fell to the plain and became the reverend Bhrikuti, who declared: 'Child of your lineage! As you are striving for the sake of sentient beings in the Land of Snows, intercede in their suffering, and I shall be your companion in this endeavour!' Bhrikuti was then reabsorbed into Avalokiteshvara's right eye, and was reborn in a later life as the Nepalese princess Tritsun. A teardrop from his left eye fell upon the plain and became the reverend Tara. She also declared, 'Child of your lineage! As you are striving for the sake of sentient beings in the Land of Snows, intercede in their suffering, and I shall be your companion in this endeavor!' Tārā was then reabsorbed into Avalokiteshvara's left eye."


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā manifests in many different forms. In Tibet, these forms included Green Tārā's manifestation as the Nepalese Princess (Bhrikuti), and White Tārā's manifestation as the Chinese princess Kongjo (Princess Wencheng).


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā is also known as a saviouress, as a heavenly deity who hears the cries of beings experiencing misery in saṃsāra.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Whether the Tārā figure originated as a Buddhist or Hindu goddess is unclear and remains a source of inquiry among scholars. Mallar Ghosh believes her to have originated as a form of the goddess Durga in the Hindu Puranas. Today, she is worshiped both in Buddhism and in Shaktism (Hinduism) as one of the ten Mahavidyas. It may be true that goddesses entered Buddhism from Shaktism (i.e. the worship of local or folk goddesses prior to the more institutionalized Hinduism which had developed by the early medieval period (i.e. Middle kingdoms of India). According to Beyer, it would seem that the feminine principle makes its first appearance in Buddhism as the goddess who personified prajnaparamita.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā came to be seen as an expression of the compassion of perfected wisdom only later, with her earliest textual reference being the "Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa" (c. 5th–8th centuries CE). The earliest, solidly identifiable image of Tārā is most likely that which is still found today at cave 6 within the rock-cut Buddhist monastic complex of the Ellora Caves in Maharashtra (c. 7th century CE), with her worship being well established by the onset of the Pala Empire in Eastern India (8th century CE).


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā became a very popular Vajrayana deity with the rise of Tantra in 8th-century Pala and, with the movement of Indian Buddhism into Tibet through Padmasambhava, the worship and practices of Tārā became incorporated into Tibetan Buddhism as well. She eventually came to be considered the "Mother of all Buddhas", which usually refers to the enlightened wisdom of the Buddhas, while simultaneously echoing the ancient concept of the Mother Goddess in India.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Independent of whether she is classified as a deity, a Buddha, or a bodhisattva, Tārā remains very popular in Tibet (and Tibetan communities in exile in Northern India), Mongolia, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim and is worshiped in a majority of Buddhist communities throughout the world (see also Guanyin, the female aspect of Avalokitesvara in Chinese Buddhism).


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Today, Green Tara and White Tara are probably the most popular representations of Tara. Green Tara ("Khadiravani") is usually associated with protection from fear and the following eight obscurations: lions (= pride), wild elephants (= delusion/ignorance), fires (= hatred and anger), snakes (= jealousy), bandits and thieves (= wrong views, including fanatical views), bondage (= avarice and miserliness), floods (= desire and attachment), and evil spirits and demons (= deluded doubts). As one of the three deities of long life, White Tara ("Saraswati") is associated with longevity. White Tara counteracts illness and thereby helps to bring about a long life. She embodies the motivation that is compassion and is said to be as white and radiant as the moon.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: In this tale there is a young princess who lives in a different world system, millions of years in the past. Her name is Jnanachandra or Yeshe Dawa, which means "Moon of Primordial Awareness". For quite a number of aeons she makes offerings to the Buddha of that world system, whose name was Tonyo Drupa. She receives special instruction from him concerning bodhicitta - the infinitely compassionate mental state of a bodhisattva. After doing this, some monks approach her and suggest that because of her level of attainment she should next pray to be reborn as a male to progress further. At this point she lets the monks know in no uncertain terms that it is only "weak minded worldlings" who see gender as a barrier to attaining enlightenment. She sadly notes there have been few who wish to work for the welfare of sentient beings in a female form, though. Therefore, she resolves to always be reborn as a female bodhisattva, until samsara is no more. She then stays in a palace in a state of meditation for some ten million years, and the power of this practice releases tens of millions of beings from suffering. As a result of this, Tonyo Drupa tells her she will henceforth manifest supreme bodhi as the Goddess Tārā in many world systems to come.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: With this story in mind, it is interesting to juxtapose this with a quotation from the 14th Dalai Lama about Tārā, spoken at a conference on Compassionate Action in Newport Beach, California in 1989:


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā, then, embodies certain ideals which make her attractive to women practitioners, and her emergence as a Bodhisattva can be seen as a part of Mahayana Buddhism's reaching out to women, and becoming more inclusive even in 6th-century CE India.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā's name literally means "star" or "planet", and therefore she is associated with navigation and travel both literally and metaphorically as spiritual crossing to the 'other side' of the ocean of existence (enlightenment). Hence she is known literally as "she who saves" in Tibetan. In the "108 Names of the Holy Tara", Tara is 'Leader of the caravans ... who showeth the way to those who have lost it' and she is named as "Dhruva", the Sanskrit name for the North Star.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: According to Miranda Shaw, "Motherhood is central to the conception of Tara". Her titles include "loving mother", "supreme mother", "mother of the world", "universal mother" and "mother of all Buddhas".


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: She is most often shown with the blue lotus or night lotus ("utpala"), which releases its fragrance with the appearance of the moon and therefore Tārā is also associated with the moon and night.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā is also a forest goddess, particularly in her form as "Khadiravani", "dweller in the Khadira forest" and is generally associated with plant life, flowers, acacia (khadira) trees and the wind. Because of her association with nature and plants, Tārā is also known as a healing goddess (especially as White Tārā) and as a goddess of nurturing quality and fertility. Her pure land in Mount Potala is described as "Covered with manifold trees and creepers, resounding with the sound of many birds, And with murmur of waterfalls, thronged with wild beasts of many kinds; Many species of flowers grow everywhere." Her association with the wind element (vaayu) also means that she is swift in responding to calls for any aid.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā also embodies many of the qualities of feminine principle. She is known as the Mother of Mercy and Compassion. She is the source, the female aspect of the universe, which gives birth to warmth, compassion and relief from bad karma as experienced by ordinary beings in cyclic existence. She engenders, nourishes, smiles at the vitality of creation, and has sympathy for all beings as a mother does for her children. As Green Tārā she offers succor and protection from all the unfortunate circumstances one can encounter within the samsaric world. As White Tārā she expresses maternal compassion and offers healing to beings who are hurt or wounded, either mentally or psychically. As Red Tārā she teaches discriminating awareness about created phenomena, and how to turn raw desire into compassion and love. As Blue Tārā (Ekajati) she becomes a protector in the Nyingma lineage, who expresses a ferocious, wrathful, female energy whose invocation destroys all Dharmic obstacles that engender good luck and swift spiritual awakening.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Within Tibetan Buddhism, she has 21 major forms in all, each tied to a certain color and energy. And each offers some feminine attribute, of ultimate benefit to the spiritual aspirant who asks for her assistance.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Another quality of feminine principle which she shares with the dakinis is playfulness. As John Blofeld expands upon in "Bodhisattva of Compassion", Tārā is frequently depicted as a young sixteen-year-old girlish woman. She often manifests in the lives of dharma practitioners when they take themselves, or the spiritual path too seriously. There are Tibetan tales in which she laughs at self-righteousness, or plays pranks on those who lack reverence for the feminine. In "Magic Dance: The Display of the Self-Nature of the Five Wisdom Dakinis", Thinley Norbu explores this as "Playmind". Applied to Tārā one could say that her playful mind can relieve ordinary minds which become rigidly serious or tightly gripped by dualistic distinctions. She takes delight in an open mind and a receptive heart then. For in this openness and receptivity her blessings can naturally unfold and her energies can quicken the aspirants spiritual development.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: These qualities of feminine principle then, found an expression in Indian Mahayana Buddhism and the emerging Vajrayana of Tibet, as the many forms of Tārā, as dakinis, as Prajnaparamita, and as many other local and specialized feminine divinities. As the worship of Tārā developed, various prayers, chants and mantras became associated with her. These came out of a felt devotional need, and from her inspiration causing spiritual masters to compose and set down sadhanas, or tantric meditation practices. Two ways of approach to her began to emerge. In one common folk and lay practitioners would simply directly appeal to her to ease some of the travails of worldly life. In the second, she became a Tantric deity whose practice would be used by monks or tantric yogis in order to develop her qualities in themselves, ultimately leading through her to the source of her qualities, which are Enlightenment, Enlightened Compassion, and Enlightened Mind.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā as a focus for tantric deity yoga can be traced back to the time period of Padmasambhava. There is a Red Tārā practice which was given by Padmasambhava to Yeshe Tsogyal. He asked that she hide it as a treasure. It was not until the 20th century, that a great Nyingma lama, Apong Terton rediscovered it. It is said that this lama was reborn as Sakya Trizin, present head of the Sakyapa sect. A monk who had known Apong Terton succeeded in retransmitting it to Sakya Trizin, and the same monk also gave it to Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche, who released it to his western students.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Martin Willson in "In Praise of Tārā" traces many different lineages of Tārā Tantras, that is Tārā scriptures used as Tantric sadhanas. For example, a Tārā sadhana was revealed to Tilopa (988–1069 CE), the human father of the Karma Kagyu. Atisa, the great translator and founder of the Kadampa school of Tibetan Buddhism, was a devotee of Tārā. He composed a praise to her, and three Tārā Sadhanas. Martin Willson's work also contains charts which show origins of her tantras in various lineages, but suffice to say that Tārā as a tantric practice quickly spread from around the 7th century CE onwards, and remains an important part of Vajrayana Buddhism to this day.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: The practices themselves usually present Tārā as a tutelary deity (thug dam, yidam) which the practitioners sees as being a latent aspect of one's mind, or a manifestation in a visible form of a quality stemming from Buddha Jnana. As John Blofeld puts it in "The Tantric Mysticism of Tibet":


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: There are many forms of Tārā, including various popular lists of 21 different emanations of Tārā. Green Tārā, (śyāmatārā) associated with peacefulness and enlightened activity is the most depicted and the central aspect of Tārā from which others such as the 21 Tārās emanate. In her Green form, she is often also known as Khadiravaṇi-Tārā (Tārā of the acacia forest), who appeared to Nagarjuna in the Khadiravani forest of South India and protects from the eight great fears. She is often accompanied by her two attendants Mārīcī and Ekajaṭā. Dharmachari Purna writes on the various forms of Tara:


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: According to Sarvajnamitra she has a "universal form" ("visva-rupa"), that encompasses all living beings and deities, and which changes with the needs of each being.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Tārā's iconography such as the lotus also shows resemblance with the Hindu goddess Lakshmi, and at least one Tibetan liturgy evokes Lakshmi as Tārā. According to Shaw, there is a later trend of Tārā theology that began to see all other female divinities as aspects of Tārā or at least associated with her. Apart from her many emanations named Tārā of varying colors, other Mahayana female divinities that became part of Tara's theology include Janguli, Parnasabari, Cunda, Kurukulla, Mahamayuri, Usnisavijaya, and Marici. Based on this principle of Tārā as the central female divinity, Dakinis were also seen as emanations of her.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Sadhanas in which Tārā is the yidam (meditational deity) can be extensive or quite brief. Most all of them include some introductory praises or homages to invoke her presence and prayers of taking refuge. Then her mantra is recited, followed by a visualization of her, perhaps more mantra, then the visualization is dissolved, followed by a dedication of the merit from doing the practice. Additionally there may be extra prayers of aspirations, and a long life prayer for the Lama who originated the practice. Many of the Tārā sadhanas are seen as beginning practices within the world of Vajrayana Buddhism, however what is taking place during the visualization of the deity actually invokes some of the most sublime teachings of all Buddhism.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: In this case during the creation phase of Tārā as a yidam, she is seen as having as much reality as any other phenomena apprehended through the mind. By reciting her mantra and visualizing her form in front, or on the head of the adept, one is opening to her energies of compassion and wisdom. After a period of time the practitioner shares in some of these qualities, becomes imbued with her being and all it represents. At the same time all of this is seen as coming out of Emptiness and having a translucent quality like a rainbow. Then many times there is a visualization of oneself as Tārā. One simultaneously becomes inseparable from all her good qualities while at the same time realizing the emptiness of the visualization of oneself as the yidam and also the emptiness of one's ordinary self.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: This occurs in the completion stage of the practice. One dissolves the created deity form and at the same time also realizes how much of what we call the "self" is a creation of the mind, and has no long term substantial inherent existence. This part of the practice then is preparing the practitioner to be able to confront the dissolution of one's self at death and ultimately be able to approach through various stages of meditation upon emptiness, the realization of Ultimate Truth as a vast display of Emptiness and Luminosity. At the same time the recitation of the mantra has been invoking Tārā's energy through its Sanskrit seed syllables and this purifies and activates certain energy centers of the body (chakras). This also untangles knots of psychic energy which have hindered the practitioner from developing a Vajra body, which is necessary to be able to progress to more advanced practices and deeper stages of realization.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Therefore, even in a simple Tārā sadhana a plethora of outer, inner, and secret events is taking place and there are now many works such as "Deity Yoga", compiled by the present Dalai Lama, which explores all the ramifications of working with a yidam in Tantric practices.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: The end results of doing such Tārā practices are many. For one thing it reduces the forces of delusion in the forms of negative karma, sickness, afflictions of kleshas, and other obstacles and obscurations.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: The mantra helps generate Bodhicitta within the heart of the practitioner and purifies the psychic channels (nadis) within the body allowing a more natural expression of generosity and compassion to flow from the heart center. Through experiencing Tārā's perfected form one acknowledges one's own perfected form, that is one's intrinsic Buddha nature, which is usually covered over by obscurations and clinging to dualistic phenomena as being inherently real and permanent.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: The practice then weans one away from a coarse understanding of Reality, allowing one to get in touch with inner qualities similar to those of a bodhisattva, and prepares one's inner self to embrace finer spiritual energies, which can lead to more subtle and profound realizations of the Emptiness of phenomena and self.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: As Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche, in his "Introduction to the Red Tārā Sadhana", notes of his lineage: "Tārā is the flawless expression of the inseparability of emptiness, awareness and compassion. Just as you use a mirror to see your face, Tārā meditation is a means of seeing the true face of your mind, devoid of any trace of delusion".


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: There are several preparations to be done before practising the Sadhana. To perform a correct execution the practitioner must be prepared and take on the proper disposition. The preparations may be grouped as "internal" and "external". Both are necessary to achieve the required concentration.


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Terma teachings are "hidden teachings" said to have been left by Padmasambhava (8th century) and others for the benefit of future generations. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo discovered Phagme Nyingthig (Tib. spelling: 'chi med 'phags ma'i snying thig, Innermost Essence teachings of the Immortal Bodhisattva <nowiki>[Arya Tārā]</nowiki>).


title: Tara (Buddhism)

text: Earlier in the 19th century, according to a biography, Nyala Pema Dündul received a Hidden Treasure, Tārā Teaching and Nyingthig (Tib. nying thig) from his uncle Kunsang Dudjom (Tib. kun bzang bdud 'joms). It is not clear from the source whether the terma teaching and the nyingthig teachings refer to the same text or two different texts.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: The fifth-generation Chevrolet Camaro is a pony car that was manufactured by American automobile manufacturer Chevrolet from 2010 to 2015 model years. It is the fifth distinct generation of the muscle/pony car to be produced since its original introduction in 1967. Production of the fifth generation model began on March 16, 2009 after several years on hiatus since the previous generation's production ended in 2002 and went on sale to the public in April 2009 for the 2010 model year.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: By spring 2005, the first concept car of the fifth-generation of the Camaro was in development. Several sketches of both exterior and interior were drawn to show how the car was going to look; those sketches were shown months later to the public. Once sketches were finished, the Camaro was constructed as a clay model which was complete by fall 2005 and was shown to the public in early 2006.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: After the public introduction of the concept cars, Chevrolet started constructing several camouflaged test mules of the Camaro which were manufactured by Holden costing about US$250,000 each. These vehicles were used for crash testing, test driving, and to handle extreme weather conditions such as in Canada, Arizona, and Australia. By January 2008, Chevrolet announced that the test mules will not be camouflaged and various images of the Camaro were released in the same year, including pre-production models.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: On August 10, 2006, GM Chairman and CEO Rick Wagoner announced that the company would build an all-new version of the Chevrolet Camaro based on the award-winning concept that debuted at the 2006 Detroit auto show in January 2006. The new Camaro was originally scheduled to begin production in 2008 and to go on sale in the first quarter of 2009 for the 2009 model year, but General Motors stated in March 2008 that production would be delayed until February 2009 with the Camaro going on sale in the spring of 2009 for the 2010 model year.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: Chevrolet General Manager Ed Peper stated that the new Camaro "will appeal to both men and women, and unite customers with fond memories of previous Camaros with those who first experienced a Camaro" when the concept was unveiled in January 2006. Bob Lutz's post on the "GM FastLane Blog" for August 10, 2006 thanked everyone in the blogosphere who commented and offered feedback on the Camaro.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: Following the development of the Zeta architecture and because of its position as the GM global center of RWD development, GM Holden in Australia led the final design, engineering, and development of the Camaro. Original plans for the car included sharing the chassis with the Impala, which was to be switched to the Zeta platform. However, a 2007 energy law drastically changing the Corporate Average Fuel Economy forced GM to scuttle plans for replacing the W-Body platform of the Impala. The new Camaro was produced at the Oshawa Car Assembly manufacturing plant in Canada. 2,750 jobs would have been lost at the Oshawa manufacturing plant which had been originally scheduled to be closed in 2008; some of these jobs were saved due to the new Camaro's production. This new product program and conversion of the Oshawa plant to a state of the art flexible manufacturing facility represented a US$740,000,000 investment.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: The Camaro was made available as a coupe in five different trim levels; the LS, 1LT, 2LT, 1SS, and 2SS. The LS and LT trim levels are powered by the GM LLT V6 engine having a power output of at 6,400 rpm and of torque at 5,200 rpm. The SS with manual transmission is powered by the 6.2 L () GM LS3 V8 engine rated at at 5,900 rpm and of torque at 4,600 rpm while the SS with automatic transmission is powered by a new variant of the LS3 called the GM L99 which produces at 5,900 rpm and of torque at 4,300 rpm. The L99 V8 engine, not to be confused with the earlier LT-series L99, uses Active Fuel Management which enables the engine to run on only four cylinders during urban driving conditions, such as highway cruising, to improve fuel economy.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: Other features include a fully independent four-wheel suspension system, variable-rate power steering, four-wheel disc brakes standard on all models (four-piston Brembo calipers on SS models), a StabiliTrak electronic stability/traction control system, Competitive/Sport modes for the stability system offered on SS models, launch control on SS models equipped with the six-speed manual transmission, and 6 standard air bags that include head curtain side-impact air bags and front seat-mounted thorax side air bags. An RS appearance package was available on LT and SS trim levels which included HID headlamps with integrated halo rings, a rear spoiler, and RS-specific taillamps and wheels. Rally and hockey stripe packages were made available in several colors as well.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: The Camaro was unveiled at the Warren Technical Center, followed by GM Holden's Melbourne headquarters, Yokohama Red Brick Park,


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: On July 22, 2009, to coincide with the release of , GM announced a Transformers Special Edition appearance package for the 2010 Camaro at the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con. The appearance package (RPO code: CTH) could be applied to LT and SS trims with or without the optional RS package and could only be applied to orders made in the Rally Yellow exterior scheme. The package included an Autobot shield badge on the driver and passenger side fenders underneath the Camaro nameplate, Autobot shield on each of the four wheel's center cap, Autobot shield embroidered on interior center console, Transformers logo on driver and passenger doors' sill plates replacing the original "Camaro" labeled plates, and high-gloss black center rally stripes with the Transformers ghost logo embedded. This then made the 2010 Camaro resemble the Bumblebee Camaro from the 2007 movie, often referred to as T1 Bumblebee. Production of the add-on package ceased on January 12, 2010 with an estimated 1,500 units produced. 1,916 units were finally produced at the end of 2010.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)

text: On January 14, 2010, GM announced the production version of the Synergy Concept Camaro originally shown at the 2009 SEMA show. The Synergy Special Edition (RPO code: GHS) for the 2010 model year is based on the Camaro 1LT/2LT model and features the limited Synergy Green exterior color scheme. Though the edition is from the SEMA concept there are certain accessories that did not come on the production unit such as the high wing spoiler, Black painted wheels and ground effects kit. The production units came accented by Cyber Grey Rally Stripes running the length of the Camaro hood and rear deck. Other exterior features include a standard rear spoiler found on RS and SS packages replacing the high wing and standard Sterling Silver painted wheels wrapped with P245/50R19 tires, backup radar and a sunroof. The color scheme is carried over on the interior with a Synergy Green instrument panel and door inserts with green ambient lighting that run along the door panels. Synergy Green stitching also accents the Jet Black cloth seats, steering wheel, shift knob, and center console. Other standard features include paddle shifters, the Convenience and Connectivity Package which offers Bluetooth phone connectivity, a USB port for MP3 players, and remote vehicle start for models equipped with an automatic transmission. Though this edition of the Camaro has certain accessories that come available with the RS package, the RS package itself was not available to purchase with the Synergy Camaro order. The Synergy Special Edition was available in limited production from February 2010 to May 2010, a total of 2425 were sold.