title: Inside Edge (TV series)

text: Inside Edge is the story of the Mumbai Mavericks, a T20 cricket franchise playing in the Powerplay League. Set in a landscape of conflicting interests, where selfishness is almost a virtue, where money and power go hand in hand, the series traces the ups and downs in the Powerplay league as the Mumbai Mavericks face ownership problems along with accusations of match fixing.


title: Inside Edge (TV series)

text: In the next edition of the PPL, a volatile Vayu Raghavan leads the Mumbai Mavericks to face their biggest adversary yet, the Arvind Vashisht-led Haryana Hurricanes. But they must also counter colossal scandals that’ll rock the world of cricket. In the sport’s upper echelons, Zarina Malik allies with Bhaisaab, but those in the shadows threaten to destroy the very game they seek to control.


title: Inside Edge (TV series)

text: In the third season, the series moves on towards international cricket, with Vayu competing against Indian captain Rohit. Meanwhile, Dhawan swears revenge on Bhaisaab, and uses his alliance with Zarina to accomplish it.


title: Inside Edge (TV series)

text: The series has received critical acclaim for performance and storyline. The acting performance of Siddhant Chaturvedi, Vivek Oberoi, Tanuj Virvani, Richa Chadha, Sayani Gupta and Angad Bedi has been especially praised. India Today called the series "perfectly cast and technically first rate". The Indian Express praised the performance of all actors saying that "web-series packs interesting punch shouldered by some honest performances" and also stated that the shows quality hasn't been compromised just because web series is a far smaller medium than films. Firstpost positively reviewed the series saying "the characters are so seamlessly integrated into the narrative that it does not feel like a make believe world".


title: Joju George

text: Joseph George, better known as Joju George (born 22 October 1977) is an Indian actor, playback singer and producer who works mainly in Malayalam cinema. He has acted in Malayalam films and worked on Tamil projects as well. In 2015, he won the Kerala State Film Award – Special Mention for his supporting roles in "Oru Second Class Yathra" and "Lukka Chuppi". His film "Joseph" got special mention in 66th National Film Awards 2019. He is the recipient of more than 20 awards, awarded to him for either his acting or production. In 2015, he stepped into film production and produced films like "Charlie" and "Udaharanam Sujatha" before successfully launching his own production house Appu Pathu Pappu Production, which has produced several of his films.


title: Joju George

text: Joju began his career in 1995 with the film Mazhavilkoodaram as a junior artist. He gradually rose to stardom with supporting roles by the 2010s. In 2015, he won his first Kerala State Film Award (Special Mention) for his supporting roles in the movies Oru Second Class Yathra and Lukka Chuppi. His breakthrough in his career came with the leading role in the 2018 film Joseph, directed by M. Padmakumar, in which he played a retired police officer investigating a personal case while fighting demons of his own. The film received a special mention in the National Film Awards that year and Joju received his second Kerala State Film Award, this time for Best Character Actor for Joseph and the film Chola. Since then, he has done films like Porinju Mariam Jose, Halal Love Story, Jagame Thanthiram, Pada, and Aviyal. He had received praise for his work in the films Nayattu, Madhuram, and Freedom Fight for which he won Best Actor that year at the Kerala State Film Awards. By 2022, he has worked on over 100 films.


title: Joju George

text: Joju's debut in the industry was with the 1995 film Mazhavilkoodaram as a junior artist, playing a character with the name Siby Jacob. Following this, he continued playing minor roles in movies like Independence (1999), Ravanaprabhu (2001), Pattalam (2003), Black (2004), Vaasthavam (2006), etc. Gradually, by the 2010s, he started doing supporting roles in many successful movies like Ordinary (2012), Thattathin Marayathu (2012), Pullipulikalum Aattinkuttiyum (2013), 1983 (2014), RajadhiRaja (2014), Action Hero Biju (2016), Njan Marykutty (2018), etc. and gained better recognition across audiences. He received his Kerala State Film Award – Special Mention for his supporting roles in the films Oru Second Class Yathra and Lukka Chuppi in 2015. It was in the year 2018, when he starred and produced Joseph, a critical and commercial success, in which he played the titular character. This role proved to be a breakthrough for him and he received garnering praise for his work and achieved even wider recognition. Along with his film Chola released in 2019, which participated in multiple film festivals, Joju received the Kerala State Film Award for Best Character Actor and the National Film Award – Special Mention for Joseph. After this, he played the lead in the film Porinju Mariam Jose (2019), directed by Joshiy, which was commercially successful. Post this, he has starred in many movies in the Malayalam film industry. In the year 2021, he had won The Golden Sparrow Award at the 3rd Diorama International Film Festival under the category 'Best Actor'- A Competitive Section for Indian Feature Films for the film Nayattu. This made him the first Keralite to win the award.


title: Joju George

text: Apart from being an actor and a producer, Joju has also been credited as a playback singer for the songs Paadavarambathiloode from Joseph, Chandrakaladharane from Adrishyam and Kallatharam from Peace.


title: Joju George

text: In 2021, he made his debut in Tamil film industry with the movie Jagame Thanthiram, directed by Karthik Subbaraj, a Netflix release, in which he played a supporting role alongside Dhanush. His second Tamil role came with the Tamil anthology series Putham Pudhu Kaalai Vidiyaadhaa, an Amazon Original, in the segment Mouname Paarvayaai. This launched him towards a more widespread audience. For his performances in the Malayalam films Madhuram, Freedom Fight, Thuramukham and Naayattu, he shared the 2021 Kerala State Film Award for best actor. He also received The Filmfare Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for his performance in Nayattu at the 67th Filmfare Awards South 2022, making it his second Filmfare Award.


title: Joju George

text: As a producer, Joju has produced six movies which include Charlie (2015), Udaharanam Sujatha (2017), Joseph (2018), Chola (2019), Porinju Mariam Jose (2019), and Madhuram (2021). His official production house Appu Pathu Pappu was launched with Joseph and produced Chola and Porinju Mariam Jose, all with him as the lead.


title: Joju George

text: Joju was born in Mala, Trichur on 22 October 1977 to George Parecattil and Rosy George. He did his schooling from GHS, Kuzhur. He then studied at the Christ College, Irinjalakuda before commencing his career in the film industry as a junior artist in 1995 and then as an assistant director in the year 1997.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The autopsy of president John Fitzgerald Kennedy was performed at the Bethesda Naval Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland. The autopsy began at about 8p.m. EST November 22, 1963 (on the day of his assassination) and ended at about 12:30a.m. EST November 23, 1963. The choice of autopsy hospital in the Washington, D.C. area was made by his widow, Jacqueline Kennedy. She chose the Bethesda Naval Hospital because President Kennedy had been a naval officer.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: Following the assassination of President Kennedy, the Secret Service was concerned about the possibility of a larger plot and urged the new President Lyndon B. Johnson to leave Parkland Memorial Hospital for Love Field so that he could return to the White House; however, Johnson refused to do so without any proof of Kennedy's death. Johnson returned to Air Force One around 1:30p.m., and shortly thereafter, he received telephone calls from McGeorge Bundy and Walter Jenkins advising him to return to Washington, D.C. immediately. He replied that he would not leave Dallas without Jacqueline Kennedy and that she would not leave without Kennedy's body. According to "Esquire", Johnson did "not want to be remembered as an abandoner of beautiful widows."


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: Dallas County medical examiner Earl Rose was in his office at Parkland Hospital across the corridor from Trauma Room 1 when he received the word that President Kennedy had been pronounced dead. He walked across the corridor to the trauma room occupied by Jacqueline Kennedy and a priest who had been called in to administer the last rites to the president. There, Rose was met by Secret Service agent Roy Kellerman and Kennedy's personal physician George Burkley who told him that there wasn't any time to perform an autopsy because Jacqueline Kennedy would not leave Dallas without her husband's body which was to be delivered promptly to the airport. At the time of President Kennedy's assassination, the murder of any United States President was not under the jurisdiction of any federal organization. Rose objected, insisting that the Texas state law required him to perform a post-mortem examination before the body could be removed. A heated exchange ensued as he argued with Kennedy's aides. Kennedy's body was placed in a coffin and, accompanied by Jacqueline Kennedy, rolled down the corridor on a gurney. Rose was reported to have stood in a hospital doorway, backed by a local policeman, in an attempt to prevent anybody from removing the coffin. According to Robert Caro's "", the President's aides "had literally shoved [Rose] and the policeman aside to get out of the building." In an interview with "Journal of the American Medical Association", Rose stated that he had stepped aside feeling that it was unwise to exacerbate the tension.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: Kennedy's personal physician, Rear Admiral George Gregory Burkley, signed a death certificate on November 23 and noted that the cause of death was a gunshot wound to the skull. He described the fatal head wound as something "shattering in type causing a fragmentation of the skull and evulsion of three particles of the skull at time of the impact, with resulting maceration of the right hemisphere of the brain." He also noted "a second wound occurred in the posterior back at about the level of the third thoracic vertebra". A second certificate of death, signed on December 6 by Theron Ward, a Justice of the Peace in Dallas County, stated that Kennedy died "as a result of two gunshot wounds (1) near the center of the body and just above the right shoulder, and (2) 1 inch to the right center of the back of the head."


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: Even without any of this information, the original Bethesda autopsy report, included in the Warren Commission report, concluded that this bullet had passed entirely through the President's neck, from a level over the top of the scapula and lung (and the parietal pleura over the top of the lung) and through the lower throat.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark appointed a panel of four medical experts in 1968 to examine photographs and X-rays from the autopsy. The panel confirmed findings that the Warren Commission had published: the President was shot from behind and was hit by only two bullets. The summary by the panel stated: "Examination of the clothing and of the photographs and X-rays taken at [the] autopsy reveal that President Kennedy was struck by two bullets fired from above and behind him, one of which traversed the base of the neck on the right side without striking bone and the other of which entered the skull from behind and exploded its right side."


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The five-member Rockefeller Commission, which included three pathologists, a radiologist, and a wound ballistics expert, did not address the back and throat wounds, writing in its report that "[t]he investigation was limited to determining whether there was any credible evidence pointing to CIA involvement in the assassination of President Kennedy," and that "[t]he witnesses who [had] presented evidence believed sufficient to implicate the CIA in the assassination of President Kennedy placed [too] much stress upon the movements of the President's body associated with the head wound that killed the President."


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The Commission examined the Zapruder, Muchmore, and Nix films; the 1963 autopsy report, the autopsy photographs and X-rays, President Kennedy's clothing and back brace, the bullet and bullet fragments recovered, the 1968 Clark Panel report, and other materials. The five panel members came to the unanimous conclusion that President Kennedy had been hit by only two bullets, both of which were fired from the rear, including one that hit the back of the head. Three of the physicians reported that the backward and leftward motion of the President's upper body following the head shot was caused by a "violent straightening and stiffening of the entire body as a result of a seizure-like neuromuscular reaction to major damage inflicted to nerve centers in the brain."


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The report added that there was "no evidence to support the claim that President Kennedy was struck by a bullet fired from either the grassy knoll or any other position to his front, right front, or right side … No witness who urged the view [before the Rockefeller Commission] that the Zapruder film and other motion picture films proved that President Kennedy was struck by a bullet fired from his right front was shown to possess any professional or other special qualifications on the subject."


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) contained a forensic panel that undertook the unique task of reviewing original autopsy photographs and X-rays and interviewed autopsy personnel, as to their authenticity. The Panel and HSCA then went on to make some medical conclusions based on this evidence.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The HSCA's major medical-forensic conclusion was that "President Kennedy was struck by two rifle shots fired from behind him." The committee found acoustic evidence of a second shooter, but concluded that this shooter did not contribute to the president's wounds, and therefore was irrelevant to the autopsy results.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The committee's forensic pathology panel included nine members, eight of whom were chief medical examiners in major local jurisdictions in the United States. As a group, they were responsible for over 100,000 autopsies, an accumulation of experience that the committee deemed invaluable in the medical evidence evaluation — including the autopsy X-rays and photographs — to determine the cause of the President's death as well as the nature and locations of his wounds.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The committee also employed experts to authenticate the autopsy materials. Neither the Clark Panel nor the Rockefeller Commission undertook to determine if the X-rays and photographs were, in fact, authentic. Considering the numerous issues that arisen over the years with respect to autopsy X-rays and photographs, the committee believed that authentication was a crucial step in the investigation. The authentication of the autopsy X-rays and photographs was accomplished by the committee assisting its photographic evidence panel as well as forensic dentists, forensic anthropologists, and radiologists working for the committee. Two questions were put to these experts:


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: To determine if the photographs of the autopsy subject were actually of the President, forensic anthropologists compared the autopsy photographs with ante-mortem pictures of him. This comparison was done based on both metric and morphological features. The metric analysis relied on various facial measurements taken from the photographs. The morphological analysis was dealt with the consistency of physical features, particularly those that could be considered distinctive, such as the shape of the nose, patterns of facial lines (i.e. once unique characteristics were identified, posterior and anterior autopsy photographs were compared to verify that they depicted the same person).


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The anthropologists studied the autopsy X-rays together with premortem X-rays of the President. A sufficient number of unique anatomic characteristics were present in X-rays taken before and after the President's death to conclude that the autopsy X-rays were of President Kennedy. This conclusion was consistent with the findings of a forensic dentist employed by the committee. Since many of the X-rays taken during the course of the autopsy included Kennedy's teeth, it was possible to determine, using his dental records, that the X-rays were of the President.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: As soon as the forensic dentist and anthropologists had determined that the autopsy photographs and X-rays were of the President, photographic scientists and radiologists examined the original autopsy photographs, negatives, transparencies, and X-rays for signs of alteration. They concluded that there was no evidence of the photographic or radiographic materials having been altered, so the committee determined that the autopsy X-rays and photographs were a valid basis for the conclusions of the committee's forensic pathology panel.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: While the examination of the autopsy X-rays and photographs was mainly based on its analysis, the forensic pathology panel also had access to all relevant witness testimony. Furthermore, all tests and evidence analyses requested by the panel were performed. It was only after considering all of this evidence that the panel reached its conclusions.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The pathology panel concluded that President Kennedy was struck by only two bullets, each of which had been shot from behind. The panel also concluded that the President was struck by "one bullet that entered in the upper right of the back and exited from the front of [his] throat, and one bullet that entered in the right rear of [his] head near the cowlick area and exited from the right side of the head, toward the front" saying that "this second bullet caused a massive wound to the President's head upon exit." The panel concluded that there was no medical evidence that the President was struck by a bullet entering the front of the head; and the possibility of such a bullet to have struck him and yet leave no physical evidence was extremely remote.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: Because this conclusion appeared to be inconsistent with the backward motion of the President's head in the Zapruder film, the committee consulted a wound ballistics expert to determine what relationship, if any, exists between the direction from which a bullet strikes the head and the subsequent head movement. The expert concluded that nerve damage caused by a bullet entering the President's head could have caused his back muscles to tighten which, in turn, could have forced his head to move toward the rear. He demonstrated the phenomenon in a filmed experiment involving the shootings of goats. Therefore, the committee determined that the rearward movement of the President's head would not have been fundamentally inconsistent with a bullet striking from the rear.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The HSCA also voiced certain criticisms of the original Bethesda autopsy and handling of evidence from it. These included:


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The Assassination Records Review Board (ARRB) was created by the President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992, which mandated the gathering and opening of all US government records related to the assassination. The ARRB began work in 1994 and produced a final report in 1998. The Board partially credited public concern about conclusions in the 1991 Oliver Stone movie "JFK" for passage of the legislation that developed the ARRB. The Board noted that the movie had "popularized a version of President Kennedy's assassination that featured U.S. government agents from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the military as conspirators."


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The Review Board's charter was simply to locate and declassify assassination records, and to ensure they were placed in the new "JFK Records Collection" in the National Archives, where they would be freely available to the public. Although Congress did not want the ARRB to reinvestigate the assassination of President Kennedy, or to draw conclusions about the assassination, the staff did hope to make a contribution to future 'clarification' of the medical evidence in the assassination by conducting these neutral, non-adversarial, fact-finding depositions. All of our deposition transcripts, as well as our written reports of numerous interviews we conducted with medical witnesses, are now a part of that same collection of records open to the public. Because of the Review Board's strictly neutral role in this process, all of these materials were placed in the JFK Collection without comment.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: The ARRB sought additional witnesses in an attempt to compile a more complete record of Kennedy's autopsy. In July 1998, a staff report released by the ARRB emphasized shortcomings in the original autopsy. The ARRB wrote, "One of the many tragedies of the assassination of President Kennedy has been the incompleteness of the autopsy record and the suspicion caused by the shroud of secrecy that has surrounded the records that do exist."


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: A staff report for the Assassinations Records Review Board contended that brain photographs in the Kennedy records are not of Kennedy's brain and show much less damage than Kennedy sustained. Boswell refuted these allegations. The Board also found that, conflicting with the photographic images showing no such defect, a number of witnesses, including at both the Autopsy and Parkland hospital, saw a large wound in the back of the president's head. The Board and board member, Jeremy Gunn, have also stressed the problems with witness testimony, asking people to weigh all of the evidence, with due concern for human error, rather than take single statements as "proof" for one theory or another.


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: List of personnel present at various times during the autopsy, with official function, taken from the Sibert-O'Neill report list, the HSCA list and attorney Vincent Bugliosi, author of "".


title: John F. Kennedy autopsy

text: After the conclusion of the autopsy, the following personnel from Gawler's Funeral Home in Washington, D.C. entered the autopsy room to prepare the President's body for viewing and burial, which required 3 to 4 hours:


title: Pixie Lott

text: Victoria Louise Lott (born 12 January 1991), better known by her stage name Pixie Lott, is an English singer and songwriter. Her debut album, "Turn It Up", released in September 2009, reached number six on the UK Albums Chart and sold over 1.5 million copies. It also spawned six consecutive top twenty singles on the UK Singles Chart, including two number-one singles, "Mama Do (Uh Oh, Uh Oh)" and "Boys and Girls". Her second album, "Young Foolish Happy" (2011), spawned the number-one hit "All About Tonight", as well as the top ten singles "What Do You Take Me For?" and "Kiss the Stars". Lott's self-titled third studio album, released in 2014, had the lead single "Nasty", which peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Chart, making it her sixth Top 10 single in the United Kingdom.


title: Pixie Lott

text: Lott has also occasionally acted in film, television and stage, including starring in the UK production of the Richard Greenberg play "Breakfast at Tiffany's" in 2016.


title: Pixie Lott

text: Victoria Louise Lott was born in the Bromley area of London on 12 January 1991, the third child of Beverley (née Martin) and stockbroker Stephen Lott. The family moved around the London suburbs, initially living in Petts Wood and then Bickley. Lott was born several weeks premature, and her mother gave her the nickname Pixie because she was "such a tiny, cute baby who looked like a fairy". She started singing in her church school, and attended the Italia Conti Associates Saturday school in Chislehurst when she was five years old. She was awarded a scholarship and went on to attend its main school, the Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts, at the age of 11. At the age of 13, Lott moved with her family to Brentwood in Essex where she attended Brentwood County High School. She appeared in a West End production of "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang" at the London Palladium and as Louisa von Trapp in BBC One's "Celebrate the Sound of Music" in 2005, aged 14. Despite missing school time because she was recording her album, Lott says she received top marks in her GCSEs.


title: Pixie Lott

text: In 2006, at the age of 15, Lott sang for L. A. Reid after he heard a few of her demos. He then signed her to the Island Def Jam Music Group. After a change of managers, a bidding war ensued and Lott parted ways with the Island Def Jam Music Group, to sign with Mercury Records in the UK and to Interscope Records in the U.S. Lott signed a publishing deal, as a songwriter, with Sony/ATV Music Publishing in December 2007, while writing and recording tracks for "Turn It Up". Lott wrote a song for Alexandra Burke's debut album, "Overcome" (2009), titled "You Broke My Heart" and a song for Girls Can't Catch titled "Happy Alone". She also wrote two tracks on Lisa Lois's (the Dutch X Factor winner) debut album "Smoke" (2009), titled "No Good For Me" and "Promises, Promises". She also wrote 'We Own the Night' with Toby Gad for Selena Gomez and ended up featuring on the track too for Gomez' album "When the Sun Goes Down". Lott played her first festival concert in the Big Top at the Isle of Wight Festival 2009, during her first full British tour, where she supported The Saturdays on The Work Tour.


title: Pixie Lott

text: Lott's debut single, "Mama Do", was released on 8 June 2009. It spent one week at number one, 11 weeks within the top 40 and 18 weeks within the top 75. The single also had considerable success outside the UK, reaching the top 40 in 11 other countries, including top ten peaks of number eight in Denmark and number 10 in France. The single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry on 28 August 2009 after selling over 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom.


title: Pixie Lott

text: On 15 August 2009, Lott was featured alongside Hoobastank, The All-American Rejects, Kasabian, Boys Like Girls, Estranged and Raygun as one of the live acts at Asia's very first MTV World Stage Live in Malaysia concert. Lott's second lead single "Boys and Girls" was released on 6 September 2009 and topped the UK Singles Chart on 13 September. On 14 September, Lott's debut album, "Turn It Up" was released. This followed an intensive promotional tour where Lott visited the Asia-Pacific region to promote the album and 'Mama Do'. The album debuted at number six on the UK Album Chart, and sold over 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. In August 2010, it was certified Double-Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry. Lott's third single from the album, "Cry Me Out" was released on 23 November 2009. It was during this time that Lott was chosen as the face of Nokia's "Illuvial Pink Collection" mobile phone rang and Casio's range of Baby G watches.


title: Pixie Lott

text: The fourth single, "Gravity", was released in the UK on 8 March 2010. Lott won two MTV EMA Awards at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2009 ceremony, Best UK & Ireland Act and Best Push Artist (best break through artist). Lott was nominated for British Breakthrough Act, British Female Solo Artist and British Single at the 2010 BRIT Awards. Lott also served as the opening act of Rihanna's Last Girl on Earth Tour in the UK 7–26 May 2010. In April 2010, Lipsy launched a fashion range co-designed by Lott. The first Pixie Collection comprised two ranges: Pixie Festival and Pixie Party. Lott's second collection for Lipsy was launched in September 2010 and consisted of a new range, Pixie Rocks, and an updated Pixie Party collection. In July 2010, Lott appeared as a guest judge for the auditions for the seventh series of "The X Factor" in Cardiff, covering for Dannii Minogue, who was on maternity leave. Lott also performed on the main stage at the V Festival in August 2010. The fifth single from Lott's album, the title song "Turn It Up", was released on 7 June 2010. Lott recorded a song for the film "Street Dance 3D", "Live For The Moment".


title: Pixie Lott

text: Lott released "Boys and Girls" as her debut US single on 24 August 2010. The release coincided with the TV premiere of her film debut, "". In January 2010, Lott was named one of 2010's "Faces to Watch" by US magazine, "Billboard". Lott was cast as Judy, Fred Figglehorn's crush, in the film "", starring alongside Lucas Cruikshank. The comedy was released on America's Nickelodeon channel on 18 September 2010. "Turn It Up" was to be released in the US in 2011, but this never materialised. It was, however, rereleased in the UK. "The Way The World Works", from Lott's debut record was used in the U.S.-produced medical drama "Private Practice".


title: Pixie Lott

text: For the new repackaged version of "Turn It Up", Lott recorded duets with Jason Derulo and Joe Jonas, though the latter failed to make the final track listing for the album. This edition included her single, "Broken Arrow".


title: Pixie Lott

text: In July 2011, Lott signed a deal with Select Model Management. The company is also responsible for signing Cher Lloyd, Agyness Deyn and David Gandy.


title: Pixie Lott

text: Lott's second album, "Young Foolish Happy" was released on 14 November 2011, it includes collaborations with Stevie Wonder and John Legend. "Young Foolish Happy" debuted at number eighteen on the UK Albums Chart, selling 18,503 copies in its opening week. The following week, it dropped twenty-four places to number forty-two. On 10 February 2012, it was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting shipments in excess of 100,000 within the UK. The album also entered the Irish Albums Chart at number thirty-three.


title: Pixie Lott

text: "All About Tonight" was released on 2 September 2011 as the album's lead single. Lott premiered the song on BBC Radio 1's "The Chris Moyles Show" on 11 July 2011. It debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart with first-week sales of 88,893 copies (the highest of Lott's career), giving Lott her third UK number one. It also reached number nine on the Irish Singles Chart, her second top ten hit in that country. The second single "What Do You Take Me For?", featuring rapper Pusha T, was released on 4 November 2011, while the music video premiered on 6 October. It debuted at number ten on the UK Singles Chart, selling 34,335 copies.


title: Pixie Lott

text: In July 2012 Lott performed "Kiss the Stars" and "Use Somebody" at the Men's Gymnastics Finals in the 2012 Summer Olympics. Lott also performed at V Festival (her second performance after appearing in 2010), the "Access All Eirias" festival in North Wales, She also performed 'Kiss The Stars' on "Dancing on Ice" in 2012 and the MTV "Titanic Sounds" festival in Belfast.


title: Pixie Lott

text: In June 2012, Lott stated she had started recording her third album citing Motown as inspiration for the album: "I'm going to be heading to New York to work with the guys who did the original Motown records in the '60s to make a new album soon." In June 2013, Lott tweeted that she was recording the first single from her third album with Jack Splash in Miami. In September, Splash confirmed that the single had been mixed. On 17 July 2013, Lott tweeted that she was on her way to a photo shoot for her new single and her third studio album.


title: Pixie Lott

text: On 1 November 2013, Lott trended on Twitter after announcing that her new music was "coming soon", and posting a cover of Avicii's "Wake Me Up" on YouTube. Michael Einziger, one of the writers of "Wake Me Up", later took to Twitter to praise Lott's interpretation. On 8 November, Lott's cover of "Royals" by New Zealand singer-songwriter Lorde was uploaded. "Royals" was chosen because Lorde had previously covered Lott's number one single, "Mama Do". After watching the cover, Lorde likened Lott's voice to "baby angels and peanut butter chocolate".


title: Pixie Lott

text: On 2 December 2013, Lott announced during a Google Hangout with Dan Wootton of "The Sun" that the lead single from her third album, "Nasty", would premiere in January. She also revealed the artwork for the album, titled "Pixie Lott". Lott was recently spotted filming the accompanying music video for "Nasty", which was originally recorded by Christina Aguilera as a duet with Cee Lo Green for the 2010 film "Burlesque" but was never released. In March 2014, Lott took part in recording England's 2014 World Cup song. She collaborated with the likes of fellow pop stars Melanie C, Eliza Doolittle, Emma Bunton, Conor Maynard, Kimberley Walsh and Katy B, on "Greatest Day", a track originally performed by British band, Take That. The track was produced by Gary Barlow and recorded at Sarm Studios in London. The track also featured past footballers such as Gary Lineker, Michael Owen, Geoff Hurst, David Seaman, Peter Shilton, Glenn Hoddle and Dion Dublin on backing vocals.


title: Pixie Lott

text: "Nasty" (produced by Jack Splash) was released on 7 March 2014 and debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number nine, selling 30,812 copies in its first week. It became Lott's sixth Top 10 single and tenth consecutive Top 20 single. On 19 June 2014, Lott appeared on BBC Radio 1's Innuendo Bingo. Her self-titled third studio album was released on 1 August 2014 and was preceded by its second single, "Lay Me Down" released on 27 July 2014. Promotional single, "Heart Cry" has been also released. "Pixie Lott" peaked at number 15 on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Pixie Lott

text: In August 2014, Lott was confirmed as one of the fifteen contestants, participating on the twelfth series of "Strictly Come Dancing". On the launch show, it was announced that she will be partnered up with Australian professional dancer Trent Whiddon. Despite topping the leaderboard four times and having the highest average of the series, Lott & Whiddon were eliminated during the quarter-finals on Week 11, after losing the dance-off to Blue singer Simon Webbe and his partner, Kristina Rihanoff. It was announced that Lott would release her first greatest hits album on 24 November 2014, called "". The album was preceded by the single "Caravan of Love", a cover of the Isley-Jasper-Isley's 1985 hit. The compilation also includes all her singles, with the exception of "What Do You Take Me For?" and "Lay Me Down". Lott then starred in "Puttin’ On The Ritz" UK Tour, for the dates in Wimbledon and Newcastle. She was joined on stage by her dance partner, Trent Whiddon, in 2015.


title: Pixie Lott

text: From 30 June to 17 September 2016, Lott starred as Holly Golightly in a limited 12-week season of "Breakfast at Tiffany’s" at the Theatre Royal Haymarket in London's West End. On 15 November 2016, it was announced Lott will be a coach on "The Voice Kids UK" alongside will.i.am & Danny Jones. The show began in June 2017 on ITV. On 31 March 2017 Lott collaborated with British DJ Anton Powers on their single "Baby". Lott released her new single "Won't Forget You" featuring Stylo G on 29 September 2017.


title: Pixie Lott

text: Lott has cited Celine Dion, Christina Aguilera, Mariah Carey and Whitney Houston as major influences on her style of singing. For her second album, Lott told Digital Spy that the sound was "a little more soulful. That's the kind of thing that I'm into. That influence is stronger on this album."


title: Pixie Lott

text: Lott has been in a relationship with fashion model Oliver Cheshire since 2010. They got engaged in November 2016. They were married at Ely Cathedral on 6 June 2022, following a delay due to COVID-19.


title: Pixie Lott

text: On "FHM" 100 Sexiest Women list, Lott was voted No. 45 in 2010, No. 31 in 2011, No. 12 in 2012, and No. 7 in 2013.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: "Sultans of Swing" is a song by British rock band Dire Straits, written by lead vocalist Mark Knopfler. The demo of the song was recorded at Pathway Studios, North London, in July 1977 and quickly acquired a following after it was put in rotation on BBC Radio London. Its popularity soon reached record executives, and Dire Straits were offered a contract with Phonogram Records. The song was then re-recorded in February 1978 at Basing Street Studios for the band's eponymous debut album.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: The B-side, "Eastbound Train", is a live track that otherwise only appears on the "Live at the Hope & Anchor Front Row Festival" album. The single would go on to reach the top 5 in Canada, South Africa, and the United States as well as the top 10 in Australia, Ireland, and the United Kingdom.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: The song has since largely remained a staple of classic rock radio, and is one of the band's most recognizable songs.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: "Sultans of Swing" was composed by Mark Knopfler on a National Steel guitar in open tuning. He thought the song was "dull" until he bought his first Stratocaster in 1977: "It just came alive as soon as I played it on that '61 Strat ... the new chord changes just presented themselves and fell into place."


title: Sultans of Swing

text: The lyrics were inspired by a performance of a jazz band playing in the corner of an almost empty pub in Deptford, South London. At the end of their performance, the lead singer announced their name, the Sultans of Swing; Knopfler found the contrast between the group's dowdy appearance and surroundings and their grandiose name amusing.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: The song is set in common time, with a tempo of 149 beats per minute. It is in the key of D minor with Knopfler's vocal range spanning G to D. It uses a chord progression of Dm–C–B–A for the verses, and F–C–B for the choruses. The riff uses triads, particularly second inversions. The song employs the Andalusian cadence or diatonic phrygian tetrachord. All the chords are compatible with a D natural minor scale, except for the A major triad, which suggests a D harmonic minor scale. Knopfler used similar triads on "Lady Writer""."


title: Sultans of Swing

text: Shortly after Dire Straits formed in 1977, they recorded a five-song demo tape at Pathway Studios, including "Sultans of Swing". They took the tape to the influential DJ Charlie Gillett, presenter of "Honky Tonk" on BBC Radio London, hoping for advice. Gillett liked the music and put "Sultans of Swing" on his rotation. Two months later, Dire Straits signed a recording contract with Phonogram Records.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: "Sultans of Swing" was re-recorded in February 1978 at Basing Street Studios for the debut album "Dire Straits," produced by Muff Winwood. Knopfler used the guitar technique of finger picking on the recording.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: Ken Tucker of "Rolling Stone" singled out "Sultans of Swing" as a highlight of the album for its "inescapable hook" and compared Knopfler's vocal stylings to those of Bob Dylan. "Cash Box" said that "the phrasing of the vocals is reminiscent of Lou Reed" and that "the arrangement of moderate beat and excellent guitar work are exceptionally fluid and engaging." "The New Rolling Stone Album Guide" called the song "an insinuating bit of bar-band mythmaking" whose lyrics "paint a vivid picture of an overlooked and underappreciated pub combo". The "Spokane Chronicle"<nowiki>'s</nowiki> Jim Kershner wrote that "Sultans of Swing" is "remarkable, both for its lyrics that made fun of hip young Londoners and the phenomenal guitar sound of Knopfler", which "sounded like no other guitar on radio". Jon Marlowe of "The Palm Beach Post" called it "an infectious, sounds-damn-good-on-the-car-radio ode to every bar band who has ever done four sets a night, seven nights a week". "Classic Rock" critic Paul Rees rated the live version on "" to be Dire Straits' greatest song.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: "Record Mirror" named "Sultans of Swing" the tenth-best song of 1978. In 1992, "Life" named it one of the top five songs of 1979. In 1993, Paul Williams included it in his book "Rock and Roll: The 100 Best Singles". The song is on The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll list, Dire Straits' only appearance. In 2006, "Mojo" included it in a list of the 50 best British songs. "Guitar World" ranked its guitar solo at the 22nd greatest, and "Rolling Stone" named it the 32nd greatest guitar song.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: The song was originally released in May 1978, but it did not chart at the time. Following its re-issue in January 1979, the song entered the American music pop chart. Unusually, the success of this single release came more than six months after the relatively unheralded release of the band's debut album in October 1978. BBC Radio was initially unwilling to play the song due to its high lyrical content but after it became a U.S. hit, their line softened. The song reached the top 10 in both the UK and the U.S., reaching No. 8 on the UK Singles Chart and No. 4 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and helped drive sales of the album, which also became a hit.


title: Sultans of Swing

text: "Sultans of Swing" was re-issued again as a single in November 1988, a month after it appeared on the band's greatest hits album "Money for Nothing," when it peaked at No. 62. It was also included on "" and "."


title: Sultans of Swing

text: Knopfler has improvised and expanded the solo during live performances. The coda of the live recording on the 1984 album "" stretches the song to nearly 11 minutes. Another live version of the song came at the 1988 Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert in London when Eric Clapton teamed up with the band to play the song, providing rhythm guitar.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: The gluteal muscles, often called glutes are a group of three muscles which make up the gluteal region commonly known as the buttocks: the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius and gluteus minimus. The three muscles originate from the ilium and sacrum and insert on the femur. The functions of the muscles include extension, abduction, external rotation, and internal rotation of the hip joint.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: The gluteus maximus is the largest and most superficial of the three gluteal muscles. It makes up a large part of the shape and appearance of the hips. It is a narrow and thick fleshy mass of a quadrilateral shape, and forms the prominence of the buttocks. The gluteus medius is a broad, thick, radiating muscle, situated on the outer surface of the pelvis. It lies profound to the gluteus maximus and its posterior third is covered by the gluteus maximus, its anterior two-thirds by the gluteal aponeurosis, which separates it from the superficial fascia and skin. The gluteus minimus is the smallest of the three gluteal muscles and is situated immediately beneath the gluteus medius.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: The bulk of the gluteal muscle mass contributes only partially to shape of the buttocks. The other major contributing factor is that of the panniculus adiposus of the buttocks, which is very well developed in this area, and gives the buttock its characteristic rounded shape. The gluteal muscle bulk and tone can be improved with exercise. However, it is predominantly the disposition of the overlying panniculus adiposus which may cause sagging in this region of the body. Exercise in general (not only of the gluteal muscles but of the body in general) which can contribute to fat loss can lead to reduction of mass in subcutaneal fat storage locations on the body which includes the panniculus, so for leaner and more active individuals, the glutes will more predominantly contribute to the shape than someone less active with a fattier composition. The degree of body fat stored in various locations such as the panniculus is dictated by genetic and hormonal profiles.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: The gluteus maximus arises from the posterior gluteal line of the inner upper ilium, and the rough portion of bone including the crest, immediately above and behind it; from the posterior surface of the lower part of the sacrum and the side of the coccyx; from the aponeurosis of the erector spinae (lumbodorsal fascia), the sacrotuberous ligament, and the fascia covering the gluteus medius. The fibers are directed obliquely downward and lateralward; the muscle has two insertions:


title: Gluteal muscles

text: Those forming the upper and larger portion of the muscle, together with the superficial fibers of the lower portion, end in a thick tendinous lamina, which passes across the greater trochanter, and inserts into the iliotibial band of the fascia lata; and the deeper fibers of the lower portion of the muscle are inserted into the gluteal tuberosity between the vastus lateralis and adductor magnus. Its action is to extend and to laterally rotate the hip, and also to extend the trunk.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: The gluteus medius muscle originates on the outer surface of the ilium between the iliac crest and the posterior gluteal line above, and the anterior gluteal line below; the gluteus medius also originates from the gluteal aponeurosis that covers its outer surface. The fibers of the muscle converge into a strong flattened tendon that inserts on the lateral surface of the greater trochanter. More specifically, the muscle's tendon inserts into an oblique ridge that runs downward and forward on the lateral surface of the greater trochanter.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: The gluteus minimus is fan-shaped, arising from the outer surface of the ilium, between the anterior and inferior gluteal lines, and behind, from the margin of the greater sciatic notch. The fibers converge to the deep surface of a radiated aponeurosis, and this ends in a tendon which is inserted into an impression on the anterior border of the greater trochanter, and gives an expansion to the capsule of the hip joint.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: The functions of muscles includes extension, abduction and internal as well as external rotation of the hip joint. The gluteus maximus also supports the extended knee through the iliotibial tract.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: Sitting for long periods can lead to the gluteal muscles atrophying through constant pressure and disuse. This may be associated with (although not necessarily the cause of) lower back pain, difficulty with some movements that naturally require the gluteal muscles, such as rising from the seated position, and climbing stairs.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: Any exercise that works and/or stretches the buttocks is suitable, for example lunges, hip thrusts, climbing stairs, fencing, bicycling, rowing, squats, arabesque, aerobics, and various specific exercises for the bottom. Weight training exercises which are known to significantly strengthen the gluteal muscles include the squat, deadlift, leg press, any other movements involving external hip rotation and hip extension.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: Well formed gluteal muscles have long been associated with health, strength and sexual attractiveness. In terms of health, they act as a sign of 'being in shape'. This usually means a person is also eating, sleeping and exercising properly, all of which are beneficial to health. In terms of strength, the glutes are among the largest and most powerful muscles in the body. If they are well developed then a person is more likely to be strong. They are also key contributors to movement ranges of fundamental importance, such as bending and straightening the legs, and bending, straightening and twisting at the waist. These movement ranges are key in a person's ability to move in a powerful, dynamic fashion and they are powered to a significant extent by the glutes. If they are well formed then a person is much more likely to be able to move efficiently. In terms of sexual attractiveness, the glute specialist Bret Contreras considers in physio-anthropological terms that this is based upon a sub-conscious assessment of the relationship between a physical capability to survive and prosper, and the ability to raise a family.


title: Gluteal muscles

text: 'It stands to reason that both males and females were attracted to nice glutes, instinctively making the connection to big, strong glutes and survival, reproduction, hunting and protection.'


title: Gluteal muscles

text: Prominent gluteal muscles are often used in art in order to imply an ability to move in a powerful, dynamic fashion; virility and fertility; and to meet aesthetic considerations in these regards.


title: Thunder

text: Thunder is the sound caused by lightning. Depending upon the distance from and nature of the lightning, it can range from a long, low rumble to a sudden, loud crack. The sudden increase in temperature and hence pressure caused by the lightning produces rapid expansion of the air in the path of a lightning bolt. In turn, this expansion of air creates a sonic shock wave, often referred to as a "thunderclap" or "peal of thunder". The scientific study of thunder is known as "brontology" and the irrational fear (phobia) of thunder is called "brontophobia".


title: Thunder

text: The "d" in Modern English "thunder" (from earlier Old English "þunor") is epenthetic, and is now found as well in Modern Dutch "donder" (cf. Middle Dutch "donre"; also Old Norse "þorr", Old Frisian "þuner", Old High German "donar", all ultimately descended from Proto-Germanic *"þunraz"). In Latin the term was "tonare" "to thunder". The name of the Nordic god Thor comes from the Old Norse word for thunder.


title: Thunder

text: The cause of thunder has been the subject of centuries of speculation and scientific inquiry. Early thinking was that it was made by deities, but the ancient Greek philosophers attributed it to natural causes, such as wind striking clouds (Anaximander, Aristotle) and movement of air within clouds (Democritus). The Roman philosopher Lucretius held it was from the sound of hail colliding within clouds.


title: Thunder

text: In the mid 19th century, the accepted theory was that lightning produced a vacuum and that the collapse of that vacuum produced what is known as thunder.


title: Thunder

text: In the 20th century a consensus evolved that thunder must begin with a shock wave in the air due to the sudden thermal expansion of the plasma in the lightning channel. The temperature inside the lightning channel, measured by spectral analysis, varies during its 50 μs existence, rising sharply from an initial temperature of about 20,000 K to about 30,000 K, then dropping away gradually to about 10,000 K. The average is about . This heating causes a rapid outward expansion, impacting the surrounding cooler air at a speed faster than sound would otherwise travel. The resultant outward-moving pulse is a shock wave,


title: Thunder

text: similar in principle to the shock wave formed by an explosion, or at the front of a supersonic aircraft. In close proximity to the source, the sound pressure level of thunder is usually 165 to 180 dB, but can exceed 200 dB in some cases.


title: Thunder

text: Experimental studies of simulated lightning have produced results largely consistent with this model, though there is continued debate about the precise physical mechanisms of the process. Other causes have also been proposed, relying on electrodynamic effects of the enormous current acting on the plasma in the bolt of lightning.


title: Thunder

text: The shock wave in thunder is sufficient to cause property damage and injury, such as internal contusion, to individuals nearby. Thunder can rupture the eardrums of people nearby, leading to permanently impaired hearing. Even if not, it can lead to temporary deafness.


title: Thunder

text: Vavrek et al. (n.d.) reported that the sounds of thunder fall into categories based on loudness, duration, and pitch. "Claps" are loud sounds lasting 0.2 to 2 seconds and containing higher pitches. "Peals" are sounds changing in loudness and pitch. "Rolls" are irregular mixtures of loudness and pitches. "Rumbles" are less loud, last for longer (up to more than 30 seconds), and of low pitch.


title: Thunder

text: Inversion thunder results when lightning strikes between cloud and ground occur during a temperature inversion; the resulting thunder sounds have significantly greater acoustic energy than from the same distance in a non-inversion condition. In an inversion, the air near the ground is cooler than the higher air; inversions often occur when warm moist air passes above a cold front. Within a temperature inversion, the sound energy is prevented from dispersing vertically as it would in a non-inversion and is thus concentrated in the near-ground layer.


title: Thunder

text: Cloud-to-ground lightning (CG) typically consists of two or more return strokes, from ground to cloud. Later return strokes have greater acoustic energy than the first.


title: Thunder

text: The most noticeable aspect of lightning and thunder is that the lightning is seen before the thunder is heard. This is a consequence of the speed of light being much greater than the speed of sound. The speed of sound in dry air is approximately or at . This translates to ; saying "one thousand and one... one thousand and two..." is a useful method of counting the seconds from the perception of a given lightning flash to the perception of its thunder (which can be used to gauge the proximity of lightning for the sake of safety).


title: Thunder

text: A very bright flash of lightning and an almost simultaneous sharp "crack" of thunder, a "thundercrack", therefore indicates that the lightning strike was very near.


title: Thunder

text: Close-in lightning has been described first as a clicking or cloth-tearing sound, then a cannon shot sound or loud crack/snap, followed by continuous rumbling. The early sounds are from the leader parts of lightning, then the near parts of the return stroke, then the distant parts of the return stroke.


title: University of Mumbai

text: The University of Mumbai is one of the largest universities in the world. , the university had 711 affiliated colleges. Ratan Tata is the appointed head of the advisory council.


title: University of Mumbai

text: In accordance with "Wood's despatch", drafted by Sir Charles Wood in 1854, the University of Bombay was established in 1857 after the presentation of a petition from the Bombay Association to the British colonial government in India. The University of Mumbai was modelled on similar universities in the United Kingdom, specifically the University of London.


title: University of Mumbai

text: The first departments established were the Faculty of Arts at Elphinstone College in 1835 and the Faculty of Medicine at Grant Medical College in 1845. Both colleges existed before the university was founded and surrendered their degree-granting privileges to the university. The first degrees awarded in 1862 were Bachelor of Arts and Licentiate in Medicine. Medical schools such as Sindh Medical School in Hyderabad, Sindh were affiliated with the university as well.


title: University of Mumbai

text: Cornelia Sorabji, who later studied law at Somerville College becoming Oxford's first female law student and India's first female advocate, was the university's first female graduate in 1888.


title: University of Mumbai

text: Until 1904, the university only conducted examinations, awarded affiliations to colleges, developed curricula, and produced guidelines for colleges developing curricula. Teaching departments, research disciplines, and post-graduate courses were introduced from 1904, and several additional departments were established. After India achieved independence in 1947, the functions and powers of the university were reorganized under The Bombay University Act of 1953. The name of the university was changed from University of Bombay to University of Mumbai in 1996.


title: University of Mumbai

text: In 1949, student enrolment was 42,272 with 80 affiliated colleges. By 1975, these numbers had grown to 156,190 and 114 respectively.


title: University of Mumbai

text: Examination processes were made more efficient by the introduction of online delivery of question papers for examinations, and assessment of answer books by scanning at remote examination centres. The academic depository of the university was started in collaboration with CDSL in 2015. The university is the first university in the country to start an academic depository.


title: University of Mumbai

text: One of Mumbai's landmarks, the Rajabai Clock Tower, was completed in the 1870s and houses the University of Mumbai's library. Sir George Gilbert Scott modeled the Rajabai Clock Tower on the clock tower of the Palace of Westminster in London. Local businessman Premchand Roychand contributed to the cost of construction and named the tower in memory of his mother, Rajabai. The tower is tall and has five storeys. At a height of from the ground, there are eight statues representing the Indian castes. The tower clock is reported to have played 16 tunes including "Rule Britannia", "God Save the Queen", "Home! Sweet Home!" and "A Handel Symphony". On the initiative of the then Vice-Chancellor, Dr. Rajan Welukar, the first phase of restoration of Rajabai Clock Tower started in 2013 and was completed in May 2015. Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) gave a Rs 4 crore grant for this phase of the restoration project.


title: University of Mumbai

text: Its jurisdiction extends over 7 districts -Mumbai City district, Mumbai Suburban district, Palghar,Raigad,Ratnagiri,Sindhudurg,Thane .


title: University of Mumbai

text: Several departments of the University of Mumbai are a part of vocational institutions and are not located on the four Mumbai campuses. These include the departments of Medicine and Medical Research located in many prominent hospitals in Mumbai, such as the Tata Memorial Hospital, Bombay Hospital and G.S. Medical College and King Edward Memorial Hospital. The Department of Medicine at Tata Memorial Hospital is now affiliated to the Homi Bhabha National Institute.


title: University of Mumbai

text: Institute of Chemical Technology (then known as the University Department of Chemical Technology, UDCT), was originally a department of MU, which later gained the status of a university.


title: University of Mumbai

text: Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute, then known as the Victorial Jubilee Technical Institute, founded in 1887, was the first Engineering Institute of the University of Mumbai. Thadomal Shahani Engineering College was the first Engineering college in the University of Mumbai to start courses in Computer Engineering, Information Technology, Electronics Engineering and Biomedical Engineering.


title: University of Mumbai

text: Jawaharlal Nehru Library (JNL) is the central library, located on the campus at Kalina. As of May 2019, it desperately needs restoration.


title: University of Mumbai

text: Internationally, the University of Mumbai ranked 801–1000 by the "QS World University Rankings" in 2020, 177 in Asia in 2020 and 89 among BRICS nations in 2019.


title: University of Mumbai

text: The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) ranked it 65th among universities in India in 2020.


title: University of Mumbai

text: Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) have been signed with University of Amsterdam, University of Bath, Liverpool Hope University, Toronto Metropolitan University, IESEG School of Management, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin University, Nankai University in China and Edith Cowan University in Australia.


title: History of the British Raj

text: After the first war for Indian independence, the British Government took over the administration to establish the British Raj.


title: History of the British Raj

text: The British Raj was the period of British rule on the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The system of governance was instituted in 1858 when the rule of the East India Company was transferred to The Crown in the person of Queen Victoria.


title: History of the British Raj

text: It lasted until 1947, when the British provinces of India were partitioned into two sovereign dominion states: the "Dominion of India" and the "Dominion of Pakistan", leaving the princely states to choose between them. Most of the princely states decided to join either Dominion of India or Dominion of Pakistan, except the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It was only at the last moment that Jammu and Kashmir agreed to sign the "Instrument of Accession" with India. The two new dominions later became the Republic of India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (the eastern half of which, still later, became the People's Republic of Bangladesh). The province of Burma in the eastern region of the Indian Empire had been made a separate colony in 1937 and became independent in 1948.


title: History of the British Raj

text: The East India Company was an English and later British joint-stock company. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with Mughal India and the East Indies, and later with Qing China. The company ended up seizing control of large parts of the Indian subcontinent, colonised parts of Southeast Asia, and colonised Hong Kong after a war with Qing China.


title: History of the British Raj

text: In the later half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain. In fact, many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological change then rampant in Great Britain, India too saw rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India and telegraph links equally rapidly established in order that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as Bombay, for subsequent export to England. Likewise, finished goods from England were transported back just as efficiently, for sale in the rising (burgeoning) Indian markets. However, unlike Britain itself, where the market risks for the infrastructure development were borne by private investors, in India, it was the taxpayers—primarily farmers and farm-labourers—who endured the risks, which, in the end, amounted to £50 million. In spite of these costs, very little skilled employment was created for Indians. By 1920, with a history of 60 years of its construction, only ten per cent of the "superior posts" in the railways were held by Indians.


title: History of the British Raj

text: The rush of technology was also changing the agricultural economy in India: by the last decade of the 19th century, a large fraction of some raw materials—not only cotton, but also some food-grains—were being exported to faraway markets. Consequently, many small farmers, dependent on the whims of those markets, lost land, animals, and equipment to money-lenders. More tellingly, the latter half of the 19th century also saw an increase in the number of large-scale famines in India. Although famines were not new to the subcontinent, these were particularly severe, with tens of millions dying, and with many critics, both British and Indian, laying the blame at the doorsteps of the lumbering colonial administrations.


title: History of the British Raj

text: In terms of the longer lasting effects and legacies of the economic impact of the British Raj, the impact predominantly stems from the irregular investment of areas of infrastructure. Simon Carey explains how the investment into Indian society was 'narrowly focused' and favoured the growth of transportation of goods and workers. Therefore India has since seen an uneven economic development of society. For example, Acemoglu et al. (2001) identify how the inability of certain areas of rural India to cope with disease and famine best explain this uneven development of the nation. Carey also points out that a lasting impact of the British Raj is the transformation of India into an agricultural trading economy. However, since the rise of technology in the latter 20th Century, India has been able to become a leading nation in the production of technology, with companies like the IT company Tata Consultancy service employing 470,000 people spanning over 50 countries, and the Tata Group taking an annual revenue of US$113 billion, making it the largest IT service provider in the world. Therefore, some areas of India, predominantly in affluent urban areas, have benefited from the legacies of the British Raj in the long term due to the transformation of Indian economic culture to a production based economy. However, the majority of Indian society has experienced a negative impact of the British Raj, especially in rural and suburban areas, due to the focus of investment into transport such as railways and canals rather than into healthcare and primary education.


title: History of the British Raj

text: The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act 1892. Municipal Corporations and District Boards were created for local administration; they included elected Indian members


title: History of the British Raj

text: The Indian Councils Act 1909 – also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Gilbert Elliot, fourth earl of Minto, was viceroy) – gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures, known as legislative councils. Indians had previously been appointed to legislative councils, but after the reforms some were elected to them. At the centre, the majority of council members continued to be government-appointed officials, and the viceroy was in no way responsible to the legislature. At the provincial level, the elected members, together with unofficial appointees, outnumbered the appointed officials, but responsibility of the governor to the legislature was not contemplated. Morley made it clear in introducing the legislation to the British Parliament that parliamentary self-government was not the goal of the British government.


title: History of the British Raj

text: The Morley-Minto Reforms were a milestone. Step by step, the elective principle was introduced for membership in Indian legislative councils. The "electorate" was limited, however, to a small group of upper-class Indians. These elected members increasingly became an "opposition" to the "official government". The Communal electorates were later extended to other communities and made a political factor of the Indian tendency toward group identification through religion.


title: History of the British Raj

text: World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army would take part in the war and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada,Australia and New Zealand, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio. India's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s. It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a of the League of Nations in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises" (The British Indies), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. Back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians.


title: History of the British Raj

text: In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the Lucknow Pact and the founding of the Home Rule leagues, and the realisation, after the disaster in the Mesopotamian campaign, that the war would likely last longer, the new Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion. Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith – in light of the Indian war role – through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honours to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much-reviled cotton excise duty, but most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, announced the British aim of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." This envisioned reposing confidence in the educated Indians, so far disdained as an unrepresentative minority, who were described by Montague as "Intellectually our children". The pace of the reforms where to be determined by Britain as and when the Indians were seen to have earned it. However, although the plan envisioned limited self-government at first only in the provinces – with India emphatically within the British Empire – it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony.


title: History of the British Raj

text: Earlier, at the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and Mesopotamia had led the previous Viceroy, Lord Harding, to worry about the "risks involved in denuding India of troops." Revolutionary violence had already been a concern in British India; consequently in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the Defence of India Act, which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process and added to the power it already had – under the 1910 Press Act – both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press. Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened. However, since the reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased wartime governmental control and it now feared a revival of revolutionary violence, the government also began to consider how some of its wartime powers could be extended into peacetime.


title: History of the British Raj

text: Consequently, in 1917, even as Edwin Montagu announced the new constitutional reforms, a sedition committee chaired by a British judge, Mr. S. A. T. Rowlatt, was tasked with investigating wartime revolutionary conspiracies and the German and Bolshevik links to the violence in India, with the unstated goal of extending the government's wartime powers. The Rowlatt committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: Bengal, the Bombay presidency, and the Punjab. To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its wartime authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects, and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short-term detention facilities and without trial.


title: History of the British Raj

text: With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By year's end 1919, 1.5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles, and India had provided £146 million in revenue for the war. The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920. Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces, a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918–19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation. The global influenza epidemic and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes, and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India.


title: History of the British Raj

text: To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two Rowlatt Bills. Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration, "I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peace time to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary." In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council, all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was nevertheless able to use of its "official majority" to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919. However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extrajudicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of "anarchical and revolutionary movements," dropping entirely the second bill involving modification of the Indian Penal Code. Even so, when it was passed the new Rowlatt Act aroused widespread indignation throughout India and brought Mohandas Gandhi to the forefront of the nationalist movement.


title: History of the British Raj

text: Meanwhile, Montagu and Chelmsford themselves finally presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter. After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the Government of India Act 1919 (also known as the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919. The new Act enlarged the provincial councils and converted the Imperial Legislative Council into an enlarged Central Legislative Assembly. It also repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavourable votes. Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications and income-tax were retained by the Viceroy and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue and local self-government were transferred to the provinces. The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new dyarchical system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council. The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.


title: History of the British Raj

text: A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate. In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of "communal representation", an integral part of the Minto–Morley Reforms, and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. The Montagu–Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.


title: History of the British Raj

text: The three Round Table Conferences of 1930–32 were a series of conferences organised by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms in India. They were conducted according to the recommendation of Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah to the Viceroy Lord Irwin and the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, and by the report submitted by the Simon Commission in May 1930. Demands for swaraj, or self-rule, in India had been growing increasingly strong. By the 1930s, many British politicians believed that India needed to move towards dominion status. However, there were significant disagreements between the Indian and the British leaders that the Conferences could not resolve.


title: History of the British Raj

text: In 1932 the Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, after the failure of the three Round Table Conferences (India) in London, now confronted Gandhi's Congress in action. The India Office told Willingdon that he should conciliate only those elements of Indian opinion that were willing to work with the Raj. That did not include Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, which launched its Civil Disobedience Movement on 4 January 1932. Therefore, Willingdon took decisive action. He imprisoned Gandhi. He outlawed the Congress; he rounded up all members of the Working Committee and the Provincial Committees and imprisoned them; and he banned Congress youth organisations. In total he imprisoned 80,000 Indian activists. Without most of their leaders, protests were uneven and disorganised, boycotts were ineffective, illegal youth organisations proliferated but were ineffective, more women became involved, and there was terrorism, especially in the North-West Frontier Province. Gandhi remained in prison until 1933. Willingdon relied on his military secretary, Hastings Ismay, for his personal safety.


title: History of the British Raj

text: MacDonald, trying to resolve the critical issue of how Indians would be represented, on 4 August 1932 granting separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, and Europeans in India and increased the number of provinces that offered separate electorates to Anglo-Indians and Indian Christians. Untouchables (now known as the Dalits) obtained a separate electorate. That outraged Gandhi because he firmly believed they had to be treated as Hindus. He and Congress rejected the proposal, but it went into effect anyway.


title: History of the British Raj

text: In 1935, after the failure of the Round Table Conferences, the British Parliament approved the Government of India Act 1935, which authorized the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities. The future Constitution of independent India would owe a great deal to the text of this act. The act also provided for a bicameral national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government. Although the national federation was never realized, nationwide elections for provincial assemblies were held in 1937. Despite initial hesitation, the Congress took part in the elections and won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India, and Congress governments, with wide powers, were formed in these provinces. In Great Britain, these victories were to later turn the tide for the idea of Indian independence.


title: History of the British Raj

text: India played a major role in the Allied war effort against both Japan and Germany. It provided over 2 million soldiers, who fought numerous campaigns in the Middle East, and in the India-Burma front and also supplied billions of pounds to the British war effort. The Muslim and Sikh populations were strongly supportive of the British war effort, but the Hindu population was divided. Congress opposed the war, and tens of thousands of its leaders were imprisoned in 1942–45. A major famine in eastern India led to hundreds of thousands of deaths by starvation, and remains a highly controversial issue regarding Churchill's reluctance to provide emergency food relief.


title: History of the British Raj

text: With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort; however, it now took the view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. Hindus not affiliated with the Congress typically supported the war. The two major Sikh factions, the Unionists and the Akali Dal, supported Britain and successfully urged large numbers of Sikhs to volunteer for the army.


title: History of the British Raj

text: The British sent a high level Cripps Mission in 1942 to secure Indian nationalists' co-operation in the war effort in exchange for postwar independence and dominion status. Congress demanded immediate independence and the mission failed. Gandhi then launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. Along with thousands of other Congress leaders, Gandhi was immediately imprisoned, and the country erupted in violent local episodes led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, and western Bengal. According to John F. Riddick, from 9 August 1942 to 21 September 1942, the Quit India movement:


title: History of the British Raj

text: The police and Army crushed the resistance in a little more than six weeks; nationalist leaders were imprisoned for the duration.


title: History of the British Raj

text: Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been ousted from the Congress Party in 1939 following differences with the more conservative high command, turned to Germany and Japan for help with liberating India by force. With Japanese support, he organised the Indian National Army, composed largely of Indian soldiers of the British Indian army who had been captured at Singapore by the Japanese, including many Sikhs as well as Hindus and Muslims. Japan's secret service had promoted unrest in Southeast Asia to destabilise the British war effort, and came to support a number of puppet and provisional governments in regions under their occupation, such as those of Burma, the Philippines and Vietnam; similarly supported was the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India), presided over by Bose. Bose's effort, however, was short lived; after the reverses of 1944, the reinforced British Indian Army in 1945 first halted and then reversed the Japanese U Go offensive, beginning the successful part of the Burma Campaign. Bose's Indian National Army surrendered with the recapture of Singapore; Bose died in a plane crash soon thereafter. The British demanded trials for INA officers, but public opinion—including Congress and even the Indian Army—saw the INA as fighting for Indian independence and demanded a termination. Yasmin Khan says "The INA became the real heroes of the war in India." After a wave of unrest and nationalist violence the trials were stopped.


title: History of the British Raj

text: Britain borrowed everywhere it could and made heavy purchases of equipment and supplies in India during the war. Previously India owed Britain large sums; now it was reversed. Britain's sterling balances around the world amounted to £3.4 billion in 1945; India's share was £1.3 billion (equivalent to $US 74 billion in 2016 dollars.) In this way the Raj treasury accumulated very large sterling reserves of British pounds that was owed to it by the British treasury. However, Britain treated this as a long-term loan with no interest and no specified repayment date. Just when the money would be made available by London was an issue, for the British treasury was nearly empty by 1945. India's balances totalled to Rs. 17.24 billion in March 1946; of that sum Rs. 15.12 billion [£1.134 billion] was split between India and Pakistan when they became independent in August 1947. They finally got the money and India spent all its share by 1957; mostly buying back British owned assets in India.


title: History of the British Raj

text: The All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an independent and united India. Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1400 nationalist Muslim delegates. The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion". The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro also made it easier for the All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.


title: History of the British Raj

text: In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they found much public support in India and had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of State for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and including Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited four years before.


title: History of the British Raj

text: Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India in which the Congress won electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces. The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946, Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister.


title: History of the British Raj

text: Later that year, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.


title: History of the British Raj

text: As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the pro-separatist Muslim League, B. R. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. In the years leading up to the partition of India, the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League violently drove out Hindus and Sikhs from the western Punjab.


title: History of the British Raj

text: Many millions of Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu refugees trekked across the newly drawn borders. In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, massive bloodshed followed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited. In all, anywhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence. On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, now a smaller "Union of India", became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi, and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of the prime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first Governor General.


title: Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

text: The Twenty-seventh Amendment (Amendment XXVII, also known as the Congressional Compensation Act of 1789) to the United States Constitution prohibits any law that increases or decreases the salary of members of Congress from taking effect until after the next election of the House of Representatives has occurred. It is the most recently adopted amendment but was one of the first proposed.


text: The 1st Congress submitted the amendment to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, along with 11 other proposed amendments ("Articles I–XII"). The last ten Articles were ratified in 1791 to become the Bill of Rights, but the first two, the Twenty-seventh Amendment and the proposed Congressional Apportionment Amendment, were not ratified by enough states to come into force with them.


text: The proposed congressional pay amendment was largely forgotten until 1982, when Gregory Watson, a 19-year-old sophomore at the University of Texas at Austin, wrote a paper for a government class in which he claimed that the amendment could still be ratified. He later launched a nationwide campaign to complete its ratification. The amendment eventually became part of the United States Constitution, effective May 5, 1992, completing a record-setting ratification period of 202 years, 7 months, and 10 days, beating the previous record set by the Twenty-second Amendment of 3 years and 343 days.


text: The idea behind this amendment is to reduce corruption in the legislative branch by requiring an election before a congressperson's salary increase takes effect. The public can thus remove members of Congress from office before their salaries increase. It is unclear if the amendment produced any change in congressional behavior.


text: Several states raised the issue of Congressional salaries as they debated whether to ratify the Constitution.


text: North Carolina's ratifying convention proposed several amendments to the Constitution, including the following: "The laws ascertaining the compensation of senators and representatives, for their services, shall be postponed in their operation until after the election of representatives immediately succeeding the passing thereof; that excepted which shall first be passed on the subject." Virginia's ratifying convention recommended an identical amendment.


text: New York's declaration of ratification was accompanied by a similar amendment proposal: "That the Compensation for the Senators and Representatives be ascertained by standing law; and that no alteration of the existing rate of Compensation shall operate for the Benefit of the Representatives, until after a subsequent Election shall have been had."


text: This amendment was one of several proposed amendments to the Constitution that Representative James Madison of Virginia introduced in the House of Representatives on June 8, 1789. Madison's original intent was that it be added to the end of of the Constitution ("The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States"). This and Madison's other proposals were referred to a committee consisting of one representative from each state. After emerging from committee, the full House debated the issue and, on August 24, 1789, passed it and 16 other articles of amendment. The proposals went next to the Senate, which made 26 substantive alterations. On September 9, 1789, the Senate approved a culled and consolidated package of 12 articles of amendment.


text: On September 21, 1789, a House–Senate conference committee convened to resolve numerous differences between the House and Senate Bill of Rights proposals. On September 24, 1789, the committee issued its report, which finalized 12 proposed amendments for the House and Senate to consider. The House agreed to the conference report that day, and the Senate concurred the next day.


text: What would become the Twenty-seventh Amendment was listed second among the 12 proposals sent on September 25, 1789, to the states for their consideration. Ten of these, numbers 3–12, were ratified 27 months later and are known as the Bill of Rights. The remaining proposal, the Congressional Apportionment Amendment, has not been ratified by enough states to become part of the Constitution.


text: This proposed amendment was largely forgotten until Gregory Watson, an undergraduate student at the University of Texas at Austin, wrote a paper on the subject in 1982 for a political science course. In the paper, Watson argued that the amendment was still "live" and could be ratified. Watson received a "C" grade for his paper from one of the course's teaching assistants. Watson appealed the grade to the course instructor, Sharon Waite, who declined to overrule the teaching assistant. Waite has said, "I kind of glanced at it, but I didn't see anything that was particularly outstanding about it and I thought the C was probably fine". Watson responded by starting a new push for ratification with a letter-writing campaign to state legislatures.


text: In "Dillon v. Gloss", , the Supreme Court remarked that "ratification [of a proposed constitutional amendment] must be within some reasonable time after the proposal", and suggested that it was "quite untenable" to view proposed amendments from 1789, 1810, and 1861 as still pending.


text: But in "Coleman v. Miller", , the court ruled that the validity of state ratifications of a constitutional amendment is a political matter, and thus not properly assigned to the judiciary. It also held that as a political question, it was up to Congress to determine whether an amendment with no time limit for ratification is still viable after a long time based on "the political, social and economic conditions which have prevailed during the period since the submission of the amendment".


text: Watson used $6,000 of his own money to sponsor his nationwide effort. When Watson began his campaign in early 1982, he was aware of ratification by only six states and erroneously believed that Virginia's 1791 approval was the last action a state had taken. He discovered in 1983 that Ohio had approved the amendment in 1873 as a means of protest against the Salary Grab Act and learned in 1984 that Wyoming had done the same in 1978, as a protest against a 1977 congressional pay raise. Watson also did not know until 1997, well after the amendment's adoption, that Kentucky had ratified the amendment in 1792. Neither did Kentucky lawmakers themselvesin Watson's desire for a 50-state sweep, the Kentucky General Assembly post-ratified the amendment in 1996 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 50), at Watson's request, likewise unaware that the task had already been attended to 204 years earlier.


text: In April 1983, Maine became the first state to ratify the amendment as a result of Watson's campaign, followed by Colorado in April 1984. Numerous state legislatures followed suit, with some reaffirming the amendment despite having affirmed it centuries ago. Michigan and New Jersey rushed to be the 38th state to ratify the amendment, but Michigan was faster. It ratified the amendment on May 7, 1992, resulting in the certification of the amendment. New Jersey was disappointed, but ratified the amendment regardless, overturning its rejection of the amendment centuries earlier.


text: In 2016, Zach Elkins, a professor in the University of Texas at Austin Department of Government, became interested in Watson's story and began to document its origins. He tracked down Sharon Waite, who had left academia in the 1980s to work on her family's citrus farm. Elkins suggested to Waite that they change Watson's grade. In 2017, Elkins submitted a grade change form with Waite's signature and a grade change to A+. In an interview, Waite said, "Goodness, he certainly proved he knew how to work the Constitution and what it meant and how to be politically active, [...] So, yes, I think he deserves an A after that effortA-plus!" A+ is not a valid grade at UT, so Watson's grade may have been changed to an A, though Elkins urged the registrar to leave it as the only A+ ever recorded at the University of Texas. In the same year, the Texas Legislature passed a congratulatory resolution in response to Watson's successful grade change and his overall political participation.