title: Pudendal nerve

text: The pudendal nerve is the main nerve of the perineum. It carries sensation from the external genitalia of both sexes and the skin around the anus and perineum, as well as the motor supply to various pelvic muscles, including the male or female external urethral sphincter and the external anal sphincter. If damaged, most commonly by childbirth, lesions may cause sensory loss or fecal incontinence. The nerve may be temporarily blocked as part of an anaesthetic procedure.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The pudendal canal that carries the pudendal nerve is also known by the eponymous term "Alcock's canal", after Benjamin Alcock, an Irish anatomist who documented the canal in 1836.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The pudendal nerve is paired, meaning there are two nerves, one on the left and one on the right side of the body. Each is formed as three roots immediately converge above the upper border of the sacrotuberous ligament and the coccygeus muscle. The three roots become two cords when the middle and lower root join to form the lower cord, and these in turn unite to form the pudendal nerve proper just proximal to the sacrospinous ligament. The three roots are derived from the ventral rami of the second, third, and fourth sacral spinal nerves, with the primary contribution coming from the fourth.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The pudendal nerve passes between the piriformis muscle and coccygeus (ischiococcygeus) muscles and leaves the pelvis through the lower part of the greater sciatic foramen. It crosses over the lateral part of the sacrospinous ligament and reenters the pelvis through the lesser sciatic foramen. After reentering the pelvis, it accompanies the internal pudendal artery and internal pudendal vein upwards and forwards along the lateral wall of the ischiorectal fossa, being contained in a sheath of the obturator fascia termed the pudendal canal, along with the internal pudendal blood vessels.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: Inside the pudendal canal, the nerve divides into branches, first giving off the inferior rectal nerve, then the perineal nerve, before continuing as the dorsal nerve of the penis (in males) or the dorsal nerve of the clitoris (in females).


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The nerve is a major branch of the sacral plexus, with fibers originating in Onuf's nucleus in the sacral region of the spinal cord.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The pudendal nerve may vary in its origins. For example, the pudendal nerve may actually originate in the sciatic nerve. Consequently, damage to the sciatic nerve can affect the pudendal nerve as well. Sometimes dorsal rami of the first sacral nerve contribute fibers to the pudendal nerve, and even more rarely .


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The pudendal nerve has both motor and sensory functions. It does not carry parasympathetic fibers but does carry sympathetic fibers.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The pudendal nerve supplies sensation to the penis in males, and to the clitoris in females, which travels through the branches of both the dorsal nerve of the penis and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris. The posterior scrotum in males and the labia in females are also supplied, via the posterior scrotal nerves (males) or posterior labial nerves (females). The pudendal nerve is one of several nerves supplying sensation to these areas. Branches also supply sensation to the anal canal. By providing sensation to the penis and the clitoris, the pudendal nerve is responsible for the afferent component of penile erection and clitoral erection. It is also responsible for ejaculation.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: Branches also innervate muscles of the perineum and the pelvic floor; namely, the bulbospongiosus and the ischiocavernosus muscles respectively, the levator ani muscle (including the Iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus, puborectalis and either pubovaginalis in females or puboprostaticus in males) the external anal sphincter (via the inferior anal branch), and male or female external urethral sphincter.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: As it functions to innervate the external urethral sphincter it is responsible for the tone of the sphincter mediated via acetylcholine release. This means that during periods of increased acetylcholine release the skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter contracts, causing urinary retention. Whereas in periods of decreased acetylcholine release the skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter relaxes, allowing voiding of the bladder to occur. (Clarification: Unlike the internal sphincter muscle, the external sphincter is made of skeletal muscle, therefore it is under voluntary control of the somatic nervous system.)


title: Pudendal nerve

text: A pudendal nerve block, also known as a "saddle nerve block", is a local anesthesia technique used in an obstetric procedure to anesthetize the perineum during labor. In this procedure, an anesthetic agent such as lidocaine is injected through the inner wall of the vagina about the pudendal nerve.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The pudendal nerve can be compressed or stretched, resulting in temporary or permanent neuropathy. Irreversible nerve injury may occur when nerves are stretched by 12% or more of their normal length. If the pelvic floor is over-stretched, acutely (e.g. prolonged or difficult childbirth) or chronically (e.g. chronic straining during defecation caused by constipation), the pudendal nerve is vulnerable to stretch-induced neuropathy. Pudendal nerve entrapment, also known as "Alcock canal syndrome", is very rare and is associated with professional cycling. Systemic diseases such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis can damage the pudendal nerve via demyelination or other mechanisms. A pelvic tumor (most notably a large sacrococcygeal teratoma), or surgery to remove the tumor, can also cause permanent damage.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: Unilateral pudendal nerve neuropathy inconsistently causes fecal incontinence in some, but not others. This is because crossover innervation of the external anal sphincter occurs in some individuals.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The pudendal nerve is difficult to visualize on routine CT or MR imaging, however under CT guidance, a needle may be placed adjacent to the pudendal neurovascular bundle. The ischial spine, an easily identifiable structure on CT, is used as the level of injection. A spinal needle is advanced via the gluteal muscles and advanced within several millimeters of the ischial spine. Contrast (X-ray dye) is then injected, highlighting the nerve in the canal and allowing for confirmation of correct needle placement. The nerve may then be injected with cortisone and local anesthetic to confirm and also treat chronic pain of the external genitalia (known as vulvodynia in females), pelvic and anorectal pain.


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The time taken for a muscle supplied by the pudendal nerve to contract in response to an electrical stimulus applied to the sensory and motor fibers can be quantified. Increased conduction time (terminal motor latency) signifies damage to the nerve. 2 stimulating electrodes and 2 measuring electrodes are mounted on the examiner's gloved finger ("St Mark's electrode").


title: Pudendal nerve

text: The term pudendal comes from Latin "", meaning external genitals, derived from , meaning "parts to be ashamed of". The pudendal canal is also known by the eponymous term "Alcock's canal", after Benjamin Alcock, an Irish anatomist who documented the canal in 1836. Alcock documented the existence of the canal and pudendal nerve in a contribution about iliac arteries in Robert Bentley Todd's "The Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology".


title: Section.80

text: Section.80 is the debut studio album by American rapper Kendrick Lamar. It was released on July 2, 2011, by Top Dawg Entertainment (TDE). In the years leading up to its release, Lamar previously produced various mixtapes under the moniker K.Dot. In 2010, Lamar released "Overly Dedicated", his fourth solo mixtape. Shortly after its release, he began working on "Section.80".


title: Section.80

text: The production of "Section.80" was mainly handled by TDE in-house producers from production group Digi+Phonics, as well as THC, Tommy Black, Wyldfyer, Terrace Martin and J. Cole. A concept album, it features lyrical themes delivered by Lamar such as the 1980s crack epidemic, racism and the medication tolerance of Generation Y. The album features guest appearances from GLC, Colin Munroe, Ashtrobot, BJ the Chicago Kid, Schoolboy Q, Ab-Soul and vocals from late singer-songwriter Alori Joh.


title: Section.80

text: "Section.80" received generally positive reviews from critics upon its release. The album debuted at number 113 on the US "Billboard" 200 and as of February 2014, it has sold 130,000 copies domestically. In April 2017, it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


title: Section.80

text: Prior to the album's release, Kendrick Lamar released various mixtapes under the K.Dot moniker. The first of these mixtapes, titled "Youngest Head Nigga in Charge", landed Lamar a recording contract with Top Dawg Entertainment. Through Top Dawg Entertainment, Lamar would release four mixtapes, including "Overly Dedicated". Lamar felt compelled to create the album after seeing a friend of his go to jail for twenty-five years and experiencing the pain of such an event.


title: Section.80

text: Lamar began working on the album sometime in January 2011. The album was recorded at Top Dawg Studios in Carson, California. Most of the album was written in Lamar's mother's kitchen and his tour bus. While recording the album, Lamar wished for it to be "as organic as possible," at times leaving songs unfinished for extended periods of time.


title: Section.80

text: "Section.80" is a concept album that involves the lives of Tammy and Keisha as it explains the personal hardships in their lives. "Tammy's Song (Her Evils)" revolves around two girls cheating on their boyfriends after discovering they were unfaithful, and eventually sleeping with each other because they can't trust men; "Keisha's Song (Her Pain)" is about a prostitute who seeks comfort and control, only to her demise.


title: Section.80

text: Lamar has stated that he created the album to discuss his generation. Lamar dwells on a variety of subjects, such as the crack epidemic occurred in the 80s and Ronald Reagan.


title: Section.80

text: On "A.D.H.D", Lamar addresses "getting fucked up, going to parties, and just being carefree", while "Kush & Corinthians" notes that justice and morals are rarely cut and dried. The album's lead single and final song, "HiiiPoWeR", explains the "HiiiPoWeR" movement promoted by Lamar and his Top Dawg Entertainment labelmates. The song came from Lamar's interactions with fellow rapper J. Cole and TDE president Punch.


title: Section.80

text: The song "Ronald Reagan Era" features uncredited vocal recordings by RZA, which Kendrick mentions in an Interview with "Complex" in 2011 were orchestrated by DJ Fricktion from London, who at the time was working with RZA on various records.


title: Section.80

text: "Section.80" was released on July 2, 2011. In its first week, the album sold 5,000 copies in the United States and debuted at number 113 on the US "Billboard" 200, with minimal mainstream media promotion and coverage. Within a two-week period, the album sold a total of 9,000 copies in the United States, and as of February 2014, the album has sold 130,000 copies domestically. On April 14, 2017, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over 500,000 units.


title: Section.80

text: "Section.80" was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 80, based on 11 reviews.


title: Section.80

text: Andres Tardio of "HipHopDX" praised the album, writing that Lamar "may have been searching for answers, but that journey allowed him to find out of this year's most outstanding albums with "Section.80"." Reviewing the album for "Pitchfork", Tom Breihan believed that, "self-serious flaws and all, "Section.80" still stands as a powerful document of a tremendously promising young guy figuring out his voice." In the opinion of "XXL" journalist Adam Fleischer, the record reveals "its author's brain is neither lost nor useless, as he weaves together carefully constructed thoughts before spewing raps on each of the project's 16 tracks, ensuring nothing is disposable or without purpose." David Amidon from "PopMatters" compared Lamar to an Ice Cube early in his career, as "he's only telling us what he sees, and while he might not offer solutions as often as [Ice Cube] did, he's certainly able to paint us vivid a picture." Tom Hull said Lamar "runs a song about 'niggas and ho's' so far into the ground he can raise a flagpole in top of it, but also recalls the evils of the Reagan Era, which is pretty good for a guy who was just born as Iran-Contra piled up."


title: Section.80

text: "Pitchfork" placed the album at number 45 on its list of the "Top 50 albums of 2011". "Complex" named the album the 7th best album of 2011. In honor of "Section.80"s fifth anniversary, "Forbes" columnist Ogden Payne wrote an article explaining how the album had propelled Lamar into "hip-hop royalty", deeming it "the genesis to Kendrick Lamar successfully balancing social commentary with mass appeal, while simultaneously laying the foundation for his label as King Kendrick". "NME" placed the album at number three on their list of "101 Albums To Hear Before You Die" in 2014.


title: Dethklok

text: Dethklok is a fictional melodic death metal band featured in the Adult Swim animated television series "Metalocalypse".


title: Dethklok

text: The first official Dethklok album was released on September 25, 2007, entitled "The Dethalbum". The album debuted at number 21 on "Billboard" magazine's Top 200 list. The band released "Dethalbum II" on September 29, 2009, and toured with Mastodon, High on Fire and Converge. The band's third album, "Dethalbum III", was released on October 16, 2012. The soundtrack to the special episode, "" was released on October 29, 2013.


title: Dethklok

text: A real band was set up in order to perform the band's music in live shows. Both bands were created by Brendon Small and Tommy Blacha. The music heard on Metalocalypse is performed by Brendon Small, with others needed for live concerts and albums. On August 25, 2017, Brendon Small released his second solo album, "Brendon Small's Galaktikon II", which is considered to serve as "a new Dethklok album", due to Adult Swim holding the rights to the band name. However, after a five-year absence, the band returned to perform at Adult Swim Festival 2019.


title: Dethklok

text: In the "Metalocalypse" series, Dethklok is depicted as the world's most popular and successful death metal band. The members of Dethklok reside in a colossal, fortress-like castle elevated high above ground called Mordhaus, which serves as their residence as well as their recording studio. Beyond their extremely wealthy financial status, they also oversee a massive personal organization of devoted workers known as Klokateers, who act as their personal servants, as well as their roadies, security personnel, and private military squadron. The band's fan base includes billions of metal fanatics, who frequently endanger themselves to watch the band perform live, as their incredibly expensive shows are frequently held in dangerous locations, and include numerous hazards such as excessive pyrotechnics, aircraft, lasers, and giant bladed pendulums, with many shows concluding in multiple attendee deaths. With their widespread commercial success and lucrative sponsorship contracts, Dethklok is ranked as the world's seventh largest economy by the end of the second season.


title: Dethklok

text: Despite their otherworldly success, the members of Dethklok are often portrayed as incompetent at almost everything not related to their profession. The band struggles to perform everyday tasks, including shopping for groceries, preparing food, and maintaining proper social relationships. Throughout the series, they are often assisted by their manager and lawyer, Charles Foster Offdensen, who frequently attempts to prevent the band from making poor decisions. The band's actions and uncanny misfortune have caught the attention of an Illuminati-style council, known as The Tribunal. The Tribunal is portrayed as Dethklok's antagonist throughout the series, and secretly monitors their actions in almost every episode. They describe Dethklok as the "world's greatest cultural force". The leader of The Tribunal (Mr. Salacia), however, frequently instructs the other members to allow Dethklok to do as they will.


title: Dethklok

text: Nathan Explosion is the frontman, lead vocalist and "lyrical visionary" of Dethklok. Portrayed as a tall and stocky guy with long black hair, black nails, and green eyes, Nathan speaks with a death growl even when not singing. He did not speak a word until he was five years old and in high school excelled only in frog dissection and football. According to his dating profile, Nathan describes his ethnicity as "White/Native American". He was raised in New Port Richey, Florida. He is the lead songwriting force in Dethklok, and uses violent imagery or plot elements when writing and composing song material. Nathan is slightly more sensible than the rest of the band, and a great deal more emotionally stable, though he is still incompetent at most things in life such as the use of a grocery store or reading a cooking recipe. Despite this, he does seem to have some knowledge in specific areas, such as negotiating a contract, extensive knowledge of rock culture, and a proficiency in French. He attempts to get his GED in "Go Forth And Die", and only fails in part due to the band's influence, and in "Fatherklok" tells Murderface not to interfere with Skwisgaar’s father issues. Nathan sometimes acts in a parental manner towards Toki, and in the first episode insisted that the band never drinks before a show (though they had all been drinking all day.)


title: Dethklok

text: Skwisgaar Skwigelf is Dethklok's lead guitarist. He is described as "a handsome guy who thinks he's the greatest thing in the world". Show creator Brendon Small compares Skwisgaar's attitude and technical playing style to Yngwie Malmsteen. He is tall and thin with long blond hair, a studded belt with a skull buckle, and blue eyes. He played a Gibson Explorer for the first three seasons, but switched to the Gibson "Thunderhorse" Explorer for the fourth. He often carries around his guitars even when not playing. He is often referred to as the fastest guitar player in the world. He is depicted as having extreme sexual prowess and a preference for plump or elderly women. Hailing from Sweden, Skwisgaar has a marked Swedish accent and often makes mistakes when conjugating verbs. He is responsible for the majority of the arrangement of Dethklok's songs, writing the guitar lines as well as Murderface's bass lines. Skwisgaar also typically discards and re-records the rhythm guitar (and the bass guitar parts) recorded by Toki Wartooth for Dethklok's albums and frequently belittles him for his guitar playing skills. Nonetheless, when Toki originally auditioned for the band, it was Skwisgaar who requested that Toki be chosen, feeling that no other guitarist made Skwisgaar play as well as he did.


title: Dethklok

text: Toki Wartooth is Dethklok's rhythm guitarist. He typically played a Gibson Flying V, but has switched to the Brendon Small "Snow Falcon" V for the fourth season. A native of "an abandoned town near Lillehammer", Norway, he was forced to constantly perform manual labor by his abusive cultist parents. He has a distinct accent and often inappropriately pluralizes words, but refers to Pickles as "Pickle". Visually, he has a distinct Fu Manchu moustache, long brown hair, and very pale blue eyes. He is also shown to be extremely physically fit, in stark contrast to the rest of his bandmates.


title: Dethklok

text: Pickles is Dethklok's drummer. He was raised in Tomahawk, Wisconsin and speaks with an Upper Midwestern accent. He refers to himself as "very Irish American" and has long red hair, styled into dreadlocks and a comb-over skullet, and green eyes. He is depicted as having an average build with a strong propensity for drugs and alcohol abuse stemming from feelings of resentment towards his family. He comes off as the most socially-capable member of the band, able to grasp most concepts outside the scope of death metal that the other four cannot. In later seasons, this capacity often puts him at odds with Nathan, though ironically they are the only two the others can talk to on certain levels. Charles Offdensen refers to Nathan and Pickles as the "most responsible" members in the group, much to their disdain. Pickles is a multi-talented performer, whom IGN Magazine described as "the band's deepest thinker". Pickles is the former front-man of a group called Snakes 'n' Barrels, providing the vocals and performing as the lead guitarist.


title: Dethklok

text: William Murderface is Dethklok's bassist, who plays a Gibson Thunderbird Studio 5-string. He has brown hair, green eyes, a heavy lateral lisp and a gap in his front teeth. He has tattoos on the top and bottom parts of his abdomen, the top reading "Pobody's Nerfect", and the bottom saying "This Mess Is A Place". When he was a baby, Murderface's father killed his wife – Murderface's mother – with a chainsaw before turning it upon himself in front of Murderface in a grisly murder-suicide (Murderface believes this happened because he was ugly). This left Murderface to be raised by his grandparents.


title: Dethklok

text: Magnus Hammersmith was the first rhythm guitarist of Dethklok, but was kicked out of the band very early for his violent behavior. He returns to antagonize and threaten the band several times.


title: Dethklok

text: In late 2007, Adult Swim organized a promotional tour featuring Dethklok and ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead. The tour comprised performances at twelve college campuses, with tickets available to students only (except for 50 tickets set aside for the UCLA show in the Los Angeles area). The band featured Brendon Small, guitarist Mike Keneally, bassist Bryan Beller and drummer Gene Hoglan. Tour information was made available on Adult Swim's promotional site. In an interview with Ultimate Guitar, Brendon Small described the tour as being "like Gorillaz, with the animated characters" with Small's ensemble of musicians performing visibly.


title: Dethklok

text: In a February 2008 interview on California radio station Indie 103.1 with Full Metal Jackie, plans for a summer 2008 tour were announced. Brendon Small described the tour as being like "a Disney ride but with murder". Dethklok toured the US in June and early July with Chimaira and Soilent Green. In April 2008, 27 seven dates were announced.


title: Dethklok

text: Dethklok performed at Heavy MTL on June 21, 2008. They then toured with Chimaira and Soilent Green during June and July 2008. During the June 5, 2008, show at The Fillmore in San Francisco, an electrical fire broke out during Soilent Green's set. Attendees were hesitant to leave the building thinking that it was part of the show (in their fictional universe, Dethklok is infamous for causing disasters that result in deaths), which created a dangerous situation, but they soon realized that the fire was real and evacuated and the concert was rescheduled.


title: Dethklok

text: Dethklok toured with co-headliner Mastodon, High on Fire, and Converge during October and November 2009. The band performed in San Bernardino on July 9, 2011, at the Mayhem Festival in place of Megadeth. Dethklok played a free show at San Diego Comic Con on July 13, 2012, on the USS Midway. Dethklok was scheduled to play in Toronto, Ontario at the Heavy T.O. festival on August 11, 2012, and also in Montreal, QC at Heavy MTL Festival on August 12, 2012; however, Dethklok's appearances at both festivals were cancelled. Dethklok was also scheduled to play the main stage for both days of Knotfest on August 17 and 18, 2012; however, Dethklok's appearance was cancelled. The band was scheduled to co-headline a tour in North America with Lamb of God (with special guest Gojira) in August 2012; this tour was cancelled due to bail hearings at the time for Randy Blythe in the Czech Republic.


title: Dethklok

text: Dethklok toured North America, in support of "Dethalbum III", with Machine Head, All That Remains and The Black Dahlia Murder during November and December 2012. Bassist Pete Griffin filled in for several shows while Bryan Beller was touring with his band, The Aristocrats.


title: Dethklok

text: Dethklok performed at Festival Supreme on October 25, 2014, in Los Angeles, California. Dethklok then performed at Adult Swim Festival 2019.


title: Dethklok

text: Dethklok received the award for best international band during the 2009 "Revolver" Golden God Awards. A clip of the band's acceptance speech was played after they were announced as the recipients. They were presented the award by Chuck Billy, best known for his work as the vocalist for the thrash metal band Testament. In 2013, "Dethalbum III" won an Independent Music Award for Best Metal/Hardcore Album.


title: Vassal

text: A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. While the rights and obligations of a vassal are called vassalage, and the rights and obligations of a suzerain are called suzerainty.


title: Vassal

text: The obligations of a vassal often included military support by knights in exchange for certain privileges, usually including land held as a tenant or fief. The term is also applied to similar arrangements in other feudal societies.


title: Vassal

text: In fully developed vassalage, the lord and the vassal would take part in a commendation ceremony composed of two parts, the homage and the fealty, including the use of Christian sacraments to show its sacred importance. According to Eginhard's brief description, the "commendatio" made to Pippin the Younger in 757 by Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria, involved the relics of Saints Denis, Rusticus, Éleuthère, Martin, and Germain – apparently assembled at Compiegne for the event. Such refinements were not included from the outset when it was time of crisis, war, hunger, etc. Under feudalism, those who were weakest needed the protection of the knights who owned the weapons and knew how to fight.


title: Vassal

text: Feudal society was increasingly based on the concept of "lordship" (French "seigneur"), which was one of the distinguishing features of the Early Middle Ages and had evolved from times of Late Antiquity.


title: Vassal

text: In the time of Charlemagne (ruled 768–814), the connection slowly developed between vassalage and the grant of land, the main form of wealth at that time. Contemporaneous social developments included agricultural "manorialism" and the social and legal structures labelled — but only since the 18th century — "feudalism". These developments proceeded at different rates in various regions. In Merovingian times (5th century to 752), monarchs would reward only the greatest and most trusted vassals with lands. Even at the most extreme devolution of any remnants of central power, in 10th-century France, the majority of vassals still had no fixed estates.


title: Vassal

text: The stratification of a fighting band of vassals into distinct groups might roughly correlate with the new term "fief" that had started to supersede "benefice" in the 9th century. An "upper" group comprised great territorial magnates, who were strong enough to ensure the inheritance of their benefice to the heirs of their family. A "lower" group consisted of landless knights attached to a count or duke. This social settling process also received impetus in fundamental changes in the conduct of warfare. As co-ordinated cavalry superseded disorganized infantry, armies became more expensive to maintain. A vassal needed economic resources to equip the cavalry he was bound to contribute to his lord to fight his frequent wars. Such resources, in the absence of a money economy, came only from land and its associated assets, which included peasants as well as wood and water.


title: Vassal

text: Many empires have set up vassal states, based on tribes, kingdoms, or city-states, the subjects of which they wish to control without having to conquer or directly govern them. In these cases a subordinate state (such as a dependency, residency, client state or protectorate) has retained internal autonomy, but has lost independence in foreign policy, while also, in many instances, paying formal tribute, or providing troops when requested.


title: Vassal

text: This is a similar relationship to vassals, but vassals hold fiefdoms which are present in the actual territory of the monarch.


title: Vassal

text: In this framework, a "formal colony" or "junior ally" might also be regarded as a vassal state in terms of international relations, analogous to a domestic "fief-holder" or "trustee".


title: Vassal

text: The concept of a vassal state uses the concept of personal vassalry to theorize formally hegemonic relationships between states – even those using non-personal forms of rule. Imperial states to which this terminology has been applied include, for instance: Ancient Rome, the Mongol Empire, Imperial China and the British Empire.


title: Call Jane

text: Call Jane is a 2022 American drama film starring Elizabeth Banks as a suburban housewife in the 1960s who deals with a life-threatening pregnancy. The film also stars Sigourney Weaver, Chris Messina, Kate Mara, Wunmi Mosaku, Cory Michael Smith, Grace Edwards, and John Magaro. It is directed by Phyllis Nagy. The screenplay was written by Hayley Schore and Roshan Sethi.


title: Call Jane

text: It premiered at the 2022 Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2022. It was released in the United States on October 28, 2022, by Roadside Attractions.


title: Call Jane

text: Joy, a traditional housewife in the United States in the 1960s, learns that she is pregnant with a second child but that the pregnancy threatens her life. She comes across the Janes, an underground network of women who take risks to provide abortions to pregnant women.


title: Call Jane

text: The script originally appeared on the 2017 Black List, where it received seven votes. Coincidentally, another script based on the same story, titled "This is Jane" by Daniel Loflin, was also featured on the same Black List, with nine votes.


title: Call Jane

text: It was announced in October 2020 that Elizabeth Banks, Sigourney Weaver, Kate Mara and Rupert Friend had been cast to star in the film. Elisabeth Moss and Susan Sarandon had been initially cast as Joy and Virginia respectively, but both had to exit due to scheduling conflicts. Filming began in Hartford, Connecticut in May 2021, with Wunmi Mosaku joining the cast. In May 2021, Chris Messina, Cory Michael Smith, Aida Turturro, Grace Edwards and Bianca D'Ambrosio joined the cast of the film, with Friend no longer attached.


title: Call Jane

text: It premiered at the 2022 Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2022. On February 4, 2022, Roadside Attractions acquired the film's distribution rights, with plans to release it theatrically in the fall. It was released on October 28, 2022.


title: Call Jane

text: The film partnered with Planned Parenthood and the Abortion Care Network to screen at dozens of American clinics. In a statement by Nagy, the director hoped that screenings would serve as an opportunity to increase awareness around direct abortion care services in the months following the overturning of "Roe v. Wade".


title: Livy

text: Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own lifetime. He was on familiar terms with members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and a friend of Augustus, whose young grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius, he exhorted to take up the writing of history.


title: Livy

text: Livy was born in Patavium in northern Italy, now modern Padua, probably in 59 BC. At the time of his birth, his home city of Patavium was the second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and the largest in the province of Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy). Cisalpine Gaul was merged in Italy proper during his lifetime and its inhabitants were given Roman citizenship by Julius Caesar. In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics. "He was by nature a recluse, mild in temperament and averse to violence; the restorative peace of his time gave him the opportunity to turn all his imaginative passion to the legendary and historical past of the country he loved."


title: Livy

text: Livy's teenage years were during the 40s BC, a period of civil wars throughout the Roman world. The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, Asinius Pollio, tried to sway Patavium into supporting Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), the leader of one of the warring factions. The wealthy citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Pollio then attempted to bribe the slaves of those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the Senate. It is therefore likely that the Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour of Greece, which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time. Many years later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's "patavinity", saying that Livy's Latin showed certain "provincialisms" frowned on at Rome. Pollio's dig may have been the result of bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the civil wars.


title: Livy

text: Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC, and it is likely that he spent a large amount of time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home. During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position. His writings contain elementary mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in the Roman army. However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. It seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown. He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his financial freedom.


title: Livy

text: Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in declamation, then a common pastime. He was familiar with the emperor Augustus and the imperial family. Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death. Suetonius described how Livy encouraged the future emperor Claudius, who was born in 10 BC, to write historiographical works during his childhood.


title: Livy

text: Livy's most famous work was his history of Rome. In it he narrates a complete history of the city of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. Because he was writing under the reign of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor. In Livy's preface to his history, he said that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped to "preserve the memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation." Because Livy was mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true.


title: Livy

text: Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son. He also produced other works, including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely modelled on similar works by Cicero.


title: Livy

text: Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as "History of Rome" (or ). Together with Polybius it is considered one of the main accounts of the Second Punic War.


title: Livy

text: When he began this work he was already past his youth, probably 32; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian. He continued working on it until he left Rome for Padua in his old age, probably in the reign of Tiberius after the death of Augustus. Seneca the Younger says he was an orator and philosopher and had written some historical treatises in those fields.


title: Livy

text: "History of Rome" also served as the driving force behind the "northern theory" regarding the Etruscans' origins. This is because in the book Livy states, "The Greeks also call them the 'Tyrrhene' and the 'Adriatic ... The Alpine tribes are undoubtedly of the same kind, especially the Raetii, who had through the nature of their country become so uncivilized that they retained no trace of their original condition except their language, and even this was not free from corruption". Thus, many scholars, like Karl Otfried Müller, utilized this statement as evidence that the Etruscans or the Tyrrhenians migrated from the north and were descendants of an Alpine tribe known as the Raeti.


title: Livy

text: Livy's "History of Rome" was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so during the early years of the empire. Pliny the Younger reported that Livy's celebrity was so widespread, a man from Cádiz travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting him. Livy's work was a source for the later works of Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius, Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius. Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his "De Prodigiis", an account of supernatural events in Rome from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius.


title: Livy

text: Livy wrote during the reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic, such as Pompey. Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar, had wanted to take the title "Romulus" (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of "Augustus". Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial rule.


title: Livy

text: The historian Tacitus, writing about a century after Livy's time, described the Emperor Augustus as his friend. Describing the trial of Cremutius Cordus, Tacitus represents him as defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows:


title: Livy

text: Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius' reign certainly allow for speculation.


title: Livy

text: During the Middle Ages, due to the length of the work, the literate class was already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost without replacement.


title: Livy

text: The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livian manuscripts. The poet Beccadelli sold a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio. Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched a search for the now missing books. Laurentius Valla published an amended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, the "Discourses on Livy", is presented as a commentary on the "History of Rome". Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights. Walter Scott reports in "Waverley" (1814) as an historical fact that a Scotchman involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in "the hope of recovering his favourite "Titus Livius"".


title: Livy

text: The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of Caesarea, a bishop of the early Christian Church. One of his works was a summary of world history in ancient Greek, termed the "Chronikon," dating from the early 4th century AD. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome. The entire work survives in two separate manuscripts, Armenian and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006). St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist.


title: Livy

text: Eusebius' work consists of two books: the "Chronographia", a summary of history in annalist form, and the "Chronikoi Kanones", tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the "Chronicon", probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in "Jerome's Chronicon."


title: Livy

text: The main problem with the information given in the manuscripts is that, between them, they often give different dates for the same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely, and reformat what they do include. A date may be in "Ab Urbe Condita" or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius.


title: Livy

text: The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger. As a result, standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively. All sources use the same first Olympiad, 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By a complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad), these codes correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC.


title: Danielle Spencer (Australian actress)

text: Spencer is the daughter of Australian songwriter, singer and television entertainer Don Spencer and his wife Julie (née Horsfall), a caterer from Yorkshire. She has an older brother, Dean. At age four, she began piano lessons. During her teens she began acting and composing her own tunes. Until the age of twelve, she spent her childhood and youth alternately in Australia and in Yorkshire and Cambridgeshire, England, as her father worked in both countries for the BBC "Play School".


title: Danielle Spencer (Australian actress)

text: Spencer grew up in close contact with the world of showbusiness. Occasionally she accompanied her father on his performances on stage. She took singing and acting lessons and dance classes in classical ballet and modern dance and jazz. From 1989 to 2000 she worked as an actress, especially for Australian television, primarily as an actress in TV series. Subsequently, the focus of her artistic activity shifted to the area of singer / songwriter.


title: Danielle Spencer (Australian actress)

text: In 2001 she released her debut musical album, "White Monkey". After a family break, in February 2010 she released her second album, "Calling All Magicians". Under the direction of her husband, the music videos were made to the title songs and "Tickle Me" and "Wish I'd Been Here".


title: Danielle Spencer (Australian actress)

text: In August 2011 Spencer for the first time gave two live concerts alongside her husband. The pair joined the musicians and actors Alan Doyle, Kevin Durand, Scott Grimes and the group Size2Shoes to present the Crowe / Doyle Songbook Vol III at St John´s, Newfoundland, Canada. Songs from this album relate, among others, to the novel "Dirt Music" by the Australian novelist Tim Winton. Spencer gives live concerts on a regular basis. For her live concert tour in October 2011, titled "Alone and Together", she joined Australian bass player Steve Balbi.


title: Danielle Spencer (Australian actress)

text: In March 2012, Spencer was announced as a contestant for season 12 of "Dancing with the Stars" on the Seven Network in which she placed second. Her professional partner was Damian Whitewood.


title: Danielle Spencer (Australian actress)

text: Spencer is a supporter of the Australian Children’s Music Foundation (ACMF), an educational program for underprivileged and indigenous children in Australia. She´s supporter of women’s cancer programs as the "Pink Ribbon Breakfast" for breast cancer and "The Girls Night".


title: Danielle Spencer (Australian actress)

text: In 1987 Danielle Spencer starred in "Rasputin" as one of the Tsar's daughters and dated Terry Serio who also starred in the same musical as Prince Felix.


title: Danielle Spencer (Australian actress)

text: Spencer began an on-again, off-again relationship with actor Russell Crowe in 1989, when they co-starred in the movie "The Crossing". The film appeared in Australian cinemas in 1990. Crowe and Spencer married on 7 April 2003 at Crowe's farm in Nana Glen, New South Wales. They have two sons: one born in 2003 and another in 2006. In October 2012, it was reported that Crowe and Spencer had separated. The divorce was finalized in April 2018.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: The legal status of polygamy varies widely around the world. Polygyny is legal in 58 out of nearly 200 sovereign states, the vast majority of them being Muslim-majority countries. Polyandry is illegal in virtually every country and strictly prohibited in Islam. In several non-Muslim countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, including India, Philippines, and Singapore, polygyny is only permitted among the Muslim population. Some countries that permit polygamy have restrictions, such as requiring the first wife to give her consent.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: In countries that ban polygamy, the offence is commonly called bigamy, though the penalty varies between jurisdictions. In some countries where polygamy is illegal, the prohibition is not enforced.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: "Note: These countries are included separately because they have specific legislation aimed only at Muslims."


title: Legality of polygamy

text: Polygamy is more widespread in Africa than in any other continent, being most common in a region known as the "polygamy belt" in West Africa and Central Africa, with the countries estimated to have the highest polygamy prevalence in the world being Burkina Faso, Mali, Gambia, Niger and Nigeria. In the region of sub-Saharan Africa, polygyny is common and deeply rooted in the culture, with 11% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa living in such marriages (25% of the Muslim population and 3% of the Christian population, as of 2019). Polygmous marriages occur, regardless of legality, as the practice is deeply rooted in culture and often supported by Islam in Africa.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: In most countries, a person who marries a person while still being lawfully married to another commits bigamy, a criminal offence, though penalties vary between jurisdictions. Besides, the second and subsequent marriages are considered legally null and void.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: The United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand permit some benefits for spouses of polygamous marriages performed abroad. In the past, Sweden used to recognize polygamous marriages performed abroad; but


title: Legality of polygamy

text: since 2021, Sweden no longer recognizes such marriages, save in exceptional circumstances. In Switzerland polygamous marriages conducted abroad may be accepted or rejected on a case-by-case basis; see § Europe.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: In Canada, both bigamy (article 290 of the Criminal code of Canada)) and "de facto" polygamy (article 293 of the Criminal Code) are illegal, but there are provisions in the property law of at least the Canadian province of Saskatchewan that consider the possibility of "de facto" multiple marriage-like situations (e.g. if an already married person enters into a second common-law relationship situation without first obtaining a legal divorce from their existing spouse).


title: Legality of polygamy

text: The vast majority of sovereign states with a Muslim-majority population recognize polygamous marriages: these states span from the West Africa to Southeast Asia, with the exceptions of Turkey, Tunisia, Albania, Kosovo and Central Asian countries.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: Predominantly Christian nations usually do not allow polygamy, with a handful of exceptions such as the Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and Zambia.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: Almost a dozen countries that do not permit polygamous civil marriages recognize polygamous marriages under customary law. All the northern states in Nigeria governed by Islamic Sharia law recognize polygamous marriages. The autonomous regions of Somaliland and Puntland in northern Somalia also recognize polygamy, as does the country's Transitional Federal Government itself, since the country is governed by Sharia law. The recently independent country of Southern Sudan also recognizes polygamy.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: Polyandry is "de facto" the norm in rural areas of Tibet, although it is illegal under Chinese family law. Polygamy continues in Bhutan in various forms as it has since ancient times. It is also found in parts of Nepal, despite its formal illegality in the country.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: In 2000, the United Nations Human Rights Committee reported that polygamy violates the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), citing concerns that the lack of "equality of treatment with regard to the right to marry" meant that polygamy, restricted to polygyny in practice, violates the dignity of women and should be outlawed. Specifically, the reports to UN Committees have noted violations of the ICCPR due to these inequalities and reports to the General Assembly of the UN have recommended it be outlawed.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: Some countries where polygamy is legal are not signatories of ICCPR, including Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Malaysia, Brunei and South Sudan; so that ICCPR does not apply to these countries. It has been argued by the Department of Justice of Canada that polygyny is a violation of international human rights law.


title: Legality of polygamy

text: The tables below cover recent pieces of legislation that have been either debated, proposed or voted on; all of which concerns a form of polygamous union.


title: Jenette Goldstein

text: Jenette Elise Goldstein (born February 4, 1960) is an American actress. She is known for starring as Private Vasquez in the sci-fi horror film "Aliens" (1986), which won her the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress. She also played Diamondback in "Near Dark" (1987) which earned her a second Saturn Award nomination, Megan Shapiro in "Lethal Weapon 2" (1989) and Janelle Voight in "" (1991). She made a cameo appearance in "Titanic" (1997) and appeared in two episodes of the television series "" (2019).


title: Jenette Goldstein

text: Goldstein was born in Los Angeles, California, and raised in Beverly Hills. Her family is Jewish (from Russia, Morocco, and Brazil).


title: Jenette Goldstein

text: Goldstein's first film role was in James Cameron's "Aliens" (1986), as the character PFC Jenette Vasquez. She also appeared as the vampire Diamondback in "Near Dark" (1987), Officer Meagan Shapiro in "Lethal Weapon 2" (1989), Janelle Voight in "" (1991), the science officer in "Star Trek Generations" (1994), and an Irish immigrant mother in "Titanic" (1997).


title: Jenette Goldstein

text: Goldstein is now the proprietor of the store "Jenette Bras", a large-cup bra specialist known for its slogan "The alphabet starts at 'D'.


title: Orichalcum

text: Orichalcum or aurichalcum is a metal mentioned in several ancient writings, including the story of Atlantis in the "Critias" of Plato. Within the dialogue, Critias (460–403 BC) claims that orichalcum had been considered second only to gold in value and had been found and mined in many parts of Atlantis in ancient times, but that by Critias's own time orichalcum was known only by name.


title: Orichalcum

text: Orichalcum may have been a noble metal such as platinum, as it was supposed to be mined, or one type of bronze or brass or possibly some other metal alloy.


title: Orichalcum

text: The name is derived from the Greek , ' (from , ', mountain and , "", copper), meaning literally "mountain copper".


title: Orichalcum

text: The Romans transliterated "orichalcum" as "aurichalcum", which was thought to mean literally "gold copper". It is known from the writings of Cicero that the metal which they called orichalcum resembled gold in color but had a much lower value. In Virgil's "Aeneid", the breastplate of Turnus is described as "stiff with gold and white orichalc".


title: Orichalcum

text: Orichalcum has been held to be either a gold–copper alloy, a copper–tin or copper–zinc brass, or a metal or metallic alloy no longer known.


title: Orichalcum

text: In later years, "orichalcum" was used to describe the sulfide mineral chalcopyrite and also to describe brass. However, these usages are difficult to reconcile with the claims of Plato's Critias, who states that the metal was "only a name" by his time, while brass and chalcopyrite were very important in the time of Plato, as they still are today.


title: Orichalcum

text: Joseph Needham notes that Bishop Richard Watson, an eighteenth-century professor of chemistry, wrote of an ancient idea that there were "two sorts of brass or orichalcum". Needham also suggests that the Greeks may not have known how orichalcum was made, and that they might even have had an imitation of the original.


title: Orichalcum

text: In 2015, 39 ingots believed to be orichalcum were discovered in a sunken vessel on the coasts of Gela in Sicily which have tentatively been dated at 2,600 years old. They were analyzed with X-ray fluorescence by Dario Panetta of Technologies for Quality and turned out to be an alloy consisting of 75–80% copper, 15–20% zinc, and smaller percentages of nickel, lead, and iron. Another cache of 47 ingots were recovered in February 2016 and found to have similar composition as measured with ICP-OES and ICP-MS: around 65–80% copper, 15–25% zinc, 4-7% lead, 0.5-1% nickel, and trace amounts of Ni, Ag, Sb, As, Bi and other elements.


title: Orichalcum

text: Orichalcum is first mentioned in the 7th century BC by Hesiod, and in the Homeric hymn dedicated to Aphrodite, dated to the 630s.


title: Orichalcum

text: According to the "Critias" of Plato, the inner wall surrounding the citadel of Atlantis with the Temple of Poseidon "flashed with the red light of orichalcum". The interior walls, pillars and floors of the temple were completely covered in orichalcum, and the roof was variegated with gold, silver, and orichalcum. In the center of the temple stood a pillar of orichalcum, on which the laws of Poseidon and records of the first son princes of Poseidon were inscribed.


title: Orichalcum

text: Pliny the Elder points out that orichalcum had lost currency due to the mines being exhausted. Pseudo-Aristotle in "De mirabilibus auscultationibus" (62) describes a type of copper that is "very shiny and white, not because there is tin mixed with it, but because some earth is combined and molten with it." This might be a reference to orichalcum obtained during the smelting of copper with the addition of "cadmia", a kind of earth formerly found on the shores of the Black Sea, which is attributed to be zinc oxide.


title: Orichalcum

text: In numismatics, the term "orichalcum" is used to refer to the golden-colored bronze alloy used for the sestertius and dupondius coins. It is considered more valuable than copper, of which the "as" coin was made.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: Cold Skin is a 2017 French-Spanish science fiction-horror film directed by Xavier Gens and based on the 2002 novel of the same name by Albert Sánchez Piñol. The film was released on 20 October 2017 in Spain. Samuel Goldwyn Films released the film in the United States.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: In 1914, a young Englishman travels to a remote island in the South Atlantic to work for one year as a weather observer. When he and the captain of the ship search for the previous weather observer, they realize he is missing, and the only other inhabitant of the island is the caretaker of the crudely fortified lighthouse, Gruner, who greets them both coldly. Gruner says the previous weather observer cannot return with the ship as he has died from typhus, possibly swimming in the sea, and there is no body. The captain suggests the newcomer leave with him but he refuses.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: The unnamed man explores the island, seeing strange rock circles on the beach. When he returns to the cabin he finds the diary of the previous meteorologist which talks of strange creatures from the sea attacking; soon after reading this he is beset at night by the creatures. He hides in the cellar and jabs one of the creatures, which looks through the floorboards, causing them to flee. The next day he calls to Gruner to let him into the lighthouse, but to no avail. In the cabin he discovers a rifle among the baggage, and, determined to make a stand, he reinforces the cabin. At night the creatures come and he shoots at them. Eventually, he has to resort to starting a fire as there are too many to take on. This causes them to flee but ruins the cabin.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: The next day he observes Gruner leaving the lighthouse, and follows him down to the rocks where he discovers a female sea creature. Gruner prevents him from shooting her and shows that she is 'tame'. Gruner gives the man the name "Friend" and he explains that like a dog she will not leave her master no matter how cruel he is. She licks Friend's wounded hand and it heals.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: Friend offers to share ammunition and other supplies with Gruner if he can stay in the lighthouse, which Gruner accepts. He wonders if the creatures keep coming for the lighthouse because they want to reclaim the female sea creature. More creatures attack that night, but Friend faints and Gruner becomes angry at his uselessness and tells him to do menial activities such as fetch water instead. The next night Gruner locks Friend outside on the balcony with his gun, leaving him to see if he can fend for himself against the creatures. In the morning Gruner discovers him covered in creature blood but alive.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: The two men settle into a routine; the creatures attack several nights and they are forced to constantly keep watch. Friend discovers Gruner has been having sex with the female creature. Friend grows to like the creature, and names her Aneris, while Gruner physically and sexually abuses her. Friend recalls why he came to the island: to find peace in nothingness.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: One night, the duo come perilously close to being killed when they are overrun by creatures. Locking themselves inside the lighthouse light-room, Gruner is badly bitten on the foot as he flees upstairs. At dawn the creatures leave for the sea. Aneris tends Gruner's wounded foot. When Friend tries to signal a passing ship for rescue, Gruner prevents him from doing so, while Aneris tries to protect him, enraging Gruner.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: Friend takes to walking along the beach collecting whale bones and carving them. He shows one shaped like a boat to Aneris and she leads him to an abandoned boat on the beach. He tells Gruner about it but Gruner says the boat is too small for an escape from the island, and that he knew it was there, remaining from when a Portuguese man had used it to escape a shipwreck, but had been killed by the creatures. He says the ship's cargo contained dynamite but the only dynamite the Portuguese man had brought with him had been water-logged.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: Friend shows interest in exploring the shipwreck, while Gruner does not. However, after seeing Friend swimming in a pool with Aneris, Gruner changes his mind due to jealousy, secretly hoping that Friend might die in the attempt. They use the boat to row out to the wreck and Friend dons an old diving suit to go down and search for the dynamite. While recovering some, he sees child-like versions of the creatures playing. Once they return, they discover that the recovered dynamite is dry enough to use.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: Friend and Gruner form a plan to lure as many sea creatures to the lighthouse before setting off dynamite, believing that the show of force will drive them off. Aneris is forced onto the balcony and made to 'sing' to attract them. The creatures attack, but Gruner fails to set off the explosives, forcing Friend to run to the top of the lighthouse to reconnect the detonator. The resulting blast kills many of the creatures. Gruner sets off a secondary set of explosives closer to the lighthouse, knocking both Friend and himself unconscious.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: In the morning, Gruner finishes off the wounded and dying creatures that are lying on the beach with a bayonet. Friend believes the creatures are more civilized than Gruner makes them out to be after seeing one of the dead creatures wearing a necklace. Gruner, enraged, hurls it into the sea. He explains that he found Aneris sea creature years ago as a baby trapped in a net and rescued her, believing that she owes him her life. The following night the creatures do not attack, and a great wailing sound comes from the sea which Friend takes to be mourning. Aneris disappears. While Gruner sleeps, Friend discovers a photo of Gruner as a young man with a wife.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: Friend resumes walking along the beach and leaves a carved present for the creatures. He discovers a child creature investigating his present, and Aneris returns, appearing more confident and bold. They are interrupted by Gruner firing a gun. Friend tries to tell him that the creatures – more of whom have appeared behind Aneris – want a truce. Gruner commands Aneris to return to him but she refuses, causing him to scream that 'no-one leaves Gruner'. He runs back to the lighthouse and shoots a flare at the child, striking him in the chest and killing him. Friend runs after Gruner as he continues to fire flares, and after a struggle throws him to the ground and stabs his leg. Gruner gains the upper hand and attempts to kill Friend with an axe, but Friend reveals that Gruner is the previous meteorologist and urges Gruner to stop, telling him that he is not a murderer. Gruner drops the axe and staggers outside to be killed by the sea creatures.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: Sometime later, the next ship arrives to replace Friend. The captain mistakes him for the lighthouse-keeper Gruner and Friend does not correct him. He maintains the role, contemplating that this is the peace he originally sought.


title: Cold Skin (film)

text: "Cold Skin" has grossed a worldwide total of $737,478. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 48% based on 27 reviews, and an average rating of 6.10/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Cold Skin" exerts a strong visual pull, even if all that icy atmosphere isn't a truly satisfying substitute for a story that dares to go somewhere different." American metal band Cactus Cathedral wrote their song "For A Fool" from their first album The Forgotten Frontier about the film.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Vannevar Bush ( ; March 11, 1890 – June 28, 1974) was an American engineer, inventor and science administrator, who during World War II headed the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), through which almost all wartime military R&D was carried out, including important developments in radar and the initiation and early administration of the Manhattan Project. He emphasized the importance of scientific research to national security and economic well-being, and was chiefly responsible for the movement that led to the creation of the National Science Foundation.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1919, and founded the company that became the Raytheon Company in 1922. Bush became vice president of MIT and dean of the MIT School of Engineering in 1932, and president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1938.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: During his career, Bush patented a string of his own inventions. He is known particularly for his engineering work on analog computers, and for the memex.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a differential analyzer, an analog computer with some digital components that could solve differential equations with as many as 18 independent variables. An offshoot of the work at MIT by Bush and others was the beginning of digital circuit design theory.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: The memex, which he began developing in the 1930s (heavily influenced by Emanuel Goldberg's "Statistical Machine" from 1928) was a hypothetical adjustable microfilm viewer with a structure analogous to that of hypertext. The memex and Bush's 1945 essay "As We May Think" influenced generations of computer scientists, who drew inspiration from his vision of the future.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in 1938, and soon became its chairman. As chairman of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), and later director of OSRD, Bush coordinated the activities of some six thousand leading American scientists in the application of science to warfare. Bush was a well-known policymaker and public intellectual during World War II, when he was in effect the first presidential science advisor. As head of NDRC and OSRD, he initiated the Manhattan Project, and ensured that it received top priority from the highest levels of government. In "Science, The Endless Frontier", his 1945 report to the President of the United States, Bush called for an expansion of government support for science, and he pressed for the creation of the National Science Foundation.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Vannevar Bush was born in Everett, Massachusetts, on March 11, 1890, the third child and only son of Perry Bush, the local Universalist pastor, and his wife Emma Linwood (née Paine). He had two older sisters, Edith and Reba. He was named after John Vannevar, an old friend of the family who had attended Tufts College with Perry. The family moved to Chelsea, Massachusetts, in 1892, and Bush graduated from Chelsea High School in 1909.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: He then attended Tufts College, like his father before him. A popular student, he was vice president of his sophomore class, and president of his junior class. During his senior year, he managed the football team. He became a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, and dated Phoebe Clara Davis, who also came from Chelsea. Tufts allowed students to gain a master's degree in four years simultaneously with a bachelor's degree. For his master's thesis, Bush invented and patented a "profile tracer". This was a mapping device for assisting surveyors that looked like a lawn mower. It had two bicycle wheels, and a pen that plotted the terrain over which it traveled. It was the first of a string of inventions. On graduation in 1913 he received both Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: After graduation, Bush worked at General Electric (GE) in Schenectady, New York, for $14 a week. As a "test man", his job was to assess equipment to ensure that it was safe. He transferred to GE's plant in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, to work on high voltage transformers, but after a fire broke out at the plant, Bush and the other test men were suspended. He returned to Tufts in October 1914 to teach mathematics, and spent the 1915 summer break working at the Brooklyn Navy Yard as an electrical inspector.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush was awarded a $1,500 scholarship to study at Clark University as a doctoral student of Arthur Gordon Webster, but Webster wanted Bush to study acoustics, a popular field at the time that led many to computer science. Bush preferred to quit rather than study a subject that did not interest him.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush subsequently enrolled in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) electrical engineering program. Spurred by the need for enough financial security to marry, he submitted his thesis, entitled "Oscillating-Current Circuits: An Extension of the Theory of Generalized Angular Velocities, with Applications to the Coupled Circuit and the Artificial Transmission Line", in April 1916. His adviser, Arthur Edwin Kennelly, demanded more work from him, but Bush refused, and Kennelly was overruled by the department chairman. Bush received his doctorate in engineering jointly from MIT and Harvard University. He married Phoebe in August 1916. They had two sons: Richard Davis Bush and John Hathaway Bush.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush accepted a job with Tufts, where he became involved with the American Radio and Research Corporation (AMRAD), which began broadcasting music from the campus on March 8, 1916. The station owner, Harold Power, hired him to run the company's laboratory, at a salary greater than that which Bush drew from Tufts. In 1917, following the United States' entry into World War I, he went to work with the National Research Council. He attempted to develop a means of detecting submarines by measuring the disturbance in the Earth's magnetic field. His device worked as designed, but only from a wooden ship; attempts to get it to work on a metal ship such as a destroyer failed.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush left Tufts in 1919, although he remained employed by AMRAD, and joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he worked under Dugald C. Jackson. In 1922, he collaborated with fellow MIT professor William H. Timbie on "Principles of Electrical Engineering", an introductory textbook. AMRAD's lucrative contracts from World War I had been cancelled, and Bush attempted to reverse the company's fortunes by developing a thermostatic switch invented by Al Spencer, an AMRAD technician, on his own time. AMRAD's management was not interested in the device, but had no objection to its sale. Bush found backing from Laurence K. Marshall and Richard S. Aldrich to create the Spencer Thermostat Company, which hired Bush as a consultant. The new company soon had revenues in excess of a million dollars. It merged with General Plate Company to form Metals & Controls Corporation in 1931, and with Texas Instruments in 1959. Texas Instruments sold it to Bain Capital in 2006, and it became a separate company again as Sensata Technologies in 2010.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: In 1924, Bush and Marshall teamed up with physicist Charles G. Smith, who had invented a voltage-regulator tube called the S-tube. The device enabled radios, which had previously required two different types of batteries, to operate from mains power. Marshall had raised $25,000 to set up the American Appliance Company on July 7, 1922, to build silent refrigerators, with Bush and Smith among its five directors, but changed course and renamed it the Raytheon Company, to make and market the S-tube. The venture made Bush wealthy, and Raytheon ultimately became a large electronics company and defense contractor.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a differential analyzer, an analog computer that could solve differential equations with as many as 18 independent variables. This invention arose from previous work performed by Herbert R. Stewart, one of Bush's master's students, who at Bush's suggestion created the integraph, a device for solving first-order differential equations, in 1925. Another student, Harold Hazen, proposed extending the device to handle second-order differential equations. Bush immediately realized the potential of such an invention, for these were much more difficult to solve, but also quite common in physics. Under Bush's supervision, Hazen was able to construct the differential analyzer, a table-like array of shafts and pens that mechanically simulated and plotted the desired equation. Unlike earlier designs that were purely mechanical, the differential analyzer had both electrical and mechanical components. Among the engineers who made use of the differential analyzer was General Electric's Edith Clarke, who used it to solve problems relating to electric power transmission. For developing the differential analyzer, Bush was awarded the Franklin Institute's Louis E. Levy Medal in 1928.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush taught boolean algebra, circuit theory, and operational calculus according to the methods of Oliver Heaviside while Samuel Wesley Stratton was President of MIT. When Harold Jeffreys in Cambridge, England, offered his mathematical treatment in "Operational Methods in Mathematical Physics" (1927), Bush responded with his seminal textbook "Operational Circuit Analysis" (1929) for instructing electrical engineering students. In the preface he wrote:


title: Vannevar Bush

text: An offshoot of the work at MIT was the beginning of digital circuit design theory by one of Bush's graduate students, Claude Shannon. Working on the analytical engine, Shannon described the application of Boolean algebra to electronic circuits in his landmark master's thesis, "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits". In 1935, Bush was approached by OP-20-G, which was searching for an electronic device to aid in codebreaking. Bush was paid a $10,000 fee to design the Rapid Analytical Machine (RAM). The project went over budget and was not delivered until 1938, when it was found to be unreliable in service. Nonetheless, it was an important step toward creating such a device.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: The reform of MIT's administration began in 1930, with the appointment of Karl T. Compton as president. Bush and Compton soon clashed over the issue of limiting the amount of outside consultancy by professors, a battle Bush quickly lost, but the two men soon built a solid professional relationship. Compton appointed Bush to the newly created post of vice president in 1932. That year Bush also became the dean of the MIT School of Engineering. The two positions came with a salary of $12,000 plus $6,000 for expenses per annum.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: The companies Bush helped to found and the technologies he brought to the market made him financially secure, so he was able to pursue academic and scientific studies that he felt made the world better in the years before and after World War II.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: In May 1938, Bush accepted a prestigious appointment as president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington (CIW), which had been founded in Washington, D.C. Also known as the Carnegie Institution for Science, it had an endowment of $33 million, and annually spent $1.5 million in research, most of which was carried out at its eight major laboratories. Bush became its president on January 1, 1939, with a salary of $25,000. He was now able to influence research policy in the United States at the highest level, and could informally advise the government on scientific matters. Bush soon discovered that the CIW had serious financial problems, and he had to ask the Carnegie Corporation for additional funding.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush clashed over leadership of the institute with Cameron Forbes, CIW's chairman of the board, and with his predecessor, John Merriam, who continued to offer unwanted advice. A major embarrassment to them all was Harry H. Laughlin, the head of the Eugenics Record Office, whose activities Merriam had attempted to curtail without success. Bush made it a priority to remove him, regarding him as a scientific fraud, and one of his first acts was to ask for a review of Laughlin's work. In June 1938, Bush asked Laughlin to retire, offering him an annuity, which Laughlin reluctantly accepted. The Eugenics Record Office was renamed the Genetics Record Office, its funding was drastically cut, and it was closed completely in 1944. Senator Robert Reynolds attempted to get Laughlin reinstated, but Bush informed the trustees that an inquiry into Laughlin would "show him to be physically incapable of directing an office, and an investigation of his scientific standing would be equally conclusive."


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush wanted the institute to concentrate on hard science. He gutted Carnegie's archeology program, setting the field back many years in the United States. He saw little value in the humanities and social sciences, and slashed funding for "Isis", a journal dedicated to the history of science and technology and its cultural influence. Bush later explained that "I have a great reservation about these studies where somebody goes out and interviews a bunch of people and reads a lot of stuff and writes a book and puts it on a shelf and nobody ever reads it."


title: Vannevar Bush

text: On August 23, 1938, Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the predecessor of NASA. Its chairman Joseph Sweetman Ames became ill, and Bush, as vice chairman, soon had to act in his place. In December 1938, NACA asked for $11 million to establish a new aeronautical research laboratory in Sunnyvale, California, to supplement the existing Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory. The California location was chosen for its proximity to some of the largest aviation corporations. This decision was supported by the chief of the United States Army Air Corps, Major General Henry H. Arnold, and by the head of the navy's Bureau of Aeronautics, Rear Admiral Arthur B. Cook, who between them were planning to spend $225 million on new aircraft in the year ahead. However, Congress was not convinced of its value, and Bush had to appear before the Senate Appropriations Committee on April 5, 1939. It was a frustrating experience for Bush, since he had never appeared before Congress before, and the senators were not swayed by his arguments. Further lobbying was required before funding for the new center, now known as the Ames Research Center, was finally approved. By this time, war had broken out in Europe, and the inferiority of American aircraft engines was apparent, in particular the Allison V-1710 which performed poorly at high altitudes and had to be removed from the P-51 Mustang in favor of the British Rolls-Royce Merlin engine. The NACA asked for funding to build a third center in Ohio, which became the Glenn Research Center. Following Ames's retirement in October 1939, Bush became chairman of the NACA, with George J. Mead as his deputy. Bush remained a member of the NACA until November 1948.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: During World War I, Bush had become aware of poor cooperation between civilian scientists and the military. Concerned about the lack of coordination in scientific research and the requirements of defense mobilization, Bush proposed the creation of a general directive agency in the federal government, which he discussed with his colleagues. He had the secretary of NACA prepare a draft of the proposed National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) to be presented to Congress, but after the Germans invaded France in May 1940, Bush decided speed was important and approached President Franklin D. Roosevelt directly. Through the President's uncle, Frederic Delano, Bush managed to set up a meeting with Roosevelt on June 12, 1940, to which he brought a single sheet of paper describing the agency. Roosevelt approved the proposal in 15 minutes, writing "OK – FDR" on the sheet.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: With Bush as chairman, the NDRC was functioning even before the agency was officially established by order of the Council of National Defense on June 27, 1940. The organization operated financially on a hand-to-mouth basis with monetary support from the president's emergency fund. Bush appointed four leading scientists to the NDRC: Karl Taylor Compton (president of MIT), James B. Conant (president of Harvard University), Frank B. Jewett (president of the National Academy of Sciences and chairman of the Board of Directors of Bell Laboratories), and Richard C. Tolman (dean of the graduate school at Caltech); Rear Admiral Harold G. Bowen, Sr. and Brigadier General George V. Strong represented the military. The civilians already knew each other well, which allowed the organization to begin functioning immediately. The NDRC established itself in the administration building at the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Each member of the committee was assigned an area of responsibility, while Bush handled coordination. A small number of projects reported to him directly, such as the S-1 Section. Compton's deputy, Alfred Loomis, said that "of the men whose death in the Summer of 1940 would have been the greatest calamity for America, the President is first, and Dr. Bush would be second or third."


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush was fond of saying that "if he made any important contribution to the war effort at all, it would be to get the Army and Navy to tell each other what they were doing." He established a cordial relationship with Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, and Stimson's assistant, Harvey H. Bundy, who found Bush "impatient" and "vain", but said he was "one of the most important, able men I ever knew". Bush's relationship with the navy was more turbulent. Bowen, the director of the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), saw the NDRC as a bureaucratic rival, and recommended abolishing it. A series of bureaucratic battles ended with the NRL placed under the Bureau of Ships, and Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox placing an unsatisfactory fitness report in Bowen's personnel file. After the war, Bowen would again try to create a rival to the NDRC inside the navy.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: On August 31, 1940, Bush met with Henry Tizard, and arranged a series of meetings between the NDRC and the Tizard Mission, a British scientific delegation. At a meeting On September 19, 1940, the Americans described Loomis and Compton's microwave research. They had an experimental 10 cm wavelength short wave radar, but admitted that it did not have enough power and that they were at a dead end. Taffy Bowen and John Cockcroft of the Tizard Mission then produced a cavity magnetron, a device more advanced than anything the Americans had seen, with a power output of around 10 kW at 10 cm, enough to spot the periscope of a surfaced submarine at night from an aircraft. To exploit the invention, Bush decided to create a special laboratory. The NDRC allocated the new laboratory a budget of $455,000 for its first year. Loomis suggested that the lab should be run by the Carnegie Institution, but Bush convinced him that it would best be run by MIT. The Radiation Laboratory, as it came to be known, tested its airborne radar from an Army B-18 on March 27, 1941. By mid-1941, it had developed SCR-584 radar, a mobile radar fire control system for antiaircraft guns.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: In September 1940, Norbert Wiener approached Bush with a proposal to build a digital computer. Bush declined to provide NDRC funding for it on the grounds that he did not believe that it could be completed before the end of the war. The supporters of digital computers were disappointed at the decision, which they attributed to a preference for outmoded analog technology. In June 1943, the Army provided $500,000 to build the computer, which became ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic computer. Having delayed its funding, Bush's prediction proved correct as ENIAC was not completed until December 1945, after the war had ended. His critics saw his attitude as a failure of vision.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: On June 28, 1941, Roosevelt established the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) with the signing of Executive Order 8807. Bush became director of the OSRD while Conant succeeded him as chairman of the NDRC, which was subsumed into the OSRD. The OSRD was on a firmer financial footing than the NDRC since it received funding from Congress, and had the resources and the authority to develop weapons and technologies with or without the military. Furthermore, the OSRD had a broader mandate than the NDRC, moving into additional areas such as medical research and the mass production of penicillin and sulfa drugs. The organization grew to 850 full-time employees, and produced between 30,000 and 35,000 reports. The OSRD was involved in some 2,500 contracts, worth in excess of $536 million.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush's method of management at the OSRD was to direct overall policy, while delegating supervision of divisions to qualified colleagues and letting them do their jobs without interference. He attempted to interpret the mandate of the OSRD as narrowly as possible to avoid overtaxing his office and to prevent duplicating the efforts of other agencies. Bush would often ask: "Will it help to win a war; "this" war?" Other challenges involved obtaining adequate funds from the president and Congress and determining apportionment of research among government, academic, and industrial facilities. His most difficult problems, and also greatest successes, were keeping the confidence of the military, which distrusted the ability of civilians to observe security regulations and devise practical solutions, and opposing conscription of young scientists into the armed forces. This became especially difficult as the army's manpower crisis really began to bite in 1944. In all, the OSRD requested deferments for some 9,725 employees of OSRD contractors, of which all but 63 were granted. In his obituary, "The New York Times" described Bush as "a master craftsman at steering around obstacles, whether they were technical or political or bull-headed generals and admirals."


title: Vannevar Bush

text: In August 1940, the NDRC began work on a proximity fuze, a fuze inside an artillery shell that would explode when it came close to its target. A radar set, along with the batteries to power it, was miniaturized to fit inside a shell, and its glass vacuum tubes designed to withstand the 20,000 g-force of being fired from a gun and 500 rotations per second in flight. Unlike normal radar, the proximity fuze sent out a continuous signal rather than short pulses. The NDRC created a special Section T chaired by Merle Tuve of the CIW, with Commander William S. Parsons as special assistant to Bush and liaison between the NDRC and the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd). One of CIW staff members that Tuve recruited to Section T in 1940 was James Van Allen. In April 1942, Bush placed Section T directly under the OSRD, and Parsons in charge. The research effort remained under Tuve but moved to the Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), where Parsons was BuOrd's representative. In August 1942, a live firing test was conducted with the newly commissioned cruiser ; three pilotless drones were shot down in succession.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: To preserve the secret of the proximity fuze, its use was initially permitted only over water, where a dud round could not fall into enemy hands. In late 1943, the Army obtained permission to use the weapon over land. The proximity fuze proved particularly effective against the V-1 flying bomb over England, and later Antwerp, in 1944. A version was also developed for use with howitzers against ground targets. Bush met with the Joint Chiefs of Staff in October 1944 to press for its use, arguing that the Germans would be unable to copy and produce it before the war was over. Eventually, the Joint Chiefs agreed to allow its employment from December 25. In response to the German Ardennes Offensive on December 16, 1944, the immediate use of the proximity fuze was authorized, and it went into action with deadly effect. By the end of 1944, proximity fuzes were coming off the production lines at the rate of 40,000 per day. "If one looks at the proximity fuze program as a whole," historian James Phinney Baxter III wrote, "the magnitude and complexity of the effort rank it among the three or four most extraordinary scientific achievements of the war."


title: Vannevar Bush

text: The German V-1 flying bomb demonstrated a serious omission in OSRD's portfolio: guided missiles. While the OSRD had some success developing unguided rockets, it had nothing comparable to the V-1, the V-2 or the Henschel Hs 293 air-to-ship gliding guided bomb. Although the United States trailed the Germans and Japanese in several areas, this represented an entire field that had been left to the enemy. Bush did not seek the advice of Dr. Robert H. Goddard. Goddard would come to be regarded as America's pioneer of rocketry, but many contemporaries regarded him as a crank. Before the war, Bush had gone on the record as saying, "I don't understand how a serious scientist or engineer can play around with rockets", but in May 1944, he was forced to travel to London to warn General Dwight Eisenhower of the danger posed by the V-1 and V-2. Bush could only recommend that the launch sites be bombed, which was done.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush played a critical role in persuading the United States government to undertake a crash program to create an atomic bomb. When the NDRC was formed, the Committee on Uranium was placed under it, reporting directly to Bush as the Uranium Committee. Bush reorganized the committee, strengthening its scientific component by adding Tuve, George B. Pegram, Jesse W. Beams, Ross Gunn and Harold Urey. When the OSRD was formed in June 1941, the Uranium Committee was again placed directly under Bush. For security reasons, its name was changed to the Section S-1.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush met with Roosevelt and Vice President Henry A. Wallace on October 9, 1941, to discuss the project. He briefed Roosevelt on Tube Alloys, the British atomic bomb project and its Maud Committee, which had concluded that an atomic bomb was feasible, and on the German nuclear energy project, about which little was known. Roosevelt approved and expedited the atomic program. To control it, he created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself—although he never attended a meeting—Wallace, Bush, Conant, Stimson and the Chief of Staff of the Army, General George Marshall. On Bush's advice, Roosevelt chose the army to run the project rather than the navy, although the navy had shown far more interest in the field, and was already conducting research into atomic energy for powering ships. Bush's negative experiences with the Navy had convinced him that it would not listen to his advice, and could not handle large-scale construction projects.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: In March 1942, Bush sent a report to Roosevelt outlining work by Robert Oppenheimer on the nuclear cross section of uranium-235. Oppenheimer's calculations, which Bush had George Kistiakowsky check, estimated that the critical mass of a sphere of Uranium-235 was in the range of 2.5 to 5 kilograms, with a destructive power of around 2,000 tons of TNT. Moreover, it appeared that plutonium might be even more fissile. After conferring with Brigadier General Lucius D. Clay about the construction requirements, Bush drew up a submission for $85 million in fiscal year 1943 for four pilot plants, which he forwarded to Roosevelt on June 17, 1942. With the Army on board, Bush moved to streamline oversight of the project by the OSRD, replacing the Section S-1 with a new S-1 Executive Committee.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush soon became dissatisfied with the dilatory way the project was run, with its indecisiveness over the selection of sites for the pilot plants. He was particularly disturbed at the allocation of an AA-3 priority, which would delay completion of the pilot plants by three months. Bush complained about these problems to Bundy and Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson. Major General Brehon B. Somervell, the commander of the army's Services of Supply, appointed Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves as project director in September. Within days of taking over, Groves approved the proposed site at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and obtained a AAA priority. At a meeting in Stimson's office on September 23 attended by Bundy, Bush, Conant, Groves, Marshall Somervell and Stimson, Bush put forward his proposal for steering the project by a small committee answerable to the Top Policy Group. The meeting agreed with Bush, and created a Military Policy Committee chaired by him, with Somervell's chief of staff, Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer, representing the army, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell representing the navy.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: At the meeting with Roosevelt on October 9, 1941, Bush advocated cooperating with the United Kingdom, and he began corresponding with his British counterpart, Sir John Anderson. But by October 1942, Conant and Bush agreed that a joint project would pose security risks and be more complicated to manage. Roosevelt approved a Military Policy Committee recommendation stating that information given to the British should be limited to technologies that they were actively working on and should not extend to post-war developments. In July 1943, on a visit to London to learn about British progress on antisubmarine technology, Bush, Stimson, and Bundy met with Anderson, Lord Cherwell, and Winston Churchill at 10 Downing Street. At the meeting, Churchill forcefully pressed for a renewal of interchange, while Bush defended current policy. Only when he returned to Washington did he discover that Roosevelt had agreed with the British. The Quebec Agreement merged the two atomic bomb projects, creating the Combined Policy Committee with Stimson, Bush and Conant as United States representatives.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush appeared on the cover of "Time" magazine on April 3, 1944. He toured the Western Front in October 1944, and spoke to ordnance officers, but no senior commander would meet with him. He was able to meet with Samuel Goudsmit and other members of the Alsos Mission, who assured him that there was no danger from the German project; he conveyed this assessment to Lieutenant General Bedell Smith. In May 1945, Bush became part of the Interim Committee formed to advise the new president, Harry S. Truman, on nuclear weapons. It advised that the atomic bomb should be used against an industrial target in Japan as soon as possible and without warning. Bush was present at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on July 16, 1945, for the Trinity nuclear test, the first detonation of an atomic bomb. Afterwards, he took his hat off to Oppenheimer in tribute.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Before the end of the Second World War, Bush and Conant had foreseen and sought to avoid a possible nuclear arms race. Bush proposed international scientific openness and information sharing as a method of self-regulation for the scientific community, to prevent any one political group gaining a scientific advantage. Before nuclear research became public knowledge, Bush used the development of biological weapons as a model for the discussion of similar issues, an "opening wedge". He was less successful in promoting his ideas in peacetime with President Harry Truman, than he had been under wartime conditions with Roosevelt.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: In "As We May Think", an essay published by the "Atlantic Monthly" in July 1945, Bush wrote: "This has not been a scientist's war; it has been a war in which all have had a part. The scientists, burying their old professional competition in the demand of a common cause, have shared greatly and learned much. It has been exhilarating to work in effective partnership."


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Bush introduced the concept of the memex during the 1930s, which he imagined as a form of memory augmentation involving a microfilm-based "device in which an individual stores all his books, records, and communications, and which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory." He wanted the memex to emulate the way the brain links data by association rather than by indexes and traditional, hierarchical storage paradigms, and be easily accessed as "a future device for individual use ... a sort of mechanized private file and library" in the shape of a desk. The memex was also intended as a tool to study the brain itself.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: After thinking about the potential of augmented memory for several years, Bush set out his thoughts at length in "As We May Think", predicting that "wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready made with a mesh of associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified". "As We May Think" was published in the July 1945 issue of "The Atlantic". A few months later, "Life" magazine published a condensed version of "As We May Think", accompanied by several illustrations showing the possible appearance of a memex machine and its companion devices.


title: Vannevar Bush

text: Shortly after "As We May Think" was originally published, Douglas Engelbart read it, and with Bush's visions in mind, commenced work that would later lead to the invention of the mouse. Ted Nelson, who coined the terms "hypertext" and "hypermedia", was also greatly influenced by Bush's essay.