title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph ran the finals in the 100-meter dash in a wind-aided time of 11.0 seconds. (The record-setting time was not credited as a world record, because the wind, at per second, exceeded the maximum of .) Rudolph became the first American woman to win a gold medal in the 100-meter race since Helen Stephens's win in the 1936 Summer Olympics. Rudolph won another gold medal in the finals of the 200-meter dash with a time of 24.0 seconds, after setting a new Olympic record of 23.2 seconds in the opening heat. After these wins she was hailed throughout the world as "the fastest woman in history."


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: On September 7, 1960, the temperature climbed toward as thousands of spectators jammed the stadium. Rudolph combined efforts with her Olympic teammates from Tennessee State—Martha Hudson, Lucinda Williams, and Barbara Jones—to win the 4 × 100-meter relays with a time of 44.5 seconds, after setting a world record of 44.4 seconds in the semifinals. Rudolph ran the anchor leg for the American team in the finals and nearly dropped the baton after a pass from Williams, but she overtook Germany's anchor leg to win the relay in a close finish. Rudolph had a special, personal reason to hope for victory—to pay tribute to Jesse Owens, the celebrated American athlete and star of the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany, who had been her inspiration.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph was one of the most popular athletes of the 1960 Rome Olympics and emerged from the Olympic Games as "The Tornado, the fastest woman on earth." The Italians nicknamed her "La Gazzella Nera" ("The Black Gazelle"). The French called her "La Perle Noire" ("The Black Pearl"), as well as "La Chattanooga Choo-Choo. Along with other 1960 Olympic athletes such as Cassius Clay (later known as Muhammad Ali), Oscar Robertson, and Rafer Johnson, Rudolph became an international star due to the first worldwide television coverage of the Olympics that year. The 1960 Rome Olympics launched Rudolph into the public spotlight and the media cast her as America's athletic "leading lady" and a "queen," with praises of her athletic accomplishments as well as her feminine beauty and poise.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph returned home to Clarksville after completing a post-games European tour, where she and her Olympic teammates competed in meets in London, West Germany, the Netherlands, and at other venues in Europe. Rudolph's hometown of Clarksville celebrated "Welcome Wilma Day" on October 4, 1960, with a full day of festivities. Because Rudolph adamantly insisted, her homecoming parade and banquet became the first fully integrated municipal event in the city's history. An estimated 1,100 attended the banquet in her honor and thousands lined the city streets to watch the parade.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph's gold-medal victories in Rome also "propelled her to become one of the most highly visible black women across the United States and around the world." Her Olympic star status also "gave an enormous boost to the indoor track circuit in the months following the Olympic Games in Rome." In 1961 Rudolph competed in the prestigious, Los Angeles Invitational indoor track meet, where thousands turned out to watch her run. Besides, she was invited to compete in New York Athletic Club track events and became the first woman invited to compete at the Millrose Games. Rudolph was also invited to compete at the Penn Relays and the Drake Relays, among others.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Following her Olympic victories, the United States Information Agency made a ten-minute documentary film, "Wilma Rudolph: Olympic Champion" (1961), to highlight her accomplishments on the track. Rudolph's appearance in 1960 on "To Tell the Truth", an American television game show, and later as a guest on "The Ed Sullivan Show" also helped promote her status as an iconic sports star.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: In 1961 Rudolph married William Ward, a North Carolina College at Durham track team member; they divorced in 1963. In the interim, Rudolph retired from track competition at the age of twenty-two, following victories in the 100-meter and 4 x 100-meter-relay races at the U.S.–Soviet meet at Stanford University in 1962. At the time of her retirement, Rudolph was still the world record-holder in the 100-meter (11.2 seconds set on July 19, 1961), 200-meter (22.9 seconds set on July 9, 1960), and 4 x 100-meter-relay events. She had also won seven national AAU sprint titles and set the women's indoor track record of 6.9 seconds in the 60-yard dash. As Rudolph explained it, she retired at the peak of her athletic career because she wanted to leave the sport while still at her best. As such, she did not compete at the 1964 Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo, Japan, saying, "If I won two gold medals, there would be something lacking. I'll stick with the glory I've already won like Jesse Owens did in 1936."


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: After retiring from competition, Rudolph continued her education at Tennessee State and earned a bachelor's degree in elementary education in 1963. That year she also made a month-long trip to West Africa as a goodwill ambassador for the U.S State Department. Rudolph served as U.S. representative to the 1963 Friendship Games in Dakar, Senegal, and visited Ghana, Guinea, Mali, and Upper Volta, where she attended sporting events, visited schools, and made guest appearances on television and radio broadcasts. She also attended the premiere of the U.S. Information Agency's documentary film that highlighted her track career.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: In May 1963, a few weeks after returning from Africa, Rudolph participated in a civil rights protest in her hometown of Clarksville to desegregate one of the city's restaurants. Within a short time, the mayor announced that the city's public facilities, including its restaurants, would become fully integrated. Rudolph also married Robert Eldridge, who had fathered her child when she was in high school, later that year. The couple had three additional children, but divorced after seventeen years of marriage.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph did not earn significant money as an amateur athlete and shifted to a career in teaching and coaching after her retirement from track competition. She began as a second-grade teacher at Cobb Elementary School, where she had attended as a child, and coached track at Burt High School, where she had once been a student-athlete herself, but conflict forced her to leave the position.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph moved several times over the years and lived in various places such as Chicago, Illinois; Indianapolis, Indiana; Saint Louis, Missouri; Detroit, Michigan; Tennessee; California; and Maine.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph's autobiography, "Wilma: The Story of Wilma Rudolph", was published in 1977. It served as the basis for several other publications and films. By 2014 at least twenty-one books on Rudolph's life had been published for children from pre-school youth to high school students.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: In addition to teaching, Rudolph worked for nonprofit organizations and government-sponsored projects that supported athletic development among American children. In Boston, Massachusetts, she became involved in the federal Job Corps program, and in 1967 served as a track specialist for Operation Champion. In 1981 Rudolph established and led the Wilma Rudolph Foundation, a nonprofit organization based in Indianapolis, Indiana, that trains youth athletes. In 1987 Rudolph joined DePauw University in Greencastle, Indiana, as director of its women's track program and served as a consultant on minority affairs to the university's president.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: She went on to host a local television show in Indianapolis. Rudolph was also a publicist for Universal Studios as well as a television sports commentator for ABC Sports during the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, California, and lit the cauldron to open the Pan American Games in Indianapolis in 1987 in front of 80,000 spectators at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. In 1992, two years before her untimely death, Rudolph became a vice president at Nashville's Baptist Hospital.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph dated boxing legend Muhammad Ali during the early 1960s. She was married twice, with both marriages ending in divorce. On October 14, 1961, she married William "Willie" Ward, a member of the North Carolina College at Durham track team. They divorced in May 1963. After her graduation from Tennessee State in 1963 Rudolph married Robert Eldridge, her high school sweetheart, with whom she already had a daughter, Yolanda, born in 1958. Rudolph and Eldridge had four children: two daughters (Yolanda, born in 1958, and Djuanna, born in 1964) and two sons (Robert Jr., born in 1965, and Xurry, born in 1971). The seventeen-year marriage ended in divorce.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: In July 1994 (shortly after her mother's death), Rudolph was diagnosed with brain cancer. She also had been diagnosed with throat cancer. Her condition deteriorated rapidly, and she died on November 12, 1994, at the age of fifty-four, at her home in Brentwood, a suburb of Nashville, Tennessee.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph's legacy lies in her efforts to overcome obstacles that included childhood illnesses and a physical disability to become the fastest woman runner in the world in 1960. At the 1960 Rome Olympics, she became the first American woman to win three gold medals in a single Olympiad. Rudolph was one of the first role models for black and female athletes. Her Olympic success "gave a tremendous boost to women's track in the United States." Rudolph's celebrity also caused gender barriers to be broken at previously all-male track and field events such as the Millrose Games.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: In addition to her athletic accomplishments, Rudolph is remembered for her contributions to youth, including founding and heading the Wilma Rudolph Foundation, which trains youth athletes. Her life is remembered in numerous publications, especially books for young readers. Rudolph's life has been featured in documentary films and made-for-television movies too:


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Rudolph was named United Press International Athlete of the Year (1960) and Associated Press Woman Athlete of the Year (1960 and 1961). She was also the recipient of the James E. Sullivan Award (1960) for the top amateur athlete in the United States and the Babe Didrikson Zaharias Award (1962). In addition, Rudolph had


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: a private meeting with President John F. Kennedy in the Oval Office. Rudolph was also honored with the National Sports Award (1993).


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: In 1984, the Women's Sports Foundation selected Rudolph as one of the five greatest women athletes in the United States. In 1996, the foundation presented its first Wilma Rudolph Courage Award to Jackie Joyner-Kersee.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: In 1994, a portion of U.S. Route 79 was named Wilma Rudolph Boulevard, extending from Interstate 24, exit 4, in Clarksville to the Red River (Lynnwood-Tarpley) bridge near the Kraft Street intersection. On November 21, 1995, the Wilma Rudolph Memorial Commission placed a black marble marker at her grave site in Edgefield Missionary Baptist Church. In April 1996, a life-size bronze statue of Rudolph was erected "at the southern end of the Cumberland River Walk at the base of the Pedestrian Overpass" at College Street and Riverside Drive in Clarksville.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: In 2012, the city of Clarksville, TN built the Wilma Rudolph Event Center, located at Liberty Park on Cumberland Drive. The life-size bronze statue was moved there from its previous location at Riverside Drive, and stands there now near the entrance of the building.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: On December 2, 1980, Tennessee State University named its indoor track in Rudolph's honor. On August 11, 1995 (nine months after Rudolph's death), Tennessee State University dedicated a new, six-story dormitory as the Wilma G. Rudolph Residence Center. The building houses upper class and graduate women. It provides Wi-Fi access and includes a computer lab, beauty salon, and cafeteria. In 1997, Governor Don Sundquist proclaimed that June 23 be known as "Wilma Rudolph Day" in Tennessee.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: The December 29, 1999, issue of "Sports Illustrated" ranked Rudolph first on its list of the top fifty greatest sports figures of the twentieth-century from Tennessee. ESPN ranked Rudolph forty-first in its listing of the twentieth century's greatest athletes.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: Following the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Berlin in 1994, Berlin American High School (BAHS) was turned over to the people of Berlin and became the "Gesamtschule Am Hegewinkel". The school was renamed the "Wilma Rudolph Oberschule" in her honor in summer 2000.


title: Wilma Rudolph

text: On July 14, 2004, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 23-cent postage stamp, the fifth in its Distinguished Americans series, in recognition of her accomplishments.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Dolores Claiborne is a 1995 American psychological thriller drama film directed by Taylor Hackford and starring Kathy Bates, Jennifer Jason Leigh, Christopher Plummer, and David Strathairn. The screenplay by Tony Gilroy is based on the 1992 novel of the same name by Stephen King. The plot focuses on the strained relationship between a mother and her daughter, largely told through flashbacks, after her daughter arrives to her remote hometown on a Maine island where her mother has been accused of murdering the elderly woman for whom she had long been a care-provider and companion.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: "Dolores Claiborne" was the second major King film adaptation to star Bates in a leading role after "Misery" (1990) five years earlier. The film was shot in Nova Scotia in 1994. It was a sleeper hit, grossing close to $50 million worldwide on a $13 million budget and little promotion. The film was well-received by critics, with the performances of Bates and Leigh being especially praised. Kathy Bates stated in a retrospective interview that her performance as the titular Dolores was her favorite performance she had ever given. In 2013, "Time" named the film among the top 10 greatest Stephen King film adaptations.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: In 1995, Dolores Claiborne works as a domestic servant on Little Tall Island in Maine. Dolores has a struggle with her elderly, partially paralyzed employer, Vera Donovan, in her mansion. Vera falls down the staircase and Dolores ransacks the kitchen. She is caught by a mailman, who sees her standing over Vera with a rolling pin, apparently intending to kill her. Vera dies and the police begin a murder investigation.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Dolores' daughter, Selena St. George, is a successful journalist, living in New York City, who battles depression and substance abuse. Selena arrives in town to support her mother, despite her own doubts about Dolores' innocence. Dolores insists she did not kill her employer. Selena finds little sympathy for Dolores, as the entire town believes she murdered her husband, Joe St. George, 18 years earlier. Some of the town's inhabitants harass her by vandalizing her home, taunting her in the street, and driving by her house and screaming at her. Detective John Mackey, who was the chief detective in her husband's murder case, is determined to put Dolores away for life.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Selena also believes Dolores killed her father and has not seen her mother in 15 years. In 1975, Joe was an abusive alcoholic, and one night Dolores had threatened to kill him with a hatchet if he ever harmed her again. Selena, then 13 years old, was unaware her mother was being abused. Dolores went to work as a housemaid for millionaire Vera Donovan to save money to pay for Selena's education. Dolores went to the bank to withdraw her money so Selena and she could flee Joe's abuse. The plan was abandoned, however, when Dolores discovered that Joe had stolen the money from Selena's savings account.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Dolores says Vera threw herself down the staircase and begged Dolores to put her out of her misery. Mackey refuses to believe her, and reveals that Vera has left her entire fortune to Dolores. Mackey informs them the will is eight years old, which nearly convinces Selena her mother is guilty. Dolores eventually tells Selena that before he died, Dolores realized Joe was sexually abusing Selena when he gave her an heirloom locket. Selena has always furiously denied any abuse, and after a fierce argument, she storms out, leaving Dolores to fend for herself.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Back in 1975, Dolores broke down and confessed Joe's abuses to Vera, who remained characteristically cold until Dolores mentioned that he was molesting Selena. Turning unusually sympathetic, Vera implied she killed her own late husband, Jack, who had died in a car accident in Maryland, and engineered it to look like an accident. She said, "Sometimes Dolores, sometimes you have to be a high-riding bitch to survive. Sometimes being a bitch is all a woman has to hold on to." Vera's confession formed a bond between the two women and convinced Dolores to take control of her situation. As a total solar eclipse approached, Dolores was pointedly given the rest of the day off by Vera, who insinuates that she expects Dolores to use the free time to dispose of Joe, repeating her earlier statement, "Sometimes being a bitch is all a woman has to hang on to."


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Dolores and Selena had an argument about Dolores' suspicions regarding Joe's sexual abuse. Selena fled home for the weekend to work at a hotel, where guests had flocked for the eclipse. Joe soon returned from working on a fishing boat, and Dolores offered him a bottle of Scotch to celebrate the eclipse. After Joe got drunk, Dolores revealed she knew he stole from Selena's account and molested his own daughter, then provoked him into attacking her and falling down an old well, leaving him to die as he plunges to the stone bottom.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Selena hears this entire story on a tape left for her by Dolores, who had foreseen her departure. While on the ferry, Selena suddenly uncovers a repressed memory of her father forcing her to give him a handjob. Realizing everything, Selena rushes back to Dolores as she is attending the coroner's inquest. As Mackey makes a case to be sent to a grand jury in an attempt to indict Dolores for murder, Selena arrives and tells him he has no admissible evidence, he is only doing this because of his personal vendetta against Dolores, and that despite an often stormy relationship, Vera and Dolores loved each other. Realizing that the case would likely end with either a dismissal or acquittal, Mackey reluctantly drops the charges. Dolores and Selena reconcile on the ferry wharf before Selena returns to New York.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: "Dolores Claiborne" was filmed in Lunenburg, Mahone Bay, Chester, Stonehurst, and Digby, all in Nova Scotia, Canada.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Though typically classified as a drama and psychological thriller, some critics, such as Roger Ebert, have classified "Dolores Claiborne" as a horror film, while it has also been identified as a Gothic romance.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Film theorist Kirsten Thompson identifies the film as a melodrama, "produced by the repression of specific traumas, [in this case] domestic violence and incest." According to Martha McCaughey and Neal King, the film's use of flashbacks suggest a specific narrative point of view when considering the film's themes of abuse and incest between Dolores, as well as Selena and Joe: "That all the flashbacks save one belong to Dolores tells us that not only are we watching her story; it also tells us of the unavailability of the past to Selena, and of the displacement and repression forced into play by the girl's experience of incest."


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: The flashback scene in which Selena recalls her father's forcing her to masturbate him on the ferry has been particularly noted by critics: "Here, Selena and the viewer alike come finally to see Joe's transgressions, and by implication, to understand the truth of Dolores' tale. Throughout this scene, the perspective offered by the camera remains firmly focused on the reactions of the victim of the sexual crime."


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: "Dolores Claiborne" has been cited as a "self-consciously feminist" film that "combines the melodramatic impulse with the investigative structure of a noir crime thriller and a contemporary feminist consciousness." The film has also been read as an example of a maternal melodrama that features an "idealized mother-figure" who sacrifices the needs of her own for others. In the book "Screening Genders", one scholar considered "Dolores Claiborne" and "Stage Door" (1937) to be the only "truly feminist" films made in Hollywood, in that they "don't cop out at the end."


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Britt Hayes writes of the main character, "Through Dolores, King poignantly explores the way the world often forces women into a series of compromises, and the way those small compromises have a way of stacking up to an imposing height, backing us into a corner until we have no choice but to become bitches...a woman (a wife, a mother) is emotionally and physically abused to the point where she breaks and feels she has no other option [than to become a bitch]." The three main women in the story – Dolores, Serena, and Vera – each repeat, "mutatis mutandis", "Sometimes being a bitch is the only thing a woman has left to hold on to."


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: "Dolores Claiborne" received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes it has an 85% rating based on 47 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 out of 10. The site's consensus states: "Post-"Misery" Kathy Bates proves to be another wonderful conduit for Stephen King's novels in this patient, gradually terrifying thriller." On Metacritic the film has a rating of 62 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" called it "a vivid film that revolves around Ms. Bates's powerhouse of a performance... Only after the film has carefully laid the groundwork for a story of old wounds and violent mishaps does the anticlimactic truth become apparent." Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and praised the performances of Bates and Leigh, saying: "This is a horror story, all right, but not a supernatural one; all of the elements come out of such everyday horrors as alcoholism, wife beating, child abuse and the sin of pride."


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: "Entertainment Weekly", however, gave the film a negative review, awarding it a D+ rating and saying: "This solemnly ludicrous 'psychological' thriller is like one of Hollywood's old-hag gothics turned into a therapeutic grouse-a-thon – it's "Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte" for the Age of Oprah."


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: The movie debuted at number three for the week of March 26, 1995, with $5,721,920. It went on to make $24,361,867 domestically. That ranks it as the 15th-highest grossing film based on a Stephen King novel, unadjusted for inflation. Adjusting for inflation, it ranks as the 17th-highest.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Kathy Bates and Jennifer Jason Leigh were nominated for the Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress awards at the 22nd Saturn Awards. Ellen Muth also won the Tokyo International Film Festival Award for Best Supporting Actress.


title: Dolores Claiborne (film)

text: Warner Bros. released movie on Blu-ray in November 21, 2017, under the label Warner Archive Collection.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer is a fictional reindeer created by Robert L. May. Rudolph is usually depicted as the ninth and youngest of Santa Claus's reindeer, using his luminous red nose to lead the reindeer team and guide Santa's sleigh on Christmas Eve. Though he initially receives ridicule for his nose as a fawn, the brightness of his nose is so powerful that it illuminates the team's path through harsh winter weather. Ronald D. Lankford, Jr., described Rudolph's story as "the fantasy story made to order for American children: each child has the need to express and receive approval for his or her individuality and/or special qualities. Rudolph's story embodies the American Dream for the child, written large because of the cultural significance of Christmas."


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Rudolph first appeared in a 1939 booklet written by May and published by Montgomery Ward, the department store.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: The story is owned by The Rudolph Company, LP and has been adapted into numerous forms including the song by Johnny Marks, "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer", "Rudolph's Shiny New Year", and "Rudolph and Frosty's Christmas in July" from Rankin/Bass Productions, as well as "" and "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer and the Island of Misfit Toys" from GoodTimes Entertainment. Character Arts, LLC manages the licensing for the Rudolph Company, LP and DreamWorks Classics. In many countries, Rudolph has become a figure of Christmas folklore. 2014 marked the 75th anniversary of the character and the 50th anniversary of the Rankin/Bass television special. A series of postage stamps featuring Rudolph was issued by the United States Postal Service on November 6, 2014.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Robert L. May created Rudolph in 1939 as an assignment for Chicago-based Montgomery Ward. The retailer had been buying and giving away coloring books for Christmas every year and it was decided that creating their own book would save money. May considered naming the reindeer "Rollo" or "Reginald" before deciding upon using the name "Rudolph". May said his daughter liked reindeer, and he said he was treated like Rudolph as a child. In its first year of publication, Montgomery Ward distributed 2.4 million copies of Rudolph's story. The story is written as a poem in anapestic tetrameter, the same meter as "A Visit from St. Nicholas" (also known as Twas the Night Before Christmas"). Publication and reprint rights for the book "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" are controlled by Pearson PLC.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: While May was pondering how best to craft a Christmas story about a reindeer, while staring out his office window in downtown Chicago, a thick fog from Lake Michigan blocked his view—giving him a flash of inspiration. "Suddenly I had it!" he recalled. "A nose! A bright red nose that would shine through fog like a spotlight."


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: The cultural significance of a red nose has changed since the story's publication. In 1930s popular culture, a bright red nose was closely associated with chronic alcoholism and drunkards, so the story idea was initially rejected. May asked his illustrator friend at Montgomery Ward, Denver Gillen, to draw "cute reindeer", using zoo deer as models. The alert, bouncy character Gillen developed convinced management to support the idea.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Maxton Books published the first mass-market edition of "Rudolph" in 1947 and a sequel, "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer Shines Again", in 1954. In 1992, Applewood Books published "Rudolph's Second Christmas", an unpublished sequel that Robert May wrote in 1947. In 2003, Penguin Books issued a reprint version of the original "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" with new artwork by Lisa Papp. Penguin also reprinted May's sequels, "Rudolph Shines Again" and "Rudolph's Second Christmas" (now retitled "Rudolph to the Rescue").


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: The story chronicles the experiences of Rudolph, a youthful reindeer buck (male) who possesses an unusual luminous red nose. Mocked and excluded by his peers because of this trait, Rudolph proves himself one Christmas Eve with poor visibility due to inclement weather. After Santa Claus catches sight of Rudolph's nose and asks Rudolph to lead his sleigh for the evening, Rudolph agrees and is finally favored by his fellow reindeer for his heroism and accomplishment.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Rudolph made his first screen appearance in 1948, in a cartoon short produced by Max Fleischer for the Jam Handy Corporation that was more faithful to May's original story than Marks' song, which had not yet been written. It was reissued in 1951 with the song added.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: May's brother-in-law, Johnny Marks, adapted the story of Rudolph into a song. Gene Autry's recording of the song hit No. 1 on the "Billboard" pop singles chart the week of Christmas 1949. Autry's recording sold 2.5 million copies the first year, eventually selling a total of 25 million, and it remained the second best-selling record of all time until the 1980s.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: The stereoscope View-Master version of the story was issued and copyrighted by Sawyer's on August 1, 1950, as a 14 frame, 7 image reel and numbered "FT-25". The text was provided by Thomas L. Dixon and the model and diorama work by Florence Thomas. A follow-up 3 reel packet, also with Thomas involved, was copyrighted on September 10, 1955. These showcased new stories by Robert L. May: "Rudolph, the Red-Nosed Reindeer and J. Baddy, the Brilliant Bear" (FT-26), "Rudolph, the Red-Nosed Reindeer and Uncle Bigby, the Blue-Nosed Reindeer" (FT-27) and "Rudolph, the Red-Nosed Reindeer Shines Again" (FT-28). Later reissue packets of the 1960s and beyond replaced the FT-28 version with the 1950 FT-25 version. The 1955 packet was promoted on television at the time by Arlene Francis.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: DC Comics, then known as National Periodical Publications, published a series of 13 annuals titled "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" from 1950 to 1962. Rube Grossman drew most of the 1950s stories.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: In 1972, DC Comics published a 14th edition in an extra-large format. Subsequently, they published six more in that format: "Limited Collectors' Edition" C-20, C-24, C-33, C-42, C-50 and "All-New Collectors' Edition" C-53, C-60.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Additionally, one digest format edition was published as "The Best of DC" #4 (March–April 1980). The 1970s Rudolph stories were written and drawn by Sheldon Mayer.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: In 1958, Little Golden Books published an illustrated storybook, adapted by Barbara Shook Hazen and illustrated by Richard Scarry. The book, similar in story to the Max Fleischer cartoon short, is no longer in print, but a revised Little Golden Books version of the storybook was reissued in 1972.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Perhaps the most well-known version of all the Rudolph adaptations is New York-based Rankin/Bass Productions' Christmas television special in 1964. Filmed in stop-motion "Animagic" at Tadahito Mochinaga's MOM Productions in Tokyo, Japan, with the screenplay written by Romeo Muller and all sound recordings (with supervision by Bernard Cowan) done at the RCA studios in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the show premiered on NBC. As the producers of the special, Arthur Rankin, Jr. and Jules Bass, only had the song as source material and did not have a copy of the original book, they interpolated an original story around the central narrative of the song, one that differed from the book. This re-telling chronicles Rudolph's social rejection among his peers and his decision to run away from home. Rudolph is accompanied by a similarly outcast elf named Hermey, who skipped elf practice to become a dentist, along with a loud, boisterous, eager prospector named Yukon Cornelius who was in search of wealth. Additional original characters include Rudolph's love interest, Clarice; the antagonistic "Abominable Snow Monster of the North"; and, as narrator, Sam the living Snowman, voiced by Burl Ives.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: In the 1964 stop-motion movie, Rudolph is born to Donner the reindeer and Donner's wife. He is discovered by Santa to have a shiny, glowing red nose. For a while he hides this quality that makes him different, but when his nose is discovered and he is ostracized, Rudolph runs away with Hermey, an elf who also considers himself a misfit. On their aimless journey, they run into Yukon Cornelius, and attempt to stay away from the Bumble, a huge abominable snow monster. Their journey leads them to the Island of Misfit Toys, where sentient but unorthodox toys go when they are abandoned by their owners. When Rudolph returns, he discovers his family went to look for him and must be rescued. Then Santa announces that due to bad weather Christmas must be cancelled. Santa changes his mind when he notices Rudolph's red nose and asks Rudolph to lead the sleigh team, which he happily accepts.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: After the story's initial broadcast, its closing credits were revised. Images of wrapped presents being dropped from Santa's sleigh were replaced by a scene in which Santa stops to pick up the Misfit Toys and delivers them to the homes of children below via umbrellas (with the exception of the misfit toy bird that swims but does not fly who is dropped to its destination). The changes were prompted by viewer feedback pleading for a happy ending for the Misfits Toys as well. The special now airs annually on CBS, rather than NBC, and is hailed as a classic by many. The special's original assortment of characters have acquired iconic status.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: The success and popularity of the special led to two sequels "Rudolph's Shiny New Year" (1976) which continued the reindeer's journeys, and the series was made into a trilogy with the feature-length film "Rudolph and Frosty's Christmas in July" (1979), which integrated the "Rudolph" universe into that of Rankin/Bass's adaptation of "Frosty the Snowman" (1969). Being one of the most popular Rankin/Bass characters, Rudolph also made his cameo appearances in two "Animagic" specials "Santa Claus is Comin' to Town" (1970) and "Nestor, the Long–Eared Christmas Donkey" (1977), and in the Easter television special "The First Easter Rabbit" (1976) with cel animation by Toru Hara's Topcraft.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: "" (1998) is an 2D-animated feature film presented by GoodTimes Entertainment and Golden Books Family Entertainment (now Western Publishing), and produced by Tundra Productions in Hollywood, California. It received only a limited theatrical release before debuting on home video. Its inclusion of a villain, a love interest, a sidekick, and a strong protector are more derivative of the Rankin/Bass adaptation of the story than the original tale and song (the characters of Stormella, Zoey, Arrow, Slyly, and Leonard parallel the Rankin/Bass characters of the Bumble, Clarice, Fireball, Hermey, and Yukon Cornelius, respectively). The movie amplifies the early backstory of Rudolph's harassment by his schoolmates (primarily his cousin Arrow) during his formative years. It was produced and directed by William R. Kowalchuk, and written by Michael Aschner, with music and songs by Al Kasha and


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Michael Lloyd, and with most of the casting being assembled at BLT Productions in Vancouver, British Columbia. The film's recording facilities were Pinewood Sound in Vancouver, Schwartz Sound in New York, and Wally Burr Recording in Hollywood. Among the all-star cast of voices were American actors John Goodman, Whoopi Goldberg, Debbie Reynolds, Richard Simmons and Bob Newhart, British actor Eric Idle, and Canadian actress Kathleen Barr as Rudolph. Animation production services for the film were outsourced to Colorland Animation Productions in Hong Kong.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: GoodTimes Entertainment, the producers of "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer: The Movie", brought back most of the same production team for a CGI animated sequel, "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer and the Island of Misfit Toys" (2001). Unlike the previous film, the sequel featured the original characters from the Rankin/Bass special (as GoodTimes soon learned that Rankin/Bass had made a copyright error that made the characters unique to their special free to use).


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: A live-action version of Rudolph (complete with glowing nose) along with Donner and Blitzen appears in the "Doctor Who" Christmas special, "Last Christmas" which was broadcast on BBC One on 25 December 2014. In this special, Santa is able to park him like a car and turn off his nose.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Nathaniel Dominy, an anthropology professor at Dartmouth College (Robert L. May's alma mater), published a scholarly paper on Rudolph's red nose in the open access online journal "Frontiers for Young Minds" in 2015. In the paper, Dominy noted that reindeer eyes can perceive shorter wavelengths of light than humans, allowing them to see ultraviolet light; ultraviolet light, however, is much more easily scattered in fog, which would blind reindeer. Thus, Rudolph's red nose, emitting longer-wavelength red light, would penetrate the fog more easily. A summary of Dominy's findings was released in an "Associated Press" article on December 22.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Three BBC animations carry on the legend by introducing Rudolph's son, Robbie the Reindeer. However, Rudolph is never directly mentioned by name (references are replaced by the first and second films' villain Blitzen interrupting with the phrase, "Don't say that name!", or something similar, presumably for copyright reasons.)


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: The 2021 HBO Max miniseries "Santa Inc." features Junior, who is Rudolph's son and the leader of Santa's A Team of reindeer.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Rudolph is also given a younger brother, Rusty Reindeer, in the American special, "Holidaze: The Christmas That Almost Didn't Happen" (2006). Like in the "Robbie the Reindeer" cartoons, Rudolph's name is not said in the film (though he was referred to as Rudy by an elf at the start of the film) nor does he make a physical appearance. However, he does appear on a poster and one scene in the film shows a cardboard cutout and toys of Rudolph. Unlike previous versions of the character, this Rudolph has a black nose, which is only red when lit up.


title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer

text: Michael Fry and T. Lewis have given Rudolph another brother in a series of "Over the Hedge" comic strips: an overweight, emotionally damaged reindeer named Ralph, the Infra-Red nosed Reindeer, who is referred to as Rudolph's older brother. Ralph's red nose is good for defrosting Santa's sleigh and warming up toast and waffles; he enviously complains about his brother Rudolph's publicity and his own anonymity.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Petyr Baelish, nicknamed Littlefinger, is a fictional character in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series of fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin, and its television adaptation "Game of Thrones". Introduced in 1996's "A Game of Thrones", Littlefinger is the master of coin on King Robert's small council. He is a childhood friend of Catelyn Stark, having grown up with her and her two siblings at Riverrun. He subsequently appeared in Martin's books "A Clash of Kings" (1998), "A Storm of Swords" (2000), and "A Feast for Crows" (2005). He is set to appear in the forthcoming novel "The Winds of Winter". Littlefinger's primary character attributes are his cunning and boundless ambition. Originally hailing from a minor family with little wealth or influence, Baelish used manipulation, bribery, and the connections he secured at Riverrun to gain power and prestige in King's Landing. Since then, his various intrigues have directly caused several major events that have impacted Westeros, including the framing of Tyrion Lannister for the attempt on Bran Stark's life, the downfall of Lord Eddard Stark, the deaths of Lord Jon Arryn and King Joffrey Baratheon, and the War of the Five Kings. This makes him one of the most important antagonists in the series.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Littlefinger is portrayed by Irish actor Aidan Gillen in the HBO television adaptation, for which he has received positive critical reception.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Littlefinger is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, such as Ned Stark, Catelyn Stark, Sansa Stark, Tyrion and Cersei Lannister.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Lord Petyr Baelish is portrayed as a person of favors. He is a man with contacts. Moreover, he keeps personal profits above all else. Petyr descends from a Braavosi sellsword who served House Corbray. His father befriended Lord Hoster Tully during the War of the Ninepenny Kings, and Tully took the young Petyr as a ward. Petyr grew up at House Tully's castle Riverrun with Hoster's daughters Catelyn and Lysa, and son Edmure; Edmure nicknamed Petyr "Littlefinger" in reference to his short stature and his family's lands on the smallest of the peninsulas called the Fingers. Petyr was a sly, mischievous child with the ability to always look contrite after his mischief. He became infatuated with Catelyn and claims to have lost his virginity to her while drunk; in reality, he lost it to Lysa, who was obsessed with him. When Catelyn was betrothed to Brandon Stark (Eddard Stark's elder brother), Petyr brazenly challenged him to a duel for her hand in marriage but lost easily to Brandon. Petyr's life was spared at Catelyn's behest. During his convalescence, Lysa approached Petyr and the two slept together, as Petyr mistook Lysa for Catelyn in his delirious state. But the pregnancy ended in a forced abortion, and Petyr was banished from Riverrun.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Even after her marriage to Jon Arryn, Lysa remained in love with Petyr. Her patronage saw Baelish appointed as customs officer at Gulltown, a position he excelled at. In the books it was around this time that Petyr's unnamed father died and passed the unnamed "Baelish Tower" in the Fingers to his son, making him a lord. However, in the show it is implied that both of Baelish's parents died when Petyr was much younger. Jon Arryn, who was Hand to King Robert Baratheon, eventually brought Baelish to King's Landing as Master of Coin. When Arryn tries to have his and Lysa's son Robert sent to Dragonstone to be fostered by Stannis Baratheon, Baelish gives Lysa poison to kill Jon and convinces her to tell Catelyn that House Lannister was responsible. This subterfuge sets in motion the main events of the series.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Petyr Baelish is a small man, shorter than Catelyn Stark. He is slender and quick, with sharp features and laughing green eyes. He has a pointed chin beard and threads of silver in his hair. He often wears a silver mockingbird to fasten his cloak. He clearly enjoys the intrigues of court life at King's Landing. He is dangerously intelligent, utterly Machiavellian, and cunning enough to hide his machinations. Since Petyr is not a POV character his motivations are somewhat of a mystery. However he has stated his motivations were his lingering love towards Catelyn Stark and (in the show) Sansa Stark. Many are skeptical of this, with Sansa Stark stating 'the only person Littlefinger serves is Littlefinger.' An amoral opportunist, his methods are totally unscrupulous, including the use of lies, treachery, and murder to achieve his goals.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Baelish, the "Master of Coin" in charge of the realm's finances on King Robert's Small Council, is disliked by the Hand, Ned Stark, who initially considers him as flippant as he is untrustworthy. Baelish hides Catelyn at one of his brothels, when she brings Ned the news of the attempt on Bran's life, and tells her the dagger used was won from him by Tyrion Lannister. This leads to Catelyn's capture of Tyrion; but this information is later identified as a lie. Tyrion mentions during his captivity at the Eyrie that Baelish has frequently claimed to have had a sexual relationship with Lady Catelyn during their youth together at Riverrun, a claim she indignantly rejects. Petyr helps Eddard expose the secret parentage of the royal children, but advises him to abet Joffrey's rise to power in order to consolidate their own. Ned insists that Stannis must be king and asks Baelish to secure the help of the City Watch when he moves against the Lannisters, but Petyr betrays Lord Stark and aids his arrest.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: After the death of Renly Baratheon, Petyr arranges an alliance between the Lannisters and the powerful House Tyrell, which leads to Stannis Baratheon's defeat. When Joffrey is convinced to marry Renly's widow, Margaery Tyrell, in "A Storm of Swords", Petyr is named Lord of Harrenhal and Lord Paramount of the Trident in place of Edmure Tully.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Baelish is given charge to marry Lysa Arryn and bring the Vale under the control of the Lannisters; before departing he reveals Olenna Tyrell's plan to marry Sansa Stark to Willas Tyrell, leading to Sansa's forced marriage to Tyrion. When Joffrey is poisoned at his wedding feast, Petyr has Sansa whisked away from King's Landing in the confusion and takes her to his holdings on The Fingers, disguised as his illegitimate daughter. During the voyage, Petyr reveals that he had conspired with Olenna Tyrell to poison Joffrey and blame Tyrion for the murder. Lysa arrives at Petyr's keep and promptly marries him at Lysa's insistence, although Petyr would have preferred a court wedding. After the wedding, Baelish and Sansa travel to the Eyrie, where he spends much of the time asserting his new authority over the lords of the Vale. While alone with Sansa, he notes her physical similarity to Catelyn and kisses Sansa. Witnessing the encounter, Lysa tries to kill Sansa a short time later. Petyr rushes to comfort Lysa, but reveals that he had only ever loved Catelyn and pushes Lysa to her death. He immediately implicates the only other witness, the minstrel Marillion.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Petyr names himself Lord Protector and claims Lysa's son Robert as his ward. The Lords of the Vale also try to claim Robert, but Petyr bribes Lyn Corbray to help Petyr obtain leverage to keep Robert. Petyr later reveals to Sansa that he plans to either eliminate the lords or win them to his side, and to help Sansa regain the North. He also tells her that he has arranged for her to marry Robert Arryn's cousin and heir, Harrold Hardyng, and that on Robert's death she will reveal herself and use the Knights of the Vale to recover the North.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Petyr is set to appear in the sixth volume, still in the Vale with Sansa and Robert Arryn. He will hold a tournament, the winners of which will be inducted into the Brotherhood of Winged Nights, an order similar to the Kingsguard that will protect young Robert Arryn. However, knowing that the sickly child will soon die, he plans for Sansa to wed Harrold Hardyng, Robert's heir, so that the knights of the Vale will rally behind her to retake the North from House Bolton.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Baelish's storyline remains much the same as in the books for the first few seasons of the television series, with only minor details changed. In later seasons, however, his story is significantly different.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Having become Lord of Harrenhal, Petyr plans to sail to the Eyrie to propose marriage to Lysa Arryn, taking Sansa with him. One of his prostitutes, Ros, learns of his plan and warns Varys, who arranges with Olenna Tyrell to have Sansa wed Loras Tyrell. Baelish's spy Olyvar, who is posing as Loras' squire and lover, tips Baelish off to the plot. Baelish, in turn, gives this information to Tywin Lannister, who has Sansa wed Tyrion instead. Realising that Ros has betrayed him, Baelish hands her over to Joffrey to kill for his entertainment.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: In the aftermath of Lysa Arryn's death, Baelish is questioned by several lords of the Vale. Baelish maintains that Lysa committed suicide, and Sansa corroborates this assertion. Baelish decides to take Robin Arryn on a tour of his domain, with Sansa accompanying them.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Baelish brokers a marriage alliance between Sansa and Ramsay Bolton, the sadistic son of the new Warden of the North Roose Bolton. Baelish mentions to Roose how the alliance of the North and the Vale brought down the Targaryens, the "mightiest dynasty" in Westerosi history, with the implication that a new alliance might have similar effects. Although Baelish assures Roose that the marriage alliance will strengthen their respective positions, Baelish privately tells Sansa that Stannis Baratheon is marching on Winterfell and will likely defeat the Boltons in battle. However, before Sansa and Ramsay's wedding, Cersei summons Baelish to King's Landing to ascertain his loyalties. Baelish reassures Cersei of the Vale's allegiance to the Lannisters and tells her of Sansa's marriage to Ramsay, neglecting to reveal his role in arranging the marriage. Cersei is outraged, and Baelish offers to use the Vale's forces to defeat whomever is left of the Bolton and Baratheon armies following the battle, revealing that his true plan all along was to be named Warden of the North, a request Cersei grants. Before his departure Baelish meets with Olenna Tyrell, who is furious that testimony from Olyvar has led to the arrests of Margaery and Loras Tyrell. When Olenna threatens to reveal Baelish's role in Joffrey's murder, Baelish arranges for Lancel Lannister to tell the religious leader, the High Sparrow, of Cersei's crimes, leading to her arrest.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Baelish reunites with Robin Arryn at Runestone and claims that Sansa was abducted by the Boltons, before manipulating him into sending the Vale's forces to defend her. Baelish later meets Sansa in Mole's Town, insisting that he was unaware of Ramsay's cruelty. He offers the support of the knights of the Vale in retaking Winterfell and mentions that Sansa's great-uncle Brynden "Blackfish" Tully has seized Riverrun from the Freys. Sansa refuses Baelish's offer and declares that she never wants to see him again. However, after Sansa and Jon Snow are unable to gather enough men to match the Boltons, Sansa sends a raven to Baelish asking for his aid. Baelish leads the men on Winterfell, and they arrive in time to destroy the unsuspecting Bolton army before they can slaughter the Starks. After the battle, Baelish reveals to Sansa that his ambition is to take the Iron Throne with her by his side, but she rebuffs his advances. Baelish is present when the Northmen and Valemen declare Jon King in the North, but instead of cheering for Jon, he looks at Sansa.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Throughout the season, after Jon Snow threatens him to stay away from Sansa, Baelish attempts to turn Sansa and her sister Arya against each other following the latter's return to Winterfell. To add further incentive, Baelish arranges for Arya to find the letter Sansa wrote Robb, asking him to surrender, while she was held by the Lannisters. Baelish continues his manipulation of Sansa, seemingly convincing her that Arya intends to murder her and take her role as Lady of Winterfell. Sansa brings Arya into the hall with everyone present, including a smug Baelish. However, she reveals that Baelish is actually the one on trial. Caught off-guard, Baelish sputters with confusion but eventually recovers and questions Sansa about what's happening. Sansa reveals his numerous crimes, including his murder of Lysa Arryn, his orchestration of both Jon Arryn's and Eddard Stark's murders, and his manipulation of the Starks and Lannisters into war. Though concerned by her knowledge, Baelish quickly denies the accusations, citing lack of evidence, until Bran Stark reveals that he has seen Baelish's betrayal of Eddard Stark himself due to his ability to see events in the past and around him. Baelish then realizes that the trial is merely a show and that he is going to die. Panicking, he tries to convince Sansa to speak with him alone and listen to his side of the story, but Sansa refuses, citing his earlier advice to figure out her true enemies' intentions. This causes Baelish to desperately command his banner man Yohn Royce to escort him back to the Vale, which Royce refuses. With nowhere left to run, Baelish gets down on his knees and emotionally begs Sansa to spare him, telling her how much he loved her and her mother. Sansa reminds him that he betrayed them nonetheless and orders Arya to kill him. After Sansa thanks Baelish for his lessons, Arya executes him by slitting his throat with his own Valyrian dagger.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Gillen's performance has received significant praise. Huw Fullerton of "Radio Times" praised his performance on the show. Writing for "The Huffington Post", Gil Kidron described the character as "gross...creepy...evil" and stated, "you should root for him to win." Kidron claims, "in Westeros he's a 99 percenter." Kidron writes Petyr is "doing it for himself", but "he's working tirelessly to destroy an old and decaying world that none of us would want to live in." In an article published in the "National Review", Grant Starrett claimed that every red-blooded American should root for Littlefinger. Starrett praised Baelish's rags-to-riches story, saying, "He epitomizes what could soon be called the Westerosi Dream." Meritocracy, social mobility, and an end to a failing system are all reasons to support Petyr Baelish for the Iron Throne, according to Starrett.


title: Petyr Baelish

text: Aidan Gillen has received award nominations for his portrayal. His nominations include Portal Award for Best Supporting Actor in 2012, and Irish Film & Television Awards for Best Supporting Actor on Television in 2012 and 2014.


title: Social alienation

text: Social alienation is a person's feeling of disconnection from a group whether friends, family, or wider society to which the individual has an affinity. Such alienation has been described as "a condition in social relationships reflected by (1) a low degree of integration or common values and (2) a high degree of distance or isolation (3a) between individuals, or (3b) between an individual and a group of people in a community or work environment "[enumeration added]"". It is a sociological concept developed by several classical and contemporary theorists. The concept has many discipline-specific uses, and can refer both to a personal psychological state (subjectively) and to a type of social relationship (objectively).


title: Social alienation

text: The term "alienation" has been used over the ages with varied and sometimes contradictory meanings. In ancient history it could mean a metaphysical sense of achieving a higher state of contemplation, ecstasy or union—becoming alienated from a limited existence in the world, in a positive sense. Examples of this usage have been traced to neoplatonic philosophers such as Plotinus (in the Greek "alloiosis"). There have also long been religious concepts of being separated or cut off from God and the faithful, alienated in a negative sense. The New Testament mentions the term "apallotrioomai" in Greek—"being alienated from". Ideas of estrangement from a Golden Age, or due to a fall of man, or approximate equivalents in differing cultures or religions, have also been described as concepts of alienation. A double positive and negative sense of alienation is broadly shown in the spiritual beliefs referred to as Gnosticism.


title: Social alienation

text: Alienation has also had a particular legal-political meaning since as early as Ancient Roman times, where to alienate property ("alienato") is to transfer ownership of it to someone else. The term alienation itself comes from the Latin "alienus" which meant 'of another place or person', which in turn came from "alius", meaning "other" or "another". Another usage of the term in Ancient Greco-Roman times was by physicians referring to disturbed, difficult or abnormal states of mind, generally attributed to imbalanced physiology. In Latin "alienatio mentis" (mental alienation), this usage has been dated to Asclepiades. Once translations of such works had resurfaced in the West in the 17th century, physicians again began using the term, which is typically attributed to Felix Platter.


title: Social alienation

text: In medieval times, a relationship between alienation and social order has been described, mediated in part by mysticism and monasticism. The Crusades and witch-hunts have been described as forms of mass alienation.


title: Social alienation

text: In the 17th century, Hugo Grotius put forward the concept that everyone has 'sovereign authority' over themselves but that they could alienate that natural right to the common good, an early social contract theory. In the 18th century, Hutcheson introduced a distinction between alienable and unalienable rights in the legal sense of the term. Rousseau published influential works on the same theme, and is also seen as having popularized a more psychological-social concept relating to alienation from a state of nature due to the expansion of civil society or the nation state.


title: Social alienation

text: In the same century a law of alienation of affection was introduced for men to seek compensation from other men accused of taking away 'their' woman.


title: Social alienation

text: In the history of literature, the German Romantics appear to be the first group of writers and poets in whose work the concept of alienation is regularly found. Around the start of the 19th century, Hegel popularized a Christian (Lutheran) and Idealist philosophy of alienation. He used German terms in partially different senses, referring to a psychological state and an objective process, and in general posited that the self was a historical and social creation, which becomes alienated from itself via a perceived objective world, but can become de-alienated again when that world is seen as just another aspect of the self-consciousness, which may be achieved by self-sacrifice to the common good.


title: Social alienation

text: Around the same time, Pinel was popularizing a new understanding of mental alienation, particularly through his 'medical-philosophical treatise'. He argued that people could be disturbed (alienated) by emotional states and social conditions, without necessarily having lost (become alienated from) their reason, as had generally been assumed. Hegel praised Pinel for his 'moral treatment' approach, and developed related theories. Nevertheless, as Foucault would later write, "... in an obscure, shared origin, the 'alienation' of physicians and the 'alienation' of philosophers started to take shape—two configurations in which man in any case corrupts his truth, but between which, after Hegel, the nineteenth century stopped seeing any trace of resemblance."


title: Social alienation

text: Two camps formed following Hegel, the 'young' or 'left' Hegelians who developed his philosophy to support innovations in politics or religion, and the 'old' or 'right' Hegelians who took his philosophy in a politically and religiously conservative direction. The former camp has had a more lasting influence and, among them, Feuerbach differed from Hegel in arguing that worship of God is itself a form of alienation, because it projects human qualities on to an external idea, rather than realising them as part of the self.


title: Social alienation

text: Marx was initially in the Young Hegelian camp and, like Feuerbach, rejected the spiritual basis, and adapted Hegel's dialectic model to a theory of (historical) materialism. Marx's theory of alienation is articulated most clearly in the "Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844" and "The German Ideology" (1846). The 'young' Marx wrote more often and directly of alienation than the 'mature' Marx, which some regard as an ideological break while others maintain that the concept remained central. Structuralists generally hold that there was a transition from a philosophical-anthropological (Marxist humanism) concept (e.g. internal alienation from the self) to a structural-historical interpretation (e.g. external alienation by appropriation of labor), accompanied by a change in terminology from alienation to exploitation to commodity fetishism and reification. Marx's concepts of alienation have been classed into four types by Kostas Axelos: economic and social alienation, political alienation, human alienation, and ideological alienation.


title: Social alienation

text: In the concept's most prominent use, it refers to the "economic and social alienation" aspect in which workers are disconnected from what they produce and why they produce. Marx believed that alienation is a systematic result of capitalism. Essentially, there is an "exploitation of men by men" where the division of labor creates an economic hierarchy. His theory of alienation was based upon his observation that in emerging industrial production under capitalism, workers inevitably lose control of their lives and selves by not having any control of their work. Workers never become autonomous, self-realized human beings in any significant sense, except in the way the bourgeoisie wants the worker to be realized. His theory relies on Feuerbach's "The Essence of Christianity" (1841), which argues that the idea of God has alienated the characteristics of the human being. Stirner would take the analysis further in "The Ego and Its Own" (1844), declaring that even 'humanity' is an alienating ideal for the individual, to which Marx and Engels responded in "The German Ideology" (1845). Alienation in capitalist societies occurs because in work each contributes to the common wealth but they can only express this fundamentally social aspect of individuality through a production system that is not publicly social but privately owned, for which each individual functions as an instrument, not as a social being. Kostas Axelos summarizes that for Marx, in capitalism "work renders man an alien to himself and to his own products." "The malaise of this alienation from the self means that the worker does not affirm himself but denies himself, does not feel content but unhappy...The worker only feels himself outside his work, and in his work he feels outside himself...Its alien character emerges clearly in the fact as soon as no physical or other compulsion exists, it is avoided like the plague.". Marx also wrote, in a curtailed manner, that capitalist owners also experience alienation, through benefiting from the economic machine by endlessly competing, exploiting others and maintaining mass alienation in society.


title: Social alienation

text: The idea of "Political Alienation" refers to the idea that "politics is the form that organizes the productive forces of the economy" in a way that is alienating because it "distorts the logic of economic development".


title: Social alienation

text: In "Human Alienation", individuals become estranged to themselves in the quest to stay alive, where "they lose their true existence in the struggle for subsistence". Marx focuses on two aspects of human nature which he calls "historical conditions." The first aspect refers to the necessity of food, clothes, shelter, and more. Secondly, Marx believes that after satisfying these basic needs people have the tendency to develop more "needs" or desires that they will work towards satisfying, hence, humans become stuck in a cycle of never ending wants which makes them strangers to each other.


title: Social alienation

text: When referring to "ideological alienation", Axelos proposes that Marx believes that all religions divert people away from "their true happiness" and instead turn them towards "illusory happiness".


title: Social alienation

text: There is a commonly noted problem of translation in grappling with ideas of alienation derived from German-language philosophical texts: the word "alienation", and similar words such as "estrangement", are often used interchangeably to translate two distinct German words, ' and '. The former means specifically interpersonal estrangement, while the latter can have a broader and more active meaning that might refer also to externalization, relinquishment, or sale (alienation) of property. In general, and contrary to his predecessors, Marx may have used the terms interchangeably, though he also wrote ""Entfremdung"...constitutes the real interest of this "Entäußerung"."


title: Social alienation

text: Many sociologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were concerned about alienating effects of modernization. German sociologists Georg Simmel and Ferdinand Tönnies wrote critical works on individualization and urbanization. Simmel's "The Philosophy of Money" describes how relationships become more and more mediated by money. Tönnies' "Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft" ("Community and Society") is about the loss of primary relationships such as familial bonds in favour of goal-oriented, secondary relationships. This idea of alienation can be observed in some other contexts, although the term may not be as frequently used. In the context of an individual's relationships within society, alienation can mean the unresponsiveness of society as a whole to the individuality of each member of the society. When collective decisions are made, it is usually impossible for the unique needs of each person to be taken into account.


title: Social alienation

text: The American sociologist C. Wright Mills conducted a major study of alienation in modern society with "" in 1951, describing how modern consumption-capitalism has shaped a society where you have to sell your personality in addition to your work. Melvin Seeman was part of a surge in alienation research during the mid-20th century when he published his paper, "On the Meaning of Alienation", in 1959. Seeman used the insights of Marx, Emile Durkheim and others to construct what is often considered a model to recognize the five prominent features of alienation: powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation and self-estrangement. Seeman later added a sixth element (cultural estrangement), although this element does not feature prominently in later discussions of his work.


title: Social alienation

text: In a broader philosophical context, especially in existentialism and phenomenology, alienation describes the inadequacy of the human being (or the mind) in relation to the world. The human mind (as the subject who perceives) sees the world as an object of perception, and is distanced from the world, rather than living within it. This line of thought is generally traced to the works of Søren Kierkegaard in the 19th century, who, from a Christian viewpoint, saw alienation as separation from God, and also examined the emotions and feelings of individuals when faced with life choices. Many 20th-century philosophers (both theistic and atheistic) and theologians were influenced by Kierkegaard's notions of angst, despair and the importance of the individual. Martin Heidegger's concepts of anxiety (angst) and mortality drew from Kierkegaard; he is indebted to the way Kierkegaard lays out the importance of our subjective relation to truth, our existence in the face of death, the temporality of existence and the importance of passionately affirming one's being-in-the-world. Jean-Paul Sartre described the "thing-in-itself" which is infinite and overflowing, and claimed that any attempt to describe or understand the thing-in-itself is "reflective consciousness". Since there is no way for the reflective consciousness to subsume the pre-reflective, Sartre argued that all reflection is fated to a form of anxiety (i.e. the human condition). As well, Sartre argued that when a person tries to gain knowledge of the "Other" (meaning beings or objects that are not the self), their self-consciousness has a "masochistic desire" to be limited. This is expressed metaphorically in the line from the play "No Exit", "Hell is other people".


title: Social alienation

text: In the theory of psychoanalysis developed around the start of the 20th century, Sigmund Freud did not explicitly address the concept of alienation, but other analysts subsequently have. It is a theory of divisions and conflicts between the conscious and unconscious mind, between different parts of a hypothetical psychic apparatus, and between the self and civilization. It postulates defense mechanisms, including splitting, in both normal and disturbed functioning. The concept of repression has been described as having functionally equivalent effects as the idea of false consciousness associated with Marxist theory.


title: Social alienation

text: A form of Western Marxism developed during the century, which included influential analyses of false consciousness by György Lukács. Critics of bureaucracy and the Protestant Ethic also drew on the works of Max Weber.


title: Social alienation

text: Figures associated with critical theory, in particular with the Frankfurt School, such as Theodor Adorno and Erich Fromm, also developed theories of alienation, drawing on neo-Marxist ideas as well as other influences including neo-Freudian and sociological theories. One approach applies Marxist theories of commodification to the cultural, educational and party-political spheres. Links are drawn between socioeconomic structures, psychological states of alienation, and personal human relationships. In the 1960s the revolutionary group Situationist International came to some prominence, staging 'situations' intended to highlight an alternative way of life to advanced capitalism, the latter conceptualized as a diffuse 'spectacle', a fake reality masking a degradation of human life. The Theory of Communicative Action associated with Jürgen Habermas emphasizes the essential role of language in public life, suggesting that alienation stems from the distortion of reasoned moral debate by the strategic dominance of market forces and state power.


title: Social alienation

text: This critical program can be contrasted with traditions that attempt to extract problems of alienation from the broader socioeconomic context, or which at least accept the broader context on its own terms, and which often attribute problems to individual abnormality or failures to adjust.


title: Social alienation

text: After the boom in alienation research that characterized the 1950s and 1960s, interest in alienation research subsided, although in sociology it was maintained by the Research Committee on Alienation of the International Sociological Association (ISA). In the 1990s, there was again an upsurge of interest in alienation prompted by the fall of the Soviet Union, globalization, the information explosion, increasing awareness of ethnic conflicts, and post-modernism. Geyer believes the growing complexity of the contemporary world and post-modernism prompted a reinterpretation of alienation that suits the contemporary living environment. In late 20th and early 21st century sociology, it has been particularly the works of Felix Geyer, Lauren Langman and Devorah Kalekin-Fishman that address the issue of alienation in the contemporary western world.


title: Social alienation

text: Alienation in the sense of a lack of power has been technically defined by Seeman as "the expectancy or probability held by the individual that his own behaviour cannot determine the occurrence of the outcomes, or reinforcements, he seeks." Seeman argues that this is "the notion of alienation as it originated in the Marxian view of the worker's condition in capitalist society: the worker is alienated to the extent that the prerogative and means of decision are expropriated by the ruling entrepreneurs". More succinctly, Kalekin-Fishman says, "A person suffers from alienation in the form of 'powerlessness' when she is conscious of the gap between what she would like to do and what she feels capable of doing".


title: Social alienation

text: In discussing powerlessness, Seeman also incorporated the insights of the psychologist Julian Rotter. Rotter distinguishes between internal control and external locus of control, which means "differences (among persons or situations) in the degree to which success or failure is attributable to external factors (e.g. luck, chance, or powerful others), as against success or failure that is seen as the outcome of one's personal skills or characteristics". Powerlessness, therefore, is the perception that the individual does not have the means to achieve his goals.


title: Social alienation

text: More recently, Geyer remarks that "a new type of powerlessness has emerged, where the core problem is no longer being unfree but rather being unable to select from among an overchoice of alternatives for action, whose consequences one often cannot even fathom". Geyer adapts cybernetics to alienation theory, and writes that powerlessness is the result of delayed feedback: "The more complex one's environment, the later one is confronted with the latent, and often unintended, consequences of one's actions. Consequently, in view of this causality-obscuring time lag, both the 'rewards' and 'punishments' for one's actions increasingly tend to be viewed as random, often with apathy and alienation as a result".


title: Social alienation

text: A sense of meaning has been defined by Seeman as "the individual's sense of understanding events in which he is engaged". Seeman writes that meaninglessness "is characterized by a low expectancy that satisfactory predictions about the future outcomes of behaviour can be made." Whereas powerlessness refers to the sensed ability to control outcomes, this refers to the sensed ability to predict outcomes. In this respect, meaninglessness is closely tied to powerlessness; Seeman argues, "the view that one lives in an intelligible world might be a prerequisite to expectancies for control; and the unintelligibility of complex affairs is presumably conducive to the development of high expectancies for external control (that is, high powerlessness)".


title: Social alienation

text: Geyer believes meaninglessness should be reinterpreted for postmodern times: "With the accelerating throughput of information ... meaningless is not a matter anymore of whether one can assign meaning to incoming information, but of whether one can develop adequate new scanning mechanisms to gather the goal-relevant information one needs, as well as more efficient selection procedures to prevent being overburdened by the information one does not need, but is bombarded with on a regular basis." Information overload or the so-called "data tsunami" are well-known information problems confronting contemporary man, and Geyer thus argues that meaninglessness is turned on its head.


title: Social alienation

text: Normlessness (or what Durkheim referred to as anomie) "denotes the situation in which the social norms regulating individual conduct have broken down or are no longer effective as rules for behaviour". This aspect refers to the inability to identify with the dominant values of society or rather, with values that are perceived to be dominant. Seeman adds that this aspect can manifest in a particularly negative manner, "The anomic situation ... may be defined as one in which there is a high expectancy that socially unapproved behaviours are required to achieve given goals". This negative manifestation is dealt with in detail by Catherine Ross and John Mirowski in a series of publications on mistrust, powerlessness, normlessness and crime.


title: Social alienation

text: Neal & Collas write, "Normlessness derives partly from conditions of complexity and conflict in which individuals become unclear about the composition and enforcement of social norms. Sudden and abrupt changes occur in life conditions, and the norms that usually operate may no longer seem adequate as guidelines for conduct". This is a particular issue after the fall of the Soviet Union, mass migrations from developing to developed countries, and the general sense of disillusionment that characterized the 1990s. Traditional values that had already been questioned (especially during the 1960s) were met with further scepticism in the 1990s, resulting in a situation where individuals rely more often on their own judgement than on institutions of authority: "The individual not only has become more independent of the churches, but from other social institutions as well. The individual can make more personal choices in far more life situations than before". These choices are not necessarily "negative": Halman's study found that, as of 1998 (over 20 years ago), Europeans remained relatively conservative morally, even though the authority of the Church and other institutions had eroded.


title: Social alienation

text: One concept used in regard to specific relationships is that of parental alienation, where a separated child expresses a general dislike for one of their parents (who may have divorced or separated). The term is not applied where there is child abuse. The parental alienation might be due to specific influences from either parent or could result from the social dynamics of the family as a whole. It can also be understood in terms of attachment, the social and emotional process of bonding between child and caregiver. Adoptees can feel alienated from both adoptive parents and birth parents.


title: Social alienation

text: Familial estrangement between parents and adult children "is attributed to a number of biological, psychological, social, and structural factors affecting the family, including attachment disorders, incompatible values and beliefs, unfulfilled expectations, critical life events and transitions, parental alienation, and ineffective communication patterns." The degree of alienation has been positively correlated with decreased emotional functioning in the parent who feels a loss of identity and stigma.


title: Social alienation

text: Attachment relationships in adults can also involve feelings of alienation. Indeed, emotional alienation is said to be a common way of life for many, whether it is experienced as overwhelming, unacknowledged in the midst of a socioeconomic race, or contributes to seemingly unrelated problems.


title: Social alienation

text: Social isolation refers to "The feeling of being segregated from one's community". Neal and Collas emphasize the centrality of social isolation in the modern world: "While social isolation is typically experienced as a form of personal stress, its sources are deeply embedded in the social organization of the modern world. With increased isolation and atomization, much of our daily interactions are with those who are strangers to us and with whom we lack any ongoing social relationships."


title: Social alienation

text: Since the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, migrants from Eastern Europe and developing countries have flocked to developed countries in search of a better living standard. This has led to entire communities becoming uprooted: no longer fully part of their homelands, but neither integrated into their adopted communities. Diaspora literature depicts the plights of these migrants, such as Hafid Bouazza in Paravion. Senekal argues, "Low-income communities or religious minorities may feel separated from mainstream society, leading to backlashes such as the civil unrest that occurred in French cities in October 2005. The fact that the riots subsequently spread to Belgium, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, and Switzerland, illustrates that not only did these communities feel segregated from mainstream society, but also that they found a community in their isolation; they regarded themselves as kindred spirits".


title: Social alienation

text: One manifestation of the above dimensions of alienation can be a feeling of estrangement from the political system and a lack of engagement therein. Such political alienation could result from not identifying with any particular political party or message, and could result in revolution, reforming behavior, or abstention from the political process, possibly due to voter apathy.


title: Social alienation

text: A similar concept is policy alienation, where workers experience a state of psychological disconnection from a policy programme being implemented.


title: Social alienation

text: Self-estrangement is an elusive concept in sociology, as recognized by Seeman, although he included it as an aspect in his model of alienation. Some, with Marx, consider self-estrangement to be the result and thus the heart of social alienation. Self-estrangement can be defined as "the psychological state of denying one's own interests – of seeking out , activities...". It could be characterized as a feeling of having become a stranger to oneself, or to some parts of oneself, or alternatively as a problem of self-knowledge, or authenticity.


title: Social alienation

text: Seeman recognized the problems inherent in defining the "self", while post-modernism in particular has questioned the very possibility of pin-pointing what precisely "self" constitutes. Gergen argues that: "the traditional view of self versus society is deeply problematic and should be replaced by a conception of the self as always already immersed in relatedness. On this account, the individual's lament of 'not belonging' is partially a by-product of traditional discourses themselves". If the self is relationally constituted, does it make sense to speak of "self-estrangement" rather than "social isolation"? Costas and Fleming suggest that although the concept of self-estrangement "has not weathered postmodern criticisms of essentialism and economic determinism well", the concept still has value if a Lacanian reading of the self is adopted. This can be seen as part of a wider debate on the concept of self between humanism and antihumanism, structuralism and post-structuralism, or nature and nurture.


title: Social alienation

text: Until early in the 20th century, psychological problems were referred to in psychiatry as states of mental alienation, implying that a person had become separated from themselves, their reason or the world. From the 1960s alienation was again considered in regard to clinical states of disturbance, typically using a broad concept of a 'schizoid' ('splitting') process taken from psychoanalytic theory. The splitting was said to occur within regular child development and in everyday life, as well as in more extreme or dysfunctional form in conditions such as schizoid personality and schizophrenia. Varied concepts of alienation and self-estrangement were used to link internal schizoid states with observable symptoms and with external socioeconomic divisions, without necessarily explaining or evidencing underlying causation. R. D. Laing was particularly influential in arguing that dysfunctional families and socioeconomic oppression caused states of alienation and ontological insecurity in people, which could be considered adaptations but which were diagnosed as disorders by mainstream psychiatry and society. The specific theories associated with Laing and others at that time are not widely accepted, but work from other theoretical perspectives sometimes addresses the same theme.


title: Social alienation

text: In a related vein, for Ian Parker, psychology "normalizes" conditions of social alienation. While it could help groups of individuals emancipate themselves, it serves the role of reproducing existing conditions. This view can be seen as part of a broader tradition sometimes referred to as critical psychology or liberation psychology, which emphasizes that an individual is enmeshed within a social-political framework, and so therefore are psychological problems. Likewise, some psychoanalysts suggest that while psychoanalysis emphasizes environmental causes and reactions, it also attributes the problems of individuals to internal conflicts stemming from early psychosocial development, effectively divorcing them from the wider ongoing context. Slavoj Zizek (drawing on Herbert Marcuse, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Lacan's psychoanalysis) argues that in today's capitalist society, the individual is estranged from their self through the repressive injunction to "enjoy!" Such an injunction does not allow room for the recognition of alienation and, indeed, could itself be seen as an expression of alienation.


title: Social alienation

text: Frantz Fanon, an early writer on postcolonialism, studied the conditions of objectification and violent oppression (lack of autonomy) believed to have led to mental disorders among the colonized in the Third World (in particular Africans).


title: Social alienation

text: A process of 'malignant alienation' has been observed in regard to some psychiatric patients, especially in forensic units and for individuals labeled 'difficult' or who aren't liked by at least some staff, which involves a breakdown of the therapeutic relationship between staff and patients, and which may end in the suicide of the patient. Individuals with long-term mental disorders, which may have originally stemmed from social alienation, can experience particular social and existential alienation within their communities due to other people's and potentially their own negative attitudes towards themselves and 'odd' behavior.


title: Social alienation

text: Differences between persons with disabilities and individuals in relative abilities, or perceived abilities, can be a cause of alienation. One study, "Social Alienation and Peer Identification: A Study of the Social Construction of Deafness", found that among deaf adults one theme emerged consistently across all categories of life experience: social rejection by, and alienation from, the larger hearing community. Only when the respondents described interactions with deaf people did the theme of isolation give way to comments about participation and meaningful interaction. This appeared to be related to specific needs, for example for real conversation, for information, the opportunity to develop close friendships and a sense of family. It was suggested that the social meaning of deafness is established by interaction between deaf and hearing people, sometimes resulting in marginalization of the deaf, which is sometimes challenged. It has also led to the creation of alternatives and the deaf community is described as one such alternative.


title: Social alienation

text: Physicians and nurses often deal with people who are temporarily or permanently alienated from communities, which could be a result or a cause of medical conditions and suffering, and it has been suggested that therefore attention should be paid to learning from experiences of the special pain that alienation can bring.


title: Social alienation

text: David & Elizabeth Corey from American Political Science Association read Eric Voegelin as "accepting" of alienation: "Indeed such feelings as disquiet, anxiety, frustration and even


title: Social alienation

text: alienation are, according Voegelin, normal." Voegelin argued that drives to overcome alienation may lead to totalitarianism.


title: Social alienation

text: Alienation is most often represented in literature as the psychological isolation of an individual from society or community. In a volume of Bloom's Literary Themes, Shakespeare's "Hamlet" is described as the 'supreme literary portrait' of alienation, while noting that some may argue for Achilles in the "Iliad". In addition, "Bartleby, the Scrivener" is introduced as a perfect example because so many senses of alienation are present. Other literary works described as dealing with the theme of alienation are: "The Bell Jar", "Black Boy", "Brave New World", "The Catcher in the Rye", "The Chosen", "Dubliners", "Othello", "Fahrenheit 451", "Invisible Man", "Mrs Dalloway", "Notes from Underground", "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest", "The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde", "The Stranger" and "The Myth of Sisyphus", "The Trial", "The Castle", "Waiting for Godot", "The Waste Land", and "Young Goodman Brown". Contemporary British works noted for their perspective on alienation include "The Child in Time", "London Fields", "Trainspotting", and "Regeneration".


title: Social alienation

text: Sociologist Harry Dahms has analysed The Matrix Trilogy of films in the context of theories of alienation in modern society. He suggests that the central theme of "The Matrix" is the "all-pervasive yet increasingly invisible prevalence of alienation in the world today, and difficulties that accompany attempts to overcome it".


title: Social alienation

text: British progressive rock band Pink Floyd's concept album "The Wall" (1979) and British alternative rock band Radiohead's album "OK Computer" (1997), both deal with the subject of alienation in their lyrics.


title: Keith Sweat

text: Keith Sweat (born July 22, 1961) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, and an early figure in the new jack swing musical movement. He is known for his collection of hits including "I Want Her", "Make It Last Forever", "I'll Give All My Love to You", "Make You Sweat", "Get Up on It", "Twisted" and "Nobody". He has released 13 solo albums (2 as a part of the R&B supergroup LSG) and discovered the groups Silk and Kut Klose.


title: Keith Sweat

text: Keith Sweat was born in Harlem, New York City, to Juanita Thompson, a hairdresser, and Charles Sweat, a factory worker. Juanita raised their five children alone after Charles Sweat's death in 1973.


title: Keith Sweat

text: He worked as a night stock boy at Macy's Department Store, and then a mail room clerk at Paine Webber, a brokerage firm. In just four years he worked his way up to a lucrative brokerage assistant job on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange. Sweat also worked as a supervisor for the New York Mercantile Exchange.


title: Keith Sweat

text: Sweat started his musical career as a member of a Harlem band called Jamilah in 1975. With the help of Jamilah, Sweat was able to hone his craft as a lead singer by performing regionally throughout the tri-State area of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut. The group was started by bassist Larry Peoples, guitarist Michael Samuels, and drummer Walter Bradley.


title: Keith Sweat

text: After leaving the group in 1984 to begin a solo career, he sang at nightclubs throughout New York City and landed a chance to record for the independent label, Stadium Records. Sweat recorded only two tunes for Stadium, "Lucky Seven", and "My Mind Is Made Up", which was their third and fourth ever release, but on Stadium's first release, he is credited as co-writer and co-producer of "You Are the One for Me", the last recording ever made by the group GQ. One of GQ's original members is his uncle, Keith "Sabu" Crier.


title: Keith Sweat

text: Later in 1987, Keith Sweat was discovered by Vincent Davis and offered a recording contract with his label, Vintertainment Records, which was founded in 1983 on the foundations of early Hip-Hop and otherwise best known for releasing Joeski Love's "Pee Wee's Dance" in 1985. Vintertainment was distributed by Elektra Records from 1985 until it ceased operations in 1990. On November 24, 1987, Sweat released his debut solo studio album "Make It Last Forever", which sold three million copies. The biggest hit from this album was the song that inaugurated the new jack swing era "I Want Her" (No. 1 R&B & No. 5 Pop), which was nominated for the 1989 Soul Train Best R&B/Urban Contemporary Song of the Year award, while the title track from the album hit No. 2 on the R&B charts. Sweat reached the charts again with his second album "I'll Give All My Love to You" (1990) which hit No. 6 on the "Billboard" 200 chart. He released his third album, "Keep It Comin'" in 1991, which debuted in the Top 20 of the album chart. He produced soul singer Omar Chandler.


title: Keith Sweat

text: In 1992, Sweat discovered the group Silk, and helped craft their debut album, "Lose Control", which hit No. 7 on the "Billboard" 200 album chart.


title: Keith Sweat

text: The album's single "Freak Me" hit No. 1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 on May 1, 1993. In 1993, Sweat discovered the Atlanta-based female R&B group Kut Klose. Sweat also produced the group's debut album "Surrender", which produced their biggest hit single "I Like", peaking to No. 8 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks chart.


title: Keith Sweat

text: Sweat released his fourth album "Get Up on It" in the summer of 1994, and his self-titled fifth album in 1996. Both albums reached the top ten on the "Billboard" 200. The single co/produced and written by Eric McCaine "Twisted" featuring R&B group Kut Klose hit No. 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and "Nobody" hit No. 3, which made them Sweat's biggest hits to date. "Just A Touch" was a cover of the 1979 song "Just a Touch of Love" by Slave. He produced R&B group Dru Hill in 1996.


title: Keith Sweat

text: In the fall of 1997, Sweat discovered the group Ol' Skool and helped with their self-titled debut. He was on their biggest single, "Am I Dreaming", which featured the R&B group Xscape. Sweat also formed the R&B supergroup LSG with Gerald Levert and Johnny Gill, and released their self-titled debut album "Levert.Sweat.Gill" in 1997. That album featured "My Body", which became a hit single. The album was certified double platinum and reached No. 4 on the U.S. Billboard 200.


title: Keith Sweat

text: Sweat's sixth album, "Still in the Game" was released in 1998, hitting No. 6 on the "Billboard" 200, and No. 2 on the R&B/Hip Hop albums chart. It featured the singles "Come and Get With Me" (which featured Snoop Dogg) (No. 12 Hot 100) and "I'm Not Ready" (No. 16 Hot 100). Sweat's success on the charts started to diminish in 2000, when he released the album "Didn't See Me Coming". None of the singles from the album reached the top forty.


title: Keith Sweat

text: On August 13, 2002, Keith Sweat released his eighth album, "Rebirth". The single "One on One" reached No. 75 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and No. 44 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks chart.His 2008 album "Just Me" included the single, "Love U Better (featuring Keyshia Cole)". Sweat is currently signed to Kedar Records and released his tenth studio album entitled "Ridin' Solo" on June 22, 2010. The lead single taken from the album is "Test Drive" and featured label-mate Joe. Since 2007, Sweat has been the host of a nationally syndicated radio program based upon the Quiet storm format. "The Keith Sweat Hotel" (known as "The Quiet Storm with Keith Sweat" on WBLS in New York City) is syndicated through Premiere Radio Networks.


title: Keith Sweat

text: Sweat is also the host of a nationally syndicated radio show called The Sweat Hotel, which I s produced and distributed to urban adult contemporary and classic soul radio stations across the U.S. by Premiere Networks, a subsidiary of iHeartMedia, Inc.


title: Keith Sweat

text: From 1992 until 2002, Sweat was married to "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" star Lisa Wu Hartwell. With her, he had two sons, born in 1995 and 1998.


title: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

text: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (), officially the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Limits, and Settlement between the United States of America and the United Mexican States, is the peace treaty that was signed on 2 February 1848, in the Villa de Guadalupe Hidalgo (now a neighborhood of Mexico City) between the United States and Mexico that ended the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). The treaty was ratified by the United States on 10 March and by Mexico on 19 May. The ratifications were exchanged on 30 May, and the treaty was proclaimed on 4 July 1848.


title: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

text: With the defeat of its army and the fall of its capital in September 1847, Mexico entered into negotiations with the U.S. peace envoy, Nicholas Trist, to end the war. On the Mexican side, there were factions that did not concede defeat or seek to engage in negotiations. The treaty called for the United States to pay US$15 million to Mexico and to pay off the claims of American citizens against Mexico up to US$5 million. It gave the United States the Rio Grande as a boundary for Texas, and gave the U.S. ownership of California, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado, as well as an area comprising most of New Mexico, and approximately two-thirds of Arizona. Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating within Mexico's new boundaries or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights.


title: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

text: The U.S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty by a vote of 38–14. The opponents of this treaty were led by the Whigs, who had opposed the war and rejected manifest destiny in general, and rejected this expansion in particular. The amount of land gained by the United States from Mexico was further increased as a result of the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, which ceded parts of present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico to the United States.


title: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

text: The peace talks were negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, who had accompanied General Winfield Scott as a diplomat and President James K. Polk's representative. Trist and General Scott, after two previous unsuccessful attempts to negotiate a treaty with General José Joaquín de Herrera, determined that the only way to deal with Mexico was as a conquered enemy. Trist negotiated with a special commission representing the collapsed government led by Don José Bernardo Couto, Don Miguel de Atristain, and Don Luis Gonzaga Cuevas of Mexico.


title: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

text: Although Mexico ceded Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México, the text of the treaty did not list territories to be ceded, and avoided the disputed issues that were causes of war: the validity of the 1836 revolution that established the Republic of Texas, Texas's boundary claims as far as the Rio Grande, and the right of the Republic of Texas to arrange the 1845 annexation of Texas by the United States.