title: The Magician's Nephew

text: He returned to "The Magician's Nephew" late in 1950, after completing "The Silver Chair". He managed to finish close to three-quarters of the novel, and then halted work once again after Roger Green, to whom Lewis showed all his writing at the time, suggested there was a structural problem in the story. Finally he returned to the novel in 1953, after finishing "The Last Battle" in the spring of that year and completed early in 1954.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Lewis originally titled the novel ""Polly and Digory""; his publisher changed it to "The Magician's Nephew". This book is dedicated to "the Kilmer family".


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: The original opening of the novel differs greatly from the published version, and was abandoned by Lewis. It is now known as 'The Lefay Fragment', and is named after Mrs Lefay, Digory's fairy godmother, who is mentioned in the final version as Uncle Andrew's godmother, a less benevolent user of magic, who bequeathed him the box of dust used to create the magic rings.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: In the Lefay Fragment, Digory is born with the ability to speak to (and understand) trees and animals; the distinction between Talking and non-talking Beasts which was to become such a characteristic feature of the Narnian world is absent. Digory lives with an Aunt Gertrude, a former school mistress with an officious, bullying nature, who has ended up as a Government minister after a lifetime of belligerent brow-beating of others. Whenever his aunt is absent, Digory finds solace with the animals and trees, including a squirrel named Pattertwig. Polly enters the story as a girl next door who is unable to understand the speech of non-human creatures. She wants to build a raft to explore a stream which leads to an underground world. Digory helps construct the raft, but saws a branch from a tree necessary to complete it, in order not to lose face with Polly. This causes him to lose his supernatural powers of understanding the speech of trees and animals. The following day he is visited by his godmother Mrs Lefay who knows that Digory has lost his abilities and gives him a card with the address of a furniture shop which she instructs him to visit. At this point the fragment ends.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Pattertwig and Aunt Gertrude do not appear in the final version of the novel. Pattertwig does, however, appear as a Narnian creature in "Prince Caspian", and Aunt Gertrude's career path is retraced by the Head of Experiment House in "The Silver Chair".


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Some doubt has been cast on the authenticity of the Lefay Fragment, as the handwriting in the manuscript differs in some ways from Lewis's usual style, and the writing is not of a similar calibre to his other work. Also in August 1963 Lewis had given instructions to Douglas Gresham to destroy all his unfinished or incomplete fragments of manuscript when his rooms at Magdalene College, Cambridge were being cleaned out, following his resignation from the college early in the month.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: A number of aspects of "The Magician's Nephew" parallel Lewis's own life. Both Digory and Lewis were children in the early 1900s, both wanted a pony, and both were faced with the death of their mothers in childhood. Digory is separated from his father, who is in India, and misses him. Lewis was schooled in England after his mother's death, while his father remained in Ireland. He also had a brother in India. Lewis was a voracious reader when a child, Digory is also, and both are better with books than with numbers. Digory (and Polly) struggle with sums when trying to work out how far they must travel along the attic space to explore an abandoned house, Lewis failed the maths entrance exam for Oxford University. Lewis remembered rainy summer days from his youth and Digory is faced with the same woe in the novel. Additionally Digory becomes a professor when he grows up, who takes in evacuated children during World War II.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: The character of Andrew Ketterley also closely resembles Robert Capron, a schoolmaster at Wynyard School, which Lewis attended with his brother, whom Lewis suggested during his teens would make a good model for a villain in a future story. Ketterley resembles Capron in his age, appearance, and behaviour.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: "The Magician's Nephew" is written in a lighter tone than other "Chronicles of Narnia" books, in particular "The Last Battle", which was published after. It frequently makes use of humour; this perhaps reflects the sense of looking back at an earlier part of the century with affection, and Lewis as a middle-aged man recalling his childhood during those years. There are a number of humorous references to life in the old days, in particular school life. Humorous exchanges also take place between Narnian animals. Jadis's attempt to conquer London is portrayed as more comical than threatening, and further humour derives from the contrast between the evil empress and Edwardian London and its social mores, and her humiliation of bumbling Andrew Ketterley after discovering he is not as powerful a sorcerer as she is (or was). This recalls the style of Edith Nesbit's children's books. Lewis was fond of these books, which he read in childhood, a number were set in the same period and "The Magician's Nephew" has some apparent references or homages to them.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: "The Magician's Nephew" was originally published as the sixth book in the "Narnia Chronicles". Most reprintings of the novels until the 1980s also reflected the order of original publication. In 1980 HarperCollins published the series ordered by the chronology of the events in the novels. This meant "The Magician's Nephew" was numbered as the first in the series. HarperCollins, which had previously published editions of the novels outside the United States, also acquired the rights to publish the novels in that country in 1994 and used this sequence in the uniform worldwide edition published in that year.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Laurence Krieg, a young fan, wrote to Lewis, asking him to adjudicate between his views of the correct sequence of reading the novels – according to the sequence of events, with "The Magician's Nephew" being placed first – and that of his mother, who thought the order of publication was more appropriate. Lewis wrote back, appearing to support the younger Krieg's views, although he did point out that perhaps it would not matter what order they were read in.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Some literary scholars have argued that the publication order better draws the readers into the world of Narnia. In the book Lewis wrote first, Lucy Pevensie's discovery of the wardrobe that opens onto a forest and a mysterious lamp-post creates a sense of suspense about an unknown land she is discovering for the first time. This would be anticlimactic if the reader has already been introduced to Narnia in "The Magician's Nephew" and already knows the origins of Narnia, the wardrobe, and the lamp-post. Lewis scholar Peter Schakel points out that the narrative of "The Magician's Nephew" assumes that the reader has already read "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" and is now being shown its beginnings.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Paul Ford cites several scholars who have weighed in against the decision of HarperCollins to present the books in the order of their internal chronology, and continues, "most scholars disagree with this decision and find it the least faithful to Lewis's deepest intentions". These scholars argue that the narrative of "The Magician's Nephew" appears to assume that the reader has already read "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" and is now being shown its beginnings.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Lewis suggested that he did not directly intend to write his Narnia stories as Christian tales, but that these aspects appeared subconsciously as he wrote, although the books did become Christian as they progressed. He thought that the tales were not direct representations or allegory, but that they might evoke or remind readers of Biblical stories. In "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe", Aslan is a Christ-like figure who suffers a death of atonement and returns to life in a similar way to Christ's crucifixion and resurrection. "The Magician's Nephew" has similar biblical allusions, reflecting aspects of the Book of Genesis such as the creation, original sin and temptation.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Parallels with events in the Book of Genesis include the forbidden fruit represented by an Apple of Life. Jadis tempts Digory to eat one of the forbidden apples in the garden, as the serpent tempts Eve into eating a forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden; unlike Eve however, Digory rejects the offer. (Lewis's "Perelandra" also features a re-enactment of the same Biblical story, which in that book also ends with the tempter foiled and the fall avoided.)


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: While the creation of Narnia closely echoes the creation of the Earth in the Book of Genesis, there are a number of important differences. Human beings are not created in Narnia by Aslan, they are brought into Narnia from our own world. Unlike Genesis, where souls are given only to human beings, animals and half-human half-animal creatures such as Fauns and Satyrs and even trees and watercourses are given souls and the power of rational thought and speech. This appears to suggest Lewis combined his Christian worldview with his fondness for nature, myth and fairy tales.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Parallels may also be found in Lewis's other writings. Jadis's references to "reasons of State", and her claim to own the people of Charn and to be beyond morality, represent the eclipse of the medieval Christian belief in natural law by the political concept of sovereignty, as embodied first in royal absolutism and then in modern dictatorships. Uncle Andrew represents the Faustian element in the origins of modern science.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: On a number of occasions in the "Chronicles of Narnia", Aslan uses his breath to give strength to characters, demonstrating his benevolent power of bringing life. He specifically does so in "The Magician's Nephew" when a "long warm breath" gives life to Narnia. Lewis used the symbol of the breath to represent the Holy Spirit, also known as the Holy Ghost. Both "spirit" and "ghost" are translations of the word for "breath" in Hebrew and Greek. The flash from the stars when the Narnian animals are given the ability to talk also most probably represents the Holy Spirit or "breath of life" of "Genesis" chapter 2, as well as (possibly) the scholastic concept of the divine active intellect that inspires human beings with rationality.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: "The Magician's Nephew" suggests two opposing approaches to nature, a good approach associated with Aslan as creator and an evil approach associated with human deviation from divine intentions and the harmony of a natural order. On the one hand there is the beauty of Aslan's creation of Narnia, which is suggested as having a natural order by the use of musical harmony to bring landscapes and living things into being. There is also a distinct order to the process of creation, from earth to plants to animal, which evokes the concept of The Great Chain of Being. Lewis himself was a strong believer in the intrinsic value of nature for itself, rather than as a resource to be exploited. This is perhaps reflected in how Aslan also gives speech to spiritual aspects of nature, such as naiads in the water and dryads in the trees. Andrew Ketterley and Jadis represent an opposite, evil approach of bending the forces of nature to human will for the purpose of self gain. They see nature solely as a resource to use for their plans and thus disturb and destroy the natural order.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: The sacred Garden in the west of the Narnian world is surrounded by a "high wall of green turf" with branches of trees overhanging it, and "high gates of gold, fast shut, facing due east", which must be the only entrance because the travellers "walked nearly all the way round it" before they found them. In all these points Lewis echoes John Milton's description of Eden in "Paradise Lost":


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Jadis takes on echoes of Satan from the same work: she climbs over the wall of the Garden in contempt of the command to enter only by the gate, and proceeds to tempt Digory as Satan tempted Eve, with lies and half-truths.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Some details of the creation of Narnia, such as the emergence of animals from the ground, and the way they shake earth from their bodies are also similar to passages in "Paradise Lost", and may also have been inspired by descriptions of the processes of nature in The seventh book of Edmund Spenser's "The Faerie Queene".


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Four years before the publication of the first Narnia book, Lewis had written as follows on the experience of reading really good poetry for the first time:


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: ...I did not in the least feel that I was getting in more quantity or better quality a pleasure I had already known. It was more as if a cupboard which one had hitherto valued as a place for hanging coats proved one day, when you opened the door, to lead to the garden of the Hesperides...


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: The element of the cupboard leading to a new world Lewis proceeded to use in "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe", but the snowy Narnia of that book is quite unlike the balmy Garden of the Hesperides, most of whose major mythological features appear as attributes of the sacred Garden in "The Magician's Nephew" where it differs from the Biblical or Miltonian Eden. It is set in the far West of the world; it has a watchful guardian; a hero (Digory) is sent, like , to fetch an apple from it; a female villain (Jadis) steals another of the apples, like Eris. Since the eponymous Hesperides were daughters of Hesperus, the god of the planet Venus in the evening, advocates of the planetary theory adduce this as evidence for a special association between "The Magician's Nephew" and Venus.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Lewis read Edith Nesbit's children's books as a child and was greatly fond of them. "The Magician's Nephew" refers to these books in the opening of the novel as though their events were true, mentioning the setting of the piece as being when "Mr. Sherlock Holmes was still living in Baker Street and the Bastables were looking for treasure in the Lewisham Road". The Bastables were children who appeared in a number of Edith Nesbit's stories. In addition to being set in the same period and location as several of Nesbit's stories, "The Magician's Nephew" also has some similarities with Nesbit's "The Story of the Amulet" (1906). This novel focuses on four children living in London who discover a magic amulet. Their father is away and their mother is ill, as is the case with Digory. They also manage to transport the queen of ancient Babylon to London and she is the cause of a riot; a very similar event takes place in "The Magician's Nephew" when Polly and Digory transport Queen Jadis to London and she also causes a similar disturbance.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: The creation of Narnia may also have been influenced by his close friend J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Silmarillion", which also contains a creation scene driven by the effect of music.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Lewis greatly enjoyed stories of Arthurian legend and wrote poetry about this world. Mrs Lefay visits Digory in The Lefay Fragment, and becomes Andrew Ketterley's nefarious godmother in the finished novel. She gives Ketterley a box from Atlantis containing the dust from which he constructs the rings Digory and Polly use to travel between worlds. Both Lefays are allusions to Morgan Le Fay, a powerful sorceress in a number of versions of King Arthur's tales, who is often portrayed as evil. The box itself is also evocative of Pandora's box from Greek myth, which also contained dangerous secrets.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: The box of dust enabling travel between worlds originated in Atlantis. Both Lewis and Tolkien were fascinated by the Atlantis legend. The degeneration of Charn's rulers, Jadis's ancestors, from the early kind and wise to the later cruel and arrogant is reminiscent of the similar degeneration in Tolkien's Númenor, the fabled island kingdom that finally sank under the waves due to the sinfulness of its latter inhabitants. The world of Charn was destroyed when Jadis spoke The Deplorable Word, a form of knowledge ancient Charnian scholars feared for its destructive potential. A number of commentators believed Lewis was referring to the use of the atomic bomb, used less than a decade earlier. It is perhaps more likely that Lewis was echoing the mythical destruction of Atlantis by the forces of evil and arrogance. As noted by Alice Ward, the comparison with nuclear arms is made explicit in Aslan's last warning: "You [Earth] are growing more like it [Charn]. It is not certain that some wicked one of your race will not find out a secret as evil as The Deplorable Word and use it to destroy all living things".


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Aurand Harris was a well-known American playwright for children, whose works are among the most performed in that medium. He wrote 36 plays for children including an adaption of "The Magician's Nephew". The play was first performed on 26 May 1984 by the Department of Drama, University of Texas, Austin and staged at the B. Iden Payne Theatre. A musical score by William Penn was written for use with productions of the play.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Erina Caradus wrote a playscript for "The Magician's Nephew" that was performed in Dunedin, New Zealand in 2005.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: An agreement among representatives of 20th Century Fox, Walden, and the C. S. Lewis estate determined that "The Magician's Nephew" would be the basis for the next movie following the release of the 2010 film "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader". However, in October 2011, Douglas Gresham confirmed that Walden Media's contract with the C. S. Lewis estate had expired.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: On 1 October 2013, the C.S. Lewis Company announced that they had entered into an agreement with producer Mark Gordon to jointly develop and produce "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair", ultimately deciding to continue releasing the films to mirror the novel series' publication order.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: In October 2018, Netflix announced an agreement with the C.S. Lewis Company. Netflix will develop and produce new series and movies based on "The Chronicles of Narnia". Mark Gordon of Entertainment One, Douglas Gresham and Vincent Sieber will serve as producers for films and executive producers for series.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: In 2003, the BBC produced a 10-part version read by Jane Lapotaire and signed by Jean St Clair wearing different Narnia-like clothes in British Sign Language, for the TV series "Hands Up!" which was first broadcast on the 16 January 2003. Jean signed in front of various high quality illustrations representing parts of the novel. It was later repeated on CBBC on the 3 December 2007, and BBC Two on the 16 September 2008.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: A BBC Radio 4 adaptation exists. Focus on the Family also made an adaptation of this book with a full cast, sound editing, and music. Both productions adapted all seven books.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: A HarperCollins Japan manga adaptation, , began publication in 2018, before concluding in 2020 after two volumes.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: T.M. Wagner of SF Reviews said ""The Magician's Nephew" may not be the best of the Narnia novels, but it's a brisk and funny tale certain to delight its intended young audience", saying that it may not satisfy readers in their teenage years and older.


title: The Magician's Nephew

text: Jandy's Reading Room reviewed the book, saying that although they feel it is the weakest of the series, they would still recommend it. They say it "gives a wonderful picture of the beginning of a new world, in the manner of the Creation."


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: Lucy in the Sky is a 2019 American psychological drama film loosely inspired by the life of NASA astronaut Lisa Nowak, who is portrayed by Natalie Portman. The film was directed, co-produced, and co-written by Noah Hawley in his feature directorial debut. In addition to Portman, the film stars Jon Hamm, Zazie Beetz, Dan Stevens, Colman Domingo, and Ellen Burstyn.


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: "Lucy in the Sky" had its world premiere at the 44th Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States by Fox Searchlight Pictures on October 4, 2019. The film received negative reviews from critics and was a box-office bomb, grossing a mere $325,950 against its $21.4 million budget.


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: Astronaut Lucy Cola is left awestruck from her first mission in outer space. Upon returning to Earth, she immediately feels disconnected from her normal life with her husband and niece. Although required to undergo NASA therapy and recommended to rest, Lucy begins pushing herself physically and mentally in order to return to space on the next available mission. During training, Lucy encounters a younger female astronaut named Erin. Bored by and frustrated with her supportive husband, Lucy begins spending time with other astronauts who have been to space, eventually beginning an affair with one named Mark.


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: Determined to beat a record recently set by Erin, Lucy nearly drowns during an underwater test, but remains completely calm with her heartbeat actually growing calmer. Later it is discovered that Mark is also having an affair with Erin, leaving Lucy feeling increasingly isolated from her husband. Refusing to be beaten, Lucy pushes to escalate her affair and demands that Mark cease his relationship with Erin. Lucy's beloved grandmother dies of a stroke, an event that leaves Lucy deeply distressed and causing her husband to be increasingly concerned by her erratic behavior. Breaking down after the funeral, Lucy walks out on her husband, with her teenage niece in tow. She cries in a public restroom at a bowling alley and asks, "Is this as good as it gets?"


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: NASA administration confronts Lucy with her near drowning (as well as evidence that she has been blowing off therapy) and tells her she is being passed over for the role in the upcoming mission. Despite promises that she can qualify for the following mission in three years' time, Lucy becomes furious and paranoid that she has been passed over for ulterior reasons. Breaking into Mark's computer, Lucy finds emails showing both that he has continued his affair with Erin, as well as correspondence from Mark urging NASA that Lucy be passed over. Her paranoia is confirmed when Lucy finds that Erin has been selected for the mission.


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: With her grip on reality now completely unraveling, Lucy decides to take revenge on Mark and Erin. Lucy and her niece embark on a cross country trip. Along the way, she experiences hallucinations of her grandmother and leaves emotionally erratic messages for NASA. Wearing a wig, Lucy storms into an airport where Mark and Erin are located. Following Mark to his car, Lucy tearfully confronts him, but is stopped when Erin appears. Lucy sprays insect spray into Mark's face and Mark speeds off in his car. Lucy completely breaks down and is apprehended by the police while attempting to flee. An assortment of weapons and tools are discovered in her car.


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: Three years later, Lucy's niece is giving a presentation in class, with Lucy's husband in attendance. Lucy is working as a beekeeper; she closes one of the hives, then opens the hood of her protective suit, smiling momentarily at the bees and one butterfly flying around her.


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: In February 2017, Noah Hawley was brought onto the project, then known as "Pale Blue Dot", to produce alongside Bruna Papandrea and Reese Witherspoon, with Witherspoon intended to star in the lead role. However, in November 2017, Witherspoon dropped out of the film in order to shoot a second season of "Big Little Lies".


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: By January 2018, Hawley was also set to direct the film, while Natalie Portman entered into negotiations for the lead role. The film is Hawley's feature film directorial debut, and derives its title from the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds". In March 2018, Jon Hamm joined the cast. In April 2018, Zazie Beetz joined the cast, with Dan Stevens joining in May. In June 2018, Ellen Burstyn joined the cast to portray the grandmother of Portman's character. In July 2018, Colman Domingo and Jeremiah Birkett joined the cast of the film. In February 2019, it was announced Nick Offerman had been cast in the film.


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: The film had its world premiere at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2019. It was released on October 4, 2019.


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average of . The site's critics consensus reads, "Natalie Portman gives it her all, but it isn't enough to overcome "Lucy in the Sky"s confused approach to its jumbled story." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 36 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: At the 46th Saturn Awards, the film earned three nominations: Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actress for Portman, and Best Supporting Actress for Burstyn.


title: Lucy in the Sky

text: In November 2018, retired astronaut Marsha Ivins, who flew five missions, criticized the premise of the plot and denied that there is such a thing as a "longstanding idea that says astronauts begin to lose their grip on reality after being in space for an extended period of time". Following its premiere at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival, multiple media outlets, some jokingly, criticized the film for failing to include the more salacious elements of Nowak's real-life case, in particular, her use of adult diapers.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The "Kon-Tiki" expedition was a 1947 journey by raft across the Pacific Ocean from South America to the Polynesian islands, led by Norwegian explorer and writer Thor Heyerdahl. The raft was named "Kon-Tiki" after the Inca god Viracocha, for whom "Kon-Tiki" was said to be an old name. "" is also the name of Heyerdahl's book, the Academy Award–winning 1950 documentary film chronicling his adventures, and the 2012 dramatized feature film nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Heyerdahl believed that people from South America could have reached Polynesia during pre-Columbian times. His aim in mounting the "Kon-Tiki" expedition was to show, by using only the materials and technologies available to those people at the time, that there were no technical reasons to prevent them from having done so. Although the expedition carried some modern equipment, such as a radio, watches, charts, sextant, and metal knives, Heyerdahl argued they were incidental to the purpose of proving that the raft itself could make the journey. This idea has recently received support from statistical analysis of genetic evidence of contact between South America and Polynesia.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Heyerdahl's full hypothesis of a South American origin of the Polynesian peoples is generally rejected by scientists today. Most archaeological, linguistic, cultural, and genetic evidence tends to support a western origin for Polynesians, from Island Southeast Asia, using sophisticated multihull sailing technologies and navigation techniques during the Austronesian expansion. However, there is evidence of some gene flow from South America to Easter Island. In 2020 some researchers published research confirming a wider impact on genetic and cultural elements in Polynesia due to South American contacts.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The "Kon-Tiki" expedition was funded by private loans, along with donations of equipment from the United States Army. Heyerdahl and a small team went to Peru, where, with the help of dockyard facilities provided by the Peruvian authorities, they constructed the raft out of balsa logs and other native materials in an indigenous style as recorded in illustrations by Spanish conquistadores. The trip began on April 28, 1947. Heyerdahl and five companions sailed the raft for 101 days over 6,900 km (4,300 miles) across the Pacific Ocean before smashing into a reef at Raroia in the Tuamotus on August 7, 1947. The crew made successful landfall and all returned safely.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Thor Heyerdahl's book about his experience became a bestseller. It was published in Norwegian in 1948 as "The Kon-Tiki Expedition: By Raft Across the South Seas", later reprinted as "Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific in a Raft". It appeared with great success in English in 1950, also in many other languages. A documentary motion picture about the expedition, also called "Kon-Tiki", was produced from a write-up and expansion of the crew's filmstrip notes and won an Academy Award in 1951. It was directed by Heyerdahl and edited by Olle Nordemar. The voyage was also chronicled in the documentary TV-series "The Kon-Tiki Man: The Life and Adventures of Thor Heyerdahl", directed by Bengt Jonson.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The main body of the float was composed of nine balsa tree trunks up to long, in diameter, lashed together with hemp ropes. Cross-pieces of balsa logs long and in diameter were lashed across the logs at intervals to give lateral support. Pine splashboards clad the bow, and lengths of pine thick and wide were wedged between the balsa logs and used as centreboards.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The mainmast was made of lengths of mangrove wood lashed together to form an A-frame high. Behind the mainmast was a cabin of plaited bamboo long and wide, about high and roofed with banana leaf thatch. At the stern was a long steering oar of mangrove wood, with a blade of fir. The mainsail was on a yard of bamboo stems lashed together. Photographs also show a topsail above the mainsail, and also a mizzen sail, mounted at the stern.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The raft was partially decked in split bamboo. The main spars were a laminate of wood and reeds and Heyerdahl tested more than twenty different composites before settling on one that proved an effective compromise between bulk and torsional rigidity. No metal was used in the construction.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: "Kon-Tiki" carried of drinking water in 56 water cans, as well as a number of sealed bamboo rods. The purpose stated by Heyerdahl for carrying modern and ancient containers was to test the effectiveness of ancient water storage. For food "Kon-Tiki" carried 200 coconuts, sweet potatoes, bottle gourds and other assorted fruit and roots. The U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps provided field rations, tinned food and survival equipment. In return, the "Kon-Tiki" explorers reported on the quality and utility of the provisions. They also caught plentiful numbers of fish, particularly flying fish, "dolphin fish", yellowfin tuna, bonito and shark.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Heyerdahl and crew were equipped with water-tight sports wristwatches manufactured by Swiss watchmaking firm Eterna. After the journey, Eterna decided to brand their sports watches as "Kon-Tiki".


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The expedition carried an amateur radio station with the call sign of LI2B operated by former World War II Norwegian resistance radio operators Knut Haugland and Torstein Raaby. Haugland and Raaby maintained regular communication with a number of American, Canadian, and South American stations that relayed "Kon Tiki's" status to the Norwegian Embassy in Washington, D.C. On August 5, Haugland made contact with a station in Oslo, Norway, away.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: "Kon Tiki's" transmitters were powered by batteries and a hand-cranked generator and operated on the 40, 20, 10, and 6-meter bands. Each unit was water resistant, used 2E30 vacuum tubes, and provided approximately 6 watts of RF output; the equivalent of a small flashlight. Two British 3-16 MHz Mark II transmitters were also carried on board, as was a VHF transmitter for communicating with aircraft and a hand-cranked survival radio of the Gibson Girl type for 500 and 8280 kHz.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The radio receiver used throughout the voyage, a National Radio Company NC-173, once required a thorough drying out after being soaked when landing in Raratonga. The crew once used a hand-cranked emergency transmitter to send out an "all well, all well" message "just in time to head off a massive rescue attempt".


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The call sign LI2B was used by Heyerdahl again in 1969–70, when he built a papyrus reed raft and sailed from Morocco to Barbados in an attempt to show a possible link between the civilization of ancient Egypt and the New World.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: "Kon-Tiki" left Callao, Peru, on the afternoon of April 28, 1947. To avoid coastal traffic it was initially towed out by the Peruvian Navy fleet tug "Guardian Rios", then sailed roughly west carried along on the Humboldt Current.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: On July 2, Heyerdahl writes about an encounter with a rogue wave; in his book he describes a "Three Sister" phenomenon: "During a night-shift with quiet seas appears an 'abnormal huge wave' followed by two more waves. The raft is being swept up and down and is covered in water." After the three waves he describes the sea as quiet as before.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The crew's first sight of land was the atoll of Puka-Puka on July 30. On August 4, the 97th day after departure, "Kon-Tiki" reached the Angatau atoll. The crew made brief contact with the inhabitants of Angatau Island, but were unable to land safely. Calculations made by Heyerdahl before the trip had indicated that 97 days was the minimum amount of time required to reach the Tuamotus, so the encounter with Angatau showed that they had made good time.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: On August 7, the voyage ended when the raft struck a reef and was then beached on an uninhabited islet off Raroia atoll in the Tuamotus. The team had travelled a distance of around in 101 days, at an average speed of .


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: After spending a number of days alone on the islet, the crew was greeted by men from a village on a nearby island who arrived in canoes, having seen washed-up flotsam from the raft. The crew were taken back to the native village, where they were feted with traditional dances and other festivities. Finally the crew were taken off Raroia to Tahiti by the French schooner "Tamara", with the salvaged "Kon-Tiki" in tow.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The basis of the "Kon-Tiki" expedition was pseudoscientific, racially controversial, and has not gained acceptance among scientists (even prior to the voyage). Heyerdahl believed that the original inhabitants of Easter Island (and the rest of Polynesia) were the "Tiki people", a race of "white bearded men" who supposedly originally sailed from Peru. He described these "Tiki people" as being a sun-worshipping fair-skinned people with blue eyes, fair or red hair, tall statures, and beards. He further said that these people were originally from the Middle East, and had crossed the Atlantic earlier to found the great Mesoamerican civilizations. By 500 CE, a branch of these people were supposedly forced out into Tiahuanaco where they became the ruling class of the Inca Empire and set out to voyage into the Pacific Ocean under the leadership of "Con Ticci Viracocha".


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: He argued that the monumental statues known as moai resembled sculptures more typical of pre-Columbian Peru than any Polynesian designs. He believed that the Easter Island myth of a power struggle between two peoples called the Hanau epe and Hanau momoko was a memory of conflicts between the original inhabitants of the island and a later wave of Native Americans from the Northwest coast, eventually leading to the annihilation of the Hanau epe and the destruction of the island's culture and once-prosperous economy. Heyerdahl described these later migrants as "Maori-Polynesians" who were supposedly Asians who crossed over the Bering land bridge into Northwest America before sailing westward towards Polynesia (the westward direction is because he refused to accept that Polynesians were capable of sailing against winds and currents). He associated them with the Tlingit and Haida peoples and characterized them as "inferior" to the Tiki people.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Heyerdahl's hypothesis was part of early Eurocentric hyperdiffusionism and the westerner disbelief that (non-white) "stone-age" peoples with "no math" could colonize islands separated by vast distances of ocean water, even against prevailing winds and currents. He rejected the highly skilled voyaging and navigating traditions of the Austronesian peoples and instead argued that Polynesia was settled from boats following the wind and currents for navigation from South America. As such, the "Kon-Tiki" was deliberately a primitive raft and unsteerable, in contrast to the sophisticated outrigger canoes and catamarans of the Austronesian people.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Heyerdahl's hypothesis of Polynesian origins is overwhelmingly rejected by scientists today. Archaeological, linguistic, cultural, and genetic evidence all support a western origin (from Island Southeast Asia) for Polynesians via the Austronesian expansion. "Drift voyaging" from South America was also deemed "extremely unlikely" in 1973 by computer modeling, although is in contrast with recent genetic analysis. The 1976 voyage of the "Hōkūleʻa", a performance-accurate replica of a Polynesian double-hulled "wa'a kaulua" voyaging canoe, from Hawaiʻi to Tahiti was partly a demonstration to prove that Heyerdahl was wrong. The "Hōkūleʻa" sailed against prevailing winds and exclusively used wayfinding and celestial Polynesian navigation techniques (unlike the modern equipment and charts of the "Kon-Tiki"). "Hōkūleʻa" also remains fully operational, and has since completed ten other voyages, including a three-year circumnavigation of the planet from 2014 to 2017, with other sister ships.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Historians today consider that the Polynesians from the west were the original inhabitants and that the story of the Hanau epe is either pure myth, or a memory of internal tribal or class conflicts. In 2011, Erik Thorsby of the University of Oslo presented DNA evidence to the Royal Society which, whilst agreeing with the west origin, also identified a distinctive but smaller genetic contribution from South America.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: This result was questioned in 2012 because of the possibility of contamination by South Americans after European contact with the islands. In 2014, further work by a team including Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas (from the Natural History Museum of Denmark) analysed the genomes of 27 native Rapa Nui people and found that their DNA was on average 76 percent Polynesian, 8 percent Native American and 16 percent European. Analysis showed that "although the European lineage could be explained by contact with white Europeans after the island was 'discovered' in 1722 by Dutch sailors, the South American component was much older, dating to between about 1280 and 1495, soon after the island was first colonised by Polynesians in around 1200."


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Genetic analysis of Polynesians and Native South Americans, published in "Nature" in July 2020, has revealed that several eastern Polynesian populations have signs of an ancient genetic signature that originated from Native South American people. An initial admixture event between Native South Americans and Polynesians, discovered by statistical analysis, took place around 1150–1230 CE.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: In 1954, William Willis sailed alone on a raft "Seven Little Sisters" from Peru to American Samoa, successfully completing the journey. He sailed , which was farther than "Kon-Tiki". In a second great voyage ten years later, he rafted from South America to Australia with a metal raft "Age Unlimited".


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: In 1955, the Czech explorer and adventurer Eduard Ingris attempted to recreate the "Kon-Tiki" expedition on a balsa raft called "Kantuta". His first expedition, "Kantuta I", took place in 1955–1956 and led to failure. In 1959, Ingris built a new balsa raft, "Kantuta II", and tried to repeat the previous expedition. The second expedition was a success. Ingris was able to cross the Pacific Ocean on the balsa raft from Peru to Polynesia.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: A French seafarer, Éric de Bisschop, committed himself in a project he had had for some years: he built a Polynesian raft in order to cross the eastern Pacific Ocean from Tahiti to Chile (contrary to Thor Heyerdahl's crossing); the "Tahiti-Nui" left Papeete with a crew of five on November 8, 1956. When near the Juan Fernández Islands (Chile) in May 1957, the raft was in a very poor state and they asked for a towing, but it was damaged during the operation and had to be abandoned, but they were able to preserve all the equipment that had been aboard.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: A second "Tahiti-Nui" was built in Constitución, Chile, leaving on April 13, 1958, towards Callao, then towards the Marquesas. It missed its target and after four months, the raft began to sink. The crew built a new smaller raft, the "Tahiti Nui III", in the ocean out of the more buoyant parts of the "Tahiti Nui II". They were swept towards Cook Islands where on August 30, the raft went aground and was wrecked at Rakahanga atoll. Éric de Bisschop died in this accident.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: A Peruvian expedition led by Carlos Caravedo crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1965 in 115 days in a raft named "Tangaroa", of which 18 days were used by the crew to cross Tuamotus, the Tuamotu Archipielago, making "Tangaroa" the only raft that has managed to cross that dangerous archipelago of French Polynesia by its own means. On November 18, 1965, the "Tangaroa" ended its journey on the Fakarava island. Fakarava is where the "Tangaroa" is currently preserved.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The 1973 Las Balsas expedition was the first (and so far only) multiple-raft crossing of the Pacific Ocean in recent history. It is the longest-known raft voyage in history. The expedition was led by Spaniard Vital Alsar, who, in 1970, led the La Balsa expedition, only on that occasion with one raft and three companions. The crossing was successful and, at the time, the longest raft voyage in history, until eclipsed in 1973 by Las Balsas. The purpose of the 1973 expedition was three-fold: (1) to prove that the success of 1970 was no accident, (2) to test different currents in the sea, which Alsar maintained ancient mariners knew as modern humans know road maps, and (3) to show that the original expeditions, directed perhaps toward trade or colonisation, may have consisted of small fleets of balsa rafts.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: In 2006, the Tangaroa Expedition recreated the "Kon-Tiki" voyage using a newly built raft, the "Tangaroa", named after the Māori sea-god Tangaroa. Tangaroa's six-man crew was led by Norwegian Torgeir Higraff and included Olav Heyerdahl, grandson of Thor Heyerdahl, Bjarne Krekvik (captain), Øyvin Lauten (executive officer), Swedish Anders Berg (photographer) and Peruvian Roberto Sala. "Tangaroa" was launched on the same day that "Kon-Tiki" had been—April 28—and it reached its destination on July 7, which was 30 days faster than Heyerdahl's Kon-Tiki which had taken 101 days for the voyage. Tangaroa's speed was credited to the proper use of guaras (centerboards).


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: On January 30, 2011, "An-Tiki", a raft modeled after "Kon-Tiki", began a , 70-day journey across the Atlantic Ocean from the Canary Islands to the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas. The expedition was piloted by four men, aged from 56 to 84 years, led by Anthony Smith. The trip was designed to commemorate the journey in an open boat of survivors from the British steamship "Anglo-Saxon", sunk by the German cruiser "Widder" in 1940. The raft ended its voyage in the Caribbean island of St Maarten, completing its trip to Eleuthera in the following year with Smith and a new crew.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: On 7 November 2015, two teams with two balsa rafts "Rahiti Tane" and "Tupac Yupanqui" left Lima, Peru for Easter Island. Expedition "Kon-Tiki2" got its name because it had 2 crews from many nations: Norway, Russia, UK, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden, and Peru. It sought to double down on Heyerdahl's voyage by sailing two rafts from South America to Polynesia and then back. Expedition leader was Torgeir Higraff from Tangaroa Expedition (2006). Øyvin Lauten and Kari Skår Dahl were captains on the first leg, while Signe Meling and Ola Borgfjord were captains on the second leg. The raft reached Easter Island, but did not complete the return.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: The two rafts were made of 11 balsa logs and 10 crossbeams held together by 2000 meters (1¼ miles) of natural fiber ropes. Tens of thousands of waves, up to six meters (20') tall, hit the rafts in an El Niño year. This stress for 16 weeks weakened the ropes, but the crew could not replace all of them. On March 3, 2016, all crew members were taken on board the Hokuetsu Ushaka freight ship after 115 days of sailing and 4½ months at sea.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: A film documentary about the voyage and raft was released in 1950, called "Kon-Tiki". It won the 1951 Oscar for Best Documentary Feature.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: "Kon-Tiki" is a 2012 Norwegian historical dramatized feature film about the 1947 "Kon-Tiki" expedition. It starred Pål Sverre Valheim Hagen as Thor Heyerdahl and was directed by Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg. It was the highest-grossing film of 2012 in Norway and the country's most expensive production to date.


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Episode 5 of the tenth season of HBO's "Curb Your Enthusiasm" features Clive Owen as himself in a one-man play entitled "Kon Tiki".


title: Kon-Tiki expedition

text: Episode 2 of the second season of Apple TV+'s "For All Mankind" mentions a Space Shuttle named Kon-Tiki.


title: Planned economy

text: A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment, production and the allocation of capital goods takes place according to economy-wide economic plans and production plans. A planned economy may use centralized, decentralized, participatory or Soviet-type forms of economic planning. The level of centralization or decentralization in decision-making and participation depends on the specific type of planning mechanism employed.


title: Planned economy

text: Socialist states based on the Soviet model have used central planning, although a minority such as the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have adopted some degree of market socialism. Market abolitionist socialism replaces factor markets with direct calculation as the means to coordinate the activities of the various socially-owned economic enterprises that make up the economy. More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.


title: Planned economy

text: Planned economies contrast with unplanned economies, specifically market economies, where autonomous firms operating in markets make decisions about production, distribution, pricing and investment. Market economies that use indicative planning are variously referred to as planned market economies, mixed economies and mixed market economies. A command economy follows an administrative-command system and uses Soviet-type economic planning which was characteristic of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc before most of these countries converted to market economies. This highlights the central role of hierarchical administration and public ownership of production in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems.


title: Planned economy

text: In the Hellenistic and post-Hellenistic world, "compulsory state planning was the most characteristic trade condition for the Egyptian countryside, for Hellenistic India, and to a lesser degree the more barbaric regions of the Seleucid, the Pergamenian, the southern Arabian, and the Parthian empires". Scholars have argued that the Incan economy was a flexible type of command economy, centered around the movement and utilization of labor instead of goods. One view of mercantilism sees it as involving planned economies.


title: Planned economy

text: The Soviet-style planned economy in Soviet Russia evolved in the wake of a continuing existing World War I war-economy as well as other policies, known as war communism (1918–1921), shaped to the requirements of the Russian Civil War of 1917–1923. These policies began their formal consolidation under an official organ of government in 1921, when the Soviet government founded Gosplan. However, the period of the New Economic Policy ( to intervened before the planned system of regular five-year plans started in 1928.


title: Planned economy

text: Nazi Germany's Four Year Plan of 1936 onwards involved elements of state planning in the Reich economy.


title: Planned economy

text: After World War II (1939–1945) France and Great Britain practised dirigisme - government direction of the economy through non-coercive means. The Swedish government planned public-housing models in a similar fashion as urban planning in a project called Million Programme, implemented from 1965 to 1974. Some decentralized participation in economic planning occurred across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the Spanish Revolution of 1936.


title: Planned economy

text: While socialism is not equivalent to economic planning or to the concept of a planned economy, an influential conception of socialism involves the replacement of capital markets with some form of economic planning in order to achieve "ex-ante" coordination of the economy. The goal of such an economic system would be to achieve conscious control over the economy by the population, specifically so that the use of the surplus product is controlled by the producers. The specific forms of planning proposed for socialism and their feasibility are subjects of the socialist calculation debate.


title: Planned economy

text: In 1959 Anatoly Kitov proposed a distributed computing system (Project "Red Book", ) with a focus on the management of the Soviet economy. Opposition from the Defence Ministry killed Kitov's plan.


title: Planned economy

text: In 1971 the socialist Allende administration of Chile launched Project Cybersyn to install a telex machine in every corporation and organisation in the economy for the communication of economic data between firms and the government. The data was also fed into a computer-simulated economy for forecasting. A control room was built for real-time observation and management of the overall economy. The prototype-stage of the project showed promise when it was used to redirect supplies around a trucker's strike, but after CIA-backed Augusto Pinochet led a coup in 1973 that established a military dictatorship under his rule the program was abolished and Pinochet moved Chile towards a more liberalized market economy.


title: Planned economy

text: In their book "Towards a New Socialism" (1993), the computer scientist Paul Cockshott from the University of Glasgow and the economist Allin Cottrell from the Wake Forest University claim to demonstrate how a democratically planned economy built on modern computer technology is possible and drives the thesis that it would be both economically more stable than the free-market economies and also morally desirable.


title: Planned economy

text: The use of computers to coordinate production in an optimal fashion has been variously proposed for socialist economies. The Polish economist Oskar Lange (1904–1965) argued that the computer is more efficient than the market process at solving the multitude of simultaneous equations required for allocating economic inputs efficiently (either in terms of physical quantities or monetary prices).


title: Planned economy

text: Salvador Allende's socialist government pioneered the 1970 Chilean distributed decision support system Project Cybersyn in an attempt to move towards a decentralized planned economy with the experimental viable system model of computed organisational structure of autonomous operative units though an algedonic feedback setting and bottom-up participative decision-making in the form of participative democracy by the Cyberfolk component.


title: Planned economy

text: The 1888 novel "Looking Backward" by Edward Bellamy depicts a fictional planned economy in a United States around the year 2000 which has become a socialist utopia.


title: Planned economy

text: The World State in Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World" (1932) and Airstrip One in George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-Four" (1949) provide fictional depictions of command economies, albeit with diametrically opposed aims. The former is a consumer economy designed to engender productivity while the latter is a shortage economy designed as an agent of totalitarian social control. Airstrip One is organized by the euphemistically named Ministry of Plenty.


title: Planned economy

text: Other literary portrayals of planned economies include Yevgeny Zamyatin's "We" (1924), which influenced Orwell's work. Like "Nineteen Eighty-Four", Ayn Rand's dystopian 1938 story "Anthem" offered an artistic portrayal of a command economy that was influenced by "We". The difference is that it was a primitivist planned economy as opposed to the advanced technology of "We" or "Brave New World".


title: Planned economy

text: The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state. Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. In international comparisons, state-socialist nations compared favorably with capitalist nations in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy. However, the reality of this, at least regarding infant mortality, varied depending on whether official Soviet statistics or WHO definitions were used. In Socialist China under Mao China's growth in life expectancy between 1950 and 1980 ranks as among the most rapid sustained increases in documented global history.


title: Planned economy

text: The state can begin building massive heavy industries at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry and without reliance on external financing. This is what happened in the Soviet Union during the 1930s when the government forced the share of gross national income dedicated to private consumption down from 80% to 50%. As a result of this development, the Soviet Union experienced massive growth in heavy industry, with a concurrent massive contraction of its agricultural sector due to the labor shortage.


title: Planned economy

text: Studies of command economies of the Eastern Bloc in the 1950s and 1960s by both American and Eastern European economists found that contrary to the expectations of both groups they showed greater fluctuations in output than market economies during the same period.


title: Planned economy

text: Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer preferences, shortages and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and therefore cannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in a market economy, a free price system is intended to serve this purpose). This difficulty was notably written about by economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek, who referred to subtly distinct aspects of the problem as the economic calculation problem and local knowledge problem, respectively. These distinct aspects were also present in the economic thought of Michael Polanyi.


title: Planned economy

text: Whereas the former stressed the theoretical underpinnings of a market economy to subjective value theory while attacking the labor theory of value, the latter argued that the only way to satisfy individuals who have a constantly changing hierarchy of needs and are the only ones to possess their particular individual's circumstances is by allowing those with the most knowledge of their needs to have it in their power to use their resources in a competing marketplace to meet the needs of the most consumers most efficiently. This phenomenon is recognized as spontaneous order. Additionally, misallocation of resources would naturally ensue by redirecting capital away from individuals with direct knowledge and circumventing it into markets where a coercive monopoly influences behavior, ignoring market signals. According to Tibor Machan, "[w]ithout a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals".


title: Planned economy

text: Economist Robin Hahnel, who supports participatory economics, a form of socialist decentralized planned economy, notes that even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom. Furthermore, Hahnel states:


title: Planned economy

text: Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better. But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differential economic power grew. Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest. Nor did impeding markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways. But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities. And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power.


title: Planned economy

text: Planned economies contrast with command economies in that a planned economy is "an economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc." whereas a command economy necessarily has substantial public ownership of industry while also having this type of regulation. In command economies, important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.


title: Planned economy

text: This is contested by some Marxists. Decentralized planning has been proposed as a basis for socialism and has been variously advocated by anarchists, council communists, libertarian Marxists and other democratic and libertarian socialists who advocate a non-market form of socialism, in total rejection of the type of planning adopted in the economy of the Soviet Union.


title: Planned economy

text: Most of a command economy is organized in a top-down administrative model by a central authority, where decisions regarding investment and production output requirements are decided upon at the top in the chain of command, with little input from lower levels. Advocates of economic planning have sometimes been staunch critics of these command economies. Leon Trotsky believed that those at the top of the chain of command, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and who understand/respond to local conditions and changes in the economy. Therefore, they would be unable to effectively coordinate all economic activity.


title: Planned economy

text: Historians have associated planned economies with Marxist–Leninist states and the Soviet economic model. Since the 1980s, it was recognized that the Soviet economic model did not actually constitute a planned economy in that a comprehensive and binding plan did not guide production and investment. The further distinction of an administrative-command system emerged as a new designation in some academic circles for the economic system that existed in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, highlighting the role of centralized hierarchical decision-making in the absence of popular control over the economy. The possibility of a digital planned economy was explored in Chile between 1971 and 1973 with the development of Project Cybersyn and by Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich, head of the Department of Technical Physics in Kiev in 1962.


title: Planned economy

text: While both economic planning and a planned economy can be either authoritarian or democratic and participatory, democratic socialist critics argue that command economies are necessarily authoritarian or undemocratic in practice. Indicative planning is a form of economic planning in market economies that directs the economy through incentive-based methods. Economic planning can be practiced in a decentralized manner through different government authorities. In some predominantly market-oriented and Western mixed economies, the state utilizes economic planning in strategic industries such as the aerospace industry. Mixed economies usually employ macroeconomic planning while micro-economic affairs are left to the market and price system.


title: Planned economy

text: A decentralized-planned economy, occasionally called horizontally-planned economy due to its horizontalism, is a type of planned economy in which the investment and allocation of consumer and capital goods is explicated accordingly to an economy-wide plan built and operatively coordinated through a distributed network of disparate economic agents or even production units itself. Decentralized planning is usually held in contrast to centralized planning, in particular the Soviet-type economic planning of the Soviet Union's command economy, where economic information is aggregated and used to formulate a plan for production, investment and resource allocation by a single central authority. Decentralized planning can take shape both in the context of a mixed economy as well as in a post-capitalist economic system. This form of economic planning implies some process of democratic and participatory decision-making within the economy and within firms itself in the form of industrial democracy. Computer-based forms of democratic economic planning and coordination between economic enterprises have also been proposed by various computer scientists and radical economists. Proponents present decentralized and participatory economic planning as an alternative to market socialism for a post-capitalist society.


title: Planned economy

text: Decentralized planning has been a feature of anarchist and socialist economics. Variations of decentralized planning such as economic democracy, industrial democracy and participatory economics have been promoted by various political groups, most notably anarchists, democratic socialists, guild socialists, libertarian Marxists, libertarian socialists, revolutionary syndicalists and Trotskyists. During the Spanish Revolution, some areas where anarchist and libertarian socialist influence through the CNT and UGT was extensive, particularly rural regions, were run on the basis of decentralized planning resembling the principles laid out by anarcho-syndicalist Diego Abad de Santillan in the book "After the Revolution".


title: Planned economy

text: Economist Pat Devine has created a model of decentralized economic planning called "negotiated coordination" which is based upon social ownership of the means of production by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with the allocation of consumer and capital goods made through a participatory form of decision-making by those at the most localized level of production. Moreover, organizations that utilize modularity in their production processes may distribute problem solving and decision making.


title: Planned economy

text: The planning structure of a decentralized planned economy is generally based on a consumers council and producer council (or jointly, a distributive cooperative) which is sometimes called a consumers' cooperative. Producers and consumers, or their representatives, negotiate the quality and quantity of what is to be produced. This structure is central to guild socialism, participatory economics and the economic theories related to anarchism.


title: Planned economy

text: Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented in various regions and states in India, most notably in Kerala. Local level planning agencies assess the needs of people who are able to give their direct input through the Gram Sabhas (village-based institutions) and the planners subsequently seek to plan accordingly.


title: Planned economy

text: Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the Spanish Revolution of 1936.


title: Planned economy

text: The United Nations has developed local projects that promote participatory planning on a community level. Members of communities take decisions regarding community development directly.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Gyeongbokgung (), also known as Gyeongbokgung Palace or Gyeongbok Palace, was the main royal palace of the Joseon dynasty. Built in 1395, it is located in northern Seoul, South Korea. The largest of the "Five Grand Palaces" built by the Joseon dynasty, Gyeongbokgung served as the home of Kings of the Joseon dynasty, the Kings' households, as well as the government of Joseon.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Gyeongbokgung continued to serve as the main palace of the Joseon dynasty until the premises were destroyed by fire during the Imjin War (1592–1598) and abandoned for two centuries. However, in the 19th century, all of the palace's 7,700 rooms were later restored under the leadership of Prince Regent Heungseon during the reign of King Gojong. Some 500 buildings were restored on a site of over 40 hectares.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The architectural principles of ancient Korea were incorporated into the tradition and appearance of the Joseon royal court.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: In the early 20th century, much of the palace was systematically destroyed by Imperial Japan. On January 21, 1963, it was designated as a cultural property. Since the 1990s, the walled palace complex is gradually being restored to its original form. Today, the palace is arguably regarded as being the most beautiful and grandest of all five palaces. It also houses the National Palace Museum and the National Folk Museum within the premises of the complex.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Gyeongbokgung was built three years after the Joseon dynasty was founded and it served as its main palace. With Mount Bugak as a backdrop and the Street of Six Ministries (today's Sejongno) outside Gwanghwamun Gate, the main entrance to the palace, Gyeongbokgung was situated in the heart of the Korean capital city. It was steadily expanded before being reduced to ashes during the Japanese invasion of 1592.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: For the next 273 years the palace grounds were left derelict until being rebuilt in 1867 under the leadership of Regent Heungseon Daewongun. The restoration was completed on a grand scale, with 330 buildings crowded together in a labyrinthine configuration. Within the palace walls were the Outer Court ("oejeon"), offices for the king and state officials, and the Inner Court ("naejeon"), which included living quarters for the royal family as well as gardens for leisure. Within its extensive precincts were other palaces, large and small, including "Junggung" (the Queen's residence) and "Donggung" (the Crown Prince's residence).


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Due to its status as the symbol of national sovereignty, Gyeongbokgung was extensively damaged during the Japanese occupation of the early 20th century. In 1911, ownership of land at the palace was transferred to the Japanese Governor-General. In 1915, on the pretext of holding an exhibition, more than 90% of the buildings were torn down. Following the exhibition, the Japanese leveled whatever still remained and built their colonial headquarters, the Government-General Building (1916–26), on the site. Only a handful of iconic structures survived, including the Throne Hall and Gyeonghoeru Pavilion.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Restoration efforts have been ongoing since 1990. The Government-General Building was removed in 1996 and Heungnyemun Gate (2001) and Gwanghwamun Gate (2006-2010) were reconstructed in their original locations and forms. Reconstructions of the Inner Court and Crown Prince's residence have also been completed.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Gyeongbokgung was originally constructed in 1394 by King Taejo, the first king and the founder of the Joseon dynasty, and its name was conceived by an influential government minister named Jeong Do-jeon. Afterwards, the palace was continuously expanded during the reign of King Taejong and King Sejong the Great. It was severely damaged by fire in 1553, and its costly restoration, ordered by King Myeongjong, was completed in the following year.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: However, four decades later, Gyeongbokgung Palace was burnt to the ground during the Japanese invasions of Korea of 1592-1598 when Koreans angry at the court of King Seonjo for evacuating Seoul torched the royal residence. The royal court was moved to the Changdeokgung Palace. The Gyeongbokgung palace site was left in ruins for the next three centuries.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: In 1867, during the regency of Daewongun, the palace buildings were reconstructed and formed a massive complex with 330 buildings and 5,792 rooms. Standing on 4,657,576 square feet (432,703 square meters) of land, Gyeongbokgung again became an iconic symbol for both the Korean nation and the Korean royal family. In 1894, the Japanese occupied the palace and forced Gojong to establish a pro-Japanese government. In 1895, after the assassination of Empress Myeongseong by Japanese agents, her husband, Emperor Gojong, left the palace. The Imperial Family never returned to Gyeongbokgung.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: In 1915, it was used as the site for the Joseon Industrial Exhibition with new exhibition buildings being erected in the grounds.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Starting from 1911, the colonial government of the Empire of Japan systemically demolished all but 10 buildings during the Japanese occupation of Korea and hosted numerous exhibitions in Gyeongbokgung, ongoing demotion was opposed by Yanagi Sōetsu. In 1926, the government constructed the massive Japanese General Government Building in front of the throne hall, , in order to eradicate the symbol and heritage of the Joseon dynasty. Gwanghwamun Gate, the main and south gate of Gyeongbokgung, was relocated by the Japanese to the east of the palace. A further exhibition, the Chosun Exhibition, followed in 1929.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The palace faced further damage when the wooden structure of the relocated Gwanghwamun Gate was completely destroyed amid the devastation of the Korean War.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Gyeongbokgung's original 19th-century palace buildings that survived both the Japanese rule of Colonial Korea and the Korean War include:


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: In 1989, the South Korean government started a 40-year initiative to rebuild the hundreds of structures that were destroyed by the colonial government of the Empire of Japan, during the period of occupied Colonial Korea (1910-1945).


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: In 1995, the Japanese General Government Building, after many controversial debates about its fate, was demolished in order to reconstruct Heungnyemun Gate and its cloisters. The National Museum of Korea, then located on the palace grounds, was relocated to Yongsan-gu in 2005.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: By the end of 2009, it was estimated that approximately 40 percent of the structures that were standing before the Japanese occupation of Korea were restored or reconstructed. As a part of phase 5 of the Gyeongbokgung restoration initiative, Gwanghwamun, the main gate to the palace, was restored to its original design. Another 20-year restoration project is planned by the South Korean government to restore Gyeongbokgung to its former status.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Having passed through the initial main gate (Gwanghwamun Gate, 광화문) and secondary gate (Heungnyemun Gate, 흥례문), visitors would pass over a small bridge named Yeongjegyo (영제교). Located on the top of the canal right next to the bridge were several imaginary creatures known as "Seosu".


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Chwihyanggyo was originally located on the north side of the island and was the longest bridge constructed purely of wood during the Joseon Dynasty; however, it was destroyed during the Korean War. The bridge was reconstructed in its present form on the south side of the island in 1953.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Geunjeongjeon (), also known as Geunjeongjeon Hall, is the throne hall where the king formally granted audiences to his officials, gave declarations of national importance, and greeted foreign envoys and ambassadors during the Joseon dynasty. The building was designated as Korea's National Treasure No. 223 on January 8, 1985.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Geunjeongmun (), aligned and located directly to the south of Geunjeongjeon, is the main gate to the courtyard and to Geunjeongjeon. The gate is divided into three separate aisles, and only the king was allowed to walk through the center.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Geunjeongjeon was originally constructed in 1395 during the reign of King Taejo, but was burned down in 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea. The present building was built in 1867 when Gyeongbokgung was being reconstructed. The name Geunjeongjeon, created by the minister Jeong Do-jeon, means "diligent governance hall".


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Constructed mainly of wood, Geunjeongjeon sits on the center of a large rectangular courtyard, on top of a two-tiered stone platform. This two-tiered platform is lined with detailed balustrades and is decorated with numerous sculptures depicting imaginary and real animals, such as dragons and phoenixes. The stone-paved courtyard is lined with two rows of rank stones, called "pumgyeseok" (), indicating where the court officials are to stand according to their ranks. The whole courtyard is fully enclosed by wooden cloisters.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Sajeongjeon (), also called Sajeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the main executive office by the king during the Joseon Dynasty. Located behind Geunjeongjeon Hall, the king carried out his executive duties and held meetings with the top government officials in Sajeongjeon.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Two separate side buildings, Cheonchujeon () and Manchunjeon (), flank the west and east of Sajeongjeon, and while Sajeongjeon is not equipped with a heating system, these buildings are equipped with Ondols for their use in the colder months.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Gyeonghoeru (), also known as Gyeonghoeru Pavilion, is a hall used to hold important and special state banquets during the Joseon Dynasty. It is registered as Korea's National Treasure No. 224 on January 8, 1985.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The first Gyeonghoeru was constructed in 1412, the 12th year of the reign of King Taejong, but was burned down during the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592. The present building was constructed in 1867 (the 4th year of the reign of King Gojong) on an island of an artificial, rectangular lake that is 128 m wide and 113 m across.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Constructed mainly of wood and stone, Gyeonghoeru has a form where the wooden structure of the building sits on top of 48 massive stone pillars, with wooden stairs connecting the second floor to the first floor. The outer perimeters of Gyeonghoeru are supported by square pillars while the inner columns are cylindrical; they were placed thus to represent the idea of Yin & Yang. When Gyeonghoeru was originally built in 1412, these stone pillars were decorated with sculptures depicting dragons rising to the sky, but these details were not reproduced when the building was rebuilt in the 19th century. Three stone bridges connect the building to the palace grounds, and corners of the balustrades around the island are decorated with sculptures depicting twelve Zodiac animals.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Sujeongjeon (), a building located to the south of Gyeonghoeru, was constructed in 1867 and used by the cabinet of the Joseon dynasty.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: It is Korea's Treasure No. 1760, where Jiphyeonjeon Hall was located during King Sejong's reign. The historical and architectural value is high because it is the only building that remains in the outer space corresponding to the west side of Geunjeongjeon Hall.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Gangnyeongjeon (), also called Gangnyeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the king's main residing quarters. First constructed in 1395, the fourth year of King Taejo, the building contains the king's bed-chamber. Destroyed during the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592, the building was rebuilt when Gyeongbokgung was reconstructed in 1867, but it was again burned down by a major fire in November 1876 and had to be restored in 1888 following the orders of King Gojong.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: However, when Huijeongdang of Changdeokgung Palace was burned down by a fire in 1917, the Japanese government dismembered the building and used its construction materials to restore Huijeongdang in 1920. Current Gangnyeongjeon was built in 1994, meticulously restoring the building to its original specifications and design.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Gangnyeongjeon consists of corridors and fourteen rectangular chambers, each seven chambers located to the left and right side of the building in a layout out like a checkerboard. The king used the central chamber while the court attendants occupied the remaining side chambers to protect, assist, and to receive orders. The building rests on top of a tall stone foundation, and a stone deck or veranda is located in front of the building.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The noted feature of the building is an absence of a top white roof ridge called "yongmaru" ( in Korean. Many theories exist to explain the absence, of which a prominent one states that, since the king was symbolized as the dragon during the Joseon dynasty, the "yongmaru", which contains the letter dragon or "yong" (龍), cannot rest on top of the king when he is asleep.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Gyotaejeon (), also called Gyotaejeon Hall, is a building used as the main residing quarters by the queen during the Joseon Dynasty. The building is located behind Gangnyeongjeon, the king's quarters, and contains the queen's bed chamber. It was first constructed in around 1440, the 22nd year of King Sejong the Great.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: King Sejong, who was noted to have a frail health later in his reign, decided to carry out his executive duties in Gangnyeongjeon, where his bed-chamber is located, instead of Sajeongjeon. Since this decision meant many government officials routinely needed to visit and intrude Gangnyeongjeon, King Sejong had Gyotaejeon built in consideration of his wife the queen's privacy.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The building was burned down in 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea, but was reconstructed in 1867. Nevertheless, when Daejojeon of Changdeokgung Palace was burned down by a fire in 1917, the Japanese government disassembled the building and recycled its construction materials to restore Daejojeon. The current building was reconstructed in 1994 according to its original design and specifications. The building, like Gangnyeongjeon, does not have a top roof ridge called "yongmaru".


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Amisan (), a famous garden created from an artificial mound, is located behind Gyotaejeon. Four hexagonal chimneys, constructed around 1869 in orange bricks and decorative roof tiles, adorn Amisan without showing their utilitarian function and are notable examples of formative art created during the Joseon Dynasty. The chimneys were registered as Korea's Treasure No. 811 on January 8, 1985.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Hyangwonjeong (), or Hyangwonjeong Pavilion, is a small, two-story hexagonal pavilion built around 1873 by the order of King Gojong when Geoncheonggung residence was built to the north within Gyeongbokgung.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The pavilion was constructed on an artificial island of a lake named Hyangwonji (), and a bridge named Chwihyanggyo () connects it to the palace grounds. The name "Hyangwonjeong" is loosely translated as "Pavilion of Far-Reaching Fragrance", while "Chwihyanggyo" is "Bridge Intoxicated with Fragrance".


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The bridge Chwihyanggyo was originally located on the north side of the island and was the longest bridge constructed purely of wood during the Joseon dynasty; however, it was destroyed during the Korean War. The bridge was reconstructed in its present form on the south side of the island in 1953, but is now being relocated to its original location on the north side. The reconstruction was completed in 2019.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Jagyeongjeon (), also called Jagyeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the main residing quarters by Queen Sinjeong (), the mother of King Heonjong. First constructed in 1865, it was burned down twice by a fire but was reconstructed in 1888. Jagyeongjeon is the only royal residing quarters in Gyeongbokgung that survived the demolition campaigns of the Japanese government during the Japanese occupation of Korea.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The chimneys of Jagyeongjeon are decorated with ten signs of longevity to wish for a long life for the late queen, while the west walls of the Jagyeongjeon compound are adorned with floral designs. The protruding southeast part of Jagyeongjeon, named Cheongyeollu (), is designed to provide a cooler space during the summer, while the northwest part of Jagyeongjeon, named Bogandang (), is designed for the winter months. The eastern part of Jagyeogjeon, named Hyeopgyeongdang () and distinguished by the building's lower height, was used by the late queen's assistants.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The building and the decorative walls were registered as Korea's Treasure No. 809 on January 8, 1985.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Jibokjae (), located next to Geoncheonggung Residence, is a two-story private library used by King Gojong. In 1876, a major fire occurred in Gyeongbokgung Palace, and King Gojong, for a brief period, moved and resided in Changdeokgung Palace. He eventually moved back to Gyeongbokgung in 1888, but he had the pre-existing Jibokjae building disassembled and moved from Changdeokgung to the present location in 1891. Its name, "Jibokjae", translates loosely in English as the "Hall of Collecting Jade".


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The building uniquely shows heavy influence of Chinese architecture instead of traditional Korean palace architecture. Its side walls were entirely constructed in brick, a method commonly employed by the contemporary Chinese, and its roof formations, interior screens, and columns also show Chinese influences. Its architecture possibly was meant to give it an exotic appearance.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Jibokjae is flanked by Parujeong (), an octagonal two-story pavilion, to the left and Hyeopgildang () to the right. Parujeong was constructed to store books, while Hyeopgildang served as a part of Jibokjae. Both of the buildings are internally connected to Jibokjae.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Bohyeondang () and Gahoejeong (), buildings that also formed a library complex to the south of Jibokjae, were demolished by the Japanese government in the early 20th century.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Taewonjeon (), or Taewonjeon Shrine, is an ancestral shrine originally built in 1868 to house a portrait of King Taejo, the founder of the Joseon dynasty, and to perform rites to the deceased royalties. Completely destroyed by the Japanese government in the early 20th century, the shrine was accurately restored to its former design in 2005.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Donggung (), located south of the Hyangwonjeong pavilion, were the living quarters for the crown prince and his wife. The four main buildings of the compound were Jaseondang and Bihyeongak, Chunbang (the lecture hall, where the prince received the preparatory education in order to become a future monarch), as well as Gyebang (the security building).


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: In the 19th century, the future Emperor Sunjong lived in the compound. Donggung was razed to the ground during the Japanese occupation. The restoration work started in 1999 but only Jaseondang and Bihyeongak were restored.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: In 2020, the Royal Palaces and Tombs Center (hereinafter RPTC) of the Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA) announced its plans to restore the Donggung area to its original layout. The restoration work of the remaining buildings began in March 2020 and was planned to be completed in late Jan. 2023


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Geoncheonggung (), also known as Geoncheonggung Residence, was a private royal residence built by King Gojong within the palace grounds in 1873.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: King Gojong resided in Geoncheonggung from 1888 and the residence was continuously expanded, but on October 8, 1895, Empress Myeongseong, the wife of King Gojong, was brutally assassinated by the Japanese agents at the residence. Her body was burned and buried near the residence.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Haunted by the experiences of the incident, the king left the palace in January 1896 and never again returned to the residence. Demolished completely by the Japanese government in 1909, the residence was accurately reconstructed to its former design and open to the public in 2007.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: The back garden of Gyeongbokgung used to contain the main part of the Japanese Governor-General's residence, that was built in the early 20th century during the Japanese occupation. With the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948, President Syngman Rhee used it as his office and residence. In 1993, after President Kim Young-sam's civilian administration was launched, the Japanese Governor-General's residence in the Cheongwadae compound was dismantled to remove a major symbol of the Japanese colonialism.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: In 2011 a survey was conducted by the Seoul Development Institute, which included 800 residents and 103 urban planners and architects. 39 percent of residents voted the palace as the most scenic location in Seoul, following Mount Namsan and Han River in the top spots.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: In a poll of nearly 2,000 foreign visitors, conducted by the Seoul Metropolitan Government in November 2011, stated that watching the changing of the guards at the main gate Gwanghwamun is their third favorite activity in Seoul. The royal changing of the guard ceremony is held in front of the main gate every hour from 10:00 to 15:00.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: This year, the number of night tours exclusively for foreigners at Gyeongbokgung Palace will be increased to 14 from 3 last year.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: At Gyeongbokgung Palace, a program called “Suragan Tasting Sympathy”, you can experience royal food and watch traditional performances.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: On selected days from April to October, Gyeongbokgung offers special 'nighttime viewing' sessions from 7PM to 10PM. 4,500 tickets are offered each session which could be reserved online or purchased on-site (ID required). However, on-site tickets are available "only" for foreigners and senior citizens age 65 and over, for which 500 and 50 tickets are allocated respectively. In 2019, Gyeongbokgung held 71 nighttime viewing sessions.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: From September 1, 2022 to November 6, 2022, Gyeongbokgung offers special 'nighttime viewing' sessions from 7PM to 9:30PM The admission fee is 3,000 won. Online reservations and on-site reservations are available, and up to two tickets are available per person.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: Today, the Gyeongbokgung Palace is open to the public and houses the National Folk Museum of Korea, the National Palace Museum of Korea, and traditional Korean gardens.


title: Gyeongbokgung

text: There has been off and on talk to extending the Shinbundang Line near the palace including during a March 2012 campaign promise by Hong Sa-duk to expand the line near Gyeongbok Palace.


title: Charles III

text: Charles III (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948) is King of the United Kingdom and the 14 other Commonwealth realms. He was the longest-serving heir apparent and, at age 73, became the oldest person to accede to the British throne following the death of his mother, Elizabeth II, on 8 September 2022.


title: Charles III

text: Charles was born in Buckingham Palace during the reign of his maternal grandfather, King George VI, and was three when his mother ascended the throne in 1952, making him the heir apparent. He was made Prince of Wales in 1958 and his investiture was held in 1969. He was educated at Cheam and Gordonstoun schools, as was his father, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Charles later spent six months at the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia. After earning a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Cambridge, Charles served in the Air Force and Navy from 1971 to 1976. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer, with whom he had two sons, William and Harry. In 1996, the couple divorced after they had each engaged in well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash the following year. In 2005, Charles married his long-time partner, Camilla Parker Bowles.


title: Charles III

text: As Prince of Wales, Charles undertook official duties and engagements on behalf of the Queen. He founded the youth charity the Prince's Trust in 1976, sponsors the Prince's Charities, and is a patron, president, or a member of over 400 other charities and organisations. He has advocated for the conservation of historic buildings and the importance of architecture in society. A critic of modernist architecture, Charles worked on the creation of Poundbury, an experimental new town based on his architectural tastes. He is also an author or co-author of over 20 books.


title: Charles III

text: An environmentalist, Charles supported organic farming and action to prevent climate change during his time as the manager of the Duchy of Cornwall estates, earning him awards and recognition from environmental groups; he is also a prominent critic of the adoption of genetically modified food. His support for homeopathy and other alternative medicine has been criticised.


title: Charles III

text: Charles was born at 21:14 (GMT) on 14 November 1948, during the reign of his maternal grandfather, King George VI. He was the first child of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh (later Queen Elizabeth II), and Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. His parents had three additional children, Anne (born 1950), Andrew (born 1960) and Edward (born 1964). On 15 December 1948, at four weeks old, he was christened in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher.


title: Charles III

text: In February 1952, upon the death of his grandfather and the accession of his mother as Queen Elizabeth II, Charles became the heir apparent. Under a charter of King Edward III in 1337, and as the monarch's eldest son, he automatically assumed the traditional titles of the Duke of Cornwall and, in the Scottish peerage, the titles Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. On 2 June 1953, Charles attended his mother's coronation at Westminster Abbey.


title: Charles III

text: When Charles turned five, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed to oversee his education at Buckingham Palace. On 7 November 1956, Charles commenced classes at Hill House School in west London. He was the first heir apparent to attend school rather than be educated by a private tutor. He did not receive preferential treatment from the school's founder and headmaster, Stuart Townend, who advised the Queen to have Charles train in football because the boys were never deferential to anyone on the football field. Charles then attended two of his father's former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Hampshire, England, from 1958, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland, beginning classes there in April 1962.


title: Charles III

text: In Charles's 1994 authorised biography by Jonathan Dimbleby, Elizabeth and Philip were described as physically and emotionally distant parents, and Philip was blamed for his disregard of Charles's sensitive nature and forcing him to attend Gordonstoun, where he was bullied. Though Charles reportedly described Gordonstoun, noted for its especially rigorous curriculum, as "Colditz in kilts", he subsequently praised Gordonstoun, stating it had taught him "a great deal about myself and my own abilities and disabilities. It taught me to accept challenges and take the initiative." In a 1975 interview, he said he was "glad" he had attended Gordonstoun and that the "toughness of the place" was "much exaggerated". He spent two terms in 1966 at the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia, during which time he visited Papua New Guinea on a school trip with his history tutor, Michael Collins Persse. In 1973, Charles described his time at Timbertop as the most enjoyable part of his whole education. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming head boy. He left in 1967 with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C respectively. On his early education, Charles later remarked, "I didn't enjoy school as much as I might have, but that was only because I'm happier at home than anywhere else."


title: Charles III

text: Charles broke royal tradition a second time when he proceeded straight to university after his A-levels, rather than joining the British Armed Forces. In October 1967, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he read archaeology and anthropology for the first part of the Tripos, and then changed to history for the second part. During his second year, Charles attended the University College of Wales in Aberystwyth, studying Welsh history and language for a term. He graduated from the University of Cambridge with a 2:2 Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree on 23 June 1970, the first British heir apparent to earn a university degree. As per tradition, on 2 August 1975, his BA was promoted to a Master of Arts (MA Cantab) degree: at Cambridge, Master of Arts is not a postgraduate degree.


title: Charles III

text: Charles was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 26 July 1958, though his investiture was not held until 1 July 1969, when he was crowned by his mother in a televised ceremony held at Caernarfon Castle. He took his seat in the House of Lords in 1970, and he made his maiden speech in June 1974, the first royal to speak from the floor since the future Edward VII in 1884. He spoke again in 1975. Charles began to take on more public duties, founding the Prince's Trust in 1976, and travelling to the United States in 1981. In the mid-1970s, Charles expressed an interest in serving as Governor-General of Australia, at the suggestion of Australian prime minister Malcolm Fraser, but because of a lack of public enthusiasm nothing came of the proposal. Charles commented: "So, what are you supposed to think when you are prepared to do something to help and you are just told you're not wanted?"


title: Charles III

text: Charles served in the Royal Air Force and, following in the footsteps of his father, grandfather and two of his great-grandfathers, in the Royal Navy. During his second year at Cambridge, he requested and received Royal Air Force training, learning to fly the Chipmunk aircraft with Cambridge University Air Squadron. On 8 March 1971, he flew himself to the Royal Air Force College Cranwell to train as a jet pilot. He was presented with his RAF wings in August 1971. After the passing-out parade that September, he embarked on a naval career and enrolled in a six-week course at the Royal Naval College Dartmouth. He then served on the guided-missile destroyer (1971–1972) and the frigates (1972–1973) and (1974). In 1974, he qualified as a helicopter pilot at RNAS Yeovilton, and then joined 845 Naval Air Squadron, operating from . He gave up flying after crash-landing a BAe 146 in Islay in 1994, for which the crew was found negligent by a board of inquiry.


title: Charles III

text: On 9 February 1976, Charles took command of the coastal minehunter for his last ten months of active service in the navy. In 1978, he took part in a parachute training course at RAF Brize Norton after being appointed colonel-in-chief of the Parachute Regiment a year earlier.


title: Charles III

text: In his youth, Charles was amorously linked to a number of women. His great-uncle Lord Mountbatten advised him: