title: Cod Wars

text: In 1896, the United Kingdom made an agreement with Denmark for British vessels to use any Icelandic port for shelter if they stowed their gear and trawl nets. In return, British vessels were not to fish in Faxa Bay east of a line from Ílunýpa, a promontory near Keflavík to Þormóðssker (43.43° N, 22.30° W).


title: Cod Wars

text: With many British trawlers being charged and fined by Danish gunboats for fishing illegally within the limit, which the British government refused to recognise, the British press began to enquire why the Danish action against British interests was allowed to continue without intervention by the Royal Navy. The British made a show of naval force (gunboat diplomacy) in 1896 and 1897.


title: Cod Wars

text: In April 1899, the steam trawler "Caspian" was fishing off the Faroe Islands when a Danish gunboat tried to arrest her for allegedly fishing illegally inside the limits. The trawler refused to stop and was fired upon first with blank shells and then with live ammunition. Eventually, the trawler was caught, but before the skipper, Charles Henry Johnson, left his ship to go aboard the Danish gunboat, he ordered the mate to make a dash for it after he went on to the Danish ship. The "Caspian" set off at full speed. The gunboat fired several shots at the unarmed boat but could not catch up with the trawler, which returned, heavily damaged, to Grimsby, England. On board the Danish gunboat, the skipper of the "Caspian" was lashed to the mast. A court held at Thorshavn convicted him on several counts including illegal fishing and attempted assault, and he was jailed for 30 days.


title: Cod Wars

text: The 'Anglo-Danish Territorial Waters Agreement' of 1901 set a territorial waters limit, measured narrowly, around each party's coastlines: this applied to Iceland as (at the time) part of Denmark and had a term of 50 years.


title: Cod Wars

text: The Icelandic fisheries grew in importance for the British fishing industry around the end of the 19th century. The reduction in fishing activity brought about by the hostilities of the First World War effectively ended the dispute for a time.


title: Cod Wars

text: While data is incomplete for the prewar period, one historian argues that the Icelandic fishing grounds were 'very important' to the British fishing industry as a whole. Data from 1919 to 1938 showed a significant increase in the British total catches in Icelandic waters. The British catches in Iceland were more than twice the combined catches of all other grounds of the British distant water fleet. Icelanders grew increasingly dismayed at the British presence.


title: Cod Wars

text: In October 1949, Iceland initiated the two-year abrogation process of the agreement made between Denmark and the United Kingdom in 1901. The fishery limits to the north of Iceland were extended to . However, since the British trawling fleet did not use those grounds, the northern extension was not a source of significant contention between the two states. Initially planning to extend the rest of its fishery limits by the end of the two-year abrogation period, Iceland chose to postpone its extension to wait for the outcome of the UK–Norway fisheries case in the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which was decided in December 1951.


title: Cod Wars

text: Icelanders were satisfied with the ICJ ruling, as they believed that Iceland's preferred extensions were similar to those afforded to Norway in the ICJ ruling. The UK and Iceland tried to negotiate a solution but were unable to reach agreement. The Icelandic government declared, on 19 March 1952, its intention to extend its fishery limits on 15 May 1952.


title: Cod Wars

text: Iceland and the United Kingdom were involved in a dispute from May 1952 to November 1956 over Iceland's unilateral extension of its fishery limits from . Unlike in the Cod Wars, the Royal Navy was never sent into Icelandic waters. The British trawling industry, however, implemented costly sanctions on Iceland by imposing a landing ban on Icelandic fish in British ports. The landing ban was a major blow to the Icelandic fishing industry (the UK was Iceland's largest export market for fish) and caused consternation among Icelandic statesmen. The two sides decided to refer one part of the Icelandic extension to the ICJ in early 1953: the controversial Faxa Bay delimitation.


title: Cod Wars

text: In May 1953, businessman George Dawson signed an agreement with the Icelandic trawler owners to buy fish landed in Britain. Seven landings were made but the merchants who bought from Dawson were blacklisted and he was unable to distribute the fish effectively himself.


title: Cod Wars

text: Cold War politics proved favourable for Iceland, as the Soviet Union, seeking influence in Iceland, stepped in to purchase Icelandic fish. The United States, fearing greater Soviet influence in Iceland, also did so and persuaded Spain and Italy to do likewise.


title: Cod Wars

text: Soviet and American involvement resulted in weakening the punitive effects of the British landing ban. Some scholars refer to the dispute of 1952 to 1956 as one of the Cod Wars, as the object of the dispute and its costs and risks were all similar to those in the other three Cod Wars.


title: Cod Wars

text: Just as the other Cod Wars, the dispute ended with Iceland achieving its aims, as the Icelandic fishery limits were recognized by the United Kingdom, following a decision by the Organisation of European Economic Co-operation in 1956.


title: Cod Wars

text: Two years later, in 1958, the United Nations convened the first International Conference on the Law of the Sea, which was attended by 86 states. Several countries sought to extend the limits of their territorial waters to , but the conference did not reach any firm conclusions.


title: Cod Wars

text: The First Cod War lasted from 1 September 1958 to 11 March 1961. It began as soon as a new Icelandic law came into force and expanded the Icelandic fishery zone from at midnight on 1 September 1958.


title: Cod Wars

text: All members of NATO opposed the unilateral Icelandic extension. The British declared that their trawlers would fish under protection from their warships in three areas: out of the Westfjords, north of Horn and southeast of Iceland. In all, twenty British trawlers, four warships and a supply vessel were inside the newly declared zones. The deployment was expensive; in February 1960, Lord Carrington, the First Lord of the Admiralty, responsible for the Royal Navy, stated that the ships near Iceland had expended half a million pounds sterling worth of oil since the new year and that a total of 53 British warships had taken part in the operations. Against that, Iceland could deploy seven patrol vessels and a single PBY-6A Catalina flying boat.


title: Cod Wars

text: The deployment of the Royal Navy to contested waters led to protests in Iceland. Demonstrations against the British embassy were met with taunts by the British ambassador, Andrew Gilchrist, as he played bagpipe music and military marches on his gramophone. Many incidents followed. The Icelanders were, however, at a disadvantage in patrolling the contested waters because of the size of the area and the limited number of patrol ships. According to one historian, "only the flagship "Þór" () could effectively arrest and, if necessary, tow a trawler to harbour".


title: Cod Wars

text: On 4 September, ICGV "Ægir", an Icelandic patrol vessel built in 1929, attempted to take a British trawler off the Westfjords, but was thwarted when HMS "Russell" intervened, and the two vessels collided. On 6 October, V/s "María Júlía" fired three shots at the trawler "Kingston Emerald", forcing the trawler to escape to sea. On 12 November, V/s "Þór" encountered the trawler "Hackness", which had not stowed its nets legally. "Hackness" did not stop until "Þór" had fired two blanks and one live shell off its bow. Once again, HMS "Russell" came to the rescue, and its shipmaster ordered the Icelandic captain to leave the trawler alone, as it was not within the limit recognised by the British government. The captain of "Þór", Eiríkur Kristófersson, said that he would not do so and ordered his men to approach the trawler with the gun manned. In response, the "Russell" threatened to sink the Icelandic boat if it fired a shot at the "Hackness". More British ships then arrived, and the "Þór" retreated.


title: Cod Wars

text: Icelandic officials threatened to withdraw Iceland's membership of NATO and to expel US forces from Iceland unless a satisfactory conclusion could be reached to the dispute. Even the cabinet members who were pro-Western (proponents of NATO and the US Defence Agreement) were forced to resort to the threats, as that was Iceland's chief leverage, and it would have been political suicide not to use it. Thus, NATO engaged in formal and informal mediations to bring an end to the dispute.


title: Cod Wars

text: Following the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea between 1960 and 1961, the UK and Iceland came to a settlement in late February 1961, which stipulated Icelandic fishery limits but that Britain would have fishing rights in allocated zones and under certain seasons in the outer for three years. The Icelandic Althing approved the agreement on 11 March 1961.


title: Cod Wars

text: The deal was very similar to one that Iceland had offered in the weeks and days leading up to its unilateral extension in 1958. As part of the agreement, it was stipulated that any future disagreement between Iceland and Britain in the matter of fishery zones would be sent to the International Court of Justice, in the Hague.


title: Cod Wars

text: The Second Cod War between the United Kingdom and Iceland lasted from September 1972 until the signing of a temporary agreement, in November 1973.


title: Cod Wars

text: The Icelandic government again extended its fishing limits, now to . It had two goals in extending the limits: (1) to conserve fish stocks and (2) to increase its share of total catches. The reasons that Iceland pursued 50 nmi fishery limits, rather than the 200 nmi limits that they had also considered, were that the most fruitful fishing grounds were within the 50 nmi and that patrolling a 200 nmi limit would have been more difficult.


title: Cod Wars

text: The British contested the Icelandic extension with two goals in mind: (1) to achieve the greatest possible catch quota for British fishermen in the contested waters and (2) to prevent a "de facto" recognition of a unilateral extension of a fishery jurisdiction, which would set a precedent for other extensions.


title: Cod Wars

text: All Western European states and the Warsaw Pact opposed Iceland's unilateral extension. African states declared support for Iceland's extension after a meeting in 1971 where the Icelandic prime minister argued that the Icelandic cause was a part of a broader battle against colonialism and imperialism.


title: Cod Wars

text: On 1 September 1972, the enforcement of the law that expanded the Icelandic fishery limits to began. Numerous British and West German trawlers continued fishing within the new zone on the first day. The Icelandic leftist coalition then governing ignored the treaty that stipulated the involvement of the International Court of Justice. It said that it was not bound by agreements made by the previous centre-right government, with Lúdvik Jósepsson, the fisheries minister, stating that "the basis for our independence is economic independence". The next day, the brand-new patrol ship ICGV "Ægir", built in 1968, chased 16 trawlers, in waters east of the country, out of the 50 nmi zone. The Icelandic Coast Guard started to use net cutters to cut the trawling lines of non-Icelandic vessels fishing within the new exclusion zone.


title: Cod Wars

text: On 5 September 1972, at 10:25, ICGV "Ægir", under Guðmundur Kjærnested's command, encountered an unmarked trawler fishing northeast of Hornbanki. The master of the black-hulled trawler refused to divulge the trawler's name and number and, after being warned to follow the Coast Guard's orders, played "Rule, Britannia!" over the radio. At 10:40, the net cutter was deployed into the water for the first time, and "Ægir" sailed along the trawler's port side. The fishermen tossed a thick nylon rope into the water as the patrol ship closed in, attempting to disable its propeller. After passing the trawler, "Ægir" veered to the trawler's starboard side. The net cutter, behind the patrol vessel, sliced one of the trawling wires. As ICGV "Ægir" came about to circle the unidentified trawler, its angry crew threw coal as well as waste and a large fire axe at the Coast Guard vessel. A considerable amount of swearing and shouting came through the radio, which resulted in the trawler being identified as "Peter Scott" (H103).


title: Cod Wars

text: On 25 November 1972, a crewman on the German trawler "Erlangen" suffered a head injury as an Icelandic patrolship cut the trawler's trawling wire, which struck the crewman. On 18 January 1973, the nets of 18 trawlers were cut. That forced the British seamen to leave the Icelandic fishery zone unless they had the protection of the Royal Navy. The next day large, fast tugboats were sent to their defence, the first being the "Statesman". The British considered that to be insufficient and formed a special group to defend the trawlers.


title: Cod Wars

text: On 23 January 1973, the volcano Eldfell on Heimaey erupted, forcing the Coast Guard to divert its attention to rescuing the inhabitants of the small island.


title: Cod Wars

text: On 17 May 1973, the British trawlers left the Icelandic waters, only to return two days later when they were escorted by British frigates. The naval deployment was codenamed Operation Dewey. Hawker Siddeley Nimrod jets flew over the contested waters and notified British frigates and trawlers of the whereabouts of Icelandic patrolships. Icelandic statesmen were infuriated by the entry of the Royal Navy and considered to appeal to the UN Security Council or call for Article 5 of the NATO Charter to be implemented. According to Frederick Irving, US ambassador to Iceland at the time, Icelandic prime minister Ólafur Jóhannesson demanded that the US send jets to bomb the British frigates. There were major protests in Reykjavík on 24 May 1973. All the windows of the British embassy in Reykjavík were broken.


title: Cod Wars

text: On 26 May, ICGV "Ægir" ordered the Grimsby trawler "Everton" to stop, but the captain of the fishing vessel refused to submit. The incident was followed by a protracted pursuit during which "Ægir" fired first blank warning shots, later live rounds in order to disable the trawler. "Everton" was hit on her bow by four 57 mm shells and water began to rush in, but managed to limp to the protection zone, where she was assisted by the frigate . Emergency repairs were carried out by a naval team from "Jupiter". Prime minister Ólafur Jóhannesson said about the incident that this was "a natural and inevitable law‐enforcement action".


title: Cod Wars

text: The Icelandic lighthouse tender V/s "Árvakur" collided with four British vessels on 1 June, and six days later, on 7 June, ICGV "Ægir" collided with , when the former was reconnoitring for icebergs off the Westfjords, near the edge of the Greenland ice sheet. The Icelandic Coast Guard reported that "Scylla" had been "shadowing and harassing" the Icelandic patrol boat. The British Ministry of Defense claimed that the gunboat intentionally rammed the British frigate.


title: Cod Wars

text: On 29 August the Icelandic Coast Guard suffered the only confirmed fatality of the conflict, when ICGV "Ægir" collided with . Halldór Hallfreðsson, an engineer on board the Icelandic vessel, died by electrocution from his welding equipment after sea water flooded the compartment in which he was making hull repairs.


title: Cod Wars

text: On 16 September 1973, Joseph Luns, Secretary-General of NATO, arrived in Reykjavík to talk with Icelandic ministers, who had been pressed to leave NATO, as it had been of no help to Iceland in the conflict. Britain and Iceland were both NATO members. The Royal Navy made use of bases in Iceland during the Cold War to fulfill its primary NATO duty, guarding the Greenland-Iceland-UK gap.


title: Cod Wars

text: After a series of talks within NATO, British warships were recalled on 3 October. Trawlermen played "Rule Britannia!" over their radios, as they had done when the Royal Navy entered the waters. They also played "The Party's Over". An agreement was signed on 8 November to limit British fishing activities to certain areas inside the 50 nmi limit. The agreement, resolving the dispute, was approved by the Althing on 13 November 1973. The agreement was based on the premise that British trawlers would limit their annual catch to no more than 130,000 tons. The Icelanders were reportedly prepared to settle for 156,000 tons in July 1972 but had increased their demands by spring of 1973 and coffered 117,000 tons (the British demanded 145,000 tons in spring 1973). The agreement expired in November 1975, and the third "Cod War" began.


title: Cod Wars

text: The Second Cod War threatened Iceland's membership in NATO and the US military presence in Iceland. It was the closest that Iceland has come to canceling its bilateral Defence Agreement with the US.


title: Cod Wars

text: Icelandic NATO membership and hosting of US military had considerable importance to Cold War strategy because of Iceland's location in the middle of the GIUK gap.


title: Cod Wars

text: After the entry of the Royal Navy into the contested waters, at any given time, four frigates and an assortment of tugboats would generally protect the British trawling fleet. Over the course of this Cod War, a total of 32 British frigates had entered the contested waters.


title: Cod Wars

text: On 19 July 1974, more than nine months after the signing of the agreement, one of the largest wet fish stern trawlers in the British fleet, "C. S. Forester", which had been fishing inside the limit, was shelled and captured by the Icelandic gunboat V/s "Þór" () after a pursuit. "C. S. Forester" was shelled with non-explosive ammunition after repeated warnings. The trawler was hit by at least two rounds, which damaged the engine room and a water tank. She was later boarded and towed to Iceland. Skipper Richard Taylor was sentenced to 30 days imprisonment and fined £5,000. He was released on bail after the owners paid £2,232. Her owners additionally paid a total of £26,300 for the release of the ship. The trawler was allowed to depart with a catch of 200 tons of fish.


title: Cod Wars

text: At the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1973, several countries supported a limit to territorial waters. On 15 July 1975, the Icelandic government announced its intention to extend its fishery limits. The Third Cod War (November 1975 – June 1976) began after Iceland again extended its fishing limits, now to from its coast. The British government did not recognise the large increase to the exclusion zone and so an issue occurred with British fishermen and their activity in the disputed zone. The conflict, which was the most hard-fought of the Cod Wars, saw British fishing trawlers have their nets cut by the Icelandic Coast Guard, and there were several incidents of ramming by Icelandic ships and British trawlers, frigates and tugboats.


title: Cod Wars

text: One of the most serious incidents occurred on 11 December 1975. As reported by Iceland, V/s "Þór", under the command of Helgi Hallvarðsson, was leaving port at Seyðisfjörður, where it had been minesweeping, when orders were received to investigate the presence of unidentified foreign vessels at the mouth of the fjord. The vessels were identified as three British ships: "Lloydsman", an oceangoing tug three times bigger than V/s "Þór"; "Star Aquarius", an oil rig supply vessel of British Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food; and the latter's sister ship, "Star Polaris". They were sheltering from a force nine gale within Iceland's territorial waters. In the Icelandic account, when ordered to leave Icelandic territorial waters by the commander of "Þór", the three tugboats initially complied. However, around from the coast, "Star Aquarius" allegedly veered to starboard and hit "Þór" port side as the Coast Guards attempted to overtake her. Even as "Þór" increased speed, "Lloydsman" again collided with its port side. "Þór" had suffered considerable damage by these hits and so when "Star Aquarius" came about, a blank round was fired from "Þór". That did not deter "Star Aquarius", as it hit "Þór" a second time. Another shot was fired from "Þór" as a result, this time a live round that hit the bow of "Star Aquarius". Then, the tugboats retreated. V/s "Þór", which was close to sinking after the confrontation, sailed to Loðmundarfjörður for temporary repairs.


title: Cod Wars

text: The British reports of the incident differ considerably and maintain that "Þór" attempted to board one of the tugboats, and as "Þór" broke away, "Lloydsman" surged forward to protect "Star Aquarius". Captain Albert MacKenzie of "Star Aquarius" said that "Þór" approached from the stern and hit the support vessel before it veered off and fired a shot from a range of about . Niels Sigurdsson, the Icelandic Ambassador in London, said that "Þór" had been firing in self-defence after it had been rammed by British vessels. Iceland consulted the UN Security Council over the incident, which declined to intervene.


title: Cod Wars

text: The immediate Royal Navy response was to dispatch a large frigate force, which was already well on the way to Icelandic waters, before the Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, or the Foreign Secretary, Anthony Crosland, were informed. The Royal Navy saw the opportunity to demonstrate the capabilities of its older Type 12 and Type 81 frigates for sustained deployment in the area of the Denmark Strait, where they were expected to deter the passage of Soviet submarines while the Royal Navy was threatened by further serious defence and naval cuts by the Royal Navy's chief "bête noire", the Chancellor of Exchequer and former Minister of Defence, Denis Healey. The Royal Navy saw its strategic aim at the time to be as much fighting Healey as the Soviet Navy. The Second and Third Cod Wars were seen as necessary conflicts by the Royal Navy, like the Falklands War, six years later. To Crosland, also MP for the trawler port of Grimsby, the third war was a more serious threat to the Western Alliance than was the Middle East.


title: Cod Wars

text: Another incident occurred in January 1976, when collided with "Þór", which sustained a hole in its hull; the hull of "Andromeda" was dented. The British Ministry of Defence said that the collision represented a "deliberate attack" on the British warship "without regard for life". The Icelandic Coast Guard, on the other hand, insisted that "Andromeda" had rammed "Þór" by "overtaking the boat and then swiftly changing course". After the incident and facing a growing number of ships enduring dockyard repairs, the Royal Navy ordered a "more cautious approach" in dealing with "the enemy cutting the trawlers' warps".


title: Cod Wars

text: On 19 February 1976, the British Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Fred Preat, announced that a fisherman from Grimsby had become the first British casualty of the Third Cod War, when a hawser hit and seriously injured him after Icelandic vessels cut a trawl. While a British parliamentary source reported in a 1993 debate that a British trawlerman was accidentally killed by a solid shot fired by an Icelandic patrol boat, this suggestion has not been corroborated by any other historical source.


title: Cod Wars

text: Britain deployed a total of 22 frigates and ordered the reactivation from reserve of the Type 41 frigate and Type 61 , refitting them as specialist ramming craft with reinforced wooden bows. In addition to the frigates, the British also deployed a total of seven supply ships, nine tugboats and three support ships to protect its fishing trawlers, but only six to nine of the vessels were on deployment at any one time. The Royal Navy was prepared to accept serious damage to its Cold War frigate fleet, costing millions and disabling part of its North Atlantic capacity for more than a year. had its bow torn off, had a 40 ft gash ripped through her hull, and suffered such structural damage from ramming by Icelandic gunboats that it had to be reduced to a moored operational training frigate. Iceland deployed four patrol vessels (V/s "Óðinn", V/s "Þór", V/s "Týr", and V/s "Ægir") and two armed trawlers (V/s "Baldur" and V/s "Ver"). The Icelandic government tried to acquire US s and when it was denied by Henry Kissinger, it tried to acquire Soviet s instead.


title: Cod Wars

text: A more serious turn of events came when Iceland threatened closure of the NATO base at Keflavík, which would have severely impaired NATO's ability to deny access to the Atlantic Ocean to the Soviet Union. As a result, the British government agreed to have its fishermen stay outside Iceland's exclusion zone without a specific agreement.


title: Cod Wars

text: On the evening of 6 May 1976, after the outcome of the Third Cod War had already been decided, V/s "Týr" was trying to cut the nets of the trawler "Carlisle" when Captain Gerald Plumer of ordered it rammed. "Falmouth", at a speed of more than , rammed "Týr", almost capsizing her. "Týr" did not sink and managed to cut the nets of "Carlisle", and "Falmouth" rammed it again. "Týr" was heavily damaged and found herself propelled by only a single screw and pursued by the tugboat "Statesman". In the dire situation, Captain Guðmundur Kjærnested gave orders to man the guns, in spite of the overwhelming superiority of firepower HMS "Falmouth" enjoyed, to deter any further ramming. In return, "Falmouth" suffered heavy bow damage. The Third Cod War saw 55 ramming incidents altogether.


title: Cod Wars

text: In NATO-mediated sessions, an agreement was reached between Iceland and the UK on 1 June 1976. The British were allowed to keep 24 trawlers within the 200 nmi limit and fish a total of 30,000 tons.


title: Cod Wars

text: While Iceland came closest to withdrawing from NATO and expelling US forces in the Second Cod War, Iceland actually took the most serious action in all of the Cod Wars in the Third Cod War by ending diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 19 February 1976. Although the Icelandic government was firmly pro-Western, the government linked Iceland's NATO membership with the outcomes of the fishery dispute. If a favourable outcome could not be reached, Iceland implied that it would withdraw from NATO. However, the government never explicitly linked the US Defence Agreement to the outcome of the dispute.


title: Cod Wars

text: Iceland achieved its overall aims. As a result, the already-declining British fisheries were hit hard by being excluded from historical prime fishing grounds and the economies of the large northern fishing ports in the United Kingdom, such as Grimsby, Hull, and Fleetwood, were severely affected, with thousands of skilled fishermen and people in related trades being put out of work. The cost for repairing the damaged Royal Navy frigates was probably over £1 million at the time.


title: Cod Wars

text: In 2012, the British government offered a multimillion-pound compensation deal and apology to fishermen who lost their livelihoods in the 1970s. More than 35 years after the workers lost their jobs, the £1,000 compensation offered to 2,500 fishermen was criticised for being insufficient and excessively delayed.


title: Cod Wars

text: A 2016 review article finds that the underlying drivers behind the desire to extend fishery limits were economic and legal for Iceland, but they were economic and strategic for the United Kingdom. It, however, argues that "these underlying causes account for the tensions but are not enough to explain why bargaining failure occurred". After all, the outbreak of each Cod War was costly and risky for both sides.


title: Cod Wars

text: Several factors are mentioned to explain why bargaining failure occurred. The nature of nationalism and party competition for Iceland and pressure from the trawling industry for Britain are reasons that both sides took actions that were of noticeable risk to their broader security interests. Interdepartmental competition and unilateral behaviour by individual diplomats were also factors, with the British Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries influencing the British government's decision "more than the Foreign Office".


title: Cod Wars

text: A 2017 study argues that both a combination of powerful domestic pressures on statesmen to escalate and miscalculation by those statesmen contributed to the outbreak of the Cod Wars. The study argues that Iceland won each of the Cod Wars because Icelandic statesmen were too greatly constrained by domestic politics to offer compromises to the British, but British statesmen were not as constrained by public opinion at home.


title: Cod Wars

text: International relations scholars such as Robert Keohane, Joseph Nye, Hans Morgenthau, Henry Kissinger and Ned Lebow have written on the Cod Wars.


title: Cod Wars

text: The 2016 review article finds that lessons from the Cod Wars have most commonly been applied to liberal and realist schools of international relations theory and theories on asymmetric bargaining. It claims that the Cod Wars are widely seen as inconsistent with the precepts of the liberal peace, since democracy, trade and institutions are supposed to pacify interstate behaviour. A 2017 study argues that the "supposedly pacifying factors of the liberal peace – democracy, trade and institutional ties – effectively made the disputes more contentious". The Cod Wars are also held up as an example of the decreasing salience of hard power in international relations, with implications for realist theory which emphasizes the importance of hard power. Theorists on asymmetric bargaining have emphasized how Iceland, lacking structural power, can still have an issue power advantage, with its greater commitment to the cause.


title: Cod Wars

text: The 1976 agreement at the end of the Third Cod War forced the UK to abandon the "open seas" international fisheries policy it had previously promoted. The British Parliament passed the Fishery Limits Act 1976, declaring a similar 200-nautical-mile zone around its own shores, a practice later codified into the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which provided similar rights to every sovereign nation.


title: Cod Wars

text: The victories in the Cod Wars may have strengthened Icelandic nationalism and boosted the perception that Iceland can succeed through unilateral or bilateral means rather than compromise in multilateral frameworks, such as membership of the European Union.


title: Cod Wars

text: The Cod Wars are often mentioned in Icelandic and British news reporting when either state is involved in a fishery dispute or when there are disputes of some sort between the two countries. The Cod Wars were extensively covered by media during the Icesave dispute between Iceland and the UK, and in preparation for the Iceland–England match at the round of 16 in Euro 2016.


title: Cod Wars

text: In February 2017, the crews of two ships involved in the Cod Wars, the Hull trawler "Arctic Corsair" and the Icelandic patrolship "Odinn", exchanged bells in a gesture of goodwill and sign of friendship between the cities of Hull and Reykjavík. The event was part of a project by Hull Museums on the history between Iceland and the United Kingdom during and after the Cod Wars.


title: AEW Women's World Championship

text: The AEW Women's World Championship is a women's professional wrestling world championship created and promoted by the American promotion All Elite Wrestling (AEW). Established on June 18, 2019, the inaugural champion was Riho. The current champion is Jamie Hayter, who is in her first reign.


title: AEW Women's World Championship

text: On June 18, 2019, six months after the American professional wrestling promotion All Elite Wrestling (AEW) was founded, AEW President and Chief Executive Officer Tony Khan announced plans for both a singles and tag team championship for the women's division. It was then announced by AEW Chief Brand Officer Brandi Rhodes that the AEW Women's World Championship belt would be unveiled on August 31 at All Out, and that the first champion would be crowned on October 2 during the inaugural broadcast of AEW's weekly television show, later revealed as "Dynamite".


title: AEW Women's World Championship

text: Both participants for the inaugural championship match were determined at All Out. The first competitor was determined by the women's Casino Battle Royale during the "Buy In" pre-show, which was won by Nyla Rose. Later that night on the main show, Riho became her opponent by defeating Hikaru Shida. On the premiere episode of "Dynamite", Riho defeated Rose to become the inaugural champion.


title: AEW Women's World Championship

text: At All Out on September 4, 2022, reigning champion Thunder Rosa was originally scheduled to defend the championship against Toni Storm; however, due to Rosa suffering a back injury in late August, the match was called off. Instead of vacating the title, it was decided that an interim champion would be crowned until Rosa's return, after which, the interim champion would face Rosa to determine the undisputed champion. A four-way match was scheduled for All Out where Storm defeated Dr. Britt Baker, D.M.D., Jamie Hayter, and Hikaru Shida to become the interim champion. At Full Gear on November 19, Hayter defeated Storm to win the interim championship. However, on the November 23 episode of "Dynamite", it was announced that Rosa had relinquished the lineal championship, thus Hayter became the undisputed champion by default and Storm's interim reign was retroactively made an official reign.


title: AEW Women's World Championship

text: The original AEW Women's World Championship belt had a small oval shaped center plate. There were a total of six side plates, three on each side of the center plate. The top of the center plate had a crown and ornamentation lined the edge of the center plate. At the very center of the plate was a name plate to display the reigning champion's name. Above the name plate was AEW's logo while below the name plate read "Women's World Wrestling Champion". The side plates had a globe at the center with ornamentation around the globe.


title: AEW Women's World Championship

text: On the May 28, 2021, Friday night special airing of "Dynamite", reigning champion Hikaru Shida was awarded with a slightly updated championship belt. The updated belt featured the overall same design, but was slightly bigger with extra encrusted diamonds and extra gold plating, and it only had two side plates on each side of the center plate instead of three. The unveiling of this updated design was to commemorate Shida's reign of 370 days, which currently stands as the longest reign for any AEW championship. Shida, however, would lose the title just two days later at Double or Nothing to Dr. Britt Baker, D.M.D.


title: AEW Women's World Championship

text: At Revolution on March 6, 2022, Baker unveiled a new design of the championship belt with bigger plates, similar to the men's AEW World Championship. The new belt was designed by Belts By Dan, which took three weeks to complete, and it was inspired by the Mid-South North American Championship belt of the 1980s.


title: AEW Women's World Championship

text: As of 28, 2022, there have been seven reigns between seven champions and one vacancy. Riho was the inaugural champion. Hikaru Shida's reign is the longest reign at 372 days, while Toni Storm has the shortest reign at 76 days. Riho was the youngest champion at 22 years old while Thunder Rosa is the oldest champion at 37.


title: AEW Women's World Championship

text: Jamie Hayter is the current champion in her first reign. She initially won the interim AEW Women's World Championship by defeating Toni Storm at Full Gear on November 19, 2022, in Newark, NJ. However, she was later declared the undisputed lineal champion on the November 23 episode of "Dynamite" after Thunder Rosa relinquished the lineal championship, which also retroactively made Storm's interim reign an official reign.


title: Shar Jackson

text: Sharisse Jackson (born August 31, 1976) is an American actress and singer, best known for playing Niecy Jackson on the UPN sitcom "Moesha". She was crowned the winner of MTV reality show "Celebrity Rap Superstar" in 2007.


title: Shar Jackson

text: Jackson was born in Boston, Massachusetts. Her mother is of mixed African American and Puerto Rican descent.


title: Shar Jackson

text: Jackson played the titular character's best friend, Niecy Jackson, on the TV show "Moesha". She has also appeared in " The Parkers', "The Bernie Mac Show" and "My So-Called Life" as Crystal. She co-starred in the Nickelodeon movie "Good Burger" with Kel Mitchell and Kenan Thompson. Jackson was also featured on the ABC reality series "The Ex-Wives Club" with Marla Maples and Angie Everhart. The show is aimed to support men and women who have recently gone through separation or divorce. In 2009, Jackson appeared in the film "I Do... I Did!". She also appeared in the dance-oriented film "".


title: Shar Jackson

text: She also appeared on the seventh season of "Celebrity Fit Club: Boot Camp", which premiered in February 2010.


title: Shar Jackson

text: Jackson was a member in the short-lived pop girl group Mpulz and was included on "The Princess Diaries" soundtrack. The group released only one single before disbanding in 2002.


title: Shar Jackson

text: Jackson was engaged to Kevin Federline, with whom she has a daughter and a son. The couple separated shortly before their son's birth, instigated by Federline’s relationship with pop singer Britney Spears. Jackson later commented that Federline's relationship with Spears "wasn't like just breaking up a relationship. It was like breaking up a family", but sustained an amicable relationship with Federline, complimenting his parenting.Through her daughter Casseilay and her partner Christopher Massey, she has a granddaughter.


title: Grey matter

text: Grey matter is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and unmyelinated axons), glial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), synapses, and capillaries. Grey matter is distinguished from white matter in that it contains numerous cell bodies and relatively few myelinated axons, while white matter contains relatively few cell bodies and is composed chiefly of long-range myelinated axons. The colour difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue, grey matter actually has a very light grey colour with yellowish or pinkish hues, which come from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies.


title: Grey matter

text: Grey matter refers to unmyelinated neurons and other cells of the central nervous system. It is present in the brain, brainstem and cerebellum, and present throughout the spinal cord.


title: Grey matter

text: Grey matter is distributed at the surface of the cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex) and of the cerebellum (cerebellar cortex), as well as in the depths of the cerebrum (the thalamus; hypothalamus; subthalamus, basal ganglia – putamen, globus pallidus and nucleus accumbens; as well as the septal nuclei), cerebellum (deep cerebellar nuclei – the dentate nuclei, globose nucleus, emboliform nucleus, and fastigial nucleus), and brainstem (the substantia nigra, red nucleus, olivary nuclei, and cranial nerve nuclei).


title: Grey matter

text: Grey matter in the spinal cord is known as the grey column which travels down the spinal cord distributed in three grey columns that are presented in an "H" shape. The forward-facing column is the anterior grey column, the rear-facing one is the posterior grey column and the interlinking one is the lateral grey column. The grey matter on the left and right side is connected by the grey commissure. The grey matter in the spinal cord consists of interneurons, as well as the cell bodies of projection neurons.


title: Grey matter

text: Grey matter undergoes development and growth throughout childhood and adolescence. Recent studies using cross-sectional neuroimaging have shown that by around the age of 8 the volume of grey matter begins to decrease. However, the density of grey matter appears to increase as a child develops into early adulthood. Males tend to exhibit grey matter of increased volume but lower density than that of females.


title: Grey matter

text: Grey matter contains most of the brain's neuronal cell bodies. The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, and sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions, speech, decision-making, and self-control.


title: Grey matter

text: The grey matter of the spinal cord can be divided into different layers, called Rexed laminae. These describe, in general, the purpose of the cells within the grey matter of the spinal cord at a particular location.


title: Grey matter

text: High alcohol consumption has been correlated with significant reductions in grey matter volume. Short-term cannabis use (30 days) is not correlated with changes in white or grey matter. However, several cross-sectional studies have shown that repeated long-term cannabis use is associated with smaller grey matter volumes in the hippocampus, amygdala, medial temporal cortex, and prefrontal cortex, with increased grey matter volume in the cerebellum. Long-term cannabis use is also associated with alterations in white matter integrity in an age-dependent manner, with heavy cannabis use during adolescence and early adulthood associated with the greatest amount of change.


title: Grey matter

text: Habitual playing of action video games has been reported to promote a reduction of grey matter in the hippocampus while 3D platformer games have been reported to increase grey matter in the hippocampus.


title: Grey matter

text: Women and men with equivalent IQ scores have differing proportions of grey to white matter in cortical brain regions associated with intelligence.


title: Grey matter

text: Pregnancy renders substantial changes in brain structure, primarily reductions in grey matter volume in regions subserving social cognition. The grey matter reductions endured for at least 2 years post-pregnancy. The profile of brain changes is comparable to that taking place during adolescence, a hormonally similar transitional period of life.


title: Grey matter

text: In the current edition of the official Latin nomenclature, "Terminologia Anatomica", "substantia grisea" is used for English "grey matter". The adjective "grisea" for "grey" is however not attested in classical Latin. The adjective "grisea" is derived from the French word for grey, "gris". Alternative designations like "substantia cana" and "substantia cinerea" are being used alternatively. The adjective "cana", attested in classical Latin, can mean "grey", or "greyish white". The classical Latin "cinerea" means "ash-coloured".


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: In Greek mythology, Callisto or Kallisto (; ) was a nymph, or the daughter of King Lycaon; the myth varies in such details. She was believed to be one of the followers of Artemis (Diana for the Romans) who attracted Zeus. Many versions of Callisto's story survive. According to some writers, Zeus transformed himself into the figure of Artemis to pursue Callisto, and she slept with him believing Zeus to be Artemis. She became pregnant and when this was eventually discovered, she was expelled from Artemis's group, after which a furious Hera, the wife of Zeus, transformed her into a bear, although in some versions Artemis is the one to give her an ursine form. Later, just as she was about to be killed by her son when he was hunting, she was set among the stars as Ursa Major ("the Great Bear") by Zeus. She was the bear-mother of the Arcadians, through her son Arcas by Zeus.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: As a follower of Artemis, Callisto, who Hesiod said was the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, took a vow to remain a virgin, as did all the nymphs of Artemis.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: [Callisto] chose to occupy herself with wild-beasts in the mountains together with Artemis, and, when she was seduced by Zeus, continued some time undetected by the goddess, but afterwards, when she was already with child, was seen by her bathing and so discovered. Upon this, the goddess was enraged and changed her into a beast. Thus she became a bear and gave birth to a son called Arcas. But while she was in the mountains, she was hunted by some goat-herds and given up with her babe to Lycaon. Some while after, she thought fit to go into the forbidden precinct of Zeus, not knowing the law, and being pursued by her own son and the Arcadians, was about to be killed because of the said law; but Zeus delivered her because of her connection with him and put her among the stars, giving her the name Bear because of the misfortune which had befallen her.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: According to Ovid, it was Jupiter who took the form of Diana so that he might evade his wife Juno's detection, forcing himself upon Callisto while she was separated from Diana and the other nymphs. Callisto recognized that something was wrong the moment Jupiter started giving her "non-virginal kisses", but by that point it was too late, and even though she fought him off, he overpowered her. The real Diana arrived in the scene soon after and called Callisto to her, only for the girl to run away in fear she was Jupiter, until she noticed the nymphs accompanying the goddess. Callisto's subsequent pregnancy was discovered several months later while she was bathing with Diana and her fellow nymphs. Diana became enraged when she saw that Callisto was pregnant and expelled her from the group. Callisto later gave birth to Arcas. Juno then took the opportunity to avenge her wounded pride and transformed the nymph into a bear. Sixteen years later Callisto, still a bear, encountered her son Arcas hunting in the forest. Just as Arcas was about to kill his own mother with his javelin, Jupiter averted the tragedy by placing mother and son amongst the stars as Ursa Major and Minor, respectively. Juno, enraged that her attempt at revenge had been frustrated, appealed to Tethys that the two might never meet her waters, thus providing a poetic explanation for the constellations' circumpolar positions in ancient times.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: According to Hyginus, the origin of the transformation of Zeus, with its lesbian overtones, was from a rendition of the tale in a comedy in a lost work by the Attic comedian Amphis where Zeus embraced Callisto as Artemis and she, after being questioned by Artemis for her pregnancy, blamed the goddess, thinking she had impregnated her; Artemis then changed her into a bear. She was caught by some Aetolians and brought to Lycaon, her father. Still a bear, she rushed with her son Arcas into a temple of Zeus as the Arcadians followed to killed them; Zeus turned mother and son into constellations. Hyginus also records a version where Hera changed Callisto for sleeping with Zeus, and Artemis later slew her while hunting, not recognizing her. In another of the versions Hyginus records, it was Zeus who turned Callisto into a bear, to conceal her from Juno, who had noticed what her husband was doing. Juno then pointed Callisto to Diana, who proceeded to shoot her with her arrows.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: According to the mythographer Apollodorus, Zeus forced himself on Callisto when he disguised himself as Artemis or Apollo, in order to lure the sworn maiden into his embrace. Apollodorus is the only author to mention Apollo, but implies that it is not a rarity. Callisto was then turned into a bear by Zeus trying to hide her from Hera, but Hera asked Artemis to shoot the animal, and Artemis complied. Alternatively, Artemis killed Callisto for not protecting her virginity. Nonnus also writes that a "female paramour entered a woman's bed."


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: Either Artemis "slew Kallisto with a shot of her silver bow," according to Homer, in order to please Juno (Hera) as Pausanias and Pseudo-Apollodorus write or later Arcas, the eponym of Arcadia, nearly killed his bear-mother, when she had wandered into the forbidden precinct of Zeus. In every case, Zeus placed them both in the sky as the constellations Ursa Major, called "Arktos" (), the Bear, by Greeks, and Ursa Minor.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: According to John Tzetzes, Charon of Lampsacus wrote that Callisto's son Arcas had been fathered not by Zeus but rather by Apollo.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: As a constellation, Ursa Major (who was also known as Helice) told Demeter, when the goddess asked the stars whether they knew anything about her daughter Persephone's abduction, to ask Helios the sun god, for he knew the deeds of the day well, while the night was blameless.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: The name "Kalliste" (), "most beautiful", may be recognized as an epithet of the goddess herself, though none of the inscriptions at Athens that record priests of "Artemis Kalliste" (), date before the third century BCE. Artemis Kalliste was worshiped in Athens in a shrine which lay outside the Dipylon gate, by the side of the road to the Academy. W. S. Ferguson suggested that Artemis Soteira and Artemis Kalliste were joined in a common cult administered by a single priest. The bearlike character of Artemis herself was a feature of the Brauronia. It has been suggested that the myths of Artemis' nymphs breaking their vows were originally about Artemis herself, before her characterization shifted to that of a sworn virgin who fiercely defends her chastity.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: The myth in "Catasterismi" may be derived from the fact that a set of constellations appear close together in the sky, in and near the Zodiac sign of Libra, namely Ursa Minor, Ursa Major, Boötes, and Virgo. The constellation Boötes, was explicitly identified in the Hesiodic "Astronomia" () as Arcas, the "Bear-warden" ("Arktophylax"; ): He is Arkas the son of Kallisto and Zeus, and he lived in the country about Lykaion. After Zeus had seduced Kallisto, Lykaon, pretending not to know of the matter, entertained Zeus, as Hesiod says, and set before him on the table the babe [Arkas] which he had cut up.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: The stars of Ursa Major were all circumpolar in Athens of 400 BCE, and all but the stars in the Great Bear's left foot were circumpolar in Ovid's Rome, in the first century CE. Now, however, due to the precession of the equinoxes, the feet of the Great Bear constellation do sink below the horizon from Rome and especially from Athens; however, Ursa Minor (Arcas) does remain completely above the horizon, even from latitudes as far south as Honolulu and Hong Kong.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: According to Julien d'Huy, who used phylogenetic and statistical tools, the story could be a recent transformation of a Palaeolithic myth.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: Callisto's story was sometimes depicted in classical art, where the moment of transformation into a bear was the most popular. From the Renaissance on a series of major history paintings as well as many smaller cabinet paintings and book illustrations, usually called "Diana and Callisto", depicted the traumatic moment of discovery of the pregnancy, as the goddess and her nymphs bathed in a pool, following Ovid's account. The subject's attraction was undoubtedly mainly the opportunity it offered for a group of several females to be shown largely nude.Titian's "Diana and Callisto" (1556-1559), was the greatest (though not the first) of these, quickly disseminated by a print by Cornelius Cort. Here, as in most subsequent depictions, Diana points angrily, as Callisto is held by two nymphs, who may be pulling off what little clothing remains on her. Other versions include one by Rubens, and "Diana Bathing with her Nymphs with Actaeon and Callisto" by Rembrandt, which unusually combines the moment with the arrival of Actaeon. The basic composition is rather unusually consistent. Carlo Ridolfi said there was a version by Giorgione, who died in 1510, though his many attributions to Giorgione of paintings that are now lost are treated with suspicion by scholars. Other, less dramatic, treatments before Titian established his composition are by Palma Vecchio and Dosso Dossi. Annibale Carracci's "The Loves of the Gods" includes an image of Juno urging Diana to shoot Callisto in ursine form.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: Although Ovid places the discovery in the ninth month of Callisto's pregnancy, in paintings she is generally shown with a rather modest bump for late pregnancy. With the "Visitation" in religious art, this was the leading recurring subject in history painting that required showing pregnancy in art, which Early Modern painters still approached with some caution. In any case, the narrative required that the rest of the group had not previously noticed the pregnancy.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: Callisto being seduced by Zeus/Jupiter in disguise was also a popular subject, usually called "Jupiter and Callisto"; it was the clearest common subject with lesbian lovers from classical mythology. The two lovers are usually shown happily embracing in a bower. The violent rape described by Ovid as following Callisto's realization of what is going on is rarely shown. In versions before about 1700 Callisto may show some doubt about what is going on, as in the versions by Rubens. It was especially popular in the 18th century, when depictions were increasingly erotic; François Boucher painted several versions.


title: Callisto (mythology)

text: During the Nazi occupation of France, resistance poet Robert Desnos wrote a collection of poems entitled "Calixto suivi de contrée," where he used the myth of Callisto as a symbol for beauty imprisoned beneath ugliness: a metaphor for France under the German occupation.


title: Skin effect

text: Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become distributed within a conductor such that the current density is largest near the surface of the conductor and decreases exponentially with greater depths in the conductor. The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the conductor, between the outer surface and a level called the skin depth. Skin depth depends on the frequency of the alternating current; as frequency increases, current flow moves to the surface, resulting in less skin depth. Skin effect reduces the effective cross-section of the conductor and thus increases its effective resistance. Skin effect is caused by opposing eddy currents induced by the changing magnetic field resulting from the alternating current. At 60 Hz in copper, the skin depth is about 8.5 mm. At high frequencies the skin depth becomes much smaller.


title: Skin effect

text: Increased AC resistance caused by the skin effect can be mitigated by using specially woven litz wire. Because the interior of a large conductor carries so little of the current, tubular conductors such as pipe can be used to save weight and cost. The skin effect has practical consequences in the analysis and design of radio-frequency and microwave circuits, transmission lines (or waveguides), and antennas. It is also important at mains frequencies (50–60 Hz) in AC electrical power transmission and distribution systems. It is one of the reasons for preferring high-voltage direct current for long distance power transmission.


title: Skin effect

text: The effect was first described in a paper by Horace Lamb in 1883 for the case of spherical conductors, and was generalized to conductors of any shape by Oliver Heaviside in 1885.


title: Skin effect

text: Conductors, typically in the form of wires, may be used to transmit electrical energy or signals using an alternating current flowing through that conductor. The charge carriers constituting that current, usually electrons, are driven by an electric field due to the source of electrical energy. A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field in and around the conductor. When the intensity of current in a conductor changes, the magnetic field also changes. The change in the magnetic field, in turn, creates an electric field which opposes the change in current intensity. This opposing electric field is called “counter-electromotive force” (back EMF). The back EMF is strongest at the center of the conductor, and forces the conducting electrons to the outside of the conductor, as shown in the diagram on the right.


title: Skin effect

text: Regardless of the driving force, the current density is found to be greatest at the conductor's surface, with a reduced magnitude deeper in the conductor. That decline in current density is known as the "skin effect" and the "skin depth" is a measure of the depth at which the current density falls to 1/e of its value near the surface.


title: Skin effect

text: Over 98% of the current will flow within a layer 4 times the skin depth from the surface. This behavior is distinct from that of direct current which usually will be distributed evenly over the cross-section of the wire.


title: Skin effect

text: An alternating current may also be "induced" in a conductor due to an alternating magnetic field according to the law of induction. An electromagnetic wave impinging on a conductor will therefore generally produce such a current; this explains the reflection of electromagnetic waves from metals. Although the term "skin effect" is most often associated with applications involving transmission of electric currents, the skin depth also describes the exponential decay of the electric and magnetic fields, as well as the density of induced currents, inside a bulk material when a plane wave impinges on it at normal incidence.


title: Skin effect

text: where formula_2 is called the "skin depth". The skin depth is thus defined as the depth below the surface of the conductor at which the current density has fallen to 1/e (about 0.37) of . The imaginary part of the exponent indicates that the phase of the current density is delayed 1 radian for each skin depth of penetration. One full wavelength in the conductor requires 2 skin depths, at which point the current density is attenuated to e (1.87×, or −54.6 dB) of its surface value. The wavelength in the conductor is much shorter than the wavelength in vacuum, or equivalently, the phase velocity in the conductor is very much slower than the speed of light in a vacuum. For example, a 1 MHz radio wave has a wavelength in vacuum of about 300 m, whereas in copper, the wavelength is reduced to only about 0.5 mm with a phase velocity of only about 500 m/s. As a consequence of Snell's law and this very tiny phase velocity in the conductor, any wave entering the conductor, even at grazing incidence, refracts essentially in the direction perpendicular to the conductor's surface.


title: Skin effect

text: At frequencies much below formula_16 the quantity inside the large radical is close to unity and the formula is more usually given as:


title: Skin effect

text: This formula is valid at frequencies away from strong atomic or molecular resonances (where formula_18 would have a large imaginary part) and at frequencies that are much below both the material's plasma frequency (dependent on the density of free electrons in the material) and the reciprocal of the mean time between collisions involving the conduction electrons. In good conductors such as metals all of those conditions are ensured at least up to microwave frequencies, justifying this formula's validity. For example, in the case of copper, this would be true for frequencies much below  Hz.


title: Skin effect

text: the factor under the large radical increases. At frequencies much higher than formula_16 it can be shown that the skin depth, rather than continuing to decrease, approaches an asymptotic value:


title: Skin effect

text: This departure from the usual formula only applies for materials of rather low conductivity and at frequencies where the vacuum wavelength is not much larger than the skin depth itself. For instance, bulk silicon (undoped) is a poor conductor and has a skin depth of about 40 meters at 100 kHz ( = 3 km). However, as the frequency is increased well into the megahertz range, its skin depth never falls below the asymptotic value of 11 meters. The conclusion is that in poor solid conductors, such as undoped silicon, the skin effect doesn't need to be taken into account in most practical situations: Any current is equally distributed throughout the material's cross-section, regardless of its frequency.


title: Skin effect

text: When the skin depth is not small with respect to the radius of the wire, current density may be described in terms of Bessel functions. The current density inside round wire away from the influences of other fields, as function of distance from the axis is given by:


title: Skin effect

text: Since formula_38 is complex, the Bessel functions are also complex. The amplitude and phase of the current density varies with depth.


title: Skin effect

text: This impedance is a complex quantity corresponding to a resistance (real) in series with the reactance (imaginary) due to the wire's internal self-inductance, per unit length.


title: Skin effect

text: A portion of a wire's inductance can be attributed to the magnetic field "inside" the wire itself which is termed the "internal inductance"; this accounts for the inductive reactance (imaginary part of the impedance) given by the above formula. In most cases this is a small portion of a wire's inductance which includes the effect of induction from magnetic fields "outside" of the wire produced by the current in the wire. Unlike that "external" inductance, the internal inductance is reduced by the skin effect, that is, at frequencies where the skin depth is no longer large compared to the conductor's size. This small component of inductance approaches a value of formula_40 (50 nH/m for non-magnetic wire) at low frequencies, regardless of the wire's radius. Its reduction with increasing frequency, as the ratio of the skin depth to the wire's radius falls below about 1, is plotted in the accompanying graph, and accounts for the reduction in the telephone cable inductance with increasing frequency in the table below.


title: Skin effect

text: The most important effect of the skin effect on the impedance of a single wire, however, is the increase of the wire's resistance, and consequent losses. The effective resistance due to a current confined near the surface of a large conductor (much thicker than ) can be solved as if the current flowed uniformly through a layer of thickness based on the DC resistivity of that material. The effective cross-sectional area is approximately equal to times the conductor's circumference.


title: Skin effect

text: Thus a long cylindrical conductor such as a wire, having a diameter large compared to , has a resistance "approximately" that of a hollow tube with wall thickness carrying direct current. The AC resistance of a wire of length and resistivity formula_41 is:


title: Skin effect

text: A convenient formula (attributed to F.E. Terman) for the diameter of a wire of circular cross-section whose resistance will increase by 10% at frequency is:


title: Skin effect

text: This formula for the increase in AC resistance is accurate only for an isolated wire. For nearby wires, e.g. in a cable or a coil, the AC resistance is also affected by proximity effect, which can cause an additional increase in the AC resistance.


title: Skin effect

text: In a good conductor, skin depth is proportional to square root of the resistivity. This means that better conductors have a reduced skin depth. The overall resistance of the better conductor remains lower even with the reduced skin depth. However the better conductor will show a higher ratio between its AC and DC resistance, when compared with a conductor of higher resistivity. For example, at 60 Hz, a 2000 MCM (1000 square millimeter) copper conductor has 23% more resistance than it does at DC. The same size conductor in aluminum has only 10% more resistance with 60 Hz AC than it does with DC.


title: Skin effect

text: Skin depth also varies as the inverse square root of the permeability of the conductor. In the case of iron, its conductivity is about 1/7 that of copper. However being ferromagnetic its permeability is about 10,000 times greater. This reduces the skin depth for iron to about 1/38 that of copper, about 220 micrometers at 60 Hz. Iron wire is thus useless for AC power lines (except to add mechanical strength by serving as a core to a non ferromagnetic conductor like aluminum). The skin effect also reduces the effective thickness of laminations in power transformers, increasing their losses.


title: Skin effect

text: Iron rods work well for direct-current (DC) welding but it is impossible to use them at frequencies much higher than 60 Hz. At a few kilohertz, the welding rod will glow red hot as current flows through the greatly increased AC resistance resulting from the skin effect, with relatively little power remaining for the arc itself. Only non-magnetic rods can be used for high-frequency welding.


title: Skin effect

text: A type of cable called litz wire (from the German "Litzendraht", braided wire) is used to mitigate the skin effect for frequencies of a few kilohertz to about one megahertz. It consists of a number of insulated wire strands woven together in a carefully designed pattern, so that the overall magnetic field acts equally on all the wires and causes the total current to be distributed equally among them. With the skin effect having little effect on each of the thin strands, the bundle does not suffer the same increase in AC resistance that a solid conductor of the same cross-sectional area would due to the skin effect.


title: Skin effect

text: Litz wire is often used in the windings of high-frequency transformers to increase their efficiency by mitigating both skin effect and proximity effect.


title: Skin effect

text: Large power transformers are wound with stranded conductors of similar construction to litz wire, but employing a larger cross-section corresponding to the larger skin depth at mains frequencies.


title: Skin effect

text: Conductive threads composed of carbon nanotubes have been demonstrated as conductors for antennas from medium wave to microwave frequencies. Unlike standard antenna conductors, the nanotubes are much smaller than the skin depth, allowing full utilization of the thread's cross-section resulting in an extremely light antenna.


title: Skin effect

text: High-voltage, high-current overhead power lines often use aluminum cable with a steel reinforcing core; the higher resistance of the steel core is of no consequence since it is located far below the skin depth where essentially no AC current flows.


title: Skin effect

text: In applications where high currents (up to thousands of amperes) flow, solid conductors are usually replaced by tubes, completely eliminating the inner portion of the conductor where little current flows. This hardly affects the AC resistance, but considerably reduces the weight of the conductor. The high strength but low weight of tubes substantially increases span capability. Tubular conductors are typical in electric power switchyards where the distance between supporting insulators may be several meters. Long spans generally exhibit physical sag but this does not affect electrical performance. To avoid losses, the conductivity of the tube material must be high.


title: Skin effect

text: In high current situations where conductors (round or flat busbar) may be between 5 and 50 mm thick the skin effect also occurs at sharp bends where the metal is compressed inside the bend and stretched outside the bend. The shorter path at the inner surface results in a lower resistance, which causes most of the current to be concentrated close to the inner bend surface. This causes an increase in temperature at that region compared with the straight (unbent) area of the same conductor. A similar skin effect occurs at the corners of rectangular conductors (viewed in cross-section), where the magnetic field is more concentrated at the corners than in the sides. This results in superior performance (i.e. higher current with lower temperature rise) from wide thin conductors (for example, "ribbon" conductors) in which the effects from corners are effectively eliminated.


title: Skin effect

text: It follows that a transformer with a round core will be more efficient than an equivalent-rated transformer having a square or rectangular core of the same material.


title: Skin effect

text: Solid or tubular conductors may be silver-plated to take advantage of silver's higher conductivity. This technique is particularly used at VHF to microwave frequencies where the small skin depth requires only a very thin layer of silver, making the improvement in conductivity very cost effective. Silver plating is similarly used on the surface of waveguides used for transmission of microwaves. This reduces attenuation of the propagating wave due to resistive losses affecting the accompanying eddy currents; the skin effect confines such eddy currents to a very thin surface layer of the waveguide structure. The skin effect itself isn't actually combatted in these cases, but the distribution of currents near the conductor's surface makes the use of precious metals (having a lower resistivity) practical. Although it has a lower conductivity than copper and silver, gold plating is also used, because unlike copper and silver, it does not corrode. A thin oxidized layer of copper or silver would have a low conductivity, and so would cause large power losses as the majority of the current would still flow through this layer.


title: Skin effect

text: Recently, a method of layering non-magnetic and ferromagnetic materials with nanometer scale thicknesses has been shown to mitigate the increased resistance from the skin effect for very high frequency applications. A working theory is that the behavior of ferromagnetic materials in high frequencies results in fields and/or currents that oppose those generated by relatively nonmagnetic materials, but more work is needed to verify the exact mechanisms. As experiments have shown, this has potential to greatly improve the efficiency of conductors operating in tens of GHz or higher. This has strong ramifications for 5G communications.


title: Skin effect

text: Gold is a good conductor with a resistivity of and is essentially nonmagnetic: formula_51 1, so its skin depth at a frequency of 50 Hz is given by


title: Skin effect

text: Lead, in contrast, is a relatively poor conductor (among metals) with a resistivity of , about 9 times that of gold. Its skin depth at 50 Hz is likewise found to be about 33 mm, or


title: Skin effect

text: Highly magnetic materials have a reduced skin depth owing to their large permeability formula_52 as was pointed out above for the case of iron, despite its poorer conductivity. A practical consequence is seen by users of induction cookers, where some types of stainless steel cookware are unusable because they are not ferromagnetic.


title: Skin effect

text: At very high frequencies the skin depth for good conductors becomes tiny. For instance, the skin depths of some common metals at a frequency of 10 GHz (microwave region) are less than a micrometer:


title: Skin effect

text: Thus at microwave frequencies, most of the current flows in an extremely thin region near the surface. Ohmic losses of waveguides at microwave frequencies are therefore only dependent on the surface coating of the material. A layer of silver 3 μm thick evaporated on a piece of glass is thus an excellent conductor at such frequencies.


title: Skin effect

text: In "Engineering Electromagnetics", Hayt points out that in a power station a busbar for alternating current at 60 Hz with a radius larger than one-third of an inch (8 mm) is a waste of copper, and in practice bus bars for heavy AC current are rarely more than half an inch (12 mm) thick except for mechanical reasons.


title: Skin effect

text: Refer to the diagram below showing the inner and outer conductors of a coaxial cable. Since the skin effect causes a current at high frequencies to flow mainly at the surface of a conductor, it can be seen that this will reduce the magnetic field "inside" the wire, that is, beneath the depth at which the bulk of the current flows. It can be shown that this will have a minor effect on the self-inductance of the wire itself; see Skilling or Hayt for a mathematical treatment of this phenomenon.


title: Skin effect

text: The inductance considered in this context refers to a bare conductor, not the inductance of a coil used as a circuit element. The inductance of a coil is dominated by the mutual inductance between the turns of the coil which increases its inductance according to the square of the number of turns. However, when only a single wire is involved, then in addition to the "external inductance" involving magnetic fields outside of the wire (due to the total current in the wire) as seen in the white region of the figure below, there is also a much smaller component of "internal inductance" due to the portion of the magnetic field inside the wire itself, the green region in figure B. That small component of the inductance is reduced when the current is concentrated toward the skin of the conductor, that is, when the skin depth is not much larger than the wire's radius, as will become the case at higher frequencies.


title: Skin effect

text: For a single wire, this reduction becomes of diminishing significance as the wire becomes longer in comparison to its diameter, and is usually neglected. However the presence of a second conductor in the case of a transmission line reduces the extent of the external magnetic field (and of the total self-inductance) regardless of the wire's length, so that the inductance decrease due to the skin effect can still be important. For instance, in the case of a telephone twisted pair, below, the inductance of the conductors substantially decreases at higher frequencies where the skin effect becomes important. On the other hand, when the external component of the inductance is magnified due to the geometry of a coil (due to the mutual inductance between the turns), the significance of the internal inductance component is even further dwarfed and is ignored.


title: Skin effect

text: Let the dimensions "a", "b", and "c" be the inner conductor radius, the shield (outer conductor) inside radius and the shield outer radius respectively, as seen in the crossection of figure A below.


title: Skin effect

text: For a given current, the total energy stored in the magnetic fields must be the same as the calculated electrical energy attributed to that current flowing through the inductance of the coax; that energy is proportional to the cable's measured inductance.


title: Skin effect

text: The magnetic field inside a coaxial cable can be divided into three regions, each of which will therefore contribute to the electrical inductance seen by a length of cable.


title: Skin effect

text: The inductance formula_63 is associated with the magnetic field in the region with radius formula_64, the region inside the center conductor.


title: Skin effect

text: The inductance formula_65 is associated with the magnetic field in the region formula_66, the region between the two conductors (containing a dielectric, possibly air).


title: Skin effect

text: The inductance formula_67 is associated with the magnetic field in the region formula_68, the region inside the shield conductor.


title: Skin effect

text: formula_65 is not changed by the skin effect and is given by the frequently cited formula for inductance "L" per length "D" of a coaxial cable:


title: Skin effect

text: Most discussions of coaxial transmission lines assume they will be used for radio frequencies, so equations are supplied corresponding only to the latter case.


title: Skin effect

text: As the skin effect increases, the currents are concentrated near the outside of the inner conductor ("r"="a") and the inside of the shield ("r"="b"). Since there is essentially no current deeper in the inner conductor, there is no magnetic field beneath the surface of the inner conductor. Since the current in the inner conductor is balanced by the opposite current flowing on the inside of the outer conductor, there is no remaining magnetic field in the outer conductor itself where formula_68. Only formula_75 contributes to the electrical inductance at these higher frequencies.


title: Skin effect

text: Although the geometry is different, a twisted pair used in telephone lines is similarly affected: at higher frequencies the inductance decreases by more than 20% as can be seen in the following table.


title: Skin effect

text: For high frequencies and low temperatures the usual formulas for skin depth break down. This effect was first noticed by Heinz London in 1940, who correctly suggested that it is due to the mean free path length of the electrons reaching the range of the classical skin depth. Mattis–Bardeen theory was developed for this specific case for metals and superconductors.


title: Kramatorsk

text: Kramatorsk ( ) is a city and the administrative centre of Kramatorsk Raion in the northern portion of Donetsk Oblast, in eastern Ukraine. Prior to 2020, Kramatorsk was a city of oblast significance. Since October 11, 2014 Kramatorsk has been the provisional seat of Donetsk Oblast, following the events surrounding the war in Donbas. Sievierodonetsk had a similar status for Luhansk Oblast until the fall of Sievierodonetsk to Russian and LPR forces in June 2022. Their previous cities are still "de jure" administrative centres. Population:


title: Kramatorsk

text: The city is located on the banks of the Kazennyi Torets River which is a right tributary of the Siversky Donets. It is an important industrial and mechanical engineering centre in Ukraine. At various periods, Kramatorsk was a place of residence for a number of notable people including Leonid Bykov, Joseph Kobzon, and Ruslan Ponomariov, the youngest person to ever become FIDE World Chess Champion.


title: Kramatorsk

text: The origins of the name are not fully understood. The name of the city comes from the name of the station Kramatorska. V. A. Nikonov assumed that this toponym arose from the name Kramatorsk plant, which, in turn, was derived from the French word "crématoire" 'big oven'. According to E. S. Otin, this version is untenable because the settlement of Kramatorovka already existed before the appearance of the plant. According to his version, the name of the city comes from a toponymic phrase that has not been preserved: "Krom Torov" or "Krom Torskaya" 'border along the Tor River'. The word "kroma" means 'edge, frontier, border', and "Tor" is the old name for the Kazyonny Torets River.


title: Kramatorsk

text: The Kramatorsk metro area is located between Sloviansk Raion and Kostiantynivka Raion, making it a central part of a major urban agglomeration with over 500,000 inhabitants.


title: Kramatorsk

text: Kramatorsk has a population of over 164,700 inhabitants (2013) and has a metropolitan area of over 197,000 inhabitants (2013). As of the Ukrainian Census of 2001:


title: Kramatorsk

text: According to the regional department of statistics, as of January 1, 2017, the population of Kramatorsk was 190,648 people.


title: Kramatorsk

text: In the second half of the 17th and early 18th centuries, the area in which Kramatorsk was to develop was heavily populated by both Cossacks from the Hetmanate and serfs from the southern regions of Muscovy and Mordovia. In the second half of the 18th century, the territory was populated by the Cossacks of the army of Sloboda Ukraine.


title: Kramatorsk

text: Kramatorsk came into being in the second half of the 19th century when a station on the Kursk-Kharkiv-Azov Railway was built near to the village of Petrivka which had itself been established in 1767 by a certain Count Taranov. The station was originally called Kram-na-Tore in 1868 but this was later contracted into Kramatorsk and the town of Kramatorsk developed around the railway station, becoming a major urban settlement in the north of Donetsk Oblast with several heavy machine production facilities.


title: Kramatorsk

text: It was occupied by Nazi Germany between 27 October 1941 and 5 February 1943 and again between 27 February 1943 and 6 September 1943.


title: Kramatorsk

text: Between 1980 and 1989, several people were exposed to a radiological source in one of the apartment buildings, resulting in 6 deaths and at least 17 cases of radiation sickness.


title: Kramatorsk

text: On 12 April 2014, the police station in Kramatorsk was seized by armed pro-Russian militants in military uniform, and later the city council. This resulted in a tense standoff between the Ukrainian Armed Forces and pro-Russian militants. After months of fighting, the rebels withdrew and the city came under Ukrainian control on 5 July 2014.


title: Kramatorsk

text: On 10 February 2015, Kramatorsk was shelled by pro-Russian forces, leaving 17 people dead and 60 injured.


title: Kramatorsk

text: On 8 April 2022, during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Kramatorsk was subjected to missile strikes. The Kramatorsk railway station was hit by Tochka-U missiles which killed at least 57 people and wounded at least 109 others. Pavlo Kyrylenko, the governor of the Donetsk region, said thousands of people had been at the station at the time the two missiles struck.


title: Kramatorsk

text: On 19 April, Russian troops launched rocket attacks on Kramatorsk, as a result of which one person was killed and three were injured.


title: Kramatorsk

text: On 21 April, British Defence Ministry intelligence reported that Russian troops in the Donetsk region were advancing towards Kramatorsk.


title: Kramatorsk

text: In the 2000s, a wind turbine production facility was constructed in Kramatorsk. This is a joint venture between German Fuhrländer AG and its Ukrainian partners. According to their site, Fuhrländer became the first company in the renewable energy sector to obtain a building permit from the Ukrainian government.


title: Kramatorsk

text: Between 1937 and August 1, 2017, Kramatorsk had a tram network. However, it is now closed and public transportation is provided by buses and trolley-buses.


title: Moesha

text: Moesha () is an American television sitcom that aired on UPN from January 23, 1996, to May 14, 2001. The series stars R&B singer Brandy Norwood as Moesha Denise Mitchell, an African-American teenager living with her upper middle class family in the Leimert Park neighborhood of Los Angeles. It was originally ordered as a pilot for CBS' 1995–1996 television season but was declined by the network. It was then later picked up by UPN, which aired it as a mid-season replacement. It went on to become the biggest success for the nascent network and one of the greatest hits over the course of the network's entire run. The series was a joint production for UPN by Regan Jon Productions, Saradipity Productions, and Jump at the Sun Productions in association with Big Ticket Television.


title: Moesha

text: The show focused on the life of an upper-middle-class Black family through the eyes of a typical girl named Moesha. Her father Frank, a widower and Saturn car salesman (and later owner of his own dealership, Brothers Saturn), has married Dee, the vice principal at Moesha's high school, much to Moesha's disapproval. The series was created by Ralph Farquhar, along with the writing team of Sara V. Finney and Vida Spears. The settings for the show include the Mitchell household, the teen hangout, The Den, and in some cases, Crenshaw High School, the school attended by Moesha, Kim, Niecy, and Hakeem. The sitcom was set in the Leimert Park neighborhood of Los Angeles.


title: Moesha

text: The show dealt with real social issues affecting teenagers, such as premarital sex, the death of a parent, teen pregnancy, drug use, race relations, sexuality, dementia, and day-to-day issues teenagers faced at home and school such as gender prejudice and inequality. In one of the most controversial episodes, "Secrets and Lies" (aired February 7, 2000), the Mitchell family learned from Aunt Hattie that Frank is the biological father of Dorian, whom the Mitchells and Dorian himself believed to be Frank's nephew. The shocking news of Frank's infidelity during his first marriage turned the family upside-down and resulted in Dorian's rebellion and Moesha moving out of the family home and into a dorm room.


title: Moesha

text: There have been different versions of the opening credits theme song, which was performed by Brandy. One version was used for season 1, a second version was used for seasons 2 and 3, and a third version was used for the final three seasons. Although the same recording of the theme song was used for the last three seasons, two different openings were used for each of the first three seasons.


title: Moesha

text: The opening sequence for season 1 shows Moesha dancing in front of a fountain, walking with friends, dancing in a moving car, and winning at a game of chess while waving at a guy as he walks away.


title: Moesha

text: The opening sequence for seasons 2 and 3 features the same scenario with some changes. Moesha was still dancing in front of the fountain but with a bass guitar player behind her. Instead of just depicting Moesha with her friends, this intro sees her playing basketball and baseball with her friends and family, driving with her friends, strutting down a block with Kim and Niecy, teaching Kim how to rollerblade (later replaced with footage of Moesha & Q chasing Myles), and once again being served a meal at the diner by Ansell while seated with her family. When Moesha is again distracted by a cute guy walking by, Frank tries to cover Moesha's eyes.


title: Moesha

text: Season 4 showed the cast around the neighborhood and Moesha, Kim, and Niecy dancing at the fountain while wearing red outfits. Season 5 showed the cast dancing in a panoramic view as Norwood lip-syncs to the theme song on a background of clouds and a rising sun. The introduction for season 6 is similar to that of season 5, but features a twist. Since Yvette Wilson left "Moesha" to join the cast of "The Parkers" and Sheryl Lee Ralph's character Dee became a recurring character, the season 6 opening features footage of Norwood lip-syncing over the portion of the theme song where Yvette Wilson and Sheryl Lee Ralph appeared in the previous season's opening.


title: Moesha

text: Given her popularity for four seasons on "Moesha", Countess Vaughn left the show in 1999 for her own show, "The Parkers", which premiered on August 30, 1999, on UPN. It centered on Kim attending community college with her mother, played by comedian Mo'Nique. Leaving "Moesha", Yvette Wilson joined the cast of "The Parkers" as Andell Wilkerson, Nikki's childhood friend.


title: Moesha

text: Several "Moesha" cast members (including Brandy Norwood, William Allen Young, Shar Jackson, Sheryl Lee Ralph and Marcus T. Paulk) made crossover appearances on "The Parkers". Lamont Bentley, being the most frequent, appearing in three episodes.


title: Moesha

text: Though not direct spin-offs of "Moesha", the shows "Girlfriends" and "The Game" were created by "Moesha" writer Mara Brock Akil and exist in the same universe as "Moesha". The character Maya Wilkes (Golden Brooks) from "Girlfriends" lives in Leimert Park like the characters of "Moesha", and appeared in an episode babysitting for her sister-in-law Barbara Lee, who happened to be Dorian's birth mother. Niecy later appeared in an episode of "Girlfriends".


title: Moesha

text: "The Game" was spun off from "Girlfriends" with the loose thread of main character Melanie Barnett (Tia Mowry) being a cousin of "Girlfriends" main character Joan Clayton (Tracee Ellis Ross). The Melanie and Derwin characters re-appeared in the "Girlfriends" Season 7 finale episode at Joan's engagement party. On "Moesha", Brandy played herself as a celebrity doppelganger to Moesha, and ironically Brandy joined the cast of "The Game" in its fifth season as Chardonnay Pitts, further complicating the notion of the shows existing in the same universe.


title: Moesha

text: By the sixth season, ratings for "Moesha" had dropped and UPN opted not to renew or air the series for a seventh season. The series ended on an unresolved cliffhanger with Myles being kidnapped by a rival of Dorian, Moesha considering moving in with Hakeem or her best friend Niecy, and a positive pregnancy test being found in the trash at Moesha's dorm room, without positive identification as to whose it was. "Entertainment Weekly" reported a rumor that certain plots were to be resolved on "The Parkers", but those storylines were ultimately never resolved.


title: Moesha

text: On November 3, 2017, the cast reunited on "The Real" and have expressed interest in reviving the show. "Absolutely, we need a reboot to this show, because we ended on a cliff," Norwood pointed out. In August 2020, Norwood revealed she was in talks for a reboot, citing the show's success on Netflix.


title: Moesha

text: The show aired in syndication on UPN, Fox, and The WB affiliates. The series aired on WGN America (now "NewsNation") from 2005 to 2008, The N from 2005 to 2009, Up TV, BET Her, and BET until mid 2016, Fuse until 2019, and Bounce TV until 2021. On Up, it was edited for content to make it more "family-friendly" and was often edited heavily for broadcast on BET and BET Her due to airtime constraints.


title: Moesha

text: In the UK, "Moesha" aired on Channel 4 from 1996 until 1998, with only the first three seasons being broadcast. It also aired on Nickelodeon from 1996 to 2000, who only showed episodes from the first four seasons which were edited so they would be more suitable for broadcast on children's television. Paramount Channel aired the series from 2000 to 2003, as did Trouble from 2003 to 2006. From 1 November 2019, the programme started airing on Trace Vault following its rebrand from The Vault.


title: Moesha

text: Since 2008, the show has aired in international syndication in Spain, Italy, Portugal, Israel, the Middle East, Russia, France, Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, Ireland, South Africa, Latin America, Brazil, and Australia. In Spain, it ran on Disney Channel from 2005 to 2011 in an edited format deemed suitable for children's television.


title: Moesha

text: The series is currently streaming on Netflix in the US, while spinoff series "The Parkers" is available to stream on the platform as well. The series is also available to stream on Paramount+, BET+, and Hulu.


title: Moesha

text: On September 27, 2011, CBS Home Entertainment released "Moesha: The First Season" on DVD in Region 1 via Amazon.com's CreateSpace program. This is a Manufacture-on-Demand (MOD) release, available exclusively through Amazon.com.


title: Home counties

text: The home counties are the counties of England that surround London. The counties are not precisely defined but Buckinghamshire and Surrey are usually included in definitions and Berkshire, Essex, Hertfordshire and Kent are also often included. Other counties further from London — such as Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire, East Sussex and West Sussex — are not normally regarded as home counties, although on occasion may be thought of as such due to their proximity to London and their connection to the London regional economy.


title: Home counties

text: The origin of the term "home counties" is uncertain. Marcus Crouch, writing in 1975, thought that it derived from the Home Counties Circuit of courts that since at least the 18th century had surrounded London. Looking further back, he suggested that it included the counties in which, since Tudor times, it has been possible for civil servants and politicians to have their country homes and still be able to travel into London without excessive delay when they were needed. A distant Anglo-Saxon origin has also been speculated.


title: Home counties

text: The earliest use of the term cited in the "Oxford English Dictionary" is from 1695. Charles Davenant, in "An essay upon ways and means of supplying the war", wrote, "The Eleven Home Counties, which are thought in Land Taxes to pay more than their proportion, viz. Surry" [sic]" with Southwark, Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Kent, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, Berks, Bucks, and Oxfordshire."


title: Home counties

text: Later definitions have tended to be more narrow and "Bacon's Large Scale Atlas of London and Suburbs" (revised edition c. 1912) includes Berkshire, Buckingham, Essex, Hertford, Kent, Middlesex and Surrey in the "maps of the home counties".


title: Home counties

text: In reviewing S. P. B. Mais's "The Home Counties" (Batsford The Face of Britain series, 1942), Norah Richardson noted that "the home counties" was a term in constant use but hard to define, but that Mais's definition of "the five counties around London County - Middlesex, Hertfordshire, Essex, Kent and Surrey" could not be improved upon.


title: Home counties

text: The term is sometimes understood to mean those counties which, on their borders closest to London, have been partly subsumed into London. Indeed, the former county of Middlesex has been almost wholly within London since 1965 as have parts of Kent, Hertfordshire and Surrey, although the county continues to exist as a cultural and historic entity.


title: Home counties

text: The third edition of the "Oxford English Dictionary" (2010) defines the term as "the English counties surrounding London, into which London has extended. They comprise chiefly Essex, Kent, Surrey, and Hertfordshire." Parts of all of those historic counties are, since 1965, officially within London, although no part of Berkshire, Buckinghamshire or Sussex is. The county of Sussex is also wholly outside, and Berkshire almost wholly outside, the route of the M25 motorway, which is often treated as an unofficial perimeter of Greater London, and some definitions mention that those counties are not always included amongst the home counties, or that the term has been extended to include them.


title: Home counties

text: The home counties have been characterised as being "inhabited on the whole by 'nice', comfortable, and conformist middle-class people" (1987) exemplified by the county of Surrey which has been described as possessing quintessential home counties characteristics of "a comfortable plasticized commuterland with respectable villas and neatly mown lawns interspersed with patches of mild scenery". In fiction, the character of Margot Leadbetter in the BBC sitcom "The Good Life", set in Surbiton, formerly in Surrey, has been described by "The Spectator" as "a Home Counties Conservative to her fingertips".


title: Home counties

text: Marcus Crouch, however, has made the point that the home counties have been more affected by migration from within and without the United Kingdom than any other region of the country, making them the most cosmopolitan region of England and meaning that there is no typical home counties inhabitant. One result of this diversity, he argues, is that local loyalties are shallower in the home counties than in, for instance, Yorkshire or parts of Scotland where there has been less population mobility.


title: Home counties

text: Marcus Crouch has identified one of the principal characteristics of the home counties as being a shared chalk geology that is broadly mirrored north and south of the Thames.


title: Home counties

text: The home counties are some of the wealthiest in Britain with the towns of Virginia Water, Esher and Weybridge, all in Surrey, ranked in one 2019 survey as having some of the highest average house prices in the country. However, a 2011 report described the perception that South East England, the official region of England in which most of the home counties are located, was universally wealthy as inaccurate and noted that 500,000 people in the region lived in areas that were within the 20% most deprived areas in the country with deprivation concentrated in coastal areas such as Margate (Kent) and Hastings (East Sussex). Significant areas of deprivation were also found in the urban areas of south Hampshire and Slough.


title: Home counties

text: Multiple definitions of the term have been used in legislation and by official bodies. In the twentieth century, for instance, as follows: (the table includes all the areas mentioned above):


title: Anupriya Goenka

text: Anupria Goenka (born 29 May 1987) is an Indian actress and model who appears in Hindi and Telugu films. She first shot to fame in 2013 as the face of UPA government's "Bharat Nirman". Goenka made her on-screen debut with the 2013 Telugu film "Potugadu", having previously starred in the 2013 short film "Worth the Kiss". She made her Bollywood debut with "Bobby Jasoos".


title: Anupriya Goenka

text: She subsequently starred in the comedy-drama "Bobby Jasoos" (2014), the drama "Paathshala" (2014), the action comedy "Dishoom" (2016) and the crime-drama "Daddy" (2017). Goenka went on to star in the action-thrillers "Tiger Zinda Hai" (2017) and "War" (2019), and the epic period drama "Padmaavat" (2018).


title: Anupriya Goenka

text: She made her web debut with "Stories by Rabindranath Tagore" and went onto appear in successful series like "Sacred Games", "Abhay", "Criminal Justice", "", "Aashram" and "Criminal Justice: Behind Closed Doors".


title: Anupriya Goenka

text: Anupriya Goenka was born in a Marwadi Family on 29 May 1987 in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh to Ravindra Kumar Goenka, a garment entrepreneur and Pushpa Goenka, a homemaker.


title: Anupriya Goenka

text: Goenka provided financial support to her family before she completed school. She said, "I was the enterprising one and started helping my father in the garment export business. Acting was always a hobby till I realized I couldn't do justice to both theatre and my corporate career," she said.