title: Joan Hackett

text: Hackett was diagnosed with cancer in 1981. She died of ovarian cancer on October 8, 1983, at Encino Hospital in Encino, California. A funeral mass was held on Wednesday, October 12, 1983, at St. Victor Catholic Church in Los Angeles, California. Her remains are entombed in The Abbey of The Psalms Mausoleum at Hollywood Forever Cemetery, where her epitaph reads: "Go Away — I'm Asleep".


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Vernacular architecture is building done outside any academic tradition, and without professional guidance. This category encompasses a wide range and variety of building types, with differing methods of construction, from around the world, both historical and extant, representing the majority of buildings and settlements created in pre-industrial societies. Vernacular architecture constitutes 95% of the world's built environment, as estimated in 1995 by Amos Rapoport, as measured against the small percentage of new buildings every year designed by architects and built by engineers.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Vernacular architecture usually serves immediate, local needs; is constrained by the materials available in its particular region; and reflects local traditions and cultural practices. Traditionally, the study of vernacular architecture did not examine formally schooled architects, but instead that of the design skills and tradition of local builders, who were rarely given any attribution for the work. More recently, vernacular architecture has been examined by designers and the building industry in an effort to be more energy conscious with contemporary design and construction—part of a broader interest in sustainable design.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: As of 1986, even among scholars publishing in the field, the exact boundaries of "vernacular" have not been clear.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Vernacular architecture tends to be overlooked in traditional histories of design. It is not a stylistic description, much less one specific style, so it cannot be summarized in terms of easy-to-understand patterns, characteristics, materials, or elements. Because of the usage of traditional building methods and local builders, vernacular buildings are considered cultural expressions—aboriginal, indigenous, ancestral, rural, ethnic, or regional—as much as architectural artifacts.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: The term "vernacular" means 'domestic, native, indigenous', from "verna" 'native slave' or 'home-born slave'. The word probably derives from an older Etruscan word.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: The term is borrowed from linguistics, where vernacular refers to language use particular to a time, place, or group.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: The phrase dates to at least 1857, when it was used by Sir George Gilbert Scott, as the focus of the first chapter of his book "Remarks on Secular & Domestic Architecture, Present & Future", and in a paper read to an architectural society in Leicester in October of that year. As a proponent of the Gothic Revival movement in England, Scott used the term as a pejorative to refer to the "prevailing architecture" in England of the time, all of it, as opposed to the Gothic he wanted to introduce. In this "vernacular" category Scott included St Paul's Cathedral, Greenwich Hospital, London, and Castle Howard, although admitting their relative nobility.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: The term was popularized with positive connotations in a 1964 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, designed by architect Bernard Rudofsky, with a subsequent book. Both were called "Architecture Without Architects". Featuring dramatic black-and-white photography of vernacular buildings around the world, the exhibition was extremely popular. Rudofsky brought the concept into the eye of the public and of mainstream architecture, and also kept the definitions loose: he wrote that the exhibition "attempts to break down our narrow concepts of the art of building by introducing the unfamiliar world of nonpedigreed architecture. It is so little known that we don't even have a name for it. For want of a generic label we shall call it vernacular, anonymous, spontaneous, indigenous, rural, as the case may be." The book was a reminder of the legitimacy and "hard-won knowledge" inherent in vernacular buildings, from Polish salt-caves to gigantic Syrian water wheels to Moroccan desert fortresses, and was considered iconoclastic at the time.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: The term "commercial vernacular" was popularized in the late 1960s by the publication of "Learning from Las Vegas" by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown, referring to 20th-century American suburban tract and commercial architecture.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Although vernacular architecture might be designed by people who do have some training in design, in 1971 Ronald Brunskill nonetheless defined vernacular architecture as:


title: Vernacular architecture

text: ...a building designed by an amateur without any training in design; the individual will have been guided by a series of conventions built up in his locality, paying little attention to what may be fashionable. The function of the building would be the dominant factor, aesthetic considerations, though present to some small degree, being quite minimal. Local materials would be used as a matter of course, other materials being chosen and imported quite exceptionally.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: In the "Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World" edited in 1997 by Paul Oliver of the Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development. Oliver argued that vernacular architecture, given the insights it gives into issues of environmental adaptation, will be necessary in the future to "ensure sustainability in both cultural and economic terms beyond the short term." The encyclopedia defined the field of vernacular architecture as:


title: Vernacular architecture

text: ...comprising the dwellings and all other buildings of the people. Related to their environmental contexts and available resources they are customarily owner- or community-built, utilizing traditional technologies. All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of life of the cultures that produce them.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: In 2007 Allen Noble wrote a lengthy discussion of the relevant terms, in "Traditional Buildings: A Global Survey of Structural Forms and Cultural Functions." Noble concluded that "folk architecture" is built by "persons not professionally trained in building arts." "Vernacular architecture" is "of the common people", but may be built by trained professionals, using local, traditional designs and materials. "Traditional architecture" is architecture passed down from person to person, generation to generation, particularly orally, but at any level of society, not just by common people. "Primitive architecture" is a term Noble discourages the use of. The term popular architecture is used more in eastern Europe and is synonymous with folk or vernacular architecture.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Architecture designed by professional architects is usually not considered to be vernacular. Indeed, it can be argued that the very process of consciously designing a building makes it not vernacular. Paul Oliver, in his book "Dwellings", states: "...it is contended that 'popular architecture' designed by professional architects or commercial builders for popular use, does not come within the compass of the vernacular". Oliver also offers the following simple definition of vernacular architecture: "the architecture of the people, and by the people, but not for the people."


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Frank Lloyd Wright described vernacular architecture as "Folk building growing in response to actual needs, fitted into environment by people who knew no better than to fit them with native feeling". suggesting that it is a primitive form of design, lacking intelligent thought, but he also stated that it was "for us better worth study than all the highly self-conscious academic attempts at the beautiful throughout Europe".


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Since at least the Arts and Crafts Movement, many modern architects have studied vernacular buildings and claimed to draw inspiration from them, including aspects of the vernacular in their designs. In 1946, the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy was appointed to design the town of New Gourna near Luxor. Having studied traditional Nubian settlements and technologies, he incorporated the traditional mud brick vaults of the Nubian settlements in his designs. The experiment failed, due to a variety of social and economic reasons.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa is considered the pioneer of regional modernism in South Asia. Along with him, modern proponents of the use of the vernacular in architectural design include Charles Correa, a well known Indian architect; Muzharul Islam and Bashirul Haq, internationally known Bangladeshi architects; Balkrishna Doshi, another Indian, who established the Vastu-Shilpa Foundation in Ahmedabad to research the vernacular architecture of the region; and Sheila Sri Prakash who has used rural Indian architecture as an inspiration for innovations in environmental and socio-economically sustainable design and planning. The Dutch architect Aldo van Eyck was also a proponent of vernacular architecture. Architects whose work exemplifies the modern take on vernacular architecture would be Samuel Mockbee, Christopher Alexander and Paolo Soleri.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: As yet there is no clearly defined and specialized discipline for the study of dwellings or the larger compass of vernacular architecture. If such a discipline were to emerge it would probably be one that combines some of the elements of both architecture and anthropology with aspects of history and geography.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Architects have developed a renewed interest in vernacular architecture as a model for sustainable design. Contemporary complementary architecture is informed largely by vernacular architecture.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Vernacular architecture is influenced by a great range of different aspects of human behaviour and environment, leading to differing building forms for almost every different context; even neighbouring villages may have subtly different approaches to the construction and use of their dwellings, even if they at first appear the same. Despite these variations, every building is subject to the same laws of physics, and hence will demonstrate significant similarities in structural forms.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: One of the most significant influences on vernacular architecture is the macro climate of the area in which the building is constructed. Buildings in cold climates invariably have high thermal mass or significant amounts of insulation. They are usually sealed in order to prevent heat loss, and openings such as windows tend to be small or non-existent. Buildings in warm climates, by contrast, tend to be constructed of lighter materials and to allow significant cross-ventilation through openings in the fabric of the building.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Buildings for a continental climate must be able to cope with significant variations in temperature, and may even be altered by their occupants according to the seasons. In hot arid and semi-arid regions, vernacular structures typically include a number of distinctive elements to provide for ventilation and temperature control. Across the middle-east, these elements included such design features as courtyard gardens with water features, screen walls, reflected light, "mashrabiya" (the distinctive oriel window with timber lattice-work) and "bad girs" (wind-catchers).


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Buildings take different forms depending on precipitation levels in the region – leading to dwellings on stilts in many regions with frequent flooding or rainy monsoon seasons. For example, the Queenslander is an elevated weatherboard house with a sloped, tin roof that evolved in the early 19th-century as a solution to the annual flooding caused by monsoonal rain in Australia's northern states. Flat roofs are rare in areas with high levels of precipitation. Similarly, areas with high winds will lead to specialised buildings able to cope with them, and buildings tend to present minimal surface area to prevailing winds and are often situated low on the landscape to minimise potential storm damage.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Climatic influences on vernacular architecture are substantial and can be extremely complex. Mediterranean vernacular, and that of much of the Middle East, often includes a courtyard with a fountain or pond; air cooled by water mist and evaporation is drawn through the building by the natural ventilation set up by the building form. Similarly, Northern African vernacular often has very high thermal mass and small windows to keep the occupants cool, and in many cases also includes chimneys, not for fires but to draw air through the internal spaces. Such specializations are not designed, but learned by trial and error over generations of building construction, often existing long before the scientific theories which explain why they work. Vernacular architecture is also used for the purposes of local citizens.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: The way of life of building occupants, and the way they use their shelters, is of great influence on building forms. The size of family units, who shares which spaces, how food is prepared and eaten, how people interact and many other cultural considerations will affect the layout and size of dwellings.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: For example, the family units of several East African ethnic communities live in family compounds, surrounded by marked boundaries, in which separate single-roomed dwellings are built to house different members of the family. In polygamous communities there may be separate dwellings for different wives, and more again for sons who are too old to share space with the women of the family. Social interaction within the family is governed by, and privacy is provided by, the separation between the structures in which family members live. By contrast, in Western Europe, such separation is accomplished inside one dwelling, by dividing the building into separate rooms.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Culture also has a great influence on the appearance of vernacular buildings, as occupants often decorate buildings in accordance with local customs and beliefs.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: There are many cultures around the world which include some aspect of nomadic life, and they have all developed vernacular solutions for the need for shelter. These all include appropriate responses to climate and customs of their inhabitants, including practicalities of simple construction such as huts, and if necessary, transport such as tents.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: The Inuit have a number of different forms of shelter appropriate to different seasons and geographical locations, including the igloo (for winter) and the tupiq (for summer). The Sami of Northern Europe, who live in climates similar to those experienced by the Inuit, have developed different shelters appropriate to their culture including the lavvu and goahti. The development of different solutions in similar circumstances because of cultural influences is typical of vernacular architecture.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Many nomadic people use materials common in the local environment to construct temporary dwellings, such as the Punan of Sarawak who use palm fronds, or the Ituri Pygmies who use saplings and mongongo leaves to construct domed huts. Other cultures reuse materials, transporting them with them as they move. Examples of this are the tribes of Mongolia, who carry their gers (yurts) with them, or the black desert tents of the Qashgai in Iran. Notable in each case is the significant impact of the availability of materials and the availability of pack animals or other forms of transport on the ultimate form of the shelters.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: All the shelters are adapted to suit the local climate. The Mongolian gers (yurts), for example, are versatile enough to be cool in hot continental summers and warm in the sub-zero temperatures of Mongolian winters, and include a close-able ventilation hole at the centre and a chimney for a stove. A ger is typically not often relocated, and is therefore sturdy and secure, including wooden front door and several layers of coverings. A traditional Berber tent, by contrast, might be relocated daily, and is much lighter and quicker to erect and dismantle – and because of the climate it is used in, does not need to provide the same degree of protection from the elements.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: The type of structure and materials used for a dwelling vary depending on how permanent it is. Frequently moved nomadic structures will be lightweight and simple, more permanent ones will be less so. When people settle somewhere permanently, the architecture of their dwellings will change to reflect that.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Materials used will become heavier, more solid and more durable. They may also become more complicated and more expensive, as the capital and labour required to construct them is a one-time cost. Permanent dwellings often offer a greater degree of protection and shelter from the elements. In some cases however, where dwellings are subjected to severe weather conditions such as frequent flooding or high winds, buildings may be deliberately "designed" to fail and be replaced, rather than requiring the uneconomical or even impossible structures needed to withstand them. The collapse of a relatively flimsy, lightweight structure is also less likely to cause serious injury than a heavy structure.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: The local environment and the construction materials it can provide, govern many aspects of vernacular architecture. Areas rich in trees will develop a wooden vernacular, while areas without much wood may use mud or stone. In early California redwood water towers supporting redwood tanks and enclosed by redwood siding (tankhouses) were part of a self-contained wind-powered domestic water system. In the Far East it is common to use bamboo, as it is both plentiful and versatile. Vernacular, almost by definition, is sustainable, and will not exhaust the local resources. If it is not sustainable, it is not suitable for its local context, and cannot be vernacular.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: As many jurisdictions introduce tougher building codes and zoning regulations, "folk architects" sometimes find themselves in conflict with the local authorities.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: A case that made news in Russia was that of an Arkhangelsk entrepreneur Nikolay P. Sutyagin, who built what was reportedly the world's tallest single-family wooden house for himself and his family, only to see it condemned as a fire hazard. The 13-storey, tall structure, known locally as "Sutyagin's skyscraper" (), was found to be in violation of Arkhangelsk building codes, and in 2008 the courts ordered the building to be demolished by February 1, 2009. On December 26, 2008, the tower was pulled down, and the remainder was dismantled manually over the course of the next several months.


title: Vernacular architecture

text: Different regions in Ukraine have their own examples of vernacular architecture. For example, in the Carpathian Mountains and the surrounding foothills, wood and clay are the primary traditional building materials. Ukrainian architecture is preserved at The Museum of Folk Architecture and Way of Life of Central Naddnipryanshchyna located in Pereiaslav, Ukraine.


title: Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul (film)

text: Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul is a 2017 American road comedy film written and directed by David Bowers and co-written by the books' author Jeff Kinney. It serves as a sequel to "", and the fourth installment in the "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" film series and the final live-action film in the franchise. It was based on the ninth book , with elements of the , , and in the series. It is also the only live-action installment in the series not to feature the cast members from the first three films as they outgrew their roles. It instead features a completely different cast (which includes Jason Drucker, Alicia Silverstone, Tom Everett Scott, Charlie Wright, and Owen Asztalos), and the plot follows the Heffleys as they go on a road trip to Meemaw's 90th birthday party, without realizing the various calamities that will occur along the way.


text: After the release of "Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days" in 2012, the film was described as the last live-action one in the franchise, with the original cast and crew indicating that were no plans for a fourth film. By 2016, a live-action adaptation of the ninth book, "The Long Haul", was in development, with the aforementioned new cast.


text: "The Long Haul" received negative reviews from critics and fans alike, and critics surveyed by Rotten Tomatoes called it "largely unfunny". The film was also a box office disappointment, only grossing $40 million worldwide against a $22 million budget.


text: The film would later be the last one in the series to be produced by 20th Century Fox before the studio was acquired by Disney in 2019 and the last one before the series was rebooted into animated films, starting with the 2021 "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" movie on Disney+.


text: The Heffley family dines at a restaurant called Corny’s, where Susan announces the family plan for a road trip to attend Meemaw’s 90th birthday party, much to Rodrick and Greg's dismay. Greg is then sent to rescue Manny from inside a tube in the play area. He ends up in the ball pit with a diaper stuck to his hand and freaking out while searching for Manny. He subsequently becomes famous when the footage is posted on the Internet, becoming an embarrassing meme called "Diaper Hands".


text: Later, Greg learns that the "Player Expo" is taking place not far from Meemaw's house in Indianapolis. His favorite Internet star, Mac Digby, will be attending so he plans to sneak off from the road trip and secretly go to the "Player Expo". As soon as they start, everyone's phones are immediately confiscated by Susan, so the road trip is "absolutely technology-free".


text: That night, at a motel, Greg secretly gets his phone from the car. Later, while he and Rodrick are relaxing in the hot tub, Rodrick uncovers his plans to go to the "Player Expo", but Greg convinces him not to tell Susan, and opts to go with him. Later that night, Greg investigates a loud noise: a couple of kids repeatedly slamming a wheeled cart into a wall, belonging to a family which he dubs "the Beardos" due to their father's beard. Scolding them for making a racket, he threatens to have them thrown out. Their father comes out, and nearly gets hit by the cart his daughter rolls at Greg, but it misses him and damages their van. She blames Greg, telling her father that he also called him a "Fat Beardo," causing Mr. Beardo to plot revenge.


text: On the road, Manny wins a piglet at a fair. Mr. Beardo, who is also there with his family, sees Greg and pursues him. The next day, a work call and the piglet's craziness lead to the Heffleys nearly crashing their car on a bridge, and they donate the piglet to a petting zoo much to Manny's dismay while Greg reroutes the GPS to the "Player Expo". In the hotel room, Rodrick and Greg leave a note telling Frank and Susan that they are buying a gift for Meemaw, but they sneak out to "Player Expo". Thinking they are missing, Susan calls the police but gets them herself after seeing them on TV.


text: Seeing Mac Digby in a video game competition, Greg asks Rodrick to record him on the stage behind him, but he accidentally knocks out the power to Mac's screen. Susan arrives and accidentally reveals to Mac that Greg is Diaper Hands, humiliating him in the process. She opens up saying all she wanted was a nice road trip to bring them closer together, and accuses him of not caring. Fed up of her being controlling, he calls her out on her hypocrisy and naiveté. Finally feeling defeated, she gives him back his phone.


text: Back on the road, the tarp on their motorboat blows open and their belongings fly out. The Beardos then show up and begin stealing them as "payback." The Heffleys chase after the Beardos, but get stuck in a traffic jam, which they get out of by taking a back road. They come across the Beardos' van at another motel, steal their belongings back, and manage to reach Meemaw's birthday celebration with Greg in the boat with it detached to the car. After the party, the car breaks down again, though a tow truck driver stops by, but he only speaks Spanish, though Manny is able to communicate due to a CD they heard earlier in the trip. He guides them to the petting zoo and he retrieves the piglet.


text: In Greg's ending monologue, Frank gets time off from work to spend with his family, and Rodrick gets money to repair his van. While the trip was far hardly perfect, it was eventful and he's excited for next year. Susan steps in to say that they will be flying to their next holiday, wherever they go.


text: The series' author, Jeff Kinney, makes his third cameo role, this time as a booth owner at the Player Expo.


text: In 2012, the series' third entry, "" was described as the last live action film in the franchise. That same year in August, while doing press for the film, author Jeff Kinney and actors Zachary Gordon and Robert Capron each indicated that there were no plans for a fourth movie, but did not dismiss the possibility entirely.


text: In 2014, Jeff Kinney replied to inquiries regarding the possibility of another sequel in a YouTube video, stating, "At present, we don't have a fourth film in development, but you never know!" When describing the likelihood of starring in another film in the series, Gordon explained, ""Dog Days" most likely will be the last movie. The main problem is [the cast] is getting older. You can't stop it. There's no way to temporarily stop us from changing and growing up. You know, that's the problem because the characters are supposed to be timeless."


text: In March 2013, Gordon stated in a Spreecast live stream that there would not be a fourth live action film. Previously, Kinney had indicated that instead of making a live action film, he would like to see "" adapted into an animated film, stating in an interview, "I hope that it gets made into an animated movie. But I'd really like to see it turn into an animated television special."


text: In 2016, it was announced that a live-action film adaptation of the ninth book "" was in development, and would be featuring a completely new cast playing the Heffleys.


text: The film was released on May 17, 2017, in the Philippines, two days later on May 19 in the United States, and on May 26 in the United Kingdom.


text: The film was released on Digital HD from Amazon Video and iTunes on August 1, 2017, and on Blu-ray and DVD on August 8, 2017, by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. It grossed $2.6 million in home video sales.


text: The film grossed $20.7 million in the United States and Canada and $19.3 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $40.1 million, against a production budget of $22 million. It was the lowest-grossing film of the "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" series by a wide margin.


text: In North America, the film was initially projected to gross around $12 million from 3,129 theaters during its opening weekend. However, after grossing $2 million on its first day, projections were lowered to $7 million. It ended up finishing with $7.1 million, placing 6th at the box office and marking the lowest opening of the franchise by a wide margin.


text: When the film was released in the United Kingdom, it opened at #2, behind "" with £1,444,092. The film was a box disappointment, grossing just $40.1 million worldwide.


text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 17% based on 72 reviews and an average rating of 4.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "With an all-new cast but the same juvenile humor, "Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul" finds the franchise still stuck in arrested – and largely unfunny – development." On Metacritic, it has a score of 39 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave it an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, down from the first three films' "A−".


text: Dennis Harvey of "Variety" was more positive, calling the film "an amiable, fast-paced entry that should win over fans." Jesse Hassenger of "The A.V. Club" called the film "repetitive and uninspired". Christy Lemire of "RogerEbert.com" criticized it, saying it "Jettisons everything that’s honest and worthwhile about the books in favor of hackneyed misadventures and gross-out scatological humor." Jody Mitori of the "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" gave "The Long Haul" two stars out of four and commented on its increase of gross-out humor compared to the book version and previous films. Linda Cook of "The Quad City Times" called it the worst film of the year so far.


text: Following the release of "Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days", the likelihood of a fourth live-action film was slim. In 2012, Jeff Kinney, the author of the "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" books, had announced the possibility for an animated film to be based on "" as the next installment. In an interview for "", Kinney stated he was working with Fox on a half-hour special based on "Cabin Fever", which was to be aired in late 2014, but as of 2022, it never came into fruition. In August 2018, CEO of 20th Century Fox Stacey Snider announced that a fully animated television series based on "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" was in development. On August 6, 2019, after the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, the project was confirmed to be still in development for the then-upcoming Disney+.


text: In December 2020, the project was confirmed to have been redeveloped as an animated film titled "Diary of a Wimpy Kid", with production already started and with a release year of 2021. On September 2, 2021, it was announced that the film would be released on December 3, 2021, confirmed to simply be titled "Diary of a Wimpy Kid", and it would be a retelling of the first book in the series. Swinton Scott was announced as director, and Kinney as producer and writer. Brady Noon, Ethan William Childress, and Chris Diamantopoulos were also announced to be part of the voice cast. Noon voiced Greg, Childress voiced Rowley, and Diamantopoulos voiced Greg's father Frank.


text: Erica Cerra, Hunter Dillon and Gracen Newton later joined the voice cast of the film. Cerra voiced Greg's mother Susan, while Dillon and Newton voiced Greg's brothers Rodrick and Manny.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: The strip search phone call scam was a series of incidents, mostly occurring in rural areas of the United States, that extended over a period of at least nine years, starting in 1994. The incidents involved a man calling a restaurant or grocery store, claiming to be a police officer and then convincing managers to conduct strip searches of employees (or in one case a customer), and to perform other bizarre acts on behalf of "the police". The calls were most often placed to fast-food restaurants in small towns.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Over 70 such occurrences were reported in 30 U.S. states, until an incident in 2004 in Mount Washington, Kentucky, which led to the arrest of David Richard Stewart. Stewart was acquitted of all charges in the Mount Washington case despite the presentation of an array of physical evidence such as possession of the cards used in the Mount Washington and other hoax calls as well as video of Stewart purchasing those cards from a Florida Walmart. He was suspected of, but never charged with, having made other, similar scam calls. Police reported that the scam calls ended after Stewart's arrest.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: There were numerous prior incidents in many states which followed the pattern of the fraudulent call to a McDonald's restaurant in Mount Washington, Kentucky. Most of the calls were made to fast-food restaurants, but a few were made to grocery stores.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: A caller who identified himself as a police officer or other authority figure would contact a manager or supervisor and would solicit their help in detaining a female employee or customer who was suspected of a crime. He would provide a description of the suspect, which the manager would recognize, and he would then ask the manager to search the suspected person.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: On 9 April 2004, a call was made to a McDonald's restaurant in Mount Washington, Kentucky. According to assistant manager Donna Summers, the caller identified himself as a policeman, "Officer Scott". The caller gave Summers a vague description of a slightly built young white woman with blonde hair, who was suspected of theft. Summers believed the description provided was that of Louise Ogborn, a then eighteen-year-old who was currently on duty at the restaurant.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: The police impersonator demanded that Ogborn be searched at the restaurant because no officers were available at the moment to handle such a minor matter. Ogborn was brought into an office and ordered to remove her clothes, which Summers then placed in a bag and took to her car, as instructed. Ogborn then put on an apron to partially cover herself. Kim Dockery, another assistant manager, was present at that time; Dockery believed she was there as a witness to the search.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Dockery left after an hour, and Summers told the caller that she needed to be working at the restaurant's counter. The caller then told Summers to bring in someone whom she trusted to assist with the investigation. Summers first asked Jason Bradley, one of the restaurant's cooks, to watch Ogborn. When the caller ordered Bradley to remove Ogborn's apron and describe her, Bradley refused but did not attempt to call the police. Summers then called her own fiancé, Walter Nix Jr. to help, who went to the restaurant and took over from Summers. After being told that a police officer was on the phone, Nix could be seen obeying the caller's instructions for the next two hours.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Nix removed the apron that Ogborn was wearing and ordered her to dance and perform jumping jacks while she was naked. Nix then ordered her to insert her fingers into her vagina and expose it to him as part of the "search". He also ordered her to sit on his lap and kiss him, and when she refused to do so, he spanked her until she promised to do so. The caller also spoke to Ogborn and demanded that she do as she was told or face worse punishment. Recalling the incident later, Ogborn said: "I was scared for my life."


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: After Ogborn had been in the office for two and a half hours, she was ordered to perform oral sex on Nix. Summers returned to the office periodically, and during these times, Ogborn was instructed by the caller to cover herself with the apron. The caller then permitted Nix to leave on condition that Summers would find someone to replace him. After Nix left, he called a friend and told him, "I have done something terribly bad."


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: With Nix having left, and short on staff due to the dinnertime rush, Summers needed someone to take Nix's place in the office. She spotted Thomas Simms, the restaurant's maintenance man, who had stopped in at the restaurant for dessert. She told Simms to go into the office and watch Ogborn. Simms, however, refused to go along with any of the caller's demands. At this point, Summers became suspicious and decided to call a higher-level manager (whom the caller earlier had claimed to have been speaking to on another phone line).


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Speaking with her boss, Summers discovered that she had been sleeping and had not spoken to any police officer. She realized that the call had been fraudulent. The caller then abruptly ended the call. An employee dialed *69 before another call could ring in, thus obtaining the number of the caller's telephone. Summers was now hysterical and began apologizing. Ogborn (shivering and wrapped in a blanket) was released from the office after three and a half hours. The police were called to the restaurant; they arrested Nix on a charge of sexual assault and began an investigation to find the perpetrator of the scam call.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: The entire incident was recorded by a surveillance camera in the office. Summers watched the tape later that night and, according to her attorney, broke off her engagement with Nix.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Mount Washington police, after doing a simple word search on the Internet, quickly realized that this was only the latest in a long series of similar incidents that extended over a period of about 10 years. None of those incidents had continued as long, or with as many people involved, as the one in the Mount Washington McDonald's.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Although their initial suspicion was that the call had originated from a pay phone near the McDonald's restaurant (from which the perpetrator could see both the police station and the restaurant), police later determined that the call had originated from a supermarket pay phone in Panama City, Florida. Having learned that the call was made with an AT&T phone card and that the largest retailer of such cards was Walmart, they contacted the police in Panama City.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: The Panama City police informed the Mount Washington police that Detective Flaherty in Massachusetts was already conducting an investigation. Several similar scam calls had been placed to Boston-area restaurants, and Flaherty had already pulled surveillance camera footage from a Walmart in Panama City. Following Flaherty's lead, the Mount Washington police used the serial number of the phone card to find out that it had been purchased from a different Walmart than the Walmart that sold the card used for calls to Massachusetts restaurants.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Using the records of the Panama City Walmart, which showed the cash register and the time of purchase of the phone card, Mount Washington police were able to find surveillance camera footage of the purchaser of the card. The Massachusetts investigation had gone cold when their surveillance video failed to show the purchaser—the cameras had been trained on the store's parking lot and not on the cash registers.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: The purchaser in the Panama City video was wearing a correctional officer's uniform of the kind used by Corrections Corporation of America, a private security firm. Videos and still photographs from the two Walmarts were compared, and the same man was seen entering and exiting the Massachusetts Walmart at the time when a phone card was purchased there. Police used these images to produce front-and-back composite images of the suspect. Subsequent queries directed to the private security firm's human resources department led to the identification of the phone card buyer as David R. Stewart – a married man with five children – who was then arrested.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: During his questioning by police, Stewart insisted he never had bought a phone card, but detectives found one in his home that had been used to call nine restaurants in the past year—including a call to a Burger King in Idaho Falls, Idaho on the same day when that restaurant's manager was reportedly duped by a scam call. Police also found in Stewart's home dozens of applications for police department jobs, hundreds of police magazines, and police-style uniforms, guns, and holsters. This was thought to indicate that the suspect had fantasized about being a police officer.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Stewart was extradited to Kentucky to be tried on charges of impersonating a police officer and solicitation of sodomy. If convicted, Stewart faced up to 15 years in prison. On 31 October 2006, he was acquitted of all charges. Both the defense and the prosecution attorneys speculated that a lack of direct evidence, such as a recording of the caller's voice, might have led to the jury finding him not guilty.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Stewart remained a suspect in similar cases throughout the United States. Police stated later that since Stewart's arrest, the scam calls had stopped.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Louise Ogborn, the victim, underwent therapy and medication to address post-traumatic stress disorder and depression. She abandoned her plans to attend the University of Louisville, where she had anticipated becoming a pre-med student. In an interview with ABC News, she said that after the abuse she "felt dirty" and had difficulty making and maintaining friendships because she wouldn't "allow anyone to get too close to her".


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Donna Summers ended her engagement with Nix soon after the incident. She was fired from McDonald's for violating corporate policies prohibiting both strip searches and for allowing a non-McDonald's employee to enter the restaurant's office. Summers entered an Alford guilty plea to a single count of unlawful imprisonment as a misdemeanor and was sentenced to one year probation.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Kim Dockery was transferred to work at another location. Walter Nix pleaded guilty to sexual abuse, sexual misconduct and unlawful imprisonment. The judge agreed to a plea deal for Nix in exchange for his testimony against David Stewart. Due to the level and length of his involvement in the physical crimes, Nix was sentenced to five years in prison.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Three years after the incident, still undergoing therapy, Louise Ogborn sued McDonald's for $200 million for failing to protect her during her ordeal. Her grounds for the suit were:


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: Donna Summers also sued McDonald's, asking for $50 million, for failing to warn her about the previous hoaxes.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: The civil trial began 10 September 2007, and ended 5 October 2007, when a jury awarded Ogborn $5 million in punitive damages and $1.1 million in compensatory damages and expenses. Summers was awarded $1 million in punitive damages and $100,000 in compensatory damages.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: The jury decided that McDonald's and the unnamed caller were each 50% at fault for the abuse to which the victim was subjected. McDonald's and their attorneys were sanctioned for withholding evidence pertinent to the outcome of the trial. In November 2008, McDonald's also was ordered to pay $2.4 million in legal fees to plaintiffs' lawyers.


title: Strip search phone call scam

text: On 20 November 2009, the Kentucky Court of Appeals upheld the jury's verdict but reduced the punitive damages award to Summers to $400,000. McDonald's then appealed to the Kentucky Supreme Court. While its petition was pending in 2010, Ogborn settled with McDonald's for $1.1 million and abandoned her claim for punitive damages. After the court decisions, McDonald's revised its manager-training program to emphasize awareness of scam phone calls and protection of employees' rights.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: The Royal Enfield Bullet was originally an overhead-valve single-cylinder four-stroke motorcycle made by Royal Enfield in Redditch, Worcestershire, now produced by Royal Enfield (India) at Chennai, Tamil Nadu, a company originally founded by Madras Motors to build Royal Enfield motorcycles under licence in India. The Royal Enfield Bullet has the longest unchanged production run of any motorcycle having remained continuously in production since 1948. The Bullet marque is even older, and has passed 75 years of continuous production. The Royal Enfield and Bullet names derive from the British company which had been a subcontractor to Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, London.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: The Bullet has evolved from a four-stroke engine with exposed valve-gear to the latest all-alloy unit construction engine with electronic fuel-injection.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Introduced in 1931 as a four-stroke single-cylinder motorcycle, this model was the first to feature the Bullet name. It was different in a number of ways from its successors (which are now familiar): it had an inclined engine with exposed valve gear featuring four valves per cylinder with 350 cc and 500 cc options. In 1933, a 250 cc option was also added to the range. Its frame was also considerably different, having centre-spring girder front forks, being among a new range of models from Royal Enfield that featured them, along with a saddle-type fuel tank. However, common to motorcycles of this period, it had a rigid rear-end, necessitating a 'sprung' seat for the rider, which resulted in the iconic look of the motorcycle that is much replicated today, even though the sprung seat is unnecessary in modern models.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: After competition success the 350 cc Royal Enfield Bullet was bought by the British Army for dispatch riders and 3,000 were also supplied to the RAF during the Second World War.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: This model refreshed Royal Enfield's model line-up for 1939. It differed in cosmetic details, as well as in having two rocker boxes, which resulted in higher volumetric efficiency for the engine. The post-war models incorporated a hydraulic front fork, and Enfield were among the first among British bikes to develop a fully-incorporated swing-arm frame rear suspension. The "bullet" engine also used an aluminium cylinder head.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: A number of changes were implemented in order to bring the bike up to date. This model featured a vertical engine with an alloy head and higher compression. The frame was changed to a fully sprung design using a swing-arm with non-adjustable hydraulic shockers at the rear, while the front used a brand-new telescopic fork of Royal Enfield's own design. This enabled the introduction of a dualseat made of simple foam and with no large springs. Power transmission was via the same four-speed Albion gearbox as the previous model, with a unique 'neutral-finder' lever the rider could press from any gear other than first to shift to neutral. The crankshaft continued to have a fully floating big-end bearing. The headlight assembly was enclosed with the speedometer and ammeter into a nacelle, which also served as the attachment of the front suspension as well as the handlebars. An otherwise similar model, but with an engine displacement of 499 cc, made its debut in 1953.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: The prototype had done well in a performance trial and went on to win the trophy at the 1948 International Six Days Trial and two Bullet riders won gold medals. In 1952 Johnny Brittain won the Scottish Six Days Trial on a Royal Enfield Bullet and in 1953 he also won the International Six Days Trial without losing a single point.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: In 1949, the Indian Army ordered Royal Enfield Bullets for border patrol use and the company decided to open a factory in Madras. In 1955, the 350 cc Bullets were sent from the Redditch factory in kit form for assembly in India, but Enfield India Ltd. soon developed the factory and produced complete motorcycles independently under licence. The 1955 model remained almost unchanged for years and Madras produced over 20,000 Bullets annually.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: In 1955, Royal Enfield carried out some retooling and redesign at their Redditch plant, in the UK, to modernise the Bullet, and in 1959 some changes were made to the gear ratios. These changes, however, were not incorporated by the Indian arm due to its commitment to supply the Indian Army. Thus the British and Indian lines diverged, never to meet again.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Between 1956 and 1960, the British Bullet was released in several models, including a 350 cc Trials "works replica" version, a 350 cc "Clipper" model and in 1958 the "Airflow" version. This model had full weather protection from a large fibreglass fairing and included panniers for touring. The design was developed in partnership with British Plastics and featured as a series in "The Motor Cycle" magazine. The engines were the same and the only differences were in exhaust, seating, instrumentation, handlebars and fuel tank. Numerous technical improvements were also made, including moving to alternator charging (1956) and coil ignition (1960). The 350 cc model continued in production, but the 500 cc model was discontinued in 1961. In 1962, the UK company was sold and the Bullet discontinued and in 1967, the Redditch factory closed. Finally, in 1970, Royal Enfield closed down completely.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Additional to the 'separate gearbox' Bullet the Royal Enfield Redditch factory produced approximately 250 'unit construction' (integral gearbox) Bullets bikes known as 'New Bullets'. Produced in five batches of fifty between 1963 and 1965 these models were essentially a 350 Crusader. However, unlike their 'one-piece cranked' smaller sibling the New Bullet had a built-up crank and the traditional Bullet bore and stroke dimensions under a Crusader cylinder head. These bikes are difficult to identify as being different from the Crusader. Look for a ten finned barrel on a Crusader and you will have found a New Bullet. By necessity, the toolbox air intake slot is also a little higher. Other variations from the unit 250 include a 46 tooth rear sprocket, an outrigger bearing on the primary side crankcase a four plate clutch, and wider gear cogs. The petrol tank is similar to the earlier unit range item (not the Clipper tank) but has a larger cut out on the underside to clear the taller motor making it 1/4 gallon light on capacity. A New Bullet was modelled for sale to the army and carried panniers and a 'speedo-only' style of the casket. According to RE data, 232 of these bikes were produced, making them a scarce and desirable machine today.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Enfield India Ltd. continued production of the 1955 Bullet design almost unchanged, re-introducing it to the British market in 1977 under the name 'Enfield'. This was a period of stagnation for the Bullet.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Due to the protectionist nature of the Indian economy, no need for improvement was apparent, and the brand survived into the 1990s essentially as a domestic Indian commuter bike. Equivalent bikes in the market were the Yamaha RD350 and the Yezdi. Both bikes enjoy a cult following in India but have been out of production for decades. However, this could not prevent the erosion of the bike's market once the economy was sufficiently opened up to allow the Japanese motorbikes. The bike's high fuel consumption (its main competition was from bikes with superior and more economical 100 cc engines) caused a descending spiral of sales until the company, near bankruptcy, was bought out by Eicher Motors, a tractor and commercial vehicle manufacturer.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Under the newly appointed CEO of Enfield India, Siddhartha Lal, Eicher undertook major investment in the ailing firm. This was started with a lawsuit to secure the trademark and intellectual property rights of the defunct British Royal Enfield, in the hands of the Holder family since the British Royal Enfield's bankruptcy proceedings in 1970. After winning a trademark lawsuit, the company name was changed to Royal Enfield Motors. Many management and production changes were made, with the production process being streamlined and excess capacity redistributed. Without the large-scale Army/Law Enforcement orders to bail the company out, there was only the individual sales route in which the company had to perform if it were to survive at all. The company also faced the difficult task of catering to a very diverse market. To preserve the Bullet's nature and reputation as a classic British bike, as the Raja Gaadi, and to attract youngsters away from the newly appeared performance motorcycle market, the Bullet marque was split up into two. The Bullet Standard 350 featured all the increased manufacturing quality and reliability but was maintained in the traditional 'Bullet' look, available only in black. A new model, available in more colours and chrome accents, CDI electronic ignition, and gas-charged shock absorbers - but with the same engine and gearbox as the Standard - was launched. This model was called the 'Bullet Electra'. A major addition with the Electra was the Electric Start, which resulted in a bulkier engine package, and which was not without mechanical and reliability complications. The Electra 350 went on to become the best-selling Royal Enfield model, accounting for around half the company's sales.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Alongside these developments, Austrian engine firm AVL was contracted to produce an all-alloy engine suitable as a drop-in replacement for the cast-iron block original engine (with a design dating from 1955). The first bike with this engine was launched as the "Bullet Machismo 350". This engine did not sell well in the Indian market; many prospective buyers were surveyed as saying that it didn't sound the same as the old engine, lacking the 'thump' noise of its predecessor. The engine did succeed in the Thunderbird model, a chopper style cruiser from Royal Enfield Motors. Also seen was the introduction of a disc-brake on the front wheel as a factory option domestically in India and standard on all exported models.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: After ever-tighter European emission specifications forced the Bullet Standard 350 to end 2007 as its last model year in the European Union. The 500s had been fitted for some time with an induction pulsed pump to draw in fresh external air and expel it into the exhaust header to make it appear that the emissions were lower than in reality they were! When existing stocks of motorcycles were all sold the British-design engined Bullet became no longer available.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: All new models exclusively featured the AVL 'lean-burn' engine. The introduction of a five-speed, left foot change gearbox meant that Royal Enfield could 'fix' one of the long-standing quirks of the Bullet design;the original foot-brake is on the left-side while the gearchange is on the right (as was the custom with British bikes). Accordingly, the Bullet Machismo 350 was equipped with this left foot change gearbox and a big hit in the foreign markets as it was rich in design and the first chrome model on an Enfield. However, the 'left-shift' gear change provoked a backlash from Indian Bullet customers, forcing the company to not only continue the Bullet Standard with the traditional system but even on the Electra, it was offered only as an option, leading to the Electra four-speed (traditional) and Electra five-speed (left-shift) variants. Sales figures indicated that Indian Bullet customers had shunned the new gearbox, foregoing even the attraction of five-speed transmission to keep the gearshift traditional. However, it became standard fitment on all exported models. New developments included the addition of electric start as an option on some models, while standard on others. In 2007 and 2008, a limited edition, heavily accessorised 500cc lean-burn Machismo 350 and 500 was produced where the motorcycle features 20.85 Nm of torque at 3000 rpm, unique 19 -inch wheels, 280 mm front disc brake & the same engine chassis configuration being exported to Europe, USA & Australia. The Machismo 350 and 500 were discontinued due to a lot of internal noise in the engine.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: As a result of work spanning several years, a new set of engines was introduced. These were the unit construction engines (UCE). The 350 cc UCE found use in the domestic model Thunderbird TwinSpark in a configuration with two sparkplugs per cylinder, with an integrated 5-speed left-shift gearbox. It has not been featured on any of the Bullet models, domestic or otherwise. By 2011, the old cast-iron engine had been completely phased out, including in the Standard 350 model. Now all Royal Enfield bikes are only available with the all-aluminium UC engine.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: The 500 cc UCE features fuel injection system, and has greater power than any Royal Enfield 500 cc motor. The 500 cc UCE, with an integrated five-speed gearbox, powers the current Bullet Classic model. Starting in 2009, this engine was available only in the EU to satisfy emissions regulations, but it is available in the United States under two frame models, the Bullet Classic C5, or the Bullet G5, which looks similar and shares paneling with the earlier AVL Electra models. In 2011 a third export model, the B5, was introduced combining the newer 500 cc UCE engine with the traditional Indian domestic tank and frame.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: In 2017 Royal Enfield equipped Bullet 500 models with Euro 4 compliance which included ABS brakes for front and rear and a better emission control system.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Royal Enfield has officially confirmed that they will cease production of their 500cc engine. The majority of their sales comes from the 350cc models and the demand for the 500cc models started to decline in the Indian markets especially after the introduction of the 650 twins. It is to be discontinued in India from March 31 since the Bharat Stage VI emission norms will make them unviable. The company will upgrade its line up of 350cc motorcycles instead for Indian markets and promote its 650cc motorcycles as its primary export drivers.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Swiss motorcycle tuner and Royal Enfield distributor Fritz W. Egli made a custom Bullet using Egli's central tube frame constructed from nickel-plated chromium-molybdenum steel, and a longer stroke crankshaft (105 mm) engine with special main bearings, dry clutch, timing belt primary drive, and 36 mm Keihin flat-slide carburettors.


title: Royal Enfield Bullet

text: Other custom versions of the Bullet are the Musket, made in Ohio, and the Australian designed Carberry.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Jack Stauber (born April 6, 1996) is an American musician, singer-songwriter, designer, animator, and internet personality based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He is originally from Erie, Pennsylvania. He is known for his VHS-aesthetic live-action, stop motion, and computer animated music videos which contain perceiving and strange lyrics, as well as his songs being in a variety of internet memes on YouTube and TikTok. Stauber first published on YouTube in April 20, 2013. His website was launched in late 2017; however, it mainly contains links to other content such as his social media and merch stores. Stauber has been a member of the bands Joose and Zaki. In 2020, he won the Shorty Award for Best in Weird.


title: Jack Stauber

text: His debut album, "Finite Form" (2013), was released on March 18, 2013, when he was 16. Drawing inspiration from folk music, his second album, "Viator" (2015), was released two years later, on September 18, 2015. Stauber's third studio album "Pop Food" (2017) experimented with pop, lo-fi, and a 1980s and '90s-esque aesthetic. The first two tracks, "Buttercup" and "Oh Klahoma", went viral on TikTok, and boast a combined 485 million Spotify streams as of July 2022. His latest album, "HiLo" (2018), contains elements of funk, pop, and rock.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Stauber grew up in Erie, Pennsylvania. He has one sister, named Kharly. He majored in marketing and minored in studio arts at the University of Pittsburgh. In an interview, Stauber revealed his favorite cartoon is "Rugrats", and praised the art style, stating "Take some time to watch a minute of the pilot of Rugrats if you haven’t seen that before. The art style is beyond incredible." Stauber is also a fan of "Pink Floyd "–" The Wall", Merrie Melodies, the Pink Panther, M83, Bruce Bickford, The Mighty Boosh, Donovan, and The Residents.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Stauber's most famous work of art, called "Buttercup", is the opening song released on his 2017 album "Pop Food". The song, along with remixes and covers of it, became a popular internet meme, especially on TikTok, which contributed substantially to its success. The song had 350 million Spotify streams as of July 2022. Stauber did not release an official music video for "Buttercup". The song has been described as "bubbly, dramatic pop with Panda Bear-esque vocals." YouTuber "lisuga" made a popular fan made video using clips from the Japanese short film, "Kick-Heart". It is the most viewed Jack Stauber-related video on YouTube, with 227 million views as of July 2022.


title: Jack Stauber

text: "Oh Klahoma", the second track from "Pop Food", also became popular. The song has 131 million Spotify streams as of July 2022. The song is most famously used as background music to a TikTok trend called #ghostphotoshoot, where creators dress up as ghosts and take photos of themselves, sometimes wearing sunglasses and other fashion accessories. However, the trend has become controversial, with critics saying the bedsheet costumes used look like KKK robes.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Stauber has done multiple projects for Adult Swim. These projects have received widespread praise, getting millions of views on YouTube.


title: Jack Stauber

text: The first short Stauber created for Adult Swim was called "Wishing Apple," a short released on July 3, 2018 on the Adult Swim YouTube channel.


title: Jack Stauber

text: The next was "Valentine's Day is Not for the Lonely," which premiered on Off The Air's season eight episode "Love" on August 28, 2018. However, the short was created and released on Valentine's Day, almost 6 months before the short was released on Adult Swim, on February 14, 2018. The video was also shortened for its Adult Swim premiere.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Nearly a year after "Valentine's Day is Not for the Lonely" was created, the surreal musical comedy "SHOP: A Pop Opera" premiered on Adult Swim in March 2019. The series utilizes mixed media, incorporated clay animation, music, and VHS-like filters. The six-part series aired each episode at midnight from March 4 to March 9. The episodes were also uploaded onto YouTube the next day. A year later, Stauber released the soundtrack for the miniseries on March 8, after someone hacked into his account and fraudulently uploaded the soundtrack in October of the previous year. On November 4, 2020, the full series was uploaded onto the Adult Swim YouTube channel.


title: Jack Stauber

text: The latest Adult Swim project created by Stauber is a short surreal musical psychological horror film, entitled "Jack Stauber's OPAL", which premiered on October 31, 2020. The same day, "OPAL" was also released on the Adult Swim YouTube channel. Stauber also received help from the producers at Williams Street for the creation of "OPAL". The series utilizes stop-motion, 3D-animated, and live action segments.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Meg Fair of "Pittsburgh City Paper" highlighted Stauber's knack of "pulling unrelated sounds and influences into [his] music, throwing them into a bowl and tossing them into a strange salad that challenges your musical taste buds." Jenna Minnig of "PennState CommMedia" compared Stauber's music to Ariel Pink's; as both have hypnagogic-pop styles and have similar voices, but believed it was unnecessary and reductionary to compare the two. "Knoxville News Sentinel"'s Chuck Campbell described Stauber's music videos as "nostalgic and childlike, but there’s also something disturbingly adult about them, the kind of thing that might have surfaced on "Pee-wee's Playhouse" back in the day."


title: Jack Stauber

text: Stauber is well known for his hypnagogic pop, avant-pop, and synth-pop music. Stauber's unique vocal effects are developed in the shower, and are inspired by Donovan in his song "Hurdy Gurdy Man". Stauber also collects objects to create sounds to use in songs, and has a drawer filled with "various noise-makers" he has collected. Stauber uses the Plopscotch Records label to enlist copyright on his music.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Aside from his perennial avant-pop style, Stauber is well-versed in traditional guitar playing, regularly incorporating it into his music. Stauber’s album "Viator" is a particular example, for the fact it’s a radical contrast to the rest of his discography, both in music and tone. "Viator" consists of somber and bleak indie folk and lo-fi acoustic music. Despite this being the only folk album he’s released, Stauber would include songs in a vein like that of "Viator", such as “Bothersome” and “Calm Water Fast Living” on "Pop Food" and "Micropop" respectively.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Artists that have expressed admiration for Stauber's music include rock musician Jon Bon Jovi, comedian Andy Milonakis, actor Verne Troyer, indie singer-songwriter Sidney Gish, and model Paris Jackson.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Stauber's videos utilize a mixture of different types of media, such as traditional animation, 3D computer animation, claymation, and live action. Almost all voices in these videos are done by Stauber himself. His videos are usually separated into three styles: "surreal", characters with odd and striking facial expressions and frequently part of his claymations, "colorful", which are usually featured in his VHS animations and music videos, and "Stauber faces", light-skinned characters with cartoon noses.


title: Jack Stauber

text: To create his animations, Stauber uses Microsoft Paint for the drawings. He then sequences the frames in Adobe Premiere Pro, and then runs the finished video through a VHS tape.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Teeth play a constant theme in Stauber's work, often referenced in his music and videos. Teeth featured in Stauber's videos are most often fake, these false teeth being created using resin, though he has also sometimes used actual teeth in his work.


title: Jack Stauber

text: Stauber also publishes under the name "Jack Stauber's Micropop", releasing extended versions of short songs found on his YouTube channel. These songs are less popular than his songs and albums released under his main name, Jack Stauber. These extended versions are often released early for Stauber's Patreon supporters. Under the Micropop name, Stauber has released six EPs and one compilation album, along with two soundtracks for his works with Adult Swim.


title: Haplogroup

text: A haplotype is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent, and a haplogroup (haploid from the , "haploûs", "onefold, simple" and ) is a group of similar haplotypes that share a common ancestor with a single-nucleotide polymorphism mutation. More specifically, a haplogroup is a combination of alleles at different chromosomal regions that are closely linked and that tend to be inherited together. As a haplogroup consists of similar haplotypes, it is usually possible to predict a haplogroup from haplotypes. Haplogroups pertain to a single line of descent. As such, membership of a haplogroup, by any individual, relies on a relatively small proportion of the genetic material possessed by that individual.


title: Haplogroup

text: Each haplogroup originates from, and remains part of, a preceding single haplogroup (or paragroup). As such, any related group of haplogroups may be precisely modelled as a nested hierarchy, in which each set (haplogroup) is also a subset of a single broader set (as opposed, that is, to biparental models, such as human family trees).


title: Haplogroup

text: Haplogroups are normally identified by an initial letter of the alphabet, and refinements consist of additional number and letter combinations, such as (for example) .


title: Haplogroup

text: In human genetics, the haplogroups most commonly studied are Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) haplogroups and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups, each of which can be used to define genetic populations. Y-DNA is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while mtDNA is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material.


title: Haplogroup

text: Mitochondria are small organelles that lie in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, such as those of humans. Their primary function is to provide energy to the cell. Mitochondria are thought to be reduced descendants of symbiotic bacteria that were once free living. One indication that mitochondria were once free living is that each contains a circular DNA, called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), whose structure is more similar to bacteria than eukaryotic organisms (see endosymbiotic theory). The overwhelming majority of a human's DNA is contained in the chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell, but mtDNA is an exception.


title: Haplogroup

text: An individual inherits their cytoplasm and the organelles contained by that cytoplasm exclusively from the maternal ovum (egg cell); sperm only pass on the chromosomal DNA, all paternal mitochondria are digested in the oocyte. When a mutation arises in a mtDNA molecule, the mutation is therefore passed in a direct female line of descent. Mutations are copying mistakes in the DNA sequence. Single mistakes are called single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).


title: Haplogroup

text: Human Y chromosomes are male-specific sex chromosomes; nearly all humans that possess a Y chromosome will be morphologically male. Although Y chromosomes are situated in the cell nucleus and paired with X chromosomes, they only recombine with the X chromosome at the ends of the Y chromosome; the remaining 95% of the Y chromosome does not recombine. Therefore, the Y chromosome and any mutations that arise in it are passed on from father to son in a direct male line of descent. This means the Y chromosome and mtDNA share specific properties.


title: Haplogroup

text: Other chromosomes, autosomes and X chromosomes in women, share their genetic material (called crossing over leading to recombination) during meiosis (a special type of cell division that occurs for the purposes of sexual reproduction). Effectively this means that the genetic material from these chromosomes gets mixed up in every generation, and so any new mutations are passed down randomly from parents to offspring.


title: Haplogroup

text: The special feature that both Y chromosomes and mtDNA display is that mutations can accrue along a certain segment of both molecules and these mutations remain fixed in place on the DNA. Furthermore, the historical sequence of these mutations can also be inferred. For example, if a set of ten Y chromosomes (derived from ten different men) contains a mutation, A, but only five of these chromosomes contain a second mutation, B, then it must be the case that mutation B occurred after mutation A.


title: Haplogroup

text: Furthermore, all ten men who carry the chromosome with mutation A are the direct male line descendants of the same man who was the first person to carry this mutation. The first man to carry mutation B was also a direct male line descendant of this man, but is also the direct male line ancestor of all men carrying mutation B. Series of mutations such as this form molecular lineages. Furthermore, each mutation defines a set of specific Y chromosomes called a haplogroup.


title: Haplogroup

text: All men carrying mutation A form a single haplogroup, and all men carrying mutation B are part of this haplogroup, but mutation B also defines a more recent haplogroup (which is a subgroup or subclade) of its own to which men carrying only mutation A do not belong. Both mtDNA and Y chromosomes are grouped into lineages and haplogroups; these are often presented as tree like diagrams.


title: Haplogroup

text: It is usually assumed that there is little natural selection for or against a particular haplotype mutation which has survived to the present day, so apart from mutation rates (which may vary from one marker to another) the main driver of population genetics affecting the proportions of haplotypes in a population is genetic drift—random fluctuation caused by the sampling randomness of which members of the population happen to pass their DNA on to members of the next generation of the appropriate sex.


title: Haplogroup

text: This causes the prevalence of a particular marker in a population to continue to fluctuate, until it either hits 100%, or falls out of the population entirely. In a large population with efficient mixing the rate of genetic drift for common alleles is very low; however, in a very small interbreeding population the proportions can change much more quickly. The marked geographical variations and concentrations of particular haplotypes and groups of haplotypes therefore witness the distinctive effects of repeated population bottlenecks or founder events followed by population separations and increases.


title: Haplogroup

text: The lineages which can be traced back from the present will not reflect the full genetic variation of the older population: genetic drift means that some of the variants will have died out. The cost of full Y-DNA and mtDNA sequence tests has limited the availability of data; however, their cost has dropped dramatically in the last decade. Haplotype coalescence times and current geographical prevalences both carry considerable error uncertainties. This is especially troublesome for coalescence times, because most population geneticists still continue (albeit decreasing a little bit) to use the "Zhivotovski method", which is heavily criticised by DNA-genealogists for its falsehood. The eusocial wasp "Angiopolybia pallens "presents with 8 haplogroups depending on its location. This displays the idea of genetic drift.


title: Haplogroup

text: Human Y chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) haplogroups are named from A to T, and are further subdivided using numbers and lower case letters. Y chromosome haplogroup designations are established by the Y Chromosome Consortium.


title: Haplogroup

text: Y-chromosomal Adam is the name given by researchers to the male who is the most recent common patrilineal (male-lineage) ancestor of all living humans.


title: Haplogroup

text: Z. The most up-to-date version of the mtDNA tree is maintained by Mannis van Oven on the PhyloTree website.


title: Haplogroup

text: Mitochondrial Eve is the name given by researchers to the woman who is the most recent common matrilineal (female-lineage) ancestor of all living humans.


title: Haplogroup

text: Haplogroups can be used to define genetic populations and are often geographically oriented. For example, the following are common divisions for mtDNA haplogroups:


title: Haplogroup

text: The mitochondrial haplogroups are divided into three main groups, which are designated by the sequential letters L, M, N.


title: Haplogroup

text: Humanity first split within the L group between L0 and L1-6. L1-6 gave rise to other L groups, one of which, L3, split into the M and N group.


title: Haplogroup

text: The M group comprises the first wave of human migration which is thought to have evolved outside of Africa, following an eastward route along southern coastal areas. Descendant lineages of haplogroup M are now found throughout Asia, the Americas, and Melanesia, as well as in parts of the Horn of Africa and North Africa; almost none have been found in Europe. The N haplogroup may represent another macrolineage that evolved outside of Africa, heading northward instead of eastward. Shortly after the migration, the large R group split off from the N.


title: Haplogroup

text: Haplogroup R consists of two subgroups defined on the basis of their geographical distributions, one found in southeastern Asia and Oceania and the other containing almost all of the modern European populations. Haplogroup N(xR), i.e. mtDNA that belongs to the N group but not to its R subgroup, is typical of Australian aboriginal populations, while also being present at low frequencies among many populations of Eurasia and the Americas.


title: Haplogroup

text: M1 – Ethiopian, Somali and Indian populations. Likely due to much gene flow between the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman), separated only by a narrow strait between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.


title: Haplogroup

text: CZ – Many Siberians; branch C – Some Amerindian; branch Z – Many Saami, some Korean, some North Chinese, some Central Asian populations.


title: Haplogroup

text: Y – Most Nivkhs and people of Nias; many Ainus, Tungusic people, and Austronesians; also found with low frequency in some other populations of Siberia, East Asia, and Central Asia


title: Haplogroup

text: R – Large group found within the N type. Populations contained therein can be divided geographically into West Eurasia and East Eurasia. Almost all European populations and a large number of Middle-Eastern population today are contained within this branch. A smaller percentage is contained in other N type groups (See above). Below are subclades of R:


title: Haplogroup

text: B – Some Chinese, Tibetans, Mongolians, Central Asians, Koreans, Amerindians, South Siberians, Japanese, Austronesians


title: Haplogroup

text: R0 – Found in Arabia and among Ethiopians and Somalis; branch HV (branch H; branch V) – Europe, Western Asia, North Africa;


title: Haplogroup

text: Pre-JT – Arose in the Levant (modern Lebanon area), found in 25% frequency in Bedouin populations; branch JT (branch J; branch T) – North, Eastern Europe, Indus, Mediterranean


title: Haplogroup

text: U – High frequency in West Eurasia, Indian sub-continent, and Algeria, found from India to the Mediterranean and to the rest of Europe; U5 in particular shows high frequency in Scandinavia and Baltic countries with the highest frequency in the Sami people.


title: Haplogroup

text: Here is a list of Y-chromosome and MtDNA geographic haplogroup assignation proposed by Bekada et al. 2013.


title: Haplogroup

text: According to SNPS haplogroups which are the age of the first extinction event tend to be around 45–50 kya. Haplogroups of the second extinction event seemed to diverge 32–35 kya according to Mal'ta. The ground zero extinction event appears to be Toba during which haplogroup CDEF* appeared to diverge into C, DE and F. C and F have almost nothing in common while D and E have plenty in common. Extinction event #1 according to current estimates occurred after Toba, although older ancient DNA could push the ground zero extinction event to long before Toba, and push the first extinction event here back to Toba. Haplogroups with extinction event notes by them have a dubious origin and this is because extinction events lead to severe bottlenecks, so all notes by these groups are just guesses. Note that the SNP counting of ancient DNA can be highly variable meaning that even though all these groups diverged around the same time no one knows when.


title: Religion in Albania

text: The most common religion in Albania is Islam, with the second-most-common religion being Christianity. There are also many irreligious Albanians. There are no official statistics regarding the number of practising religious people per each religious group.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Albania has been a secular state since 1967, and as such, is "neutral in questions of belief and conscience": The former socialist government declared Albania the world's first "atheist state", even though the Soviet Union had already done so. Believers faced harsh punishments, and many clergymen were killed. Religious observance and practice is generally lax today, and polls have shown that, compared to the populations of other countries, few Albanians consider religion to be a dominant factor in their lives. When asked about religion, people generally refer to their family's historical religious legacy and not to their own choice of faith.


title: Religion in Albania

text: The 2011 census on religion and ethnicity has been deemed unreliable by the Council of Europe as well as other internal and external organisations and groups.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Christianity spread to urban centers in the region of Albania, at the time composed mostly Epirus Nova and part of south Illyricum, during the later period of Roman era and reached the region relatively early. St. Paul preached the Gospel 'even unto Illyricum' (Romans 15:19). Schnabel asserts that Paul probably preached in Shkodra and Durrës. The steady growth of the Christian community in Dyrrhachium (the Roman name for Epidamnus) led to the creation of a local bishopric in 58 AD. Later, episcopal seats were established in Apollonia, Buthrotum (modern Butrint), and Scodra (modern Shkodra).


title: Religion in Albania

text: One notable Martyr was Saint Astius, who was Bishop of Dyrrachium, who was crucified during the persecution of Christians by the Roman Emperor Trajan. Saint Eleutherius (not to be confused with the later Saint-Pope) was bishop of Messina and Illyria. He was martyred along with his mother Anthia during the anti-Christian campaign of Hadrian.


title: Religion in Albania

text: From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, the main language used to spread the Christian religion was Latin, whereas in the 4th to the 5th centuries it was Greek in Epirus and Macedonia and Latin in Praevalitana and Dardania. Christianity spread to the region during the 4th century however the Bible cites in Romans that Christianity was spread in the first century . The following centuries saw the erection of characteristic examples of Byzantine architecture such as the churches in Kosine, Mborje and Apollonia.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Christian bishops from what would later become eastern Albania took part in the First Council of Nicaea. Arianism had at that point extended to Illyria, where Arius himself had been exiled to by Constantine.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Since the early 4th century AD, Christianity had become the established religion in the Roman Empire, supplanting pagan polytheism and eclipsing for the most part the humanistic world outlook and institutions inherited from the Greek and Roman civilizations. Ecclesiastical records during the Slavic invasions are slim. Though the country was in the fold of Byzantium, Christians in the region remained under the jurisdiction of the Roman pope until 732. In that year the iconoclast Byzantine emperor Leo III, angered by archbishops of the region because they had supported Rome in the Iconoclastic Controversy, detached the church of the province from the Roman pope and placed it under the patriarch of Constantinople. When the Christian church split in 1054 between the East and Rome, southern Albanian regions retained their ties to Constantinople while the northern areas reverted to the jurisdiction of Rome.


title: Religion in Albania

text: The Albanians first appear in the historical record in Byzantine sources of the 11th century. At this point, they are already fully Christianized. Most Albanian regions belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church after the schism, but regional Albanian populations gradually became Catholic to secure their independence from various Orthodox political entities and conversions to Catholicism would be especially notable under the aegis of the Kingdom of Albania. Flirtations with conversions to Catholicism in Central Albanian Principality of Arbanon are reported in the later 12th century, but until 1204 Central and Southern Albanians (in "Epirus Nova") remained mostly Orthodox despite the growing Catholic influence in the North and were often linked to Byzantine and Bulgarian state entities Krujë, however, became an important center for the spread of Catholicism. Its bishopric had been Catholic since 1167. It was under direct dependence from the pope and it was the pope himself who consecrated the bishop. Local Albanian nobles maintained good relations with the Papacy. Its influence became so great, that it began to nominate local bishops. The Archbishopric of Durrës, one of the primary bishoprics in Albania had initially remained under the authority of Eastern Church after the split despite continuous, but fruitless efforts from the Roman church to convert it to the Latin rite.


title: Religion in Albania

text: However, things changed after the fall of Byzantine Empire in 1204. In 1208, a Catholic archdeacon was elected for the archbishopric of Durrës. After the reconquest of Durrës by the Despotate of Epirus in 1214, the Latin Archbishop of Durrës was replaced by an Orthodox archbishop. According to Etleva Lala, on the edge of the Albanian line in the north was Prizren, which was also an Orthodox bishopric albeit with some Catholic parochial churches, in 1372 received a Catholic bishop due to close relations between the Balsha family and the Papacy.


title: Religion in Albania

text: After the Fourth Crusade, a new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country, and papal missionaries traversed its territories. Those who were not Catholic in Central and North Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions. The creation of the Kingdom of Albania in 1272, with links to and influence from Western Europe, meant that a decidedly Catholic political structure had emerged, facilitating the further spread of Catholicism in the Balkans. Durrës became again a Catholic archbishopric in 1272. Other territories of the Kingdom of Albania became Catholic centers as well. Butrint in the south, although dependent on Corfu, became Catholic and remained as such during the 14th century. The bishopric of Vlore also converted immediately following the founding of the Kingdom of Albania. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during the rule of Helen of Anjou, as Queen consort of the Serbian Kingdom, in North Albania and in Serbia. New bishoprics were created especially in North Albania, with the help of Helen. As Catholic power in the Balkans expanded with Albania as a stronghold, Catholic structures began appearing as far afield as Skopje (which was a mostly Serbian Orthodoxy city at the time) in 1326, with the election of the local bishop there being presided upon by the Pope himself; in the following year, 1327, Skopje sees a Dominican appointed.


title: Religion in Albania

text: However, in Durrës the Byzantine rite continued to exist for a while after Angevin conquest. This double-line of authority created some confusion in the local population and a contemporary visitor of the country described Albanians as "nor they are entirely Catholic or entirely schismatic". In order to fight this religious ambiguity, in 1304, Dominicans were ordered by Pope Benedict XI to enter the country and to instruct the locals in the Latin rite. Dominican priests were also ordered as bishops in Vlorë and Butrint.


title: Religion in Albania

text: In 1332 a Dominican priest reported that within the Kingdom of Rascia (Serbia) there were two Catholic peoples, the "Latins" and the "Albanians", who both had their own language. The former was limited to coastal towns while the latter was spread out over the countryside, and while the language of the Albanians was noted as quite different from Latin, both peoples are noted as writing with Latin letters. The author, an anonymous Dominican priest, writing in favor of a Western Catholic military action to expel Orthodox Serbia from areas of Albania it controlled in order to restore the power of the Catholic church there, argued that the Albanians and Latin and their clerics were suffering under the "extremely dire bondage of their odious Slav leaders whom they detest" and would eagerly support an expedition of " one thousand French knights and five or six thousand foot soldiers" who, with, their help, could throw off the rule of Rascia.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Although Serbian rulers at earlier times had at times relations with the Catholic West despite being Orthodox, as a counterbalance to Byzantine power, and therefore tolerated the spread of Catholicism in their lands, under the reign of Stephan Dushan the Catholics were persecuted, as were also Orthodox bishops loyal to Constantinople. The Catholic rite was called "Latin heresy" and, angered in part by marriages of Serbian Orthodox with "half-believers" and the Catholic proselytization of Serbians, Dushan's code, the "Zakonik" contained harsh measures against them. However, the persecutions of local Catholics did not begin in 1349 when the Code was declared in Skopje, but much earlier, at least since the beginning of the 14th century. Under these circumstances the relations between local Catholic Albanians and the papal curia became very close, while the previously friendly relations between local Catholics and Serbians deteriorated significantly.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Between 1350 and 1370, the spread of Catholicism in Albania reached its peak. At that period there were around seventeen Catholic bishoprics in the country, which acted not only as centers for Catholic reform within Albania, but also as centers for missionary activity in the neighboring areas, with the permission of the pope. At the end of the 14th century, the previously Orthodox Autocephalous Archbishopric of Ohrid was dismantled in favor of the Catholic rite.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Christianity was later overshadowed by Islam, which became the predominant religion during the invasion from the Ottoman Empire from the 15th century until the year 1912. Many Albanians embraced Islam in different ways.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Albania differs from other regions in the Balkans in that the peak of Islamization in Albania occurred much later: 16th century Ottoman census data showed that sanjaks where Albanians lived remained overwhelmingly Christian with Muslims making up no more than 5% in most areas (Ohrid 1.9%, Shkodra 4.5%, Elbasan 5.5%, Vlora 1.8%, Dukagjin 0%) while during this period Muslims had already risen to large proportions in Bosnia (Bosnia 46%, Herzegovina 43%, urban Sarajevo 100%), Northern Greece (Trikala 17.5%), North Macedonia (Skopje and Bitola both at 75%) and Eastern Bulgaria (Silistra 72%, Chirmen 88%, Nikopol 22%). Later on, in the 19th century, when the process of Islamization had halted in most of the Balkans and some Balkan Christian peoples like Greeks and Serbs had already claimed independence, Islamization continued to make significant progress in Albania, especially in the South.


title: Religion in Albania

text: As a rule, Ottoman rule largely tolerated Christian subjects but it also discriminated against them, turning them into second-class citizens with much higher taxes and various legal restrictions like being unable to take Muslims to court, have horses, have weapons, or have houses overlooking those of Muslims. While Catholicism was chronically held in suspicion by Ottoman authorities, after the conquest of Constantinople, the Ottomans largely allowed the Orthodox church to function unhindered, except during periods when the church was considered politically suspect and thus suppressed with expulsions of bishops and seizure of property and revenues. Conversion during Ottoman times was variously due to calculated attempts to improve social and economic status, due to the successful proselytizing by missionaries, or done out of desperation in very difficult times; in the latter case, the converts often practised crypto-Christianity for long periods. During the Ottoman period, most Christians as well as most Muslims employed a degree of syncretism, still practising various pagan rites; many of these rites are best preserved among mystical orders like the Bektashi.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Unlike some other areas of the Balkans, such as Bulgaria and Bosnia, for the first couple centuries of Ottoman rule, up until the 1500s, Islam remained confined to members of the co-opted aristocracy and a couple scattered military settlements of Yuruks from Anatolia, while the native Albanian peasantry remained overwhelmingly Christian. Even long after the fall of Skanderbeg, large regions of the Albanian countryside frequently rebelled against Ottoman rule, often incurring large human costs, including the decimation of whole villages. In the 1570s, a concerted effort by Ottoman rulers to convert the native population to Islam in order to stop the occurrence of seasonal rebellions began in Elbasan and Reka. In 1594, the Pope incited a failed rebellion among Catholic Albanians in the North, promising help from Spain. However the assistance did not come, and when the rebellion was crushed in 1596, Ottoman repression and heavy pressures to convert to Islam were implemented to punish the rebels.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Between 1500 and 1800, impressive ecclesiastical art flourished across Southern Albania. In Moscopole there were over 23 churches during the city's period of prosperity in the mid 18th century. Post-Byzantine architectural style is prevalent in the region, e.g. in Vithkuq, Labove, Mesopotam, Dropull.


title: Religion in Albania

text: Ramadan Marmullaku noted that, in the 1600s, the Ottomans organized a concerted campaign of Islamization that was not typically applied elsewhere in the Balkans, in order to ensure the loyalty of the rebellious Albanian population. Although there were certain instances of violently forced conversion, usually this was achieved through debatably coercive economic incentives – in particular, the head tax on Christians was drastically increased. While the tax levied on Albanian Christians in the 1500s amounted to about 45 akçes, in the mid-1600s, it was 780 akçes. Conversion to Islam here was also aided by the dire state of the Catholic church in the period— in the entirety of Albania, there were only 130 Catholic priests, many of these poorly educated. During this period, many Christian Albanians fled into the mountains to found new villages like Theth, or to other countries where they contributed to the emergence of Arvanites, Arbëreshë, and Arbanasi communities in Greece, Italy, and Croatia. While in the first decade of the 17th century, Central and Northern Albania remained firmly Catholic (according to Vatican reports, Muslims were no more than 10% in Northern Albania), by the middle of the 17th century, 30–50% of Northern Albania had converted to Islam, while by 1634 most of Kosovo had also converted. During this time, the Venetian Republic helped to prevent the wholesale Islamisation of Albania, maintaining a hold on parts of the north near the coast.


title: Religion in Albania

text: This period also saw the emergence of Albanian literature, written by Christians such as Pjetër Bogdani. Some of these Christian Albanian thinkers, like Bogdani himself, ultimately advocated for an Albania outside of Ottoman control, and at the end of the 17th century, Bogdani and his colleague Raspasani, raised an army of thousands of Kosovar Albanians in support of the Austrians in the Great Turkish War. However, when this effort failed to expel Ottoman rule from the area yet again, many of Kosovo's Catholics fled to Hungary.


title: Religion in Albania

text: In 1700, the Papacy passed to Pope Clement XI, who was himself of Albanian-Italian origins and held great interest in the welfare of his Catholic Albanian kinsmen, known for composing the Illyricum sacrum. In 1703 he convened the Albanian Council ("Kuvendi i Arbënit") in order to organize methods to prevent further apostacy in Albania, and preserve the existence of Catholicism in the land. The widespread survival of Catholicism in northern Albania is largely attributable to the activity of the Franciscan order in the area


title: Religion in Albania

text: In addition to Catholicism and Sunni Islam, there were pockets of Orthodox (some of whom had converted from Catholicism) in Kavajë, Durrës, Upper Reka and some other regions, while Bektashis became established in Kruja, Luma, Bulqiza, Tetova, and Gjakova. Especially in the tribal regions of the North, religious differences were often mitigated by common cultural and tribal characteristics, as well as knowledge of family lineages connecting Albanian Christians and Albanian Muslims. In the 17th century, although many of the rebellions of the century were at least in part motivated by Christian sentiment, it was noted that many Albanian Muslims also took part, and that, despising Ottoman rule no less than their Christian brethren, Albanian Muslims would revolt eagerly if only given the slightest assistance from the Catholic West.