title: Court-martial

text: The judges will receive temporary rank the same as the defendant if the rank of the defendant is higher than the judges.


title: Court-martial

text: In the Netherlands, members of the military are tried by a special military section of the civilian court in Arnhem. This section consists of a military member and two civilian judges. The decision whether or not to prosecute is primarily made by the (civilian) attorney general.


title: Court-martial

text: Service members of the New Zealand Defence Force are tried under a court martial for offences pertaining to the most serious offences against the Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971. Offences such as mutiny, murder, sexual offences, serious assaults, drug offences, or offences where the maximum punishment exceeds a 7-year prison term will be heard by court martial. Below this 7-year threshold the accused is dealt with by their commanding officer in what is known as a summary trial.


title: Court-martial

text: During court martial the appointed judge is either a New Zealand High Court or District Court judge and he or she presides over the trial. Defendants are assigned legal counsel, and for the prosecution, a lawyer is assigned who generally comes from a military background. The judge advocate is usually made up of senior NZDF officers and warrant officers who hear the defence and prosecution evidence during court martial. Punishment on guilty findings of a defendant will see them face being charged with a punishment such as serious reprimand, loss of rank, dismissal from the NZDF, or being sent to military or civilian prison.


title: Court-martial

text: Under the Singapore Armed Forces Act, any commissioned officer is allowed to represent servicemen when they are tried for military offences in the military courts. The cases are heard at the Court-Martial Centre at Kranji Camp II. Some of the courts martial in Singapore include that of Capt. G. R. Wadsworth in 1946 due to use of insubordinate language and, in the modern day, misbehaviour by conscripted servicemen.


title: Court-martial

text: The governing law in Thailand's military courts is the "Military Court Organisation Act 1955" (). The act allows the Judge Advocate General of Thailand () to establish court regulations. In wartime or during the imposition of martial law, military courts may adopt special procedures.


title: Court-martial

text: The court martial is one of the Military Courts of the United Kingdom. The Armed Forces Act 2006 establishes the court martial as a permanent standing court. Previously courts-martial were convened on an "ad hoc" basis with several traditions, including usage of swords. The court martial may try any offence against service law. The court is made up of a judge advocate, and between three and seven (depending on the seriousness of the offence) officers and warrant officers. Rulings on matters of law are made by the judge advocate alone, whilst decisions on the facts are made by a majority of the members of the court, not including the judge advocate, and decisions on sentence by a majority of the court, this time including the judge advocate.


title: Court-martial

text: Most commonly, courts-martial in the United States are convened to try members of the U.S. military for violations of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), which is the U.S. military's criminal code. However, they can also be convened for other purposes, including military tribunals and the enforcement of martial law in an occupied territory. Courts-martial are governed by the rules of procedure and evidence laid out in the Manual for Courts-Martial, which contains the Rules for Courts-Martial, Military Rules of Evidence, and other guidance. There are three types: Special, Summary, and General.


title: Court-martial

text: In Herman Melville's novella "Billy Budd" (first published 1924), the title character is convicted at a drumhead court-martial of striking and killing his superior officer on board HMS "Indomitable", is sentenced to death, and is hanged. The novella has been adapted for the stage, film and television; notably in Benjamin Britten's 1951 opera "Billy Budd".


title: Court-martial

text: In C.S. Forester's 1938 novel "Flying Colours", Captain Horatio Hornblower is court-martialed for the loss of HMS "Sutherland". He is "most honourably acquitted".


title: Court-martial

text: In Michael Morpurgo's novel "Private Peaceful", the main character of "Tommo" reflects on the childhoods of himself and his brother, Charlie as Charlie awaits a court martial during WWI, which he receives at the end of the story for disobeying orders and cowardice in the face of the enemy.


title: Court-martial

text: In the "" episode The Battle it was stated that, as the loss of a starship was a court martial offense, Picard was court-martialed for the loss of the Stargazer, zealously prosecuted by Phillipa Louvois. In the end, he was absolved of all charges.


title: Court-martial

text: The 1992 movie A Few Good Men (and the play on which it was based) deals almost entirely with the court martial of two enlisted Marines.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: The Wedding Planner is a 2001 American romantic comedy film directed by Adam Shankman, in his feature film directorial debut, written by Michael Ellis and Pamela Falk, and starring Jennifer Lopez and Matthew McConaughey.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: Ambitious San Francisco wedding planner Mary Fiore is re-introduced to childhood acquaintance Massimo by her father Salvatore, who wants them to marry, but Mary declines. Hoping to persuade her boss, Geri, to make her a partner at their company, Mary is hired to plan catering heiress Fran Donolly's society wedding to long-term boyfriend "Eddie". While reporting her success on the phone, Mary's shoe heel gets stuck in a manhole cover. As she struggles to free herself, a taxicab collides with a dumpster which comes hurtling towards her. A nearby man pulls her out of the way of the speeding dumpster just in time, and she manages to thank him before fainting.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: Waking up in the hospital, Mary meets her rescuer, pediatrician Steve Edison. Her colleague Penny persuades Steve to attend an outdoor movie with them, but makes up an excuse to leave the pair alone together. Mary and Steve dance, but are interrupted by a heavy downpour before they can kiss.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: At a dance lesson with a client, Mary encounters Fran, who introduces her to her fiancé "Eddie", none other than Steve. Fran leaves them to dance together, and Mary angrily rebukes Steve for leading her on behind Fran's back.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: Penny persuades Mary that her career is more important than her feelings and to continue planning Fran and Steve's wedding, and Steve's colleague assures him that his connection with Mary is only due to pre-wedding nerves.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: On a visit to a potential wedding venue in Napa Valley, Massimo appears and, to Mary's horror, introduces himself as her fiancé. While riding through the estate with Fran's parents, Mrs. Donelly's singing frightens Mary's horse. Steve rescues Mary again and admonishes her for condemning his actions when she was also engaged.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: At home, Mary scolds her father for trying to set her up with Massimo. Salvatore reveals that his marriage to her mother, which Mary has viewed as the perfect relationship, was arranged and only became a loving relationship months later, leaving Mary conflicted.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: While visiting another potential venue, Fran reveals she is going on a week-long business trip and leaves Mary and Steve to continue preparations. They apologize for their angry words, and soon become friends. They run into Wendy and Keith, whom Mary reveals was once her fiancé until she caught him cheating with Wendy, his secret high-school girlfriend, on the night of their rehearsal dinner.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: After getting drunk and struggling to get back into her apartment, Mary breaks down, lamenting that Keith is married and expecting a baby while she is alone and miserable. Steve manages to get Mary inside and comforts her as she sobers up, insisting that Keith was a fool to pick Wendy over her. Steve leaves, but quickly returns and confesses his feelings for Mary. She sadly replies that she respects Fran too much to let anything happen between them, and sends Steve away.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: Fran confesses to Mary that she is unsure if she is still in love with Steve. Ignoring her own heart, Mary convinces Fran to continue with the wedding. At a birthday party, Massimo offers Mary a heartfelt proposal and she reluctantly accepts; the two couples prepare for their same-day weddings. Leaving Penny to coordinate the Donelly wedding, Mary goes to marry Massimo at the town hall. Steve asks Fran if they are doing the right thing, and she admits that she does not want to get married. They part as friends, Fran leaving to enjoy their honeymoon alone. Penny reveals Mary's marriage plans to Steve, and he rushes to stop her.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: At the town hall, Massimo and Mary prepare to marry but her father stops the ceremony, realizing the wedding is not what Mary wants. Mary, having given up on true love, insists that life is not a fairy tale and marrying Massimo is the right thing to do, but realizes he is not the one for her and leaves.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: Steve arrives to find Salvatore and Massimo, who reveals that he could not go ahead with the wedding knowing Mary was actually in love with Steve. Steve reveals his feelings to Salvatore, who tells him to go and get her. Steve and Massimo ride off on Massimo's scooter to the park, where another outdoor movie is starting. Steve finds Mary, asks her to dance, and they kiss.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: The original actors set to play Mary and Steve were Jennifer Love Hewitt and Brendan Fraser, respectively. They were replaced with Sarah Michelle Gellar and Freddie Prinze Jr. Both couples eventually dropped out due to scheduling conflicts, leaving Lopez and McConaughey to be the eventual stars.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: Many of the scenes were shot in Golden Gate Park, specifically at the Music Concourse (between the old De Young Museum and the old California Academy of Sciences), the Japanese Tea Garden and The Huntington Library and Gardens. The first wedding ceremony is filmed inside the chapel at Stanford University.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: "The Wedding Planner" was screened at 2,785 theaters and grossed $13,510,293 on its opening weekend (the Super Bowl weekend), opening at number one at the box office. Jennifer Lopez's sophomore album J. Lo reached the number one spot on the "Billboard" 200 albums chart the same week, making Lopez the first and to-date, only person to ever achieve this feat. The film grossed $60,400,856 domestically and earned a worldwide tally of $94,728,529.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: "The Wedding Planner" received generally negative reviews from critics. Based on 104 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a "Rotten" rating from critics, with 16% positive reviews and an average rating of 3.9/10. The consensus reads, "Instead of being light and charming, this romantic comedy is heavy-handed and contrived in its execution. Also, it's too unoriginal." Metacritic gave the film an average score of 33 out of 100, based on 29 reviews from mainstream critics.


title: The Wedding Planner

text: "Entertainment Weekly"s Lisa Schwarzbaum critically compared the film to "My Best Friend's Wedding", writing that: "Where Julia Roberts turned the world on with her huggability, Lopez's vibe is that of someone afraid to get mussed. And where Rupert Everett was divine as a sidekick, McConaughey is mortally ordinary as a main dish who spends most of his time smiling like a party guest." Kimberly Jones of "The Austin Chronicle" noted that the two leading characters being mistreated was the biggest disappointment from "The Wedding Planner", feeling that while Lopez and McConaughey have "enormous charisma" (referencing Lopez's work on "Out of Sight" (1998) as an example) the "blandness of "The Wedding Planner" burlap-sacks their appeal in an altogether dowdy outing for two stars who deserve much snazzier threads." A writer from "The New York Times" wrote that the charisma of the movie's stars along with their goofiness makes ""The Wedding Planner" more painless than it has a right to be." "Variety"s Robert Koehler described "The Wedding Planner" as: "an attractive bridesmaid but hardly a gorgeous bride among romantic comedies." Michael Thomson from the BBC wrote that: "Unfortunately, after the two leads become less wired in each other's presence, and the sexual tension begins to droop, everyone seems to be reading an autocue." The film was nominated for a Razzie Award for Worst Actress for Lopez.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: 5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), also known as oxitriptan, is a naturally occurring amino acid and chemical precursor as well as a metabolic intermediate in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter serotonin.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: 5-HTP is sold over the counter in the United States, Canada, Singapore, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom as a dietary supplement for use as an antidepressant, appetite suppressant, and sleep aid. It is also marketed in many European countries for the indication of major depression under the trade names Cincofarm, Levothym, Levotonine, Oxyfan, Telesol, Tript-OH, and Triptum.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: A 2002 review concluded that although the data evaluated suggests that 5-HTP is more effective than placebo in the treatment of depression, the evidence was insufficient to be conclusive due to a lack of clinical data meeting the rigorous standards of the day. More and larger studies using current methodologies are needed to determine if 5-HTP is truly effective in treating depression. In small, controlled trials 5-HTP has also been reported to augment the antidepressant efficacy of the antidepressant clomipramine. A 2020 meta-analysis found oral 5-HTP supplementation had a large effect size on depression symptom severity. However, the included studies were considered relatively weak and the methods and treatment duration varied between the seven studies examined.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: 5-HTP is sometimes taken by people in the days after MDMA use to relieve dysphoria. As 5-HTP is a necessary precursor for the brain to produce more serotonin, and MDMA use depletes a person's natural serotonin levels, it is believed that taking 5-HTP after consuming MDMA will speed up serotonin production. DanceSafe claims that the anecdotal evidence is widespread and that the theory is physiologically reasonable. They also point out that it should not be taken too soon after MDMA use due to the potential for serotonin syndrome. Backing up this approach is research conducted by Wang, et al. in 2007, which observed that MDMA-induced depletions of 5-HT (serotonin) were restored in rats after administration of 5-HTP, and suggested that this approach might be clinically useful in abstinent MDMA users.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: At high doses, or in combination with carbidopa, it has been used off-label to treat obesity (by promoting weight loss).


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: In clinical trials of various design, 5-HTP has also been reported to treat fibromyalgia, myoclonus, migraine, and cerebellar ataxia. However, these clinical findings, as for all therapeutic findings with 5-HTP, are preliminary and need confirmation in larger trials.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: 5-HTP's short half-life (<2h) may inherently limit its therapeutic potential, as systemic 5-HTP exposure levels will fluctuate substantially even with relatively frequent dosing. Such exposure fluctuations are usually associated with increased adverse event burdens resulting from C (time to maximal systemic concentration) drug spikes, and decreased clinical efficacy resulting from sub-therapeutic exposure for large parts of the day, when taken as a single dose unit or at intervals significantly larger than C. It has been proposed that 5-HTP dosage forms achieving prolonged delivery would be more effective, as has been demonstrated many times with other pharmaceuticals with short durations of action. For example, controlled release oxycodone (OxyContin) or morphine (MS-Contin) are intended to, via novel delivery mechanisms, permit pain relief for up to twelve hours with an active ingredient which only provides relief for 3–6 hours. Unfortunately, the inherent variability amongst different people with respect to drug metabolism makes this task more difficult than one might expect.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: Potential side effects of 5-HTP include heartburn, stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, drowsiness, sexual problems, vivid dreams or nightmares, and muscle problems. Because 5-HTP has not been thoroughly studied in a clinical setting, possible side effects and interactions with other drugs are not well known. According to the US National Institute of Health TOXNET, 5-HTP has not been associated with serotonin syndrome or any serious adverse events in humans. Across multiple studies, 5-HTP has also been reported to not cause any noticeable hematological or cardiovascular changes. 5-HTP had also been associated with eosinophilia, but later studies have not found any causal connection.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: When combined with antidepressants of the MAOI or SSRI class, very high parenteral doses of 5-HTP can cause acute serotonin syndrome in rats. It is unclear if such findings have clinical relevance, as most drugs will cause serious adverse events or death in rodents at very high doses. In humans 5-HTP has never been clinically associated with serotonin syndrome, although a case report suggests 5-HTP can precipitate mania when added to an MAOI.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: When combined with carbidopa (as a treatment for symptoms of Parkinson's disease), 5-HTP causes nausea and vomiting; however this can be alleviated via administration of granisetron. As mentioned below under pharmacology, cases of scleroderma-like illness have been reported in patients using carbidopa and 5-HTP.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: Oral 5-HTP results in an increase in urinary 5-HIAA, a serotonin metabolite, indicating that 5-HTP is peripherally metabolized to serotonin, which is then metabolized. This might cause false positive results in tests looking for carcinoid syndrome. Due to the conversion of 5-HTP into serotonin by the liver, there could be a risk of heart valve disease from serotonin's effect on the heart, as based on preclinical findings. However, 5-HTP has not been associated with cardiac toxicity in humans.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: It has been suggested that 5-HTP may cause eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome (EMS), a serious condition which results in extreme muscle tenderness, myalgia, and blood abnormalities. However, there is evidence to show that EMS was likely caused by a contaminant in certain 5-HTP supplements.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: 5-HTP is produced from the amino acid tryptophan through the action of the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase. Tryptophan hydroxylase is one of the biopterin-dependent aromatic amino acid hydroxylases. Production of 5-HTP is the rate-limiting step in 5-HT synthesis. 5-HTP is normally rapidly converted to 5-HT by amino acid decarboxylase.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: After oral administration, 5-HTP is absorbed by the upper intestine. The mode of absorption is not known, but presumably involves active transport via amino acid transporters. 5-HTP is adequately absorbed via oral cavity. With a decarboxylase inhibitor, the bioavailability of 5-HTP can be higher than 50%.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: 5-HTP is rapidly absorbed with Tmax of ~1.5h, and rapidly eliminated with a half-life of ~1.5–2 h. Co-administration of a decarboxylase inhibitor (e.g. carbidopa, benserazide) doubles the half-life of 5-HTP, to 3–4 h, and enhances exposure several fold, depending on the dosing regimen.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: 5-HTP is decarboxylated to serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) by the enzyme aromatic-L-amino-acid decarboxylase with the help of vitamin B. This reaction occurs both in nervous tissue and in the liver. 5-HTP crosses the blood–brain barrier, while 5-HT does not. Excess 5-HTP, especially when administered with vitamin B, is thought to be metabolized and excreted.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: The psychoactive action of 5-HTP is derived from its increase in production of serotonin in central nervous system tissue.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: Other studies have indicated the risk of a scleroderma-like condition resulting from the combination of 5-HTP and carbidopa.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: There are currently no approved drug products containing 5-HTP approved by the FDA. All available 5-HTP products are nutraceuticals and are as such not regulated or verified for purity, integrity, or clinical efficacy or safety, mandating caution regarding human consumption.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: As of 25 August 2020, Hungary added 5-HTP to the controlled psychoactive substances list, prohibiting production, sale, import, storage and use, becoming the first country to do so.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: 5-HTP's short half-life is impractical for chronic drug therapy. Research conducted at Duke University in mice have demonstrated that 5-HTP when administered as slow-release appears to gain drug properties. Slow-release delivery attenuates or abolishes the peaks and valleys in 5-HTP exposure during treatment. Slow-release delivery of 5-HTP markedly improved the safety profile of 5-HTP and conferred stable plasma exposure of 5-HTP and strong and sustained enhancement of brain serotonin function. This discovery indicates that 5-HTP slow-release medications represent a new avenue for treatment of brain disorders responsive to serotonergic enhancement.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: Though 5-HTP is found in food only in insignificant quantities, it is a chemical involved intermediately in the metabolism of tryptophan, an amino acid found in all unfractionated foods, with lower total amino acid content correlating with increased tryptophan absorption.


title: 5-Hydroxytryptophan

text: The seeds of the "Griffonia simplicifolia", a climbing shrub native to West Africa and Central Africa, are used as an herbal supplement for their 5-HTP content. In one 2010 trial, "Griffonia simplicifolia" extract appeared to increase satiety in overweight women.


title: Hinny

text: A hinny is a domestic equine hybrid, the offspring of a male horse (a stallion) and a female donkey (a jenny). It is the reciprocal cross to the more common mule, which is the product of a male donkey (a jack) and a female horse (a mare). The hinny is distinct from the mule both in physiology and temperament as a consequence of genomic imprinting.


title: Hinny

text: The hinny is the offspring of a stallion and a jenny or female donkey, and is thus the reciprocal cross to the more common mule foaled by a jack (male donkey) out of a mare. Like the mule, the hinny displays hybrid vigour (heterosis).


title: Hinny

text: In general terms, in both these hybrids the foreparts and head of the animal are similar to those of the sire, while the hindparts and tail are more similar to those of the dam. A hinny is generally smaller than a mule, with shorter ears and a lighter head; the tail is tasselled like that of its donkey mother.


title: Hinny

text: The distinct phenotypes of the hinny and the mule are partly attributable to genomic imprinting – an element of epigenetic inheritance. Hinnies and mules differ in temperament despite sharing nuclear genomes; this too is believed to be attributable to the action of imprinted genes. Also like the mule, the hinny has 63 chromosomes.


title: Hinny

text: Hinnies are sterile and are not capable of reproduction. The male hinny can mate, but the emission is not fertile. Many have no sperm in the emission, others have sperm that is not motile.


title: Hinny

text: The dam of a foal carried to term in Henan Province of China in 1981 is variously reported to have been a mule or a hinny.


title: Ereshkigal

text: In Mesopotamian mythology, Ereshkigal ( , lit. "Queen of the Great Earth") was the goddess of Kur, the land of the dead or underworld in Sumerian mythology. In later myths, she was said to rule Irkalla alongside her husband Nergal. Sometimes her name is given as Irkalla, similar to the way the name Hades was used in Greek mythology for both the underworld and its ruler, and sometimes it is given as Ninkigal, lit. "Lady of the Great Earth".


title: Ereshkigal

text: Ereshkigal was only one of multiple deities regarded as rulers of the underworld in Mesopotamia. The main temple dedicated to her was located in Kutha, a city originally associated with Nergal, and her cult had a very limited scope. No personal names with "Ereshkigal" as a theophoric element are known.


title: Ereshkigal

text: In the ancient Sumerian poem "Inanna's Descent to the Underworld", Ereshkigal is described as Inanna's older sister. However, they were not commonly associated with each other.


title: Ereshkigal

text: The two main myths involving Ereshkigal are the story of Inanna's descent into the Underworld and the story of Ereshkigal's marriage to the god Nergal. Other myths also associate her with gods such as Ninazu, originally regarded as her husband but later as a son, and Ningishzida.


title: Ereshkigal

text: In Sumerian mythology, Ereshkigal was the queen of the underworld. Some researchers believe that Ninazu originally fulfilled this function, with Ereshkigal only becoming a significant ruler of the land of the dead in Sumerian imagination at a later point in time. However, beliefs related to this sphere were somewhat amorphous, and it is possible there was initially no single universally-agreed-upon version of relevant mythical and cultic concepts, with various deities, both male and female, ruling over the underworld in the belief systems of various areas and time periods.


title: Ereshkigal

text: In later Babylonian god lists Ereshkigal held a senior status among the underworld deities, ruling over the category of so-called "transtigridian snake gods" (such as Ninazu, Tishpak, Ishtaran and the Elamite god Inshushinak, in Mesopotamia known almost exclusively in the afterlife context), while Nergal, who fulfilled analogous functions in the north in Sumerian times, had an entourage of minor war gods and disease demons instead. The idea of Nergal and Ereshkigal as a couple likely developed out of a need to reconcile the two traditions.


title: Ereshkigal

text: While obscure in cultic texts, Ereshkigal was prominent in mythical literature. Examples of myths where she plays an important role include:


title: Ereshkigal

text: In this poem, the goddess Inanna descends into the underworld, apparently seeking to extend her powers there. Ereshkigal is described as being Inanna's older sister. When Neti, the gatekeeper of the underworld, informs Ereshkigal that Inanna is at the gates and demanding to be let in, Ereshkigal responds by ordering Neti to bolt the seven gates of the underworld and to open each separately, but only after Inanna has removed one article of clothing.


title: Ereshkigal

text: Inanna proceeds through each gate, removing one article of clothing at each gate, and also loses her magic items to a nymph over the course of the journey. Finally, once she has gone through all seven gates, she finds herself naked and powerless, standing before the throne of Ereshkigal. The seven judges of the underworld judge Inanna and declare her to be guilty. Inanna is struck dead and her corpse is hung on a hook in the underworld for everyone to see.


title: Ereshkigal

text: Inanna's minister, Ninshubur, however, pleads with various gods and finally Enki agrees to rescue Inanna from the underworld. Enki sends two sexless beings down to the underworld to revive Inanna with the food and water of life. These beings escort Inanna up from the underworld, but a horde of angry demons follow Inanna, demanding to take someone else down to the underworld as Inanna's replacement. They initially want it to be Ninshubur, but Inanna rebukes this order, stating that she would not hand over a loyal subordinate to them. However, when she discovers that her husband, Dumuzid, has not mourned her death, she becomes ireful towards him and orders the demons to take him as her replacement.


title: Ereshkigal

text: Diane Wolkstein argued that Inanna and Ereshkigal represent polar opposites: Inanna is the queen of heaven, but Ereshkigal is the queen of Irkalla.


title: Ereshkigal

text: This myth tells the story of the origin of Ereshkigal's marriage to Nergal. Two versions are known, though they differ only in details related to the motivation of the deities involved and both the plot structure and ultimate outcome are the same.


title: Ereshkigal

text: Once, the gods held a banquet that Ereshkigal, as queen of the underworld, could not come up to attend. Kaka, one of the messengers of Anu (analogous to Papsukkal or Ninshubur) invited her to send a messenger, and she sent her vizier Namtar in her place. He was treated well by most, the exception being Nergal, who treated Namtar with disrespect. As a result of this, Ereshkigal demanded Nergal to be sent to the underworld to atone. In one version, she planned to kill Nergal upon arrival in the underworld, but this detail is absent from the other versions.


title: Ereshkigal

text: Nergal travels under the advice of Ea, who warns him not to sit, eat, drink or wash while in the underworld, as well as not to have sex with Ereshkigal. At his advice Nergal travels to the underworld along with 14 demons. When he arrives, the gatekeeper Neti gets orders from Ereshkigal to allow him through the seven gates, stripping him of everything before arriving in the throne room, but at each gate, Nergal posts two demons.


title: Ereshkigal

text: Although Nergal has no problem with respecting all the other warnings, the god succumbs to the temptation and lies with the goddess for six days. At the seventh, he escapes back to the upper world, which makes Ereshkigal upset. Namtar is then sent to bring Nergal back, but Ea disguises Nergal as a lesser god and Namtar is fooled. Ereshkigal ultimately realizes the deception and demands Nergal to return again, threatening to open the gates of the underworld and allow the spirits of the dead to swarm the world of the living if her demands are ignored. The gods agree to hand Nergal over to her again.


title: Ereshkigal

text: In the same version in which Ereshkigal planned to kill Nergal, when he gets to the throne he knocks over Namtar and drags Ereshkigal to the floor. He is about to kill her with his ax when she pleads for her life; she promises to be his wife and to share her power with him. He consents. However, Nergal must still leave the underworld for six months, so Ereshkigal gives him back his demons and allows him to traverse the upper world for that time, after which he returns to her.


title: Ereshkigal

text: In the other version, known from two copies, the myth has a less violent ending: according to Assyriologist Alhena Gadotti, "the two deities seem to reunite and live happily ever after," and the myth concludes with the line "they impetuously entered the bedchamber."


title: Ereshkigal

text: Ereshkigal is mentioned near the end of this composition. The vegetation god Ningishzida presumably has to descend to her kingdom each year.


title: Ereshkigal

text: Ereshkigal is listed alongside other underworld deities. Nergal is described as her husband in this text.


title: Ereshkigal

text: In some versions of the myths, Ereshkigal rules the Underworld by herself, but in other versions of the myths, she rules alongside a husband subordinate to her named Gugalana. Gugalana had no fixed identity. In Inanna's descent he dies before the events of the myth; in some inscriptions he is the father of Ninazu; eventually this name became a title of Nergal as well.


title: Ereshkigal

text: In Sumerian mythology, Ereshkigal is the mother of the goddess Nungal. In a fragmentary text translated by Jeremiah Peterson, Nungal appears alongside Ereshkigal and the healing goddess Nintinugga.


title: Ereshkigal

text: The Hurrian underworld goddess Allani was conflated with Ereshkigal in Mesopotamia, and with the Sun goddess of the Earth among the Hittites and Luwians. While Allani was originally introduced in Mesopotamia as an independent figure, receiving offerings in Ur during Shulgi's reign under the name Allatum (alongside other foreign deities such as Ishara and Belet Nagar), she gradually became little more than a title of Ereshkigal.


title: Ereshkigal

text: The Hattian death god Lelwani, originally described as a male deity with the masculine title of "katte"(king), started to be viewed as a goddess instead due to conflation with Allani and Ereshkigal.


title: Ereshkigal

text: In later times, the Greeks appear to have applied the name Ereshkigal (Ερεσχιγαλ) to their own goddess Hecate. In the heading of a spell in the Michigan Magical Papyrus, which has been dated to the late third or early fourth century A.D. (and as such was written after the art of reading cuneiform texts was lost), Hecate is referred to as "Hecate Ereschkigal" and is invoked using magical words and gestures to alleviate the caster's fear of punishment in the afterlife. Further study of Greek texts which mention the name of Ereshkigal revealed that none feature motifs of Mesopotamian origin in any meaningful capacity, the symbols used are ones associated with Hecate rather than Ereshkigal, the use of Ereshkigal's name served no purpose other than "furnishing the Greek Netherworld goddess with a mysterious-sounding, foreign name," and that the people who "composed, transmitted and used these texts had either little interest in or little knowledge of (or both) the Mesopotamian traditions associated with Ereškigal."


title: Ereshkigal

text: In his 1944 book, "Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C." Samuel Noah Kramer proposed that, according to the introductory passage of the ancient Sumerian epic poem, "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld," Ereshkigal was forcibly abducted, taken down to the Underworld by the Kur, and was forced to become queen of the Underworld against her will. In order to avenge the abduction of Ereshkigal, Enki, the god of water, set out in a boat to slay the Kur. The Kur defends itself by pelting Enki with rocks of many sizes and by sending the waves beneath Enki's boat to attack Enki. The poem never actually explains who the ultimate victor of the battle is, but it is implied that Enki wins. Samuel Noah Kramer relates this myth to the ancient Greek myth of the abduction of Persephone, asserting that the Greek story is probably derived from the ancient Sumerian story.


title: Ereshkigal

text: This view, and even the idea of Kur being a single well-defined monster rather than a vague term referring to mountains, foreign lands or the underworld, are not supported by modern scholars. The passage mentioned is interpreted as Enlil and Anu assigning a dowry to Ereshkigal.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: Alla Borisovna Pugacheva (born 15 April 1949), is а Soviet and Russian musical performer. Her career started in 1965 and continues to this day, even though she has retired from performing. For her "clear mezzo-soprano and a full display of sincere emotions", she enjoys an iconic status across the former Soviet Union as the most successful Soviet performer in terms of record sales and popularity.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: Pugacheva's repertoire includes over 500 songs in Russian, English, German, French, Kazakh, Hebrew, Finnish, Ukrainian, and her discography has more than 100 records, CDs and DVDs. In addition to Russia and the former Soviet Union, Pugacheva's albums were released in Japan, Korea, Sweden, Finland, Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria. In total, Pugacheva has sold more than 250 million records.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: She became a People's Artist of the USSR in 1991, a Laureate of the State Prize of the Russian Federation in 1995, and was decorated as a Chevalier of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland" II, III and IV degrees. She represented Russia in the Eurovision Song Contest 1997 with the song "Primadonna", finishing in 15th place.<ref name="http://allapugacheva.pro/vsem-shou-shou"></ref>


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: Pugacheva was born to Boris Mikhailovich Pugachëv and Zinaida Arkhipovna (born Odegova) Pugachëva in Moscow, on 15 April 1949. In 1956, she enrolled in music school No.31, and attended the Ippolitov-Ivanov music college. She went on to study at school No.496, finishing her studies there in 1964. She then studied in the choral-conducting department of the college. Pugacheva recorded her first track "Robot" in 1965, for a morning programme on Radio Yunost.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: Pugacheva finished college in 1966 and subsequently toured with the group Yunost' ("Youth") in western Siberia. The following year she began working as a piano accompanist at the State Circus Musical college. She provided the leading vocals to a number of bands, including Novy Elektron ("New Electron"), part of the Lipetsk State Philharmonic Society, in 1966, Moskvichi ("Muscovites") in 1971, Oleg Lundstrem's band in 1972–73, and Vesyolye Rebyata ("Merry Folks") in 1974–75. She recorded songs throughout that period for numerous movies.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: In 1974, she came in 3rd place in the All-Union competition of musicians. In 1975, she received the Grand Prix of the international contest "Golden Orpheus" performing the song "Harlequin" by Emil Dimitrov. The Amiga label released her winning song as a single in East Germany. Subsequently, in Bulgaria, the Balkanton label released the live recording of "Harlequin" from the festival as a single. One year later, Pugacheva returned to the "Golden Orpheus" to perform a concert outside the competition. The Balkanton released the live tracks as Pugacheva's first album "Zolotoy Orfey 76". In that same year, Pugacheva recorded a number of songs for the musical drama-comedy "The Irony of Fate" as the singing voice of Nadja, the female protagonist.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: Pugacheva went on to work on the musical film "The Woman who Sings" in cooperation with the band Ritm ("Rhythm") in 1977. She played the leading lady, a famous pop singer who sacrifices her personal life for her career. The soundtrack, which was co-written by Pugacheva and composed of pop songs, culminated with the dramatic title ballad "Zhenshchina, kotoraya poyot". The Soviet audience, regarding the film as autobiographical, brought the soundtrack to reach record audience of the year in 1979, as it was bought by 55 million people. The soundtrack was first released in 1977 as part of the double album "" ("Mirror of the Soul"), which was a collection of her songs from 1975 to 1977. The Victor label released a collection album "Alla Pugacheva" in the same year in Japan. In 1978, performing the song "Vsyo mogut koroli" ("Kings Can Do Anything"), Pugacheva received the Amber Nightingale prize at the Sopot International Song Festival which at the time meant automatically winning the Grand Prix of the Intervision Song Contest. In 1980, the Kansan label of Finland released her above-listed works as the compilation album "Huipulla" ("At the Top"). Tonbandausnahmenkompanie Bayer GmbH did the same in West Germany, releasing "Alla Pugachova".


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: During the 1980s, Pugacheva was a frequent visitor to Stockholm. She started out with multiple guest appearances on the popular Swedish radio show "Galaxen" (April 1980 year) conducted by Jacob Dahlin, and later frequently appeared on his TV show "Jacobs Stege" ("Jacob's Ladder"). Dahlin and Pugacheva used to perform duets, such as "Superman" where Dahlin sings as the title character. In Stockholm, Pugacheva recorded an album in English, released by the World Record Music label in Sweden as "Watch Out" and by the Melodiya label in the Soviet Union as "Alla Pugacheva in Stockholm".


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: In 1969, she married Lithuanian circus performer , and on May 25, 1971 she gave birth to a daughter, Kristina Orbakaitė, who is also a popular singer. Pugacheva divorced Orbakas after four years of marriage in 1973. She married film director Alexander Stefanovich (1945–2021) in 1976 and starred in several of his movies. The union was dissolved in 1980.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: In 1985, Pugacheva married producer Yevgeniy Boldin, with whom she had numerous professional collaborations. She had a working and romantic relationship with a young musician and singer, Vladimir Kuzmin during this period. In 1993, she divorced Yevgeniy Boldin stating that their professional lives interfered too much with their personal life.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: On 23 December 2011, Pugacheva married satirist Maxim Galkin, who is 27 years younger. The couple has twins delivered by a surrogate mother.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: In March 2014, Pugacheva signed a petition against the persecution of Andrei Makarevich, who protested against the annexation of Crimea and war in Donbas.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: In March 2022, Pugacheva and Galkin left Russia for Israel following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. In August 2022, Pugacheva returned to Russia, saying "she would clean up the mess in my head, in people heads". In September 2022, after her husband had been declared a "foreign agent", she spoke out publicly condemning the war and useless deaths of Russian men who are forced to die for illusory reasons. She also demanded Ministry of Justice to declare her a foreign agent, too. Russian authorities began investigating Pugacheva for "discrediting" the Russian military under Russian 2022 war censorship laws. In October 2022, Pugacheva revealed that she had left Russia again for Israel.


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: Pugacheva's most notable title is "People's Artist of the USSR", the highest honor that could be bestowed to a musical artist in the state, awarded to her in 1991. While the lesser titles of "Accomplished Artist of the Russian SFSR", and "People's Artist of the Russian SFSR" had been already awarded to her in 1980 and 1985 respectively, the government was hesitant to award her its highest honor, reportedly largely because of statements and actions on her part that were inconsistent with the Party's agenda. Pugacheva is listed in the Russian Encyclopedia (2005).


title: Alla Pugacheva

text: On 15 April 2009, her 60th birthday President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev awarded Pugacheva the 3rd Degree Order of Merit for the Fatherland.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Joaquin Yuconri Buckley (born April 27, 1994) is an American mixed martial artist who competes in the Middleweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. A professional competitor since 2014, he has also formerly competed for Bellator MMA and Legacy Fighting Alliance.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Buckley was born and grew up in St. Louis, Missouri. His father never in the picture, Joaquin and his mother lived in his grandmother's house for the most part of his youth. Joaquin's mother passed away due to a heart condition when he was in the sixth grade. He started wrestling in Marquette High School, growing interested in mixed martial arts and eventually started training in it after graduating.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Starting his professional career in 2014, Buckley compiled a 10–2 record fighting for Shamrock FC, Bellator MMA, and Legacy Fighting Alliance. During that time, he most notably faced Logan Storley on April 13, 2018, at Bellator 197. He lost the fight by unanimous decision. After two straight TKO wins in LFA, Buckley was signed to the UFC.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Buckley made his UFC debut against Kevin Holland on August 8, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 174, just one week after picking up a win in LFA. He lost the fight via technical knockout in round three.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: A middleweight bout between Abu Azaitar and Joaquin Buckley was expected to take place on October 11, 2020, at . However, Azaitar pulled out on September 26 due to undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Impa Kasanganay. He won the bout via knockout in two in highlight reel fashion, delivering a jumping spinning back kick after Kasangany had caught one of his kicks, knocking him out cold. For this knockout, Buckley not only earned the Performance of the Night bonus, but the video of his knockout win went viral on the internet. The UFC tweet with the video was the most-liked (359,000), most-retweeted (143,000), and most-viewed (12.8 million) tweet in UFC history. The knockout became the UFC's most-watched Instagram video ever with over 17.8 million views. Across three tweets, three Instagram posts, four Facebook posts, and a TikTok video, the Buckley knockout video has generated more than 65 million views and 83 million impressions for the UFC. Rapper Kanye West even used the footage of the knockout to promote the release of a new song.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: In a quick return to the Octagon, Buckley faced Jordan Wright at UFC 255 on November 21, 2020. He won the fight via knockout in round two. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Buckley faced Alessio Di Chirico on January 16, 2021 at UFC on ABC 1. He lost the fight in the first round via a head kick knockout.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Buckley faced Antônio Arroyo on September 18, 2021 at . He won the fight via knockout in round three. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Buckley was scheduled to face Abdul Razak Alhassan on January 15, 2022 at UFC on ESPN 32. However, the pairing was cancelled after Alhassan withdrew for undisclosed reasons and the pair was rescheduled to UFC Fight Night 201. Buckley won the fight via split decision.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Buckley was scheduled to face Abusupiyan Magomedov on June 4, 2022 at UFC Fight Night 207. However, the bout was cancelled for unknown reasons.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Buckley faced Albert Duraev on June 18, 2022 at UFC on ESPN 37. He won the fight via TKO before the third round after the ringside doctor stopped the fight due to Duraev's eye swelling shut. This win earned him his fourth Performance of the Night award.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Buckley faced Nassourdine Imavov on September 3, 2022 at UFC Fight Night 209. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Joaquin Buckley

text: Buckley faced Chris Curtis on December 10, 2022 at UFC 282. He lost the fight via technical knockout in round two.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Amber Lynn (born Laura Lynn Allen; September 3, 1964) is an American pornographic film actress and mainstream actress, radio host, model, exotic dancer, advocate and humanitarian.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Lynn was born Laura Lynn Allen in Orange, California, the youngest daughter of a retired Air Force officer. She has four brothers and an older sister who died at the age of two from an undetected heart defect. When Lynn was three, her parents divorced after it was discovered her father had a family with another woman. Shortly after, Lynn's mother suffered a nervous breakdown, and Lynn was placed in foster care, where she was physically


title: Amber Lynn

text: abused. She was reunited with her mother when she was seven. Shortly after, the two of them were involved in a car accident on the interstate; Lynn was thrown clear of the car and her mother died at the scene.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Lynn and her brothers were placed with her father and his new family; in total there were eight boys and Lynn in the house. When Lynn was eleven, her father died of alcoholism and heart failure. As a teenager, Lynn self-described her change as going from "pudgy kind of bucktoothed" tomboy to a "rocking little body". She started doing fitness modeling, bikini modeling, and hot body contests. She relocated to Hollywood and became a regular at the clubs on Sunset Strip.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Lynn was a bikini and figure model in Los Angeles in the early 1980s; following this she was featured in nude magazine photo spreads for "Penthouse", "Hustler", "Chic", "High Society" and "Club" magazines. Lynn made the transition from nude modeling to pornographic films with an appearance in Bobby Hollander's 1983 feature "Personal Touch 3" in a scene with Craig Roberts, and in the video "Vixens In Heat" release date= December 1983 In 1983, shortly after her photo spread appeared in "Penthouse" magazine, she went to an audition for a movie where the director was a well-known porn veteran. There, in an effort to calm her nervousness, the director offered Lynn a pipe with some freebase cocaine. It was her first encounter with the drug; she later described the feeling of being as "It's as if the birds are singing. The light is brighter. All of a sudden I'm no longer this gangly nervous teenager. I'm sitting there going 'Oh wow!. she has been clean and sober since 2000 and works in the detox of addicts and alcoholics at times.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Lynn was the first female performer to open the door for adult film stars to be featured in dance touring, being recognized for this accomplishment throughout the United States and Canada. Lynn was the highest paid female performer on the strip club circuit, making $32,000 a week.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Lynn has had roles in non-adult films such as "Evils of the Night" (1985) and "52 Pick-Up" (1986), and in the television program "The Man Show" and guest starred as herself in Lionsgate's "Who's Jenna...?" (2018), she was featured as Michael Douglas character’s "Fantasy Lady" in "The Kominsky Method" (2019), and appeared in the documentary "Larry Flynt for President "(2021)


title: Amber Lynn

text: For her 28th birthday in 1992, Lynn hosted a benefit birthday party at the Bel Age hotel in Beverly Hills. The benefit was in honor of The Youth AIDS Foundation of Los Angeles, an organization providing housing and assistance for helping runaways get off the streets and for teenagers with HIV, which was about to go under. An August 1992 issue of the "Los Angeles Times" quoted her statement on page two: "Let's give them food, clothing and shelter and we'll worry about role models later", alongside a shot of her dressed in a formal gown, holding an infant girl. This was a breakthrough moment for how the adult industry was viewed by the mainstream concerning its crossover involvement in children's organizations, as never before had a children's organization knowingly accepted support from the adult entertainment industry.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Lynn has opposed the Los Angeles "Safer Sex in the Adult-Film Industry" initiative, which mandates that actors in adult films shot in Los Angeles County use condoms. She has been involved in the first charity to accept contributions from the adult film industry, Youth AIDS Foundation of Los Angeles, since 1992. She has served as the Sergeant at Arms for APAG Union The Adult Performance Actors Guild a federally recognized union serving artists, and talent in the industry since 2016. She also helps other charities such as Rock Against MS, ACLU, CHLA Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Childhood Cancer Awareness, The Southern California Toy Run and Janie's Fund, Steven Tyler's new organization.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Lynn hosts a weekly TV media podcast talk show called "Rock'N'SeXXXy UnCensored" on United Broadcasting Network, rock-n-sexxxy-uncensored.com, formerly LATalkRadio.com and Stitcher.com. She is a member of the Adult Video News (AVN) Hall of Fame and was awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Free Speech Coalition. She continues to perform as an adult actress.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Amber Lynn is the sister of porn actor Buck Adams. Lynn met porn actor Jamie Gillis on the set of her second-ever pornographic film, and the two began a long-term relationship.


title: Amber Lynn

text: Lynn had her first experience with cocaine on a porn set very early in her career. She eventually became addicted to cocaine, a drug addiction that lasted for nearly two decades. She once said, "I started out drinking Ketel One and slicing off crystals of Peruvian rock. I wound up broken down, drinking Kamchatka Vodka out of a half-pint stashed in the bottom of my purse, with my crack pipe stuffed in the lining of my jacket". She has been clean and sober since 2000, and occasionally works as a personal recovery assistant, helping addicts to detox. She also works in mainstream acting roles, as a webcam model on one of the largest cam sites online, and as a real estate agent specializing in luxury homes.


title: Motte-and-bailey fallacy

text: The motte-and-bailey fallacy (named after the motte-and-bailey castle) is a form of argument and an informal fallacy where an arguer conflates two positions that share similarities, one modest and easy to defend (the "motte") and one much more controversial and harder to defend (the "bailey"). The arguer advances the controversial position, but when challenged, they insist that they are only advancing the more modest position. Upon retreating to the motte, the arguer can claim that the bailey has not been refuted (because the critic refused to attack the motte) or that the critic is unreasonable (by equating an attack on the bailey with an attack on the motte).


title: Motte-and-bailey fallacy

text: Philosopher Nicholas Shackel, who coined the term, prefers to speak of a motte-and-bailey "doctrine" instead of a "fallacy". In 2005, Shackel described the reference to medieval castle defense like this:


title: Motte-and-bailey fallacy

text: Shackel's original impetus was to criticize what he considered duplicitous processes of argumentation in works of academics such as Michel Foucault, David Bloor, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Richard Rorty, and Berger and Luckmann, and in postmodernist discourses in general.


title: Motte-and-bailey fallacy

text: An example given by Shackel is the statement "morality is socially constructed". In this example, the motte is that our beliefs about right and wrong are socially constructed, while the bailey is that there is no such thing as right and wrong.


title: Motte-and-bailey fallacy

text: According to Shackel, David Bloor's strong programme for the sociology of scientific knowledge made use of a motte-and-bailey doctrine when trying to defend his conception of knowledge as "whatever people take to be knowledge", without distinguishing between beliefs that are widely accepted but contrary to reality, and beliefs that correspond to reality. In this instance, the easily defensible motte would be the idea that what we call knowledge is what is commonly accepted as such, but the prized bailey would be that scientific knowledge is no different from other widely accepted beliefs, implying truth and reality play no role in gaining scientific knowledge.


title: Motte-and-bailey fallacy

text: The fallacy has been described as an instance of equivocation, more specifically concept-swapping, which is the substitution of one concept for another without the audience realizing.


title: Motte-and-bailey fallacy

text: In Shackel's original article, he argued that Michel Foucault employed "arbitrary redefinition" of elementary but inherently equivocal terms such as "truth" and "power" in order to create the illusion of "giving a profound but subtle analysis of a taken for granted concept". Shackel labeled this type of strategic rhetorical conflation of the broad colloquial understanding of a term with a technical, artificially stipulated one as "Humpty Dumptying", in reference to an exchange in "Through The Looking-Glass". In Shackel's description, a motte-and-bailey doctrine relies on overawing outsiders with pseudo-profundity, similarly to what Daniel Dennett called a deepity.


title: Motte-and-bailey fallacy

text: Responding to Shackel's use of the motte-and-bailey concept, professor of rhetoric Randy Allen Harris objected to what he saw as the use of the concept to gratuitously violate the principle of charity by distorting other people's arguments and failing to understand the other's position beyond what is required to attack it; Harris criticized such usage of the motte-and-bailey concept for "avoiding a true fight" by portraying the other unfairly, which Harris called the "offensive corollary" of the other's retreat to the defensive motte. In other words, the person who attacks someone else for retreating to the motte could be "just as guilty" of retreating to a "siege engine" instead of engaging in a deeper dialogue with the other "out on the bailey". Harris pleaded for a rhetorical analysis that would explore disagreements more carefully and respectfully.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: The Shadow over Innsmouth is a horror novella by American author H. P. Lovecraft, written in November–December 1931. It forms part of the Cthulhu Mythos, using


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: its motif of a malign undersea civilization, and references several shared elements of the Mythos, including place-names, mythical creatures, and invocations. "The Shadow over Innsmouth" is the only Lovecraft story that was published in book form during his lifetime.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: The narrator is a student conducting an antiquarian tour of New England. He travels through the nearby decrepit seaport of Innsmouth which is suggested as a cheaper and potentially interesting next leg of his journey. There he interacts with strange people and observes disturbing events that ultimately lead to horrifying and personal revelations.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: The narrator explains how he instigated a secret investigation of the decrepit town of Innsmouth, Massachusetts—a former seaport isolated from other nearby towns by vast salt marshes—by the U.S. government after fleeing it on July 16, 1927. The investigation ultimately concluded with the arrest and detention of many of the town's residents in concentration camps as well as a submarine torpedoing nearby Devil Reef, which the press falsely reported as Prohibition liquor raids. The narrator proceeds to describe in detail the events surrounding his initial interest in the town, which lies along the route of his tour across New England, taken when he was a 21-year-old student at Oberlin College.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: While waiting for the bus that will take him to Innsmouth, the narrator busies himself in neighboring Newburyport by gathering information on the town's history from the locals; all of it having superstitious overtones. The town was once a profitable port and shipbuilding center during the colonial and post-revolutionary periods, but began to decline after the War of 1812 interrupted shipping. A local merchant named Obed Marsh built a profitable gold refinery, but the town only deteriorated further after riots and a mysterious epidemic eliminated half of its residents in 1845. Marsh also founded a pagan cult called the Esoteric Order of Dagon, which became the town's primary religion. Outsiders and government officials, including Census Bureau agents and school inspectors, are treated with hostility.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: The narrator finds Innsmouth to be a mostly deserted fishing town, full of dilapidated buildings and people who walk with a distinctive shambling gait and have "queer narrow heads with flat noses and bulgy, stary eyes." Both the town and its residents are saturated with the odor of dead fish. The only resident who appears normal is a grocery store clerk from neighboring Arkham, who was transferred there by the chain. The narrator gathers much information from the clerk, including a map of the town and the name of Zadok Allen, an elderly local who might give him information when plied with drink.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: The narrator meets Zadok, who after the narrator gives him a bottle of whisky explains that while trading in the Caroline Islands Marsh discovered a Kanak tribe in Pohnpei who offered human sacrifices to a race of immortal fish-like humanoids known as the Deep Ones. The Kanak also bred with Deep Ones, producing hybrid offspring which have the appearance of normal humans in childhood and early adulthood but eventually slowly transform into Deep Ones themselves and leave the surface to live in ancient undersea cities for eternity. When hard times fell on the town, Marsh's cult performed similar sacrifices to the Deep Ones in exchange for wealth in the form of large fish hauls and unique jewelry. When Marsh and his followers were arrested, the Deep Ones retaliated by attacking the town and killing more than half of its population.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: The survivors were left with no other choice than to join the cult and continue Marsh's practices. Male and female inhabitants were forced to breed with the Deep Ones, producing hybrids who upon maturing permanently migrate underwater to live in the city of Y'ha-nthlei, located underneath Devil Reef. The town is now dominated by Marsh's grandson Barnabas, who is almost fully transformed into a Deep One. Zadok explains that these ocean-dwellers have designs on the surface world and have been planning the use of shoggoths to conquer or transform it. Zadok sees strange waves approaching the dock and tells the narrator that they have been seen, urging him to leave town immediately. The narrator is unnerved, but ultimately dismisses the story. Once he leaves, Zadok disappears and is never seen again.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: After being told that the bus is experiencing engine trouble, the narrator has no choice but to spend the night in a musty hotel. While attempting to sleep, he hears noises at his door as if someone is trying to enter. Wasting no time, he escapes out a window and through the streets while a town-wide hunt for him occurs, forcing him at times to imitate the peculiar walk of the Innsmouth locals as he walks past search parties in the darkness. Eventually, the narrator makes his way towards railroad tracks and hears a procession of Deep Ones passing in the road before him. Against his judgment, he opens his eyes to see the creatures. He finds that they have grey-green skin, fish-like heads with unblinking eyes, gills on their necks and webbed hands, and communicate in unintelligible croak-like voices. Horrified, the narrator faints but wakes up at noon the next day alone and unharmed.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: After reaching Arkham and alerting government authorities about Innsmouth, the narrator discovers that his grandmother was related to Obed Marsh's family, although the origins of her mother were unclear. The narrator's uncle had previously visited Arkham to research his ancestry before killing himself by gunshot. After returning home to Toledo, the narrator begins researching his family tree and discovers that he is a descendant of Marsh through his second wife Pth’thya-l’yi, and by 1930 begins to gradually transform into a Deep One. He begins having dreams of his grandmother and Pth'thya-l'yi in Y'ha-nthlei, which was damaged but not destroyed by the submarine attack. They explain that the Deep Ones will remain underwater for the time being but will eventually return to invade the surface world "for the tribute Great Cthulhu craved."


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: After briefly glimpsing a shoggoth in one of his dreams, the narrator awakens to find that he has fully acquired the "Innsmouth look." He wants to kill himself and purchases an "automatic" (an antiquated term for a semi-automatic pistol) but cannot go through with it. As the narrator concludes his story, he suffers a mental breakdown and embraces his fate. He decides to break out his cousin, who is even further transformed than he, from a sanatorium in Canton and take him to live in Y'ha-nthlei.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: This is a family tree of the story's protagonist and narrator, Robert Olmstead, as described in "The Shadow over Innsmouth" and in Lovecraft's notes.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: Both of Lovecraft's parents died in a mental hospital, and some critics believe that a concern with having inherited a propensity for physical and mental degeneration is reflected in the plot of "The Shadow over Innsmouth". It also shares some themes with his earlier story, "Facts Concerning the Late Arthur Jermyn and His Family". Cthulhu, an entity from previous Lovecraft stories, is the overlord of the sea creatures. The mind of the narrator deteriorates when he is afforded a glimpse of what exists outside his perceived reality. This is a central tenet of Cosmicism, which Lovecraft emphasizes in the opening sentence of "The Call of Cthulhu": "The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents."


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: Lovecraft based the town of Innsmouth on his impressions of Newburyport, Massachusetts, which he had visited in 1923 and fall 1931. The real Newburyport features as a neighboring town in the narrative. A likely influence on the plot is Lovecraft's horror of miscegenation, which is documented by Lovecraft biographer L. Sprague de Camp and others.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: Robert M. Price cites two works as literary sources for "The Shadow over Innsmouth": Robert W. Chambers' "The Harbor-Master" and Irvin S. Cobb's "Fishhead". Chambers' story concerns the discovery of "the remnants of the last race of amphibious human beings," living in a five-mile deep chasm just off the Atlantic coast. The creature of the title is described as "a man with round, fixed, fishy eyes, and soft, slaty skin. But the horror of the thing were the two gills that swelled and relaxed spasmodically." Lovecraft was evidently impressed by this tale, writing in a letter to Frank Belknap Long: "God! The Harbour-Master!!!" "Fishhead" is the story of a "human monstrosity" with an uncanny resemblance to a fish: his skull sloped back so abruptly that he could hardly be said to have a forehead at all; his chin slanted off right into nothing. His eyes were small and round with shallow, glazed, pink-yellow pupils, and they were set wide apart on his head, and they were unwinking and staring, like a fish's eyes. Lovecraft, in "Supernatural Horror in Literature," called Cobb's story "banefully effective in its portrayal of unnatural affinities between a hybrid idiot and the strange fish of an isolated lake". Price notes that Fishhead, as the "son of a Negro father and a half-breed Indian mother," "embodies unambiguously the basic premise of "The Shadow over Innsmouth"... This, of course, is really what Lovecraft found revolting in the idea of interracial marriage...the subtextual hook of different ethnic races mating and 'polluting' the gene pool." Price points out the resemblance in names between the Deep One city of Y'ha-nthlei and Yoharneth-Lahai, a fictional deity in Lord Dunsany's "The Gods of Pegana," who "sendeth little dreams out of Pegana to please the people of Earth"—a precursor to Lovecraft's fictional deity Cthulhu, who sends less pleasant dreams from R'lyeh.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: The description of the Deep Ones has similarities to the sea creature described in H.G. Wells' short story "In the Abyss" (1896):


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: Lovecraft was quite critical of "The Shadow over Innsmouth", writing to August Derleth that the story "has all the defects I deplore—especially in point of style, where hackneyed phrases & rhythms have crept in despite all precautions... No—I don't intend to offer 'The Shadow over Innsmouth' for publication, for it would stand no chance of acceptance."


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: The story was rejected by "Weird Tales" editor Farnsworth Wright when Derleth surreptitiously submitted it for publication in 1933. "I have read Lovecraft's story...and must confess that it fascinates me," he wrote to Derleth. "But I don't know just what I can do with it. It is hard to break a story of this kind into two parts, and it is too long to run complete in one part."


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: In late 1935, William L. Crawford's Visionary Publishing Company began the process of issuing "The Shadow over Innsmouth" as a book. The project came to fruition in November 1936 (although the copyright page declares the date of publication as April 1936), but the book had so many typographical errors that Lovecraft insisted on an errata sheet (which was also faulty). Lovecraft was displeased with the production; writing to his correspondent Lee McBride White on Nov 30, 1936, he wrote: "My "Shadow over Innsmouth" is now out - but as a first cloth-bound book it doesn't awake any enthusiasm in me. Indeed, it is one of the lousiest jobs I've ever seen - 30 misprints, slovenly format, & loose, slipshod binding. The solitary redeeming feature is the set of Utpatel illustrations - one of which, on the dust wrapper, saves the appearance of the thing..."


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: It had a bound run of 200 copies — the only book of Lovecraft's fiction distributed during his lifetime. Crawford had printed 400 copies but bound only 200; the others were destroyed later. Of this edition Robert Weinberg has written: "Only a few hundred copies of the book were printed, and even less than that were sold, even though it was available at the bargain price of $1 per copy. It featured good paper, black linen binding and four illustrations by Frank Utpatel. The book was the only bound hardcover to appear during Lovecraft's lifetime and became one of the true rarities in the collecting field. Its failure, and the poor sales of third non-fantasy book convinced William Crawford of the futility of his efforts."


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: After Lovecraft's death (and Wright's), the story appeared in an unauthorized abridged version in the January 1942 issue of "Weird Tales".


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: As L Sprague de Camp noted, the action sections of "Innsmouth" are a departure for Lovecraft; the story's tense and memorable siege scene within the titular town's hotel reveals a flair in execution on a par with some of the most compelling chapters of R L Stevenson's "Kidnapped". August Derleth called "The Shadow over Innsmouth" "a dark, brooding story, typical of Lovecraft at his best." Robert Weinberg praised it as "a well-written story". According to de Camp, Lovecraft distrusted his ability to narrate action, and the story is unusual in that Lovecraft includes sustained and effective action writing during the culmination of the events in Innsmouth.


title: The Shadow over Innsmouth

text: "The Shadow over Innsmouth" was republished in a 1994 anthology entitled "Shadows over Innsmouth", containing stories by other authors based on Innsmouth and the Old Ones. The collection was edited by Stephen Jones, and included contributions by Neil Gaiman, Ramsey Campbell, David Sutton, Kim Newman (both as himself and Jack Yeovil), and other authors. There are also two follow-up volumes, also edited by Jones.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: The Kelly Clarkson Show is an American daytime television variety talk show hosted by American singer Kelly Clarkson. It is produced and distributed by NBCUniversal Syndication Studios and features Clarkson interviewing celebrities and segments about "everyday people". Clarkson opens the program with "Kellyoke", a musical performance of a cover version of various songs requested by a member of her audience and ends with her participating in an activity with her guests. "Kellyoke" classic was introduced in season 3, where Clarkson performs her own songs that were not released as singles.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: The series premiered on September 9, 2019, in first-run syndication, with NBC Owned Television Stations serving as its main affiliate base. Filming takes place at the Universal Studios Lot in California.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: "The Kelly Clarkson Show" has earned thirteen Daytime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Talk Show Entertainment, as well as Clarkson winning Outstanding Entertainment Talk Show Host in 2020, 2021, and 2022.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: The program's press release states that "In her new daytime talk show, Kelly Clarkson uses her gift of connection to bring viewers something new: a fun, energetic show that breaks with tradition. In each episode audiences will experience an hour full of remarkable stories, celebrity guests, spontaneous surprises, humor, heart and, of course, good music. It's like a weekday brunch party with a fascinating guest list of people who would otherwise never meet." Clarkson usually performs a cover song in each episode.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: Paul Telegdy, who was NBCUniversal's president of Alternative Programming, had originally scouted Clarkson to serve as a mentor—and later a coach—on NBC's music competition series "The Voice". As part of a corporate restructuring, Telegdy additionally became the head of NBCUniversal's syndication division in late 2016.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: Despite being reluctant at first, Clarkson accepted the offer for the series in an effort to "connect with people, play games, music and find ways to help or give back to communities/organizations." She also sought advice from various television presenters, including Jimmy Fallon, Ellen DeGeneres, and Blake Shelton. On August 6, 2018, it was reported by "Broadcasting & Cable" that Clarkson had filmed a pilot for the talk show that was later offered for syndication, broadcast on another platform, or both. Celebrities such as Josh Groban, Terry Crews, and Chloë Grace Moretz were reported to have participated as her guests on the pilot. She is also accompanied by her touring band for her musical performances in the program, which includes a barn-like studio as a reflection to her "country roots". Clarkson also revealed the talk show will be opened by audience-requested covers of various songs.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: On September 19, 2018, NBC Owned Television Stations announced that it had picked up the program; it replaced Steve Harvey's eponymous talk show on most NBC owned-and-operated stations, with a number of stations owned by E. W. Scripps Company likewise using it as a replacement for that station group's "Pickler & Ben". Alex Duda, previously a showrunner of "The Tyra Banks Show" and Harvey's 2012–2017 talk show, was commissioned to be the program's executive producer. In November 2019, the series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on September 21, 2020.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: Midway through the first season, production on the show was suspended on March 13, 2020, after the World Health Organization announced the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. The show resumed production in April of the same year, with multiple episodes being recorded from Clarkson's home in Montana, then later at her Southern California home. The show continued in production for its first season into August, when traditionally, most syndicated talk shows are dark. Clarkson returned to studio-shot shows in September 2020, with a virtual studio audience.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: On December 15, 2020, the show was renewed for its third and fourth seasons through 2023. The third season premiered on September 13, 2021. The new season marked the return of the live studio audience. The first week of shows for the third season were taped in New York City. The fourth season premiered on September 12, 2022. On November 7, 2022, the show was renewed for its fifth and sixth seasons through 2025.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: For its first season, "The Kelly Clarkson Show" was commissioned for broadcast in virtually all television markets in the United States, with the NBC Owned Television Stations serving as its primary affiliate base, along with the Citytv television system in Canada. The affiliate base also includes stations affiliated with other networks besides NBC. On most NBC stations, it is positioned as a lead-in program to "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", or as a centerpiece program leading into local afternoon newscasts. The series also airs the same day on Bravo as part of its overnight programming, while NBC stations and affiliates carrying "The Kelly Clarkson Show" also have the option to carry a late-night repeat in lieu of a network broadcast of NBC News Now's "Top Story with Tom Llamas". In May 2021, the NBC Owned Television Stations group announced that the show will take over the timeslot of "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" on the ten NBC-owned stations that carry both programs, after "Ellen" final season reruns ended at the start of September 2022.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: Overseas, the Philippines' TAP TV and Singapore's Channel 5 carry the program. Starting on January 15, 2023, the show will begin airing in Australia on the new 7Bravo network.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: Kellyoke is a covers extended play (EP) by American singer Kelly Clarkson, based on the segment of the same name from Clarkson's daytime talk show "The Kelly Clarkson Show". The EP was released on June 9, 2022, through Atlantic Records.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: On November 17, 2022, Music director Jason Halbert and guitarist Jaco Caraco from Kelly's band started a bi-weekly YouTube show called "Kellyoke Afterparty". They sit down and break down a Kellyoke from that week.


title: The Kelly Clarkson Show

text: On its pilot week, "The Kelly Clarkson Show" premiered with over 2.6 million viewers and a 1.6 household rating according to Nielsen Media Research—the best premiere rating for a new first-run syndicated program since "Katie" in 2012.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Viola is a genus of flowering plants in the violet family Violaceae. It is the largest genus in the family, containing between 525 and 600 species. Most species are found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere; however, some are also found in widely divergent areas such as Hawaii, Australasia, and the Andes.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Some "Viola" species are perennial plants, some are annual plants, and a few are small shrubs. Many species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers. In horticulture the term pansy is normally used for those multi-colored, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in bedding. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, including the wild species.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Annual or perennial caulescent or acaulescent (with or without a visible plant stem above the ground) herbs, shrubs or very rarely treelets. In acaulescent taxa the foliage and flowers appear to rise from the ground. The remainder have short stems with foliage and flowers produced in the axils of the leaves (axillary).


title: Viola (plant)

text: "Viola" typically have heart-shaped or reniform (kidney-shaped), scalloped leaves, though a number have linear or palmate leaves. The simple leaves of plants with either habit are arranged alternately; the acaulescent species produce basal rosettes. Plants always have leaves with stipules that are often leaf-like.


title: Viola (plant)

text: The flowers of the vast majority of the species are strongly zygomorphic with bilateral symmetry and solitary, but occasionally form cymes. The flowers are formed from five petals; four are upswept or fan-shaped with two per side, and there is one, broad, lobed lower petal pointing downward. This petal may be slightly or much shorter than the others and is weakly differentiated. The shape of the petals and placement defines many species, for example, some species have a "spur" on the end of each petal while most have a spur on the lower petal. The spur may vary from scarcely exserted (projecting) to very long, such as in "Viola rostrata".


title: Viola (plant)

text: Solitary flowers end long stalks with a pair of bracteoles. The flowers have five sepals that persist after blooming, and in some species the sepals enlarge after blooming. The corolla ranges from white to yellow, orange or various shades of blue and violet or multicolored, often blue and yellow, with or without a yellow throat.


title: Viola (plant)

text: The flowers have five free stamens with short free filaments that are oppressed against the ovary, with a dorsal connective appendage that is large, entire and oblong to ovate. Only the lower two stamens are calcarate (possessing nectary spurs that are inserted on the lowest petal into the spur or a pouch). The styles are filiform (threadlike) or clavate (clubshaped), thickened at their tip, being globose to rostellate (beaked). The stigmas are head-like, narrowed or often beaked. The flowers have a superior ovary with one cell, which has three placentae, containing many ovules.


title: Viola (plant)

text: After flowering, fruit capsules are produced that are thick walled, with few to many seeds per carpel, and dehisce (split open) by way of three valves. On drying, the capsules may eject seeds with considerable force to distances of several meters. The nutlike seeds, which are obovoid to globose, are typically arillate (with a specialized outgrowth) and have straight embryos, flat cotyledons, and soft fleshy endosperm that is oily.


title: Viola (plant)

text: One characteristic of some "Viola" is the elusive scent of their flowers; along with terpenes, a major component of the scent is a ketone compound called ionone, which temporarily desensitizes the receptors of the nose, thus preventing any further scent being detected from the flower until the nerves recover.


title: Viola (plant)

text: First formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 with 19 species, the genus "Viola" bears his botanical authority, L. When Jussieu established the hierarchical system of families (1789), he placed Viola in the Cisti (rock roses), though by 1811 he suggested Viola be separated from these. However, in 1802 Batsch had already established a separate family, which he called Violariae based on Viola as the type genus, with seven other genera. Although Violariae continued to be used by some authors, such as Bentham and Hooker in 1862 (as Violarieae), most authors adopted the alternative name Violaceae, first proposed by de Lamarck and de Candolle in 1805, and Gingins (1823) and Saint-Hilaire (1824).However de Candolle also used Violarieae in his 1824 "Prodromus".


title: Viola (plant)

text: "Viola" is one of about 25 genera and about 600 species in the large eudicot family Violaceae, divided into subfamilies and tribes. While most genera are monotypic, "Viola" is a very large genus, variously circumscribed as having between 500 and 600 species. Historically it was placed in subfamily Violoideae, tribe Violeae. But these divisions have been shown to be artificial and not monophyletic. Molecular phylogenetic studies show that "Viola" occurs in Clade I of the family, as "Viola", "Schweiggeria", "Noisettia" and "Allexis", in which "Schweiggeria" and "Noisettia" are monotypic and form a sister group to "Viola".


title: Viola (plant)

text: "Viola" is a large genus, that has traditionally been treated in sections. One of these was that of Gingins (1823), based on stigma morphology, with five sections ("Nomimium", "Dischidium", "Chamaemelanium", "Melanium", "Leptidium"). The extensive taxonomic studies of Wilhelm Becker, culminating in his 1925 conspectus, resulted in 14 sections and many infrasectional groups. The largest and most diverse, being section "Viola", with 17 subsections. In addition to subsections, series were also described. Alternatively, some authors have preferred to subdivide the genus into subgenera. Subsequent treatments were by Gershoy (1934) and Clausen (1964), using subsections and series. These were all based on morphological characteristics. Subsequent studies using molecular phylogenetic methods, such as that of Ballard et al. (1998) have shown that many of these traditional divisions are not monophyletic, the problem being related to a high degree of hybridization. In particular section "Nomimium" was dismembered into several new sections and transferring part of it to section "Viola". Section Viola "s. lat." is represented by four sections, "Viola" "sensu stricto", "Plagiostigma" "s. str.", "Nosphinium" "sensu lato". and the "V. spathulata" group. In that analysis, the S American sections appear to be the basal groups, starting with "Rubellium", then "Leptidium". However, the exact phylogenetic relationships remain unresolved, as a consequence many different taxonomic nomenclatures are in use, including groupings referred to as Grex. Marcussen et al. place the five S American sections, "Andinium", "Leptidium", "Tridens", "Rubellium" and "Chilenium" at the base of the phylogenetic tree, in that order. These are followed by the single Australian section, "Erpetion", as sister group to "Chilenium", the northern hemisphere sections and finally the single African section, "V. abyssinica". These sections are morphologically, chromosomally, and geographically distinct.


title: Viola (plant)

text: The genus includes dog violets, a group of scentless species which are the most common "Viola" in many areas, sweet violet ("Viola odorata") (named from its sweet scent), and many other species whose common name includes the word "violet". But not other "violets": Neither "Streptocarpus" sect. "Saintpaulia" ("African violets", Gesneriaceae) nor "Erythronium dens-canis" ("dogtooth violets", Liliaceae) are related to "Viola".


title: Viola (plant)

text: One fossil seed of †Viola rimosa has been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland. The genus is thought to have arisen in S America, most likely the Andes.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Habitat fragmentation has been shown to have minimal effect on the genetic diversity and gene flow of the North American woodland violet "Viola pubescens." This may be partially attributed to the ability of "Viola pubescens" to continue to persist within a largely agricultural matrix. This trend of unexpectedly high genetic diversity is also observed in "Viola palmensis", a Canary Island endemic known only from a 15 square kilometer range on La palma island. High levels of genetic diversity within these species indicate that these plants are outcrossing, even though many violet species can produce many clonal offspring throughout the year via cleistogamous flowers. Plants that produce copious amounts of clonal seeds from cleistogamous flowers often experience increased levels of inbreeding. These reportedly high rates of outcrossing and genetic diversity indicate that these violets are strong competitors for pollinators during the early spring when they are in bloom and that those pollinators can travel considerable distances between often fragmented populations.


title: Viola (plant)

text: The worldwide northern temperate distribution of the genus distinguishes it from the remaining largely tropical Violaceae genera, restricted to either Old World or New World species, while in the tropics the distribution is primarily in high mountainous areas. Centres of diversity occur mainly in the northern hemisphere, in mountainous regions of eastern Asia, Melanesia, and southern Europe, but also occur in the Andes and the southern Patagonian cone of South America. One of the highest species concentrations is in the former USSR. Australia is home to a number of "Viola" species, including "Viola hederacea", "Viola betonicifolia" and "Viola banksii", first collected by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander on the Cook voyage to Botany Bay.


title: Viola (plant)

text: "Viola" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the giant leopard moth, large yellow underwing, lesser broad-bordered yellow underwing, high brown fritillary, small pearl-bordered fritillary, pearl-bordered fritillary, regal fritillary, cardinal, and Setaceous Hebrew character. The larvae of many fritilary butterfly species use violets as an obligate host plant, although these butterflies do not always ovaposit directly onto violets. While the ecology of this genera is extremely diverse, violets are mainly pollinated by members within the orders Diptera and Hymenoptera. Showy flowers are produced in early spring, and clonal cleistogamous flowers are produced from late spring until the end of the growing season under favorable conditions. Cleistogamy allows plants to produce offspring year round and have more chances for establishment. This system is especially important in violets, as these plants are often weak competitors for pollination due to their small size.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Many violet species exhibit two modes of seed dispersal. Once seed capsules have matured, seeds are dispelled around the plant through explosive dehiscence. "Viola pedata" seeds have been reported being dispersed distances of up to 5 meters away from the parent plant. Often, seeds are then further dispersed by ants through a process called myrmecochory. Violets whose seeds are dispersed this way have specialized structures on the exterior of the seeds called elaiosomes. This interaction allows violet seed to germinate and establish in a protected, stable environment.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Many violet seeds exhibit physiological dormancy and require some period of cold stratification to induce germination under "ex situ" conditions. Rates of germination are often quite poor, especially when seeds are stored for extended periods of time. In North American habitat restoration, native violets are in high demand due to their relationship with the aforementioned fritillary butterflies.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Violet species occupy a diverse array of habitats, from bogs ("Viola lanceolata") to dry hill prairies ("V. pedata") to woodland understories ("V. labradorica"). While many of these species are indicators of high quality habitat, some violets are capable of thriving in a human altered landscape. Two species of zinc violet ("V. calaminaria" and "V. guestphalica") are capable of living in soils severely contaminated with heavy metals. Many violets form relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and in the case of the zinc violets, this allows them to tolerate such highly contaminated soils.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring and summer. "Viola" are most often spring-blooming with chasmogamous flowers that have well developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers in summer and autumn that do not open and lack petals. In some species the showy chasmogamous flowers are infertile (e.g.,"Viola sororia").


title: Viola (plant)

text: The international registration authority for the genus is the American Violet Society, where growers register new Viola cultivars. A coding system is used for cultivar description of ten horticultural divisions, such as Violet (Vt) and Violetta (Vtta). Examples include "Viola" 'Little David' (Vtta) and "Viola" 'Königin Charlotte' (Vt).


title: Viola (plant)

text: In this system violets (Vt) are defined as "stoloniferous perennials with small, highly fragrant, self-coloured purple, blue or white flowers in late winter and early spring".


title: Viola (plant)

text: Many species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers. In horticulture the term pansy is normally used for those multi-colored, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in bedding. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, including the wild species.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Cultivars of "Viola cornuta", "Viola cucullata", and "Viola odorata", are commonly grown from seed. Other species often grown include "Viola labradorica", "Viola pedata", and "Viola rotundifolia".


title: Viola (plant)

text: The modern garden pansy ("V. "×" wittrockiana") is a plant of complex hybrid origin involving at least three species, "V. tricolor" (wild pansy or heartsease), "V. altaica", and "V. lutea" (mountain pansy). The hybrid horned pansy ("V." × "williamsii") originates from hybridization involving garden pansy and "Viola cornuta".


title: Viola (plant)

text: In 2005 in the United States, "Viola" cultivars (including pansies) were one of the top three bedding plant crops and 111 million dollars worth of flats of "Viola" were produced for the bedding flower market. Pansies and violas used for bedding are generally raised from seed, and F1 hybrid seed strains have been developed which produce compact plants of reasonably consistent flower coloring and appearance. Bedding plants are usually discarded after one growing season.


title: Viola (plant)

text: There are hundreds of perennial viola and violetta cultivars; many of these do not breed true from seed and therefore have to be propagated from cuttings. Violettas can be distinguished from violas by the lack of ray markings on their petals. The following cultivars, of mixed or uncertain parentage, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:


title: Viola (plant)

text: When newly opened, "Viola" flowers may be used to decorate salads or in stuffings for poultry or fish. Soufflés, cream, and similar desserts can be flavoured with essence of "Viola" flowers. The young leaves are edible raw or cooked as a somewhat bland leaf vegetable. The flowers and leaves of the cultivar 'Rebecca', one of the Violetta violets, have a distinct vanilla flavor with hints of wintergreen. The pungent perfume of some varieties of "V. odorata" adds inimitable sweetness to desserts, fruit salads, and teas while the mild pea flavor of "V. tricolor" combines equally well with sweet or savory foods, like grilled meats and steamed vegetables. The heart-shaped leaves of "V. odorata" provide a free source of greens throughout a long growing season, while the petals are used for fragrant flavoring in milk puddings and ice cream or in salads and as garnishes.


title: Viola (plant)

text: A candied violet or crystallized violet is a flower, usually of "Viola odorata", preserved by a coating of egg white and crystallised sugar. Alternatively, hot syrup is poured over the fresh flower (or the flower is immersed in the syrup) and stirred until the sugar recrystallizes and has dried. This method is still used for rose petals and was applied to orange flowers in the past (when almonds or orange peel are treated this way they are called pralines). Candied violets are still made commercially in Toulouse, France, where they are known as "violettes de Toulouse". They are used as decorating cakes or trifles or included in aromatic desserts.


title: Viola (plant)

text: The French are also known for their violet syrup, most commonly made from an extract of violets. In the United States, this French violet syrup is used to make violet scones and marshmallows. "Viola" essence flavours the liqueurs Creme Yvette, Creme de Violette, and Parfait d'Amour. It is also used in confectionery, such as Parma Violets and C. Howard's Violet candies.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Many "Viola" species contain antioxidants called anthocyanins. Fourteen anthocyanins from "V. yedoensis" and "V. prionantha" have been identified. Some anthocyanins show strong antioxidant activities. Most violas tested and many other plants of the family Violaceae contain cyclotides, which have a diverse range of "in vitro" biological activities when isolated from the plant, including uterotonic, anti-HIV, antimicrobial, and insecticidal activities. "Viola canescens," a species from India, exhibited "in vitro" activity against "Trypanosoma cruzi".


title: Viola (plant)

text: Viola has been evaluated in different clinical indications in human studies. A double blind clinical trial showed that the adjuvant use of "Viola odorata" syrup with short-acting β-agonists can improve the cough suppression in children with asthma. In another study intranasal administration of "Viola odorata" extract oil showed to be effective in patients with insomnia. Topical use of an herbal formulation containing "Viola tricolor" extract also showed promising effects in patients with mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis.


title: Viola (plant)

text: "Viola odorata" is used as a source for scents in the perfume industry. Violet is known to have a 'flirty' scent as its fragrance comes and goes. Ionone is present in the flowers, which turns off the ability for humans to smell the fragrant compound for moments at a time.


title: Viola (plant)

text: In the United States, the common blue violet "Viola sororia" is the state flower of Illinois, Rhode Island, New Jersey and Wisconsin, In Canada, the "Viola cucullata" is the provincial flower of New Brunswick adopted in 1936 In the United Kingdom, "Viola riviniana" is the county flower of Lincolnshire.


title: Viola (plant)

text: Violets became symbolically associated with love between women. This connection originates from fragments of a poem by Sappho about a lost love, in which she describes her as "Close by my side you put around yourself [many wreaths] of violets and roses." In another poem, Sappho describes her lost love as wearing "violet tiaras, braided rosebuds, dill and crocus twined around" her neck. In 1926, one of the first plays to involve a lesbian relationship, "La Prisonnière" by Édouard Bourdet, used a bouquet of violets to signify lesbian love.


title: Viola (plant)

text: were sold in fund-raising efforts in Australia and New Zealand on and around Violet Day in commemoration of the lost soldiers of World War I.


title: Edsger W. Dijkstra

text: Edsger Wybe Dijkstra ( ; ; 11 May 1930 – 6 August 2002) was a Dutch computer scientist, programmer, software engineer, systems scientist, and science essayist. He received the 1972 Turing Award for fundamental contributions to developing programming languages, and was the Schlumberger Centennial Chair of Computer Sciences at The University of Texas at Austin from 1984 until 2000.