title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister avoided racing after the 1951 season until late in the spring of 1952, saving his energy for Helsinki and the Olympics. He ran an run on 28 May 1952 in 1:53.00, followed by a 4:10.6-mile time-trial on 7 June, proclaiming himself satisfied with the results. At the AAA championships, he skipped the mile and won the 880 in 1:51.5. Then, 10 days before the Olympic final, he ran a mile time trial in 2:52.9, which gave him confidence that he was ready for the Olympics as he considered the time to be the equivalent of a four-minute mile.


title: Roger Bannister

text: His confidence soon dissipated, however, as it was announced there would be semi-finals for the 1500 m (equal to 0.932 miles) at the Olympics, which he felt favoured runners who had much deeper training regimens than he did. When he ran his semi-final, Bannister finished fifth and thereby qualified for the final, but he felt "blown and unhappy".


title: Roger Bannister

text: The 1500 m final on 26 July 1952 would prove to be one of the more dramatic in Olympic history. The race was not decided until the final metres, Josy Barthel of Luxembourg prevailing in an Olympic-record 3:45.28 (3:45.1 by official hand-timing) with the next seven runners all under the old record. Bannister finished fourth, out of the medals, but set a British record of 3:46.30 (3:46.0) in the process.


title: Roger Bannister

text: After his relative failure at the 1952 Olympics, Bannister spent two months deciding whether to give up running. He set himself on a new goal: to be the first man to run a mile in under four minutes. Accordingly, he intensified his training and did hard intervals.


title: Roger Bannister

text: On 2 May 1953, he made an attempt on the British record at Oxford. Paced by Chris Chataway, Bannister ran 4:03.6, shattering Wooderson's 1945 standard. "This race made me realise that the four-minute mile was not out of reach," said Bannister.


title: Roger Bannister

text: On 27 June 1953, a mile race was inserted into the programme of the Surrey schools athletic meeting. Australian runner Don Macmillan, ninth in the 1500 m at the 1952 Olympics, set a strong pace with 59.6 for one lap and 1:59.7 for two. He gave up after two and a half laps, but Chris Brasher took up the pace. Brasher had jogged the race, allowing Bannister to lap him so he could be a fresh pace-setter. At mile, Bannister was at 3:01.8, the record—and first sub-four-minute mile—in reach. But the effort fell short with a finish in 4:02.0, a time bettered by only Andersson and Hägg. British officials would not allow this performance to stand as a British record, which, Bannister felt in retrospect, was a good decision. "My feeling as I look back is one of great relief that I did not run a four-minute mile under such artificial circumstances," he said.


title: Roger Bannister

text: But other runners were making attempts at the four-minute barrier and coming close as well. American Wes Santee ran 4:02.4 on 5 June 1953, the fourth-fastest mile ever. And at the end of the year, Australian John Landy ran 4:02.0.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Then early in 1954, Landy made some more attempts at the distance. On 21 January 1954, he ran 4:02.4 in Melbourne, then 4:02.6 on 23 February 1954, and at the end of the Australian season on 19 April he ran 4:02.6 again.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister had been following Landy's attempts and was certain his Australian rival would succeed with each one. But knowing that Landy's season-closing attempt on 19 April would be his last until he travelled to Finland for another attempt, Bannister knew he had to make his attempt soon.


title: Roger Bannister

text: This historic event took place on 6 May 1954 during a meet between British AAA and Oxford University at Iffley Road Track in Oxford, watched by about 3,000 spectators. With winds of up to before the event, Bannister had said twice that he preferred not to run, to conserve his energy and efforts to break the 4-minute barrier; he would try again at another meet. However, the winds dropped just before the race was scheduled to begin, and Bannister did run.


title: Roger Bannister

text: The pace-setters from his major 1953 attempts, future Commonwealth Games gold medallist Christopher Chataway from the 2 May attempt, and future Olympic Games gold medallist Chris Brasher from the 27 June attempt, combined to provide pacing for Bannister's run. The race was broadcast live by BBC Radio and commentated by 1924 Olympic 100 metres champion Harold Abrahams, of "Chariots of Fire" fame.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister had begun his day at a hospital in London, where he sharpened his racing spikes and rubbed graphite on them so they would not pick up too much cinder ash. He took a mid-morning train from Paddington Station to Oxford, nervous about the rainy, windy conditions that afternoon.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Being a dual-meet format, there were seven men entered in the mile: Alan Gordon, George Dole and Nigel Miller from Oxford University; and four British AAA runners: Bannister, his two pacemakers Brasher and Chataway, and Tom Hulatt. Nigel Miller arrived as a spectator and he only realised that he was due to run when he read the programme. Efforts to borrow a running kit failed and he could not take part, thus reducing the field to six.


title: Roger Bannister

text: The race went off as scheduled at 6:00 pm, and Brasher and Bannister went immediately to the front of the pack. Brasher (wearing No. 44) led both the first lap in 58 seconds and the half-mile in 1:58, with Bannister (No. 41) tucked in behind, and Chataway (No. 42) a stride behind Bannister. Chataway moved to the front after the second lap and maintained the pace with a 3:01 split at the final lap bell. Chataway continued to lead around the front turn until Bannister began his finishing kick with about 275 yards to go (just over half a lap), running the last lap in just under 59 seconds.


title: Roger Bannister

text: The stadium announcer for the race was Norris McWhirter, who went on to co-publish and co-edit the "Guinness Book of Records". He teased the crowd by delaying his announcement of Bannister's race time for as long as possible:


title: Roger Bannister

text: The roar of the crowd drowned out the rest of the announcement. Bannister's time was 3 minutes 59.4 seconds.


title: Roger Bannister

text: The claim that a four-minute mile was once thought to be impossible by "informed" observers was and is a widely propagated myth created by sportswriters and debunked by Bannister himself in his memoir, "The Four Minute Mile" (1955).


title: Roger Bannister

text: The reason the myth took hold was that four minutes was a round number that lay slightly out of reach of the world record (by just 1.4 seconds) for nine years, which was longer than it might otherwise have been due to the effect of the Second World War in interrupting athletic progress in the combatant countries. The Swedish runners, Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson, in a series of head-to-head races in the period 1942–45, had already lowered the world mile record by five seconds to the pre-Bannister record. Knowledgeable track fans are still most impressed by the fact that Bannister ran a four-minute mile on very low-mileage training by modern standards.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Just 46 days later, on 21 June 1954, Bannister's record was broken by his rival, John Landy, in Turku, Finland, with a time of 3 minutes 57.9 seconds, which the IAAF ratified as 3 minutes 58.0 seconds due to the rounding rules then in effect.


title: Roger Bannister

text: On 7 August, at the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Vancouver, B.C., Bannister, running for England, competed against Landy for the first time in a race billed as "The Miracle Mile". They were the only two men in the world to have broken the 4-minute barrier, with Landy still holding the world record.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Landy led for most of the race, building a lead of 10 yards in the third lap (of four), but was overtaken on the last bend, and Bannister won in 3 min 58.8 s, with Landy 0.8 s behind in 3 min 59.6 s. Bannister and Landy have both pointed out that the crucial moment of the race was that at the moment when Bannister decided to try to pass Landy, Landy looked over his left shoulder to gauge Bannister's position and Bannister burst past him on the right, never relinquishing the lead.


title: Roger Bannister

text: A larger-than-life bronze sculpture of the two men at this moment was created by Vancouver sculptor Jack Harman in 1967 from a photograph by "Vancouver Sun" photographer Charlie Warner and stood for many years at the entrance to Empire Stadium; after the stadium was demolished the sculpture was moved a short distance away to the Hastings and Renfrew entrance of the Pacific National Exhibition (PNE) fairgrounds. Regarding this sculpture, Landy quipped: "While Lot's wife was turned into a pillar of salt for looking back, I am probably the only one ever turned into bronze for looking back."


title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister went on that season to win the so-called metric mile, the 1500 m, at the European Championships in Bern, Switzerland, on 29 August, with a championship record in a time of 3 min 43.8 s. He retired from athletics late in 1954 to concentrate on his work as a junior doctor and to pursue a career in neurology. He was awarded a CBE the following year for "services to amateur athletics".


title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister later became the first Chairman of the Sports Council (now called Sport England) and was knighted for this service in 1975. Under his patronage, central and local government funding of sports centres and other sports facilities was rapidly increased, and he also initiated the first testing for use of anabolic steroids in sport.


title: Roger Bannister

text: After retiring from athletics in 1954, Bannister spent the next forty years practising medicine in the field of neurology. In March 1957, he joined the Royal Army Medical Corps at Crookham, where he started his two years of National Service, with the rank of lieutenant.


title: Roger Bannister

text: His major contribution to academic medicine was in the field of autonomic failure, an area of neurology focusing on illnesses characterised by the loss of certain automatic responses of the nervous system (for example, elevated heart rate when standing up). He ultimately published more than eighty papers, mostly concerned with the autonomic nervous system, cardiovascular physiology, and multiple system atrophy. He edited "Autonomic Failure: A Textbook of Clinical Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System" with C.J. Mathias, a colleague at St Mary's, as well as five editions of "Brain and Bannister's Clinical Neurology."


title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister always said he was more proud of his contribution to medicine than his running career. In 2014, Bannister said in an interview: "I'd rather be remembered for my work in neurology than my running. If you offered me the chance to make a great breakthrough in the study of the autonomic nerve system, I'd take that over the four minute mile right away. I worked in medicine for sixty years. I ran for about eight."


title: Roger Bannister

text: In 1955, Bannister married the Swedish artist Moyra Elver Jacobsson in Basel, Switzerland. Moyra Jacobsson-Bannister was the daughter of the Swedish economist Per Jacobsson, who served as managing director of the International Monetary Fund.


title: Roger Bannister

text: They had four children: Carol E. E. Bannister (b. 1957); Clive C. R. Bannister (b. 1959), an insurance industry executive; Thurstan R. R. Bannister (b. July 1960), a company director in New York; and Charlotte B. M. Bannister (b. 1963), now The Reverend Charlotte Bannister-Parker, associate priest at the University Church of St Mary the Virgin in Oxford.


title: Roger Bannister

text: In 2011, Bannister was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. He died on 3 March 2018 at the age of 88 in Oxford, 20 days before his 89th birthday. He is buried in Wolvercote Cemetery near Oxford. His widow, Lady Moyra Bannister, died in Oxford on 4 November 2022, at the age of 94.


title: Roger Bannister

text: On the 50th anniversary of running the mile in under four minutes, Bannister was interviewed by the BBC's sports correspondent Rob Bonnet. At the conclusion of the interview, Bannister was asked whether he looked back on the sub-4-minute mile as the most important achievement of his life. Bannister replied that he instead saw his subsequent forty years of practising medicine and some of the new procedures he introduced as being more significant. He also said that, in terms of athletic achievement, he felt his performances at the 1952 Olympics and the 1954 Commonwealth Games were more significant than running the sub-4-minute mile.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Ironically, although Roger Bannister is arguably the most famous record-setter in the mile, he is also the man who held the record for the shortest period of time, at least since the IAAF started to ratify records.


title: Roger Bannister

text: For his efforts, Bannister was also made the inaugural recipient of the "Sports Illustrated" Sportsperson of the Year award for 1954 (awarded in January 1955) and is one of the few non-Americans recognised by the American-published magazine as such.


title: Roger Bannister

text: In a UK poll conducted by Channel 4 in 2002, the British public voted Bannister's historic sub-4-minute mile as number 13 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister is the subject of the ESPN film "Four Minutes" (2005). This film is a dramatisation, its major departures from the factual record being the creation of a fictional character as Bannister's coach, who was actually Franz Stampfl, an Austrian, and secondly his meeting his wife, Moyra Jacobsson, in the early 1950s when in fact they met in London only a few months before the Miracle Mile itself took place. Bannister was portrayed by Jamie Maclachlan.


title: Roger Bannister

text: "Bannister: Everest on the Track, The Roger Bannister Story" is a 2016 TV documentary about his childhood and youth in WWII and postwar Britain and the breaking of the 4-minute mile barrier, with interviews of participants and witnesses to the 1954 race, and later runners inspired by Bannister and his achievement, including Phil Knight who says that Roger Bannister inspired him to start Nike.


title: Roger Bannister

text: In the 1988 television mini-series "The Four Minute Mile", about the rivalry between Bannister, John Landy and Wes Santee to be first to break the 4-minute mile mark, Bannister was portrayed by actor Richard Huw.


title: Roger Bannister

text: In 1996 Pembroke College at the University of Oxford (where Bannister was Master for eight years) named a building in honour of his achievements. The Bannister Building, an 18th-century townhouse in Brewer Street, was converted to provide accommodation for graduate students. Following extensive refurbishments during 2011 and 2012, it became part of the building complex surrounding the Rokos Quad, and was then used for undergraduate accommodation.


title: Roger Bannister

text: In March 2004 St Mary's Hospital Medical School named a lecture theatre after Bannister; on display is the stopwatch that was used to time the race, stopped at 3:59. Bannister also gave his name to the trophy presented to the winning team in the annual athletics varsity match between Imperial College School of Medicine and Imperial College London, as well as the award given to the graduating doctor of Imperial College School of Medicine who has achieved most in the sporting community. Bannister also purchased the cup (which bears his name) awarded to the winning team in the annual United Hospitals Cross-Country Championship, organised by London Universities and Colleges Athletics. The championship is contested by the five medical schools in London and the Royal Veterinary College.


title: Roger Bannister

text: In 2012 Bannister carried the Olympic flame at the site of his memorable feat, in the Oxford University track stadium now named after him.


title: Roger Bannister

text: On 28 September 2021 a memorial stone honouring Sir Roger, "pioneering neurologist, world champion runner", was unveiled in Westminster Abbey, in the area known as 'Scientists' corner'.


title: Roger Bannister

text: The 50th anniversary of Bannister's achievement was marked by a commemorative British 50-pence coin. The reverse of the coin shows the legs of a runner and a stopwatch (stopped at 3:59.4). There were 9,032,500 minted. The coin was re-struck for collector sets in 2019 as part of the Royal Mint's '50 Years of the 50p coin', along with other designs.


title: Roger Bannister

text: In the gallery of Pembroke College dining hall there is a cabinet containing over 80 exhibits covering Bannister's athletic career and including some academic highlights.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister received many honours for his achievements in sports and medicine. He was knighted in the 1975 New Year Honours, and appointed Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to sport.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister was an Honorary Fellow of both Exeter College and Merton College, where he studied at the University of Oxford; he was also Honorary Fellow of Harris Manchester College, Oxford. He received honorary degrees (Doctor of Science) from the University of Sheffield in 1978, and from the University of Bath in 1984. He also received honorary degrees from the University of Pavia in 1986 and from Brunel University London in 2008 (DUniv), as well as an honorary doctorate from Oxford Brookes University in 2014. In 2000, Bannister received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.


title: Roger Bannister

text: Bannister was made an Honorary Freeman of the London Borough of Harrow on 4 May 2004, and was granted the Freedom of the City of Oxford in 2004.


title: Roger Bannister

text: In 2014, he appeared as a guest on BBC Radio 4's Midweek with Libby Purves, Kevin Warwick and Rachael Stirling.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: Surfer Rosa is the debut studio album by the American alternative rock band Pixies, released in March 1988 on the British label 4AD. It was produced by Steve Albini. "Surfer Rosa" contains many of the elements of Pixies' earlier output, including Spanish lyrics and references to Puerto Rico. It includes references to mutilation and voyeurism alongside experimental recording techniques and a distinctive drum sound.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: As 4AD was an independent label, distribution in the United States was handled by British label Rough Trade Records; however, it failed to chart in either country. Only one single was released, a rerecorded version of "Gigantic", and reached number 93 on the UK Singles Chart. "Surfer Rosa" was rereleased in the US by Elektra Records in 1992, and in 2005 was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: "Surfer Rosa" is often included on critics' lists of the best rock albums. Alternative rock artists including Billy Corgan and PJ Harvey have cited it as an inspiration; it was an influence on Nirvana's 1993 album "In Utero".


title: Surfer Rosa

text: Before the release of Pixies' debut mini-album "Come On Pilgrim" in October 1987, Ivo Watts-Russell, head of 4AD, suggested they return to the studio to record a full-length album. The original plan was to record new material at Fort Apache Studios, where the band had produced "The Purple Tape" and "Come On Pilgrim". However, due to differences between the band's manager Ken Goes and "The Purple Tape" producer Gary Smith, Pixies ended up looking for a new producer and recording studio. On the advice of a 4AD colleague, Watts-Russell looked to hire Steve Albini, ex-frontman of Big Black, as the record's engineer and producer. Having sent a pre-release tape of "Come On Pilgrim" to Albini, Pixies' manager, Ken Goes, invited him to a Boston dinner party at drummer David Lovering's house a few weeks after "Come On Pilgrim"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s release.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: Albini met the band that evening, and they discussed how the next record should sound and be recorded. Albini said that, "[the band and I] were in the studio the next day." Paul Q. Kolderie, who had worked at Fort Apache Studios with Smith, recommended the Boston recording studio Q Division to Albini. This created tension between Smith and Kolderie, and Kolderie later remarked that "Gary almost killed me for the suggestion, he thought I was scheming to get the project."


title: Surfer Rosa

text: Pixies entered Q Division in December 1987, booking ten working days of studio time in which to record the album. 4AD allocated the band a budget of US$10,000. Albini's producer's fee was US$1,500, and he received no royalties; Albini has a practice of refusing royalties from records he produces, viewing it as "an insult to the band." Along with Albini in the studio, Q Division's Jon Lupfer acted as studio assistant. The recording process took the entire booked period of ten working days to complete, with extra vocal mixes subsequently added in the studio. Albini planned to mix the record "somewhere else", but according to Lupfer, "He was unhappy there with it."


title: Surfer Rosa

text: During Kim Deal's vocals takes during "Where Is My Mind?" and "Gigantic", he moved the equipment to record into a studio bathroom to achieve more "roomy" echo. John Murphy, Deal's then husband, said that "Albini didn't like the studio sound. Albini later said that the record could have been completed in a week, but "we ended up trying more experimental stuff basically to kill time and see if anything good materialized." An example was "Something Against You", where Albini filtered Black Francis' voice through a guitar amp for "a totally ragged, vicious texture."


title: Surfer Rosa

text: The recording of a conversation held between Francis and Albini can be heard at the end of "Oh My Golly!". Lupfer writes that "it was a concept he [Albini] was going for to get some studio banter." As Deal was leaving the studio to smoke a cigarette, she exclaimed "If anybody touches my stuff, I'll kill ya." Francis replied with "I'll kill you, you fucking die, if anybody touches my stuff". The track begins at this point, with Francis explaining the conversation to Albini, whose voice is not heard on the track. Lupfer later admitted that Albini knew "perfectly well what was going on."


title: Surfer Rosa

text: "I'm Amazed" begins with Deal recounting a story in which one of her former teachers who was "into field hockey players" was discreetly fired. Francis finishes Deal's sentences, joking that her response to hearing of the teacher's activities was to try to join the team. Albini later observed the use of studio banter on "Surfer Rosa": "It's on their record forever so I think now they are obliged to say that they're ok with it, but I honestly don't know that that idea would've ever come up if I hadn't done it. There are times when things like that are revealing and entertaining and I kind of felt it was a bit gimmicky on this record."


title: Surfer Rosa

text: Like "Come On Pilgrim", "Surfer Rosa" displays a mix of musical styles; pop guitar songs such as "Broken Face", "Break My Body", and "Brick Is Red" are featured alongside slower, more melodic tracks exemplified by "Where Is My Mind?". The album includes heavier material, and prominently features the band's trademark quiet-loud dynamic. Frontman and principal songwriter Black Francis wrote the material, the only exception being "Gigantic," which was co-written with Kim Deal. "Gigantic" is one of only two Pixies album tracks on which Deal sang lead vocals.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: "Surfer Rosa"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s lyrical content includes examinations of mutilation and incest in "Break My Body" and "Broken Face", while references to superheroes appear on "Tony's Theme". Voyeurism appears in "Gigantic", and surrealistic lyrics are featured on "Bone Machine" and "Where Is My Mind?". Puerto Rico references and Spanish lyrics are found on the tracks "Oh My Golly!" and "Vamos." The latter track was previously featured on "Come On Pilgrim", and appears on "Surfer Rosa" as a rerecorded version of the original song. Many of the themes explored on previous recordings are revisited on "Surfer Rosa"; however, unlike on the band's later albums, the songs in "Surfer Rosa" are not preoccupied with one overarching topic.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: Other unusual and offbeat subject matter is raised on the album. "Cactus" is narrated by a prison inmate who requests his girlfriend smear her dress with blood and mail it to him. "Gigantic" is about an illicit love affair and borrows from the 1986 film "Crimes of the Heart", in which a married woman falls in love with a teenager. Francis was inspired to write "Where Is My Mind?" after scuba diving in the Caribbean. He later said he had "this very small fish trying to chase me. I don't know why—I don't know too much about fish behavior."


title: Surfer Rosa

text: "Surfer Rosa" was released in the UK by 4AD on March 21, 1988, entering the UK Indie Chart the following week. It spent 60 weeks in the chart, peaking at number 2. Until August of that year it was only available in the U.S. as an import. Although the label held worldwide distribution rights to Pixies, they did not have access to a distributor outside the UK. When 4AD signed a distribution deal with Rough Trade's U.S. branch, the album was released on vinyl and cassette as part of the "Surfer Rosa/Come On Pilgrim" release. While "Surfer Rosa/Come On Pilgrim" has remained in print on CD in the UK, subsequent U.S. releases have seen the two released on separate CDs. These separate releases first appeared in January 1992, when Elektra Records first reissued the band's first two albums. After 4AD reacquired rights to the band's U.S. distribution, they released both as separate CDs. "Surfer Rosa" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2005, 17 years after its original release.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: "Gigantic" was the only single taken from "Surfer Rosa". The track and its B-side, "River Euphrates", were rerecorded by Gil Norton at Blackwing Studios in London, early in May 1988. The remixed single was well met by critics. The single failed to sell, and spent just one week at number 93 on the UK Singles Chart. Despite the poor commercial performance of both "Surfer Rosa" and "Gigantic", Ivo Watts-Russell has said that the response to the album was "times five" compared with "Come On Pilgrim".


title: Surfer Rosa

text: "Surfer Rosa"s cover artwork features a photograph of a topless "friend of a friend" of the band, posing as a flamenco dancer, pitched against a wall which displays a crucifix and a torn poster. Simon Larbalestier, who contributed pictures to all Pixies album sleeves, decided to build the set because "we couldn't find the atmosphere we wanted naturally." According to Larbalestier, Black Francis came up with the idea for the cover as he wrote songs in his father's "topless Spanish bar"; Larbalestier added the crucifix and torn poster, and they "sort of loaded that with all the Catholicism." Commenting on the cover in 2005, Francis said, "I just hope people find it tasteful." The cover booklet expands on the theme, and features photographs of the flamenco dancer in several other poses; there are no song lyrics or written content, apart from album credits, in the booklet.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: Albini's name does not appear on the original record sleeve. The booklet's photographs were taken in one day at a pub opposite the 4AD offices, because, according to Larbalestier, "it was one of the few places that had a raised stage". In a 1988 interview with Joy Press, Black Francis described the concept as referring to "a surfer girl," who "walks along the Beach of Binones, has a surfboard, very beautiful." When questioned about the topless element, he replied, "For the first record, I told them I liked nudity. I like body lines—not necessarily something in bad taste, didn't even have to be female, just body lines ... like that Obsession ad, you know?" According to "Melody Maker", the album was originally entitled "Gigantic" after Deal's song, but the band feared misinterpretation of the cover and changed it to "Surfer Rosa." The "name" of the cover woman, and the album title, comes from the "Oh My Golly!" lyric "Besando chichando con surfer rosa", which roughly translates to "Kissing, having sex with Surfer Rosa".


title: Surfer Rosa

text: UK music press reviews of "Surfer Rosa" were generally positive. "Q"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Ian Cranna wrote that "what sets the Pixies apart are their sudden bursts of memorable pop melody," and noted that "they could have a bright future ahead of them." "NME"s Mark Sinker, reviewing the album in March 1988, said "they force the past to sound like them", while Dave Henderson from "Underground" magazine found the songs "well crafted, well delivered sketches which embrace commercial ideals as well as bizarre left-field out of control moments". John Dougan of American music magazine "Spin" described it as "beautifully brutal", and the magazine later named Pixies their musicians of the year. In a less enthusiastic contemporary review for "The Village Voice", Robert Christgau found the band's guitar riffs recognizable and their strong rhythms unique, but felt they had been overrated by critics who hailed them as "the Amerindie find of the year". In a 2003 review of the Pixies' 2002 self-titled EP, Christgau wrote that while he initially found Francis' fey and philosophically limited lyrics somewhat annoying, "Surfer Rosa" now seemed "audaciously funny and musically prophetic".


title: Surfer Rosa

text: At the end of 1988, "Surfer Rosa" was named one of the year's best albums on English critics' year-end lists. Independent music magazines "Melody Maker" and "Sounds" named "Surfer Rosa" as their album of the year; "NME" and "Record Mirror" placed the album 10th and 14th, respectively. However, "Surfer Rosa" failed to appear on "The Village Voice"s Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics. It also did not appear on any end-of-year list in the United States. A number of music magazines have since positioned "Surfer Rosa" as one of the quintessential alternative rock records of the 1980s. The album has appeared on several all-time best album lists, and is consistently placed as one of the best albums of the 1980s in any genre.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: Both "Surfer Rosa" and Steve Albini's production of the album have been influential on alternative rock, and on grunge in particular. Nirvana's Kurt Cobain cited "Surfer Rosa" as the basis for "Nevermind"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s songwriting. When he first heard the album, Cobain discovered a template for the mix of heavy noise and pop he was aiming to achieve. He remarked in 1992 that he "heard songs off of "Surfer Rosa" that I'd written but threw out because I was too afraid to play them for anybody." Cobain hired Albini to produce Nirvana's 1993 album "In Utero", primarily due to his contribution to "Surfer Rosa". The Smashing Pumpkins' Billy Corgan described "Surfer Rosa" as "the one that made me go, 'holy shit'. It was so fresh. It rocked without being lame." Corgan was impressed by the album's drum sound, and acknowledged that The Smashing Pumpkins used to study the record for its technical elements. Musician PJ Harvey said that "Surfer Rosa" "blew my mind," and that she "immediately went to track down Steve Albini." Cobain listed "Surfer Rosa" as one of the top 50 albums he thought were most influential to Nirvana's sound in his journal in 1993.


title: Surfer Rosa

text: People connected with the band were impressed by the record. Ivo Watts-Russell recalled: "I remember when I first heard "Surfer Rosa" thinking, 'I didn't know the Pixies could sound like The Fall.' That was my immediate reaction, in other words, incredibly raw." Gary Smith, who at the time was in a disagreement with the band, admitted he "was really happy that they had made such a forceful, aggressive, record." Dinosaur Jr.'s J Mascis, comparing the record to the later Pixies albums "Bossanova" and "Trompe le Monde", said he thought that Steve Albini's production "sounded way better than the other ones."


title: Surfer Rosa

text: In 1991, as Pixies were recording "Trompe le Monde", Albini told the fan magazine "Forced Exposure" that "Surfer Rosa" was "a patchwork pinch loaf from a band who at their top dollar best are blandly entertaining college rock", and said of the band: "Their willingness to be 'guided' by their manager, their record company and their producers is unparalleled. Never have I seen four cows more anxious to be led around by their nose rings." In 2005, Albini apologized for the remarks, saying: "To this day I regret having done it. I don't think that I regarded the band as significantly as I should have."


title: Out of Our Heads

text: Out of Our Heads is the 3rd British and 4th American studio album by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released in two editions with different covers and track listings. In the US, London Records released it on 30 July 1965, while Decca Records released its UK edition on 24 September 1965.


title: Out of Our Heads

text: Besides the key band members of singer Mick Jagger, guitarists Brian Jones and Keith Richards, bassist Bill Wyman, and drummer Charlie Watts, the album also contains musical contributions from former Rolling Stones member Ian Stewart. It was produced by the group's manager Andrew Loog Oldham.


title: Out of Our Heads

text: As with the prior two albums, it consists mostly of covers of American blues, soul and rhythm and blues songs, though the group wrote some of their own material for this album (4 out of the 12 tracks on the UK version, and 6 out of 12 for the USA version). The American version contains "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction", which would be the band's first number one US hit, and would go on to top the charts in 10 other countries, including the band's native UK, and being ranked as the second greatest song of all time by "Rolling Stone".


title: Out of Our Heads

text: "Out of Our Heads" became the group's first number one on the American "Billboard" 200 album chart; in the UK it charted at number two.


title: Out of Our Heads

text: The majority of the songs on "Out of Our Heads" were written and previously recorded by American rhythm and blues artists. According to music critic Richie Unterberger, the album's US release largely had mid-1960s soul covers and "classic rock singles" written by the band, including "The Last Time", "Play with Fire", and "Satisfaction", still drew on the band's R&B and blues roots, but were updated to "a more guitar-based, thoroughly contemporary context." Among the soul covers were Marvin Gaye's "Hitch Hike", Solomon Burke's "Cry to Me", and Sam Cooke's "Good Times". Kent H. Benjamin of "The Austin Chronicle" wrote that the album is "the culmination of the Stones' early soul/R&B sound". Writing of the album's UK edition, AllMusic's Bruce Eder characterised it as rock and roll and R&B.


title: Out of Our Heads

text: The British "Out of Our Heads" – with a different cover – added songs that would surface later in the US on "December's Children (And Everybody's)" and others that had not been released in the UK thus far (such as "Heart of Stone") instead of the already-released live track and recent hit singles (as singles rarely featured on albums in the UK in those times). Issued later that September, "Out of Our Heads" reached number two in the UK charts behind the Beatles' "Help!". It was the Rolling Stones' last UK album to rely upon rhythm and blues covers; the forthcoming "Aftermath" was entirely composed by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards.


title: Out of Our Heads

text: Initially issued in July 1965 in the US, "Out of Our Heads" (featuring a shot from the same photo session that was used for the cover of "12 X 5" and "The Rolling Stones No. 2") was a mixture of recordings made over a six-month period, including the Top 10 hit "The Last Time" and the worldwide number one "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" with B-sides as well as a track from the UK-only live EP "Got Live If You Want It!". Six songs would be included in the UK version of the album. "One More Try" is an original that was not released in the UK until 1971's "Stone Age". Riding the wave of "Satisfaction"'s success, "Out of Our Heads" became the Rolling Stones' first US number one album, eventually going platinum.


title: Out of Our Heads

text: The US edition of the album was included in Robert Christgau's "Basic Record Library" of 1950s and 1960s recordings, published in "" (1981). In 2003, this edition was also listed at number 114 on the list of "Rolling Stone"s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, then was re-ranked at number 116 in the 2012 revised list.


title: Out of Our Heads

text: In August 2002 both the US and UK editions of "Out of Our Heads" were reissued in a new remastered CD and SACD digipak by ABKCO Records.


title: Shoes on the Danube Bank

text: The Shoes on the Danube Bank () is a memorial erected on 16 April 2005, in Budapest, Hungary. Conceived by film director Can Togay, he created it on the east bank of the Danube River with sculptor to honour the Jews who were massacred by Fascist Hungarian militia belonging to the Arrow Cross Party in Budapest during the Second World War. They were ordered to take off their shoes (shoes were valuable and could be stolen and resold by the militia after the massacre), and were shot at the edge of the water so that their bodies fell into the river and were carried away. The memorial represents their shoes left behind on the bank.


title: Shoes on the Danube Bank

text: The monument is located on the Pest side of the Danube Promenade in line with where Zoltan Street would meet the Danube if it continued that far, about south of the Hungarian Parliament and near the Hungarian Academy of Sciences; between Roosevelt Square and Kossuth square.


title: Shoes on the Danube Bank

text: "The composition titled 'Shoes on the Danube Bank' gives remembrance to the 3,500 people, 800 of them Jews, who were shot into the Danube during the time of the Arrow Cross terror. The sculptor created sixty pairs of period-appropriate shoes out of iron. The shoes are attached to the stone embankment, and behind them lies a 40 meter long, 70 cm high stone bench. At three points are cast iron signs, with the following text in Hungarian, English, and Hebrew: "To the memory of the victims shot into the Danube by Arrow Cross militiamen in 1944–45. Erected 16 April 2005."


title: Shoes on the Danube Bank

text: Most of the murders along the edge of the River Danube took place around December 1944 and January 1945, when the members of the Hungarian Arrow Cross Party police ("Nyilas") took as many as 20,000 Jews from the newly established Budapest ghetto and executed them along the river bank. Tommy Dick describes one surviving person's story from these operations in his book "Getting Out Alive" and testimony.


title: Shoes on the Danube Bank

text: During World War II, Valdemar Langlet, head of the Swedish Red Cross in Budapest, with his wife Nina, and later the diplomat Raoul Wallenberg and 250 colleagues were working around the clock to save the Jewish population from being sent to Nazi concentration camps; this figure later rose to approximately 400. Lars and Edith Ernster, Jacob Steiner, and many others were housed at the Swedish Embassy in Budapest on Üllői Street 2-4 and 32 other buildings throughout the city which Wallenberg had rented and declared as extraterritorially Swedish to try to safeguard the residents.


title: Shoes on the Danube Bank

text: On the night of 8 January 1945, an Arrow Cross execution brigade forced all the inhabitants of the building on Vadasz Street to the banks of the Danube. At midnight, Karoly Szabo and 20 policemen with drawn bayonets broke into the Arrow Cross house and rescued everyone (see also front page of 1947 newspaper below). Among those saved were Lars Ernster, who fled to Sweden and became a member of the board of the Nobel Foundation from 1977 to 1988, and Jacob Steiner, who fled to Israel and became a professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Steiner's father had been shot dead by Arrow Cross militiamen 25 December 1944, and fell into the Danube. His father had been an officer in World War I and spent four years as a prisoner of war in Russia.


title: Shoes on the Danube Bank

text: Dr. Erwin K. Koranyi, a psychiatrist in Ottawa, wrote about the night of 8 January 1945 in his "Dreams and Tears: Chronicle of a Life" (2006), "in our group, I saw Lajos Stoeckler" and "The police holding their guns at the Arrowcross cutthroats. One of the high-ranking police officers was Pal Szalai, with whom Raoul Wallenberg used to deal. Another police officer in his leather coat was Karoly Szabo."


title: Shoes on the Danube Bank

text: Pal Szalai was honored as Righteous among the Nations on 7 April 2009 for helping save these Hungarian Jews.


title: Shoes on the Danube Bank

text: In September 2014, the Israeli newspaper "Ha'aretz" reported that several bronze shoes were stolen from the Danube Holocaust memorial, citing the "Budapest Beacon". "Ha'aretz" noted that "it was not immediately clear whether the theft in Budapest, not far from the Hungarian parliament building, was an anti-Semitic act or a meaningless prank. Police said they were not investigating the case because no crime has been reported, said Hungarian newspaper "Nepszabadsag"."


title: Henry Silva

text: Henry Silva (September 23, 1926 – September 14, 2022) was an American actor. A prolific character actor, Silva was a regular staple of international genre cinema, usually playing criminals or gangsters. His notable film appearances include ones in "Ocean's 11" (1960), "The Manchurian Candidate" (1962), "Johnny Cool" (1963), "Sharky's Machine" (1981), and "" (1999).


title: Henry Silva

text: Silva was born in Brooklyn, New York City, on September 23, 1926. He was the son of Jesus Silva and Angelina Martinez, and was of Sicilian and Spanish descent. His father abandoned the family when he was young, and he grew up in Spanish Harlem with his mother. He quit school when he was 13 years old to attend drama classes, supporting himself as a dishwasher and waiter at a Manhattan hotel.


title: Henry Silva

text: By 1955, Silva felt ready to audition for the Actors Studio. He was accepted. When the Studio staged Michael V. Gazzo's play "A Hatful of Rain" as a classroom project (which itself grew out of an earlier improvisation by Silva, Paul Richards, and Tony Franciosa, based on a scene written by Gazzo, titled "Pot"), it proved so successful that it was presented on Broadway, with students Ben Gazzara, Shelley Winters, Harry Guardino, along with Franciosa, Richards, and Silva, in key roles. Silva also appeared in the play's film version.


title: Henry Silva

text: His Hollywood debut was an uncredited appearance in Elia Kazan’s 1952 "Viva Zapata!". Silva then went on to play a succession of villains in films including "The Tall T" (1957) with Randolph Scott, "The Bravados" (1958) with Gregory Peck, and "The Law and Jake Wade" (1958).


title: Henry Silva

text: In the 1959 adventure film "Green Mansions", he played a forest-dwelling Venezuela native known as Kua-Ko who tries to murder a young woman played by Audrey Hepburn.


title: Henry Silva

text: Silva was one of the eleven casino robbers in the 1960 Rat Pack caper film "Ocean's 11", starring Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr., and Peter Lawford. He also played the communist agent Chunjin in the original "The Manchurian Candidate" (1962), again opposite Sinatra, and portrayed a Native American in Sinatra's and Martin's Rat Pack Western "Sergeants 3" that same year.


title: Henry Silva

text: Silva gradually became typecast playing mobsters, robbers, and other criminals. In 1956, he appeared as a hitman in the episode "Better Bargain" on "Alfred Hitchcock Presents." And in 1963, he starred as a mobster in the episode "An Out for Oscar" on "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour". However, he did play a comic role as one of the stepbrothers in the 1960 Jerry Lewis film "Cinderfella", a parody of Cinderella with Lewis in the title role.


title: Henry Silva

text: He appeared in many television series in both guest starring and recurring roles. Other appearances include featured roles on "The Outer Limits" plus roles on episodes of "The Untouchables", Rod Serling's "Night Gallery", "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea" and "", as well as Boris Karloff's suspense series "Thriller". He also appeared in "The Streets of San Francisco", "Dr. Kildare", and many more shows.


title: Henry Silva

text: In 1963, Silva played the lead role in the gangster film "Johnny Cool", which was produced by United Artists and Chrislaw. His character Salvatore "Johnny Cool" Giordano was a hitman sent on a mission by exiled mobster Johnny Colini to kill the underworld figures who had plotted against the mobster. Premiering on October 19, 1963, the film enjoyed box-office success as well as critical acclaim. Critics also praised the actor's first lead performance, which allegedly carried the film. The supporting cast features Elizabeth Montgomery, Mort Sahl, Telly Savalas, Jim Backus, Joey Bishop, and Sammy Davis Jr., most of whose characters were murdered by Johnny Cool during the course of the film. "Variety" praised Silva's performance, writing "Henry Silva, as a Sicilian-born assassin, is at home as the 'delivery boy of death'".


title: Henry Silva

text: In 1965, an Italian film producer made Silva an offer to star as a hero for a change and he moved his family overseas. Silva's turning-point picture was a Spaghetti Western, "The Hills Run Red" (1966), which made him a hot box-office commodity in Spain, Italy, Germany, and France. Between 1966 and 1977 he starred or co-starred in at least 25 movies, the majority of which were Italian Poliziotteschi films, where he normally played the villain or hitman, or the dark hero, or a combination of the two. These include "Manhunt" (1972), "Il Boss" (1973), and "Almost Human" (1974).


title: Henry Silva

text: He also appeared against type as the Japanese detective Mr. Moto in the 1965 murder mystery "The Return of Mr. Moto", and as an Apache who helps rape victim Michele Carey in the 1970 revenge western "Five Savage Men".


title: Henry Silva

text: Returning to the United States in the mid-1970s, he co-starred with Frank Sinatra in "Contract on Cherry Street" (1977) and Charles Bronson in "Love and Bullets" (1979). He then signed on as the evil adversary Killer Kane in "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century" (1979).


title: Henry Silva

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, he appeared as the arrogant hunter Colonel Brock in "Alligator" (1980), a drug-addicted hitman in Burt Reynolds' "Sharky's Machine" (1981), a former prison warden-turned-enforcer in "Escape from the Bronx" (1983), which was lampooned on "Mystery Science Theater 3000", a comedy gangster in "Cannonball Run II" (1984) opposite many of his former Rat Pack buddies, the villainous CIA agent Kurt Zagon in Steven Seagal's debut "Above the Law" (1988), the sinister mob hitman Influence in "Dick Tracy" (1990), and the voice of the ruthless supervillain Bane in "" (1994) and "The New Batman Adventures" (1998). Silva also plays the crime boss Ray Vargo in Jim Jarmusch's "" (1999) who puts out a hit on the titular character.


title: Henry Silva

text: Silva also starred as himself in a spoof of "In Search of ..."-type shows in the comedy "Amazon Women on the Moon" (1987) for a segment titled Henry Silva's "Bullshit, or Not!", and played a spectator at a boxing match in the 2001 version of "Ocean's Eleven".


title: Henry Silva

text: In 2012 he contributed to "Eurocrime! The Italian Cop and Gangster Films that ruled the 70s", a feature-length documentary directed by Mike Malloy.


title: Henry Silva

text: Silva was married three times. His first marriage was to Mary Ramus (February 1949 - 1955) and ended in divorce. His second was on 16 March 1959 to Cindy Conroy. He was married to Ruth Earl from 4 September 1966 until it ended in divorce in November 1987. Silva and Earl had two children, both of whom were born in Los Angeles, Michael Henry Silva who was born on September 3, 1969 and Scott Stevens Silva who was born July 14, 1976.


title: Henry Silva

text: Silva died on September 14, 2022, nine days before his 96th birthday, at the Motion Picture & Television Fund home in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: Generalfeldmarschall (from Old High German "marahscalc", "marshal, stable master, groom"; ; ; often abbreviated to Feldmarschall) was a rank in the armies of several German states and the Holy Roman Empire ("Reichsgeneralfeldmarschall"); in the Habsburg monarchy, the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, the rank "Feldmarschall" was used. The rank was the equivalent to "Großadmiral" () in the "Kaiserliche Marine" and "Kriegsmarine", a five-star rank, comparable to OF-10 in today's NATO naval forces.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: The rank existed in the Austrian Empire as "Kaiserlicher Feldmarschall" ("imperial field marshal") and in Austria-Hungary as "Kaiserlicher und königlicher Feldmarschall" - "Császári és királyi tárbornagy" ("imperial and royal field marshal"). Both were based on prior usage during the Holy Roman Empire. The Emperor-King held the rank "ex officio", other officers were promoted as required. Between 1914 and 1918, ten men attained this rank, of whom four were members of the reigning Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: In the Prussian Army, the Imperial German Army and later in the "Wehrmacht", the rank of "Generalfeldmarschall" had several privileges, such as elevation to nobility, equal protocol rank with Cabinet ministers, the right of reporting directly to the monarch, and a constant escort.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: In 1854, the rank of colonel general () was created in order to promote William, Prince of Prussia (the later William I, German Emperor) to senior rank without breaking the rule that only wartime field commanders could receive the rank of field marshal for a victory in a decisive battle or the capture of a fortification or major town. The equivalent of "colonel-general" in the German Navy was the rank of "Generaladmiral" ("general admiral" or "admiral-general").


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: In 1870, Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia and Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm—who had commanded armies during the Franco-Prussian War—became the first Prussian princes appointed to the rank of "Generalfeldmarschall".


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: The exalted nature of the rank was underscored during World War I, when only five German officers (excluding honorary promotions to members of royal families and foreign officers) were designated "Generalfeldmarschall": Paul von Hindenburg, August von Mackensen, Karl von Bülow, Hermann von Eichhorn, and Remus von Woyrsch. Only a single naval officer, Henning von Holtzendorff, was designated Grand Admiral. Not even such well-known German commanders as Erich Ludendorff, Erich von Falkenhayn, or Reinhard Scheer received marshal's batons or Grand Admiral rank.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: Before the Second World War, Adolf Hitler reintroduced the rank into the with the promotion of the Reich Minister of War, "Generaloberst" Werner von Blomberg (20 April 1936), and the Aviation Minister, Hermann Göring (4 February 1938), to the rank of "Generalfeldmarschall". In the "Wehrmacht" of Nazi Germany during the Second World War, the rank of "Generalfeldmarschall" remained the highest military rank until July 1940, when Hermann Göring was promoted to the newly created higher rank of "Reichsmarschall". The equivalent of a "Generalfeldmarschall" in the navy was "Großadmiral" ("grand admiral").


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: Unlike Kaiser Wilhelm II, Hitler distributed the rank more widely, promoting 25 "Heer" and "Luftwaffe" officers in total and two "Kriegsmarine" Grand Admirals. (Another promotion, that of Austrian General Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli, was honorary.) Four weeks after the "Heer" and "Luftwaffe" had won the Battle of France, Hitler promoted nine Army generals and three of the air force to the rank of field marshal on 19 July 1940: Walther von Brauchitsch, Wilhelm Keitel, Gerd von Rundstedt, Fedor von Bock, Wilhelm von Leeb, Wilhelm List, Günther von Kluge, Erwin von Witzleben and Walter von Reichenau ("Heer"); and Albert Kesselring, Erhard Milch and Hugo Sperrle ("Luftwaffe"). The holders of this rank had the right to a “direct presentation to the Führer”.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: In 1942, three other men were promoted—"Wüstenfuchs" ('Desert Fox') Erwin Rommel (22 June) for the siege of Tobruk, Erich von Manstein (30 June) for the Siege of Sevastopol, and Georg von Küchler (30 June) for his success as "Oberbefehlshaber der Heeresgruppe Nord" ("commander-in-chief of Army Group North").


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: Hitler promoted Friedrich Paulus, commander of the 6th Army at Stalingrad, to the rank of "Generalfeldmarschall" via field radio on 30 January 1943, a day before his army's inevitable surrender, in order to encourage him to continue to fight until death or commit suicide. In the promotion, Hitler noted that no German or, before that, Prussian field marshal had ever been captured alive. "Generalfeldmarschall" Paulus surrendered the following day anyway, claiming "Ich habe nicht die Absicht, mich für diesen bayerischen Gefreiten zu erschießen" ("I have no intention of shooting myself for this Bavarian corporal"). A disappointed Hitler commented, "That's the last field marshal I make in this war!" However, he appointed seven more, three on the day after Paulus surrendered, Ernst Busch, Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist and Maximilian von Weichs (all members of the "Heer"), and, later that same month, Hitler promoted "Luftwaffe" General Wolfram von Richthofen to the rank for his service in the Crimean campaign and the later part of the Battle of Stalingrad.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: From 1944 to 1945, three more men would reach this rank. In early 1944, Walter Model, one of Hitler's most loyal generals, was promoted to the rank; he was also the last German field marshal to receive a ceremonial marshal's baton. Ferdinand Schörner, another loyal officer, was promoted on 5 April 1945 when he was made Commander-in-Chief of the German Army. 20 days after that, and just five days before his own suicide, Adolf Hitler made "Luftwaffe" General Robert Ritter von Greim a field marshal and Commander in chief of the German Air Force after Göring had fallen out of Hitler's favour, making Greim the last German field marshal in history.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: "Generalfeldmarschall" was the highest regular general officer rank in the German" Wehrmacht", comparable to Field marshal in anglophone armed forces. It was equivalent to "Großadmiral" of the German "Kriegsmarine".


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: Financially, the rank of "Generalfeldmarschall" in Nazi Germany was very rewarding as, apart from a yearly salary, Hitler introduced tax free fringe benefits for generals in the range of


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: (€– in ) per month in 1940. He also bestowed generous presents on his highest officers, with Leeb receiving (€ in ) for his 65th birthday from Hitler.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: Promotion to the rank did not guarantee Hitler's ongoing favour, however. As the tide of the war turned, Hitler took out his frustrations on his top commanders, relieving most of the "Generalfeldmarschalls" of duty before the war's conclusion. Bock, Brauchitsch, Leeb, and List were all relieved of their posts in 1942 for perceived failures during Operation Barbarossa and took no further active part in the war. Kleist, Manstein and Sperrle were similarly retired in 1944 and Rundstedt and Weichs in March 1945. Grand Admiral Erich Raeder was retired in January 1943 following a fierce argument with Hitler over the future of the German surface fleet. Model, one of Hitler's most successful commanders, had nevertheless lost the Fuhrer's confidence by war's end and committed suicide to avoid capture and likely trial as a war criminal. Milch was relieved after conspiring unsuccessfully to have Göring removed from command of the "Luftwaffe", and even Göring himself was stripped of his offices and expelled from the Nazi Party in Hitler's last days. Schörner ignominiously abandoned his command to save himself in the war's last days. Kluge, Witzleben and Rommel were either executed or forced to commit suicide for their real or imagined roles in the 20 July plot against Hitler. By war's end, only Keitel, Kesselring, Greim and Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz were still in positions of military responsibility.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: The National People's Army of the "Deutsche Demokratische Republik" (DDR) (German Democratic Republic, i.e. East Germany) created the rank of Marshal of the German Democratic Republic on 25 March 1982. A general could be appointed to this rank by the State Council ("Staatsrat"; the head-of-state council of the GDR) during wartime or for exceptional military achievement; no one ever held the rank, however.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: The ranks of "Generalfeldmarschall", "Generaloberst", "Großadmiral" and "Generaladmiral" no longer exist in the new German (until 1990 West German) Armed Forces, the "Bundeswehr", which were created in 1956. Currently, the highest military grades in the "Bundeswehr" are general and admiral.


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: The Commander-in-Chief of the "Bundeswehr" is, in peacetime, according to Article 65a of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (constitution), the civilian Federal Minister of Defence, who holds supreme command authority over all soldiers. In wartime, during the State of Defence, that supreme command authority is transferred to the "Federal Chancellor". The Inspector General of the "Bundeswehr" is the military chief of defence and heads the "Armed Forces Command Staff" ().


title: Generalfeldmarschall

text: The rank of Field Marshal was first used in the northern German State of Saxony within the Holy Roman Empire in 1631. It was then used nine further times in that century and seven times in the 18th century. It was used twice in the 19th century by the Kingdom of Saxony after it became part of the German Empire in 1871.


title: Brazen (film)

text: Brazen is a 2022 American thriller film directed by Monika Mitchell. It is based on Nora Roberts's novel "Brazen Virtue". The film stars Alyssa Milano, Sam Page, and Matthew Finlan.


title: Brazen (film)

text: In January 2021, it was announced Alyssa Milano would star in a feature film adaption of Nora Roberts’ romance thriller "Brazen Virtue" with Monika Mitchell directing.


title: Brazen (film)

text: Following the announcement of Milano's casting as Grace, Nora Roberts' Facebook page was inundated with negative responses from sections of her fan base who were critical of Milano's role in the #MeToo movement and criticism of Donald Trump's administration. Roberts was quoted:


title: Brazen (film)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 18% based on 17 reviews, with an average rating of 3.3/10.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Cardano is a public blockchain platform. It is open-source and decentralized, with consensus achieved using proof of stake. It can facilitate peer-to-peer transactions with its internal cryptocurrency, ADA.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Cardano's development began in 2015, led by Ethereum co-founder Charles Hoskinson. The project is overseen and supervized by the Cardano Foundation based in Zug, Switzerland. When launched in 2017, it was the largest cryptocurrency to use a proof-of-stake blockchain, which is seen as a greener alternative to proof-of-work protocols.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Charles Hoskinson and Jeremy Wood set out their plans for Cardano in 2015, with the platform launching in 2017. Hoskinson had left Ethereum after a dispute with another co-founder, Vitalik Buterin. Hoskinson wanted to accept venture capital and create a company, while Buterin wanted to keep it as a nonprofit organization. After leaving, Hoskinson co-founded IOHK, a blockchain-engineering company, whose primary business is the development of Cardano, alongside the Cardano Foundation and Emurgo. The platform is named after Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano, while the cryptocurrency itself is named after the English mathematician Ada Lovelace. The Ada sub-unit is the Lovelace; one Ada = 1,000,000 Lovelaces.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Atypically, Cardano does not have a white paper. Instead, it uses design principles intended to overcome issues faced by earlier cryptocurrencies such as scalability, interoperability, and regulatory compliance. Cardano claims that it overcomes problems in the crypto market: mainly that Bitcoin is too slow and inflexible, and that Ethereum is not safe or scalable.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Cardano used a proof-of-stake protocol named Ouroboros; this was in contrast to Bitcoin and Ethereum, which used proof-of-work protocols (though the latter switched over in 2022). Proof-of-stake blockchains use far less energy than proof-of-work chains. In February 2021, Hoskinson estimated the Cardano network used 6 GWh annually, less than 0.01% of the 110.53 TWh used by the Bitcoin network as calculated by the University of Cambridge.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Within the Cardano platform, Ada exists on the settlement layer. This layer is similar to Bitcoin and keeps track of transactions. The second layer is the computation layer. This layer is designed to be similar to Ethereum, enabling smart contracts and applications to run on the platform.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Like Bitcoin, Cardano uses a UTXO ledger model, though it is an extended version (EUTXO) to facilitate smart contracts and scripting languages.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Cardano implemented decentralized finance (DeFi) services on September 12, 2021, including an upgrade to enable smart contracts and the ability to build decentralized applications (DApps). Also included is Plutus, a Turing-complete smart contract language written in Haskell, and a specialized smart contract language, Marlowe, designed for non-programmers in the financial sector. Cardano's smart contract languages allow developers to run end-to-end tests on their program without leaving the integrated development environment or deploying their code.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Cardano was funded through an initial coin offering (ICO). Cardano reached a market cap of $77 billion in May 2021, which was the fourth highest for a cryptocurrency at that time.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: In 2017, IOHK partnered with the University of Edinburgh to launch the Blockchain Technology Laboratory.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: Advertising agency MBLM ranked Cardano 26th for brand intimacy out of 600 brands in August 2022, in between Ford and Nestlé and the highest rank for a cryptocurrency. Citing an MBLM partner, advertising industry magazine "Ad Age" said Cardano's high ranking "can likely be chalked up to the gambling element of crypt".


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: In 2019, the Ministry of Education in the country of Georgia signed a memorandum of understanding with the Free University of Tbilisi to use Cardano and Atala, IOHK's decentralized identity software, to build a credential verification system for Georgia.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: In 2019, New Balance announced a pilot program on the Cardano blockchain so buyers could track the authenticity of OMN1S Kawhi Leonard basketball shoes.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: IOHK announced a partnership in 2018 with the Ethiopian government to investigate ways to deploy Cardano in the country. In April 2021, IOHK and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education announced plans for an identity and record-keeping system on Cardano and Atala for the country's five million school pupils.


title: Cardano (blockchain platform)

text: In 2021 Hoskinson began working with electronic dance music DJ Paul Oakenfold to release an album, "Zombie Lobster," on the Cardano blockchain.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Monte Cassino (today usually spelled Montecassino) is a rocky hill about southeast of Rome, in the Latin Valley, Italy, west of Cassino and at an elevation of . Site of the Roman town of Casinum, it is widely known for its abbey, the first house of the Benedictine Order, having been established by Benedict of Nursia himself around 529. It was for the community of Monte Cassino that the Rule of Saint Benedict was composed.


title: Monte Cassino

text: The first monastery on Monte Cassino was sacked by the invading Lombards around 570 and abandoned. Of the first monastery almost nothing is known. The second monastery was established by Petronax of Brescia around 718, at the suggestion of Pope Gregory II and with the support of the Lombard Duke Romuald II of Benevento. It was directly subject to the pope and many monasteries in Italy were under its authority. In 883, the monastery was sacked by Saracens and abandoned again. The community of monks resided first at Teano and then from 914 at Capua before the monastery was rebuilt in 949. During the period of exile, the Cluniac Reforms were introduced into the community.


title: Monte Cassino

text: The 11th and 12th centuries were the abbey's golden age. It acquired a large secular territory around Monte Cassino, the so-called "Terra Sancti Benedicti" ("Land of Saint Benedict"), which it heavily fortified with castles. It maintained good relations with the Eastern Church, even receiving patronage from Byzantine emperors. It encouraged fine art and craftsmanship by employing Byzantine and Islamic artisans. In 1057, Pope Victor II recognised the abbot of Monte Cassino as having precedence over all other abbots. Many monks rose to become bishops and cardinals, and three popes were drawn from the abbey: Stephen IX (1057–58), Victor III (1086–87) and Gelasius II (1118–19). During this period, the monastery's chronicle was written by two of its own, Cardinal Leo of Ostia and Peter the Deacon (who also compiled the cartulary).


title: Monte Cassino

text: By the 13th century, the monastery's decline had set in. In 1239, the Emperor Frederick II garrisoned troops in it during his war with the Papacy. In 1322, Pope John XXII elevated the abbey into a bishopric but this was suppressed in 1367. The buildings were destroyed by an earthquake in 1349, and in 1369 Pope Urban V demanded a contribution from all Benedictine monasteries to fund the rebuilding. In 1454, the abbey was placed "in commendam" and in 1504 was made subject to the Abbey of Santa Giustina in Padua.


title: Monte Cassino

text: In 1799, Monte Cassino was sacked again by French troops during the French Revolutionary Wars. The abbey was dissolved by the Italian government in 1866. The building became a national monument with the monks as custodians of its treasures. In 1944 during World War II, it was the site of the Battle of Monte Cassino and the building was destroyed by Allied bombing. It was rebuilt after the war.


title: Monte Cassino

text: After the reforms of the Second Vatican Council the monastery was one of the few remaining territorial abbeys within the Catholic Church. On 23 October 2014, Pope Francis applied the norms of the "motu proprio" "Ecclesia Catholica" of Paul VI (1976) to the abbey, removing from its jurisdiction all 53 parishes and reducing its spiritual jurisdiction to the abbey itself – while retaining its status as a territorial abbey. The former territory of the Abbey, except the land on which the abbey church and monastery sit, was transferred to the diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo. Pope Francis at the same time appointed Father Donato Ogliari as the new Abbot who will serve as the 192nd successor of Saint Benedict. As of 2015, the monastic community consists of thirteen monks.


title: Monte Cassino

text: The history of Monte Cassino is linked to the nearby town of Cassino which was first settled in the fifth century B.C. by the Volsci people who held much of central Italy. It was the Volsci who first built a citadel on the summit of Monte Cassino. The Volsci in the area were defeated by the Romans in 312 B.C. The Romans renamed the settlement Casinum and built a temple to Apollo at the citadel. Modern excavations have found no remains of the temple, but ruins of an amphitheatre, a theatre, and a mausoleum indicate the lasting presence the Romans had there.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Generations after the Roman Empire adopted Christianity the town became the seat of a bishopric in the fifth century A.D. Lacking strong defences the area was subject to barbarian attack and became abandoned and neglected with only a few struggling inhabitants holding out.


title: Monte Cassino

text: According to Gregory the Great's hagiography, Benedict, "Life of Saint Benedict of Nursia", the monastery was constructed on an older pagan site, a temple of Apollo that crowned the hill. The biography records that the area was still largely pagan at the time; Benedict's first act was to smash the sculpture of Apollo and destroy the altar. He then reused the temple, dedicating it to Saint Martin, and built another chapel on the site of the altar dedicated to Saint John the Baptist.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Now the citadel called Casinum is located on the side of a high mountain. The mountain shelters this citadel on a broad bench. Then it rises three miles above it as if its peak tended toward heaven. There was an ancient temple there in which Apollo used to be worshipped according to the old pagan rite by the foolish local farmers. Around it had grown up a grove dedicated to demon worship, where even at that time a wild crowd still devoted themselves to unholy sacrifices. When [Benedict] the man of God arrived, he smashed the idol, overturned the altar and cut down the grove of trees. He built a chapel dedicated to St. Martin in the temple of Apollo and another to St. John where the altar of Apollo had stood. And he summoned the people of the district to the faith by his unceasing preaching.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Pope Gregory I's biography of Benedict claims that Satan opposed the monks repurposing the site. In one story, Satan invisibly sits on a rock making it too heavy to remove until Benedict drives him off. In another story, Satan taunts Benedict and then collapses a wall on a young monk, who is brought back to life by Benedict. Pope Gregory also relays that the monks found a pagan idol of bronze when digging at the site (which when thrown into the kitchen gave the illusion of a fire until dispelled by Benedict).


title: Monte Cassino

text: Archaeologist Neil Christie notes that it was common in such hagiographies for the protagonist to encounter areas of strong paganism. Benedict scholar Terrence Kardong examines why Benedict did not face stiffer opposition in his seizure of the site from the local pagans. He contrasts this with the 25-year struggle faced by St. Martin of Tours in western Gaul by pagans angry at his attacks on their shrines: "By the time of Benedict, paganism was in a weaker condition in western Europe than it had been in Martin's time. And, of course, it must be remembered that Martin as a bishop was a much more prominent churchman than Benedict. This was an isolated and unusual episode in Benedict's monastic career. Martin, however, was thrust out of his monastery into the role of a missionary bishop in the fourth century."


title: Monte Cassino

text: Benedict scholars (such as Adalbert de Vogüé and Terrence Kardong) note the heavy influence of Sulpicius Severus' "Life of Martin" on Pope Gregory I's biography of Benedict, including the account of his seizure of Monte Cassino. Benedict's violence against a pagan holy place recalls both Martin's assault against pagan shrines generations before and the Biblical story of conquering Israel entering the Holy Land (see Exodus 34:12–14). De Vogue writes "this mountain had to be conquered from an idolatrous people and purified from its devilish horrors. And like conquering Israel, Benedict came precisely to carry out this purification. No doubt Gregory had this biblical model uppermost in his mind, as is clear from the terms he uses to describe the work of destruction. At the same time, neither Gregory nor Benedict could have forgotten the similar line of action taken by St. Martin against the pagan shrines of Gaul."


title: Monte Cassino

text: Pope Gregory I's account of Benedict at Monte Cassino is seen by scholars as the final setting for an epic set in motion at Subiaco. In his earlier setting Benedict "had twice shown complete mastery over his aggressiveness, Benedict is now allowed to use it without restraint in the service of God." Scholars note that this striking contrast is not stressed by Gregory but rather both settings are portrayed as part of a single battle account against the same demonic enemy. Where Satan concealed himself behind underlings at Subiaco, at Monte Cassino he drops the masks to enter into a desperate attempt to prevent an abbey from being built, and "that the sole cause of this eruption of satanic action is the suppression of pagan worship on the high places."


title: Monte Cassino

text: While scholars see some similarities between the story of Benedict's encountering demonic phenomena and diabolic apparitions at Monte Cassino with the story of Saint Anthony the Great's temptation in the desert, the influence of the story of St. Martin is dominant – with the resistance of Satan substituting for Martin's outraged pagan populace. Unlike the stories that may have influenced Pope Gregory's structure of the biography, Benedict's victories are practical, preventing Satan from stopping work on the abbey at Monte Cassino. Benedict's prayers are portrayed as the driving force behind the building of the abbey and the triumphs over Satan, through prayer: "Benedict the monk wrests from the devil a well-determined base which he never leaves." After the completion of the abbey, Satan's appearances in the story diminish back to the same level as Subiaco, "Only after the saint's death and by God's permission would other enemies, the Lombards, succeed in sacking it."Once established at Monte Cassino, Benedict never left. He wrote the Benedictine Rule that became the founding principle for Western monasticism, received a visit from Totila, king of the Ostrogoths (perhaps in 543, the only remotely secure historical date for Benedict), and died there. According to accounts, "Benedict died in the oratory of St. Martin, and was buried in the oratory of St. John."


title: Monte Cassino

text: The Rule of St. Benedict mandated the moral obligations to care for the sick. So in Monte Cassino St. Benedict founded a hospital that is considered today to have been the first in Europe of the new era. Benedictine monks took care of the sick and wounded there according to Benedict's Rule. The monastic routine called for hard work. The care of the sick was such an important duty that those caring for them were enjoined to act as if they served Christ directly. Benedict founded twelve communities for monks at nearby Subiaco (about 64 km to the east of Rome), where hospitals were settled, too, as adjuncts to the monasteries to provide charity. Soon many monasteries were founded throughout Europe, and everywhere there were hospitals like those in Monte Cassino.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Pope Gregory I's account of Benedict's construction was confirmed by archaeological discoveries made after the destruction of 1944. Adalbert de Vogüé recounts that "Traces have been found of the oratories of St. Martin and of St. John the Baptist, with additions from the eighth and eleventh centuries, together with their pre-Christian cellars. The first one which Benedict built in the temple itself was only twelve meters long and eight wide. From this, we can infer a fairly small community. The second oratory, on the mountain-top, where the pagan altar had stood in the open air, was of the same width but somewhat longer (15.25 meters)."


title: Monte Cassino

text: Monte Cassino became a model for future developments. Its prominent site has always made it an object of strategic importance. It was sacked or destroyed a number of times. "The first to demolish it were Lombards on foot in 580; the last were Allied bombers in 1944." In 581, during the abbacy of Bonitus, the Lombards sacked the abbey, and the surviving monks fled to Rome, where they remained for more than a century. During this time the body of St Benedict was transferred to Fleury, the modern Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire near Orleans, France.


title: Monte Cassino

text: A flourishing period of Monte Cassino followed its re-establishment in 718 by Abbot Petronax, when among the monks were Carloman, son of Charles Martel; Ratchis, predecessor of the Lombard King Aistulf; and Paul the Deacon, the historian of the Lombards.


title: Monte Cassino

text: In 744, a donation of Gisulf II of Benevento created the "Terra Sancti Benedicti", the secular lands of the abbacy, which were subject to the abbot and nobody else save the pope. Thus, the monastery became the capital of a state comprising a compact and strategic region between the Lombard principality of Benevento and the Byzantine city-states of the coast (Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi).


title: Monte Cassino

text: In 884 Saracens sacked and then burned it down, and Abbot Bertharius was killed during the attack. Among the great historians who worked at the monastery, in this period there is Erchempert, whose "Historia Langobardorum Beneventanorum" is a fundamental chronicle of the ninth-century Mezzogiorno.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Monte Cassino was rebuilt and reached the apex of its fame in the 11th century under the abbot Desiderius (abbot 1058–1087), who later became Pope Victor III. Monks caring for the patients in Monte Cassino constantly needed new medical knowledge. So they began to buy and collect medical and other books by Greek, Roman, Islamic, Egyptian, European, Jewish, and Oriental authors. As Naples is situated on the crossroad of many seaways of Europe, the Middle East and Asia, soon the monastery library was one of the richest in Europe. All the knowledge of the civilizations of all the times and nations was accumulated in the Abbey of that time. The Benedictines translated into Latin and transcribed precious manuscripts. The number of monks rose to over two hundred, and the library, the manuscripts produced in the scriptorium and the school of manuscript illuminators became famous throughout the West. The unique Beneventan script flourished there during Desiderius' abbacy.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Monks reading and copying the medical texts learned a lot about human anatomy and methods of treatment, and then put their theoretic skills into practice at monastery hospital. By the 10–11th centuries Monte Cassino became the most famous cultural, educational, and medical center of Europe with a great library in Medicine and other sciences. Many physicians came there for medical and other knowledge. That is why the first High Medical School in the world was soon opened in nearby Salerno which is considered today to have been the earliest Institution of Higher Education in Western Europe. This school found its original base in the Benedictine Abbey of Monte Cassino still in the 9th century and later settled down in Salerno. So, Montecassino and Benedictines played a great role in the progress of medicine and science in the Middle Ages, and with his life and work St. Benedict himself exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture and helped Europe to emerge from the "dark night of history" that followed the fall of the Roman empire.


title: Monte Cassino

text: The buildings of the monastery were reconstructed in the 11th century on a scale of great magnificence, artists being brought from Amalfi, Lombardy, and even Constantinople to supervise the various works. The abbey church, rebuilt and decorated with the utmost splendor, was consecrated in 1071 by Pope Alexander II. A detailed account of the abbey at this date exists in the "Chronica monasterii Cassinensis" by Leo of Ostia and Amatus of Monte Cassino gives us our best source on the early Normans in the south.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Abbot Desiderius sent envoys to Constantinople some time after 1066 to hire expert Byzantine mosaicists for the decoration of the rebuilt abbey church. According to chronicler Leo of Ostia the Greek artists decorated the apse, the arch and the vestibule of the basilica. Their work was admired by contemporaries but was totally destroyed in later centuries except two fragments depicting greyhounds (now in the Monte Cassino Museum). "The abbot in his wisdom decided that a great number of young monks in the monastery should be thoroughly initiated in these arts" – says the chronicler about the role of the Greeks in the revival of mosaic art in medieval Italy.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Architectural historian Kenneth John Conant believed that Desiderius' rebuilding included pointed arches, and served as a major influence in the nascent development of Gothic architecture. Abbot Hugh of Cluny visited Monte Cassino in 1083, and five years later he began to build the third church at Cluny Abbey, which then included pointed arches and became a major turning point in medieval architecture.


title: Monte Cassino

text: An earthquake damaged the Abbey in 1349, and although the site was rebuilt it marked the beginning of a long period of decline. In 1321, Pope John XXII made the church of Monte Cassino a cathedral, and the carefully preserved independence of the monastery from episcopal interference was at an end. That situation was reversed by Pope Urban V, a Benedictine, in 1367. In 1505 the monastery was joined with that of St. Justina of Padua.


title: Monte Cassino

text: The abbey was sacked by the French Revolutionary Army in 1799. From the dissolution of the Italian monasteries in 1866, Monte Cassino became a national monument. During the Battle of Monte Cassino in the Italian Campaign of World War II (January–May 1944) the Abbey was heavily damaged. The German military forces had established the 161-kilometre (100-mile) Gustav Line, in order to prevent Allied troops from advancing northwards. The abbey itself however, was not initially utilised by the German troops as part of their fortifications, owing to General Kesselring's regard for the historical monument. The Gustav Line stretched from the Tyrrhenian to the Adriatic coast in the east, with Monte Cassino itself overlooking Highway 6 and blocking the path to Rome.


title: Monte Cassino

text: On 15 February 1944 the abbey was almost completely destroyed in a series of heavy, American-led air raids. General Sir Harold Alexander, with the support of numerous Allied commanders, ordered the bombing, which was conducted due to several reports from British Indian Army officers suggesting that German forces were occupying the monastery; the abbey was considered a key observation post by all those who were fighting in the field. However, during the bombing no German troops were present in the abbey. Subsequent investigations found that the only people killed in the monastery by the bombing were 230 Italian civilians seeking refuge there. Following the bombing the ruins of the monastery were occupied by German "Fallschirmjäger" paratroopers of the 1st Parachute Division, due to the ruins providing excellent defensive cover.


title: Monte Cassino

text: The Abbey was rebuilt after the war. In the early 1950s, President of the Italian Republic Luigi Einaudi gave considerable support to the rebuilding. Pope Paul VI consecrated the rebuilt Basilica on 24 October 1964. During reconstruction, the abbey library was housed at the Pontifical Abbey of St Jerome-in-the-City. Until his resignation was accepted by Pope Francis on 12 June 2013, the Territorial Abbot of Monte Cassino was Pietro Vittorelli. The Vatican daily bulletin of 23 October 2014 announced that with the appointment of his successor Donato Ogliari, the territory of the abbey outside the immediate monastery grounds had been transferred to the Diocese of Sora-Aquino-Pontecorvo, now renamed Diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo.


title: Monte Cassino

text: In December 1943, some 1,400 irreplaceable manuscript codices, chiefly patristic and historical, in addition to a vast number of documents relating to the history of the abbey and the collections of the Keats-Shelley Memorial House in Rome, had been sent to the abbey archives for safekeeping. German officers Lt. Col. Julius Schlegel (a Roman Catholic) and Capt. Maximilian Becker (a Protestant), both from the Panzer-Division Hermann Göring, had them transferred to the Vatican at the beginning of the battle.


title: Monte Cassino

text: Another account, however, from revisionist author Franz Kurowski's "The History of the Fallschirmpanzerkorps Hermann Göring: Soldiers of the Reichsmarschall", notes that 120 trucks were loaded with monastic assets and art which had been stored there for safekeeping. Robert Edsel (2006) is more to the point about German looting. The trucks were loaded and left in October 1943, and only "strenuous" protests resulted in their delivery to the Vatican, minus the 15 cases which contained the property of the Capodimonte Museum in Naples. Edsel goes on to note that these cases had been delivered to Göring in December 1943, for "his birthday".


title: Jeff Fahey

text: Jeffrey David Fahey (, born November 29, 1952) is an American film and television actor. He has portrayed Captain Frank Lapidus on the ABC series "Lost" and the title role of Deputy Marshal Winston MacBride on "The Marshal".


title: Jeff Fahey

text: Fahey was born in Olean, New York, the sixth of 13 siblings in an Irish American family. His mother, Jane, was a homemaker, and his father, Frank Fahey, worked at a clothing store. Fahey was raised in Buffalo, New York, from the age of ten and attended Father Baker's high school there. Fahey left home at the age of 17, subsequently hitchhiking to Alaska. He later backpacked through Europe, and worked on an Israeli kibbutz.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: Fahey started performing when he won a full scholarship to dance at the Joffrey Ballet School at the age of 25. He performed in theaters across the United States and on Broadway. He landed his first major role on television playing Gary Corelli on the soap opera, "One Life to Live".


title: Jeff Fahey

text: In 1985, he received his first major film role as Tyree in "Silverado". In 1986, he co-starred with Anthony Perkins in "Psycho III" as Duane Duke, a money-desperate guitarist who is hired by Norman Bates to work at the Bates Motel. That same year, Fahey guest starred on the Season 3 premiere of "Miami Vice" as gun dealer Eddie Kaye, famously destroying Detective Sonny Crockett's Ferrari Daytona.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: In 1990, Fahey starred alongside Marisa Tomei in the TV movie "Parker Kane", and alongside Clint Eastwood in the Eastwood-directed "White Hunter Black Heart". In 1992, he starred alongside Pierce Brosnan in "The Lawnmower Man". In 1995, Fahey was the lead in the Trimark Pictures adventure film "Eye of the Wolf", directed by Arnaud Sélignac, based on the book "KAZAN" by James Oliver Curwood.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: In 1995, he starred as "Winston McBride" on ABC's "The Marshal". In 1999, he played the main character in "". In 2007, he appeared in the Robert Rodriguez film "Planet Terror" and starred in "Messages" with Bruce Payne.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: Fahey appeared as daredevil Dutch the Clutch in an episode of "Psych" at the beginning of the third season of the show.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: Fahey played Frank Lapidus, the airplane and helicopter pilot of the research team sent to the island in "Lost", as a recurring character in the fourth and fifth seasons, and as a regular character in the sixth season.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: In 2013, a new production of the classic play "Twelve Angry Men" took place at the Garrick Theatre in London, running until March 2014. Fahey played the part of the last juror in the story to change his vote to not guilty. Other notable actors appearing in this production were Martin Shaw who played the part of juror number 8 (a role made famous in the 1957 film by Henry Fonda), Robert Vaughn and Nick Moran.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: In 2015, Jeff Fahey starred in History Channel's mini-series "Texas Rising" as Tom Rusk, the Secretary of War for the new Republic of Texas who fought alongside General Sam Houston.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: In 2017, Jeff Fahey joined the UK tour of Bill Kenwright's production of Gore Vidal's "The Best Man" where he plays the part of US Presidential hopeful Joseph Cantwell against political rival William Russell, played by Martin Shaw.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: In 2006 and 2007, Fahey spent time in Afghanistan assisting the newly established American University of Afghanistan, and launching a project to assist orphans in Kabul.


title: Jeff Fahey

text: Fahey's recent humanitarian work has revolved around the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, in which he has been focusing on the subject of warehousing, a practice in which the rights and mobility of refugees is restricted by a host country. Fahey's work specifically has addressed the subject of warehoused Sahrawi refugees in Algeria.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: Jorma Ludwik Kaukonen, Jr. (; ; born December 23, 1940) is an American blues, folk, and rock guitarist. Kaukonen performed with Jefferson Airplane and still performs regularly on tour with Hot Tuna, which started as a side project with bassist Jack Casady, and as of early 2019 has continued for 50 years. "Rolling Stone" magazine ranked him No. 54 on its list of 100 Greatest Guitarists. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 as a member of Jefferson Airplane.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: Jorma Kaukonen was born in Washington, D.C. to Beatrice Love (née Levine) and Jorma Ludwik Kaukonen, Sr. He had Finnish paternal grandparents and Russian Jewish ancestry on his mother's side. He is the older brother of Peter Kaukonen, who is also a musician. During his childhood, the Kaukonen family lived in Pakistan, the Philippines, and other locales as they followed his father's State Department career from assignment to assignment before returning to the place of his birth. As a teenager in Washington, he and friend Jack Casady formed a band called The Triumphs, with Kaukonen on rhythm guitar and Casady on lead.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: Kaukonen departed Washington for studies at Antioch College, where friend Ian Buchanan taught him fingerstyle guitar playing. Buchanan also introduced Kaukonen to the music of Reverend Gary Davis, whose songs have remained important parts of Kaukonen's repertoire throughout his career.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: In 1962, Kaukonen moved to the San Francisco Bay Area and enrolled at the University of Santa Clara. During this time, he gave guitar lessons at Benner Music Company in San Jose. He played as a solo act in coffee houses and accompanied Janis Joplin on acoustic guitar on the 1964 recording known as "The Typewriter Tapes" because of the obtrusive sound of Kaukonen's first wife, Margareta, typing in the background.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: In 1965, friend and former Santa Clara classmate Paul Kantner invited Kaukonen to join a band he was forming with Marty Balin. As a self-described country blues purist, Kaukonen was initially reluctant, but found his imagination excited by the arsenal of effects available to electric guitar, later remarking that he was "sucked in" by technology. With the group still looking for a name, Kaukonen suggested the name Jefferson Airplane, inspired by an eccentric friend who had given his dog the name "Blind Lemon Jefferson Airplane." When their original bass player was fired, Kaukonen recommended his friend Casady (who still lived in Washington at the time) as a replacement.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: Though never a prolific singer or songwriter during his Airplane tenure, Kaukonen contributed notable material to each of the group's albums, including the instrumental "Embryonic Journey"; arrangements of the traditional "Good Shepherd" and B.B. King's "Rock Me Baby"; "Third Week in the Chelsea," which detailed his feelings about the disintegration of the band; and "Trial by Fire"—all of which he continues to play.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: In 1969–70, Kaukonen and Casady formed Hot Tuna, a spinoff group that allowed them to play as long as they liked. An early incarnation of Hot Tuna included Airplane vocalist Marty Balin, Kaukonen's brother Peter on rhythm guitar, and Joey Covington on drums and vocals. This grouping (which came to include guitarist Paul Ziegler after the younger Kaukonen's departure) came to an end after an unsuccessful recording jaunt in Jamaica, the sessions of which have never been released. A concurrent semi-acoustic configuration (including Kaukonen, Casady on electric bass and harmonica player Will Scarlett) enabled the guitarist to show off his Piedmont-style acoustic blues fingerpicking skills. The group's self-titled first album was a September 1969 live recording of this ensemble. Amid the gradual dissolution of Jefferson Airplane from 1971 to 1973, Hot Tuna went electric in earnest, with Airplane fiddler Papa John Creach joining for the next two albums. Hot Tuna scored an FM radio hit with "Ja Da (Keep on Truckin')" from their third (and first studio) album, "Burgers". At this time, Kaukonen's songwriting began to dominate, as further evidenced by the next album, "The Phosphorescent Rat", which featured only one cover song.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: Beginning with their fifth album, "America's Choice" (1974), the addition of drummer Bob Steeler encouraged a rise in volume and a change of band personality—a rampaging, Cream-like rock with often quasimystical lyrics by Kaukonen. During this period, the trio was known for their very long live sets and instrumental jamming. Hot Tuna toured vigorously throughout the 1970s in both the United States and Europe, but with Hot Tuna's break up in 1978, the first phase of the band's career ended. Casady left to form the new wave band SVT, while Kaukonen played as a solo act at venues that had been booked for Hot Tuna's cancelled 1978 tour.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: Kaukonen began his solo career several years prior to the breakup, when he recorded the 1974 album "Quah". Produced by Jack Casady, "Quah" featured string overdubs on some tracks, as well as several tracks written and sung by Kaukonen's friend Tom Hobson. The opening track "Genesis" was featured in the films "Margot at the Wedding" (2007) and "Transcendence" (2014).


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: In 1979, Kaukonen released his second solo album, "Jorma". Later that year, he began touring with a number of bass/drum combinations (first known as "Hidden Klitz", then as "White Gland", and finally as "Vital Parts"), which initially included Hot Tuna drummer Bob Steeler. During this time, he experimented with a new image, with short, dyed hair and extensive tattoos adorning his body, back, and arms. He recorded the album "Barbeque King" which was released in 1980. Kaukonen's traditional fan base did not warm to this new, perceived to be "punk" image, and sales of the album were so disappointing that he was soon dropped from RCA Records.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: He continued playing as a solo artist throughout the 1980s at such venues as The Chestnut Cabaret in Philadelphia, The Capitol Theater in Passaic, New Jersey, and in Port Chester, New York. As in his Hot Tuna days, he played very long sets, usually beginning with an hour-long acoustic set followed by a long intermission and then a two-hour electric set, sometimes accompanied by bass and drums.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: In 1984, Kaukonen appeared on Robert Hunter's "Amagamalin Street". This was the third album released by Relix Records, a label founded by Les Kippel that specialized in bands from the San Francisco Bay Area. Relix also released "Splashdown", featuring a rare performance by Hot Tuna on WQIV, a now-defunct radio station in New York. Kippel was instrumental in reuniting Kaukonen and Casady in 1985 for a Hot Tuna theater tour. Relix Records remained Hot Tuna's record label until 2000, and also released "Classic Hot Tuna Acoustic", "Classic Hot Tuna Electric", "Live at Sweetwater", and "Live at Sweetwater Two".


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: In 1985, Kaukonen performed with the band There Goes the Neighborhood with Jaco Pastorius (bass), Doug McClean (harmonica), Whitie Melvin (percussion), Ben Prevo (guitar), and Rashied Ali (congas).


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: Having briefly reformed for a tour in 1983 that closed with a farewell show at Jonathan Swift's in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Hot Tuna again reformed in 1986.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: At a 1988 Hot Tuna performance at The Fillmore, Kaukonen surprised fellow Airplane alumnus Paul Kantner (who was sitting in with the band) with an appearance by his estranged lover Grace Slick. The success of this performance helped to pave the way for a Jefferson Airplane reunion tour and record in 1989.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: In 1993, he collaborated with ex-Grateful Dead keyboardist Tom Constanten in recording numerous arrangements of "Embryonic Journey". The resulting tracks were released as "Embryonic Journey", the album, in 1994 on the Relix label. In 1999, he played several gigs with Phil Lesh and Friends. In 2000, he appeared with jam band Widespread Panic during their summer tour. His 2002 album "Blue Country Heart" was nominated for a Grammy Award.


title: Jorma Kaukonen

text: With his wife Vanessa, Kaukonen currently owns and operates the Fur Peace Ranch, a music and guitar camp in the hills of southeast Ohio, north of Pomeroy, complete with a 32 track studio. He is currently under contract as a solo artist to Red House Records and still records and tours with Jack Casady and other friends such as Barry Mitterhoff as Hot Tuna.