title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz asserted his trust in the "God-fearing people of Decatur and Morgan County"; he made a pretrial motion to quash the indictment on the ground that blacks had been systematically excluded from the grand jury. Although the motion was denied, this got the issue in the record for future appeals. To this motion, Attorney General Thomas Knight responded, "The State will concede nothing. Put on your case."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz called the editor of the Scottsboro weekly newspaper, who testified that he'd never heard of a black juror in Decatur because "they all steal." He called local jury commissioners to explain the absence of African-Americans from Jackson County juries. When Leibowitz accused them of excluding black men from juries, they did not seem to understand his accusation. It was as if the exclusion was so ordinary as to be unconscious. (Note: Since most blacks could not vote after having been disenfranchised by the Alabama constitution, the local jury commissioners probably never thought about them as potential jurors, who were limited to voters.)


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz called local black professionals as witnesses to show they were qualified for jury service. Leibowitz called John Sanford, an African-American of Scottsboro, who was educated, well-spoken, and respected. The defense attorney showed that "Mr. Sanford" was evidently qualified in all manner except by virtue of his race to be a candidate for participation in a jury. During the following cross-examination, Knight addressed the witness by his first name, "John." The first two times that he did so, Leibowitz asked the court to have him alter his behavior. He did not, and this insult eventually caused Leibowitz to leap to his feet saying, "Now listen, Mr. Attorney-General, I've warned you twice about your treatment of my witness. For the last time now, stand back, take your finger out of his eye, and call him mister", causing gasps from the public seated in the gallery. The judge abruptly interrupted Leibowitz.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: While the pretrial motion to quash the indictment was denied, Leibowitz had positioned the case for appeal. The issue of the composition of the jury was addressed in a second landmark decision by the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled that race could not be used to exclude anyone from candidacy for participation on a jury anywhere in the United States. This astonished (and infuriated) many residents of Alabama and many other Southern states.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Judge Horton called the first case against Haywood Patterson and began jury selection. Leibowitz objected that African-American jurors had been excluded from the jury pool. He called the jury commissioner to the stand, asking if there were any blacks on the juror rolls, and when told yes, suggested his answer was not honest. The locals resented his questioning of the official and "chewed their tobacco meditatively." The National Guard posted five men with fixed bayonets in front of Leibowitz's residence that night. The jury was selected by the end of the day on Friday and sequestered in the Lyons Hotel.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: A large crowd gathered outside the courthouse for the start of the Patterson trial on Monday, April 2. Without the "vivid detail" she had used in the Scottsboro trials, Victoria Price told her account in 16 minutes. The defense had what she had said before under oath on paper, and could confront her with any inconsistencies. The only drama came when Knight pulled a torn pair of step-ins from his briefcase and tossed them into the lap of a juror to support the claim of rape.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz used a 32-foot model train set up on a table in front of the witness stand to illustrate where each of the parties was during the alleged events, and other points of his defense. When asked if the model in front of her was like the train where she claimed she was raped, Price cracked, "It was bigger. Lots bigger. That is a toy." Leibowitz later conceded that Price was "one of the toughest witnesses he ever cross examined." Her answers were evasive and derisive. She often replied, "I can't remember" or "I won't say." Once when Leibowitz confronted her with a contradiction in her testimony, she exclaimed, sticking a finger in the direction of defendant Patterson, "One thing I will never forget is that one sitting right there raped me." The attorney tried to question her about a conviction for fornication and adultery in Huntsville, but the court sustained a prosecution objection.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Price insisted that she had spent the evening before the alleged rape at the home of Mrs. Callie Brochie in Chattanooga. Leibowitz asked her whether she had spent the evening in a "hobo jungle" in Huntsville, Alabama, with a Lester Carter and Jack Tiller, but she denied it. Leibowitz said that Callie Brochie was a fictional character in a "Saturday Evening Post" short story and suggested that Price's stay with her had been equally fictional.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Price was not the first hardened witness [Leibowitz] had faced, and certainly not the most depraved. Nor was she the first witness who tried to stare him down and, failing that, who seemed as if she were about to leap out of her seat and strike him. She was not the first witness to be evasive, sarcastic and crude. She was, however, the first witness to use her bad memory, truculence, and total lack of refinement, and at times, even ignorance, to great advantage.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Many of the whites in the courtroom likely resented Leibowitz as a Jew from New York hired by the Communists, and for his treatment of a southern white woman, even a low-class one, as a hostile witness. Some wondered if there was any way he could leave Decatur alive. The National Guard Captain Joe Burelson promised Judge Horton that he would protect Leibowitz and the defendants "as long as we have a piece of ammunition or a man alive." Once Captain Burelson learned that a group was on their way to "take care of Leibowitz", he raised the drawbridge across the Tennessee River, keeping them out of Decatur.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Judge Horton learned that the prisoners were in danger from locals. Once he sent out the jury and warned the courtroom, "I want it to be known that these prisoners are under the protection of this court. This court intends to protect these prisoners and any other persons engaged in this trial." Threats of violence came from the North as well. One letter from Chicago read, "When those Boys are dead, within six months your state will lose 500 lives."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz systematically dismantled each prosecution witness' story under cross-examination. He got Dr. Bridges to admit on cross-examination that "the best you can say about the whole case is that both of these women showed they had sexual intercourse." Paint Rock ticket agent W. H. Hill testified to seeing the women and the black youths in the same car, but on cross-examination admitted to not seeing the women at all until they got off the train. Posse member Tom Rousseau claimed to have seen the women and youths get off the same car but under cross-examination admitted finding the defendants scattered in various cars at the front of the train. Lee Adams testified that he had seen the fight, but later saying that he was a quarter-mile from the tracks. Ory Dobbins repeated that he'd seen the women try to jump off the train, but Leibowitz showed photos of the positions of the parties that proved Dobbins could not have seen everything he claimed. Dobbins insisted he had seen the girls wearing women's clothing, but other witnesses had testified they were in overalls.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: The prosecution withdrew the testimony of Dr. Marvin Lynch, the other examining doctor, as "repetitive." Many years later, Judge Horton said that Dr. Lynch confided that the women had not been raped and had laughed when he examined them. He said that if he testified for the defense, his practice in Jackson County would be over. Thinking Patterson would be acquitted, Judge Horton did not force Dr. Lynch to testify, but the judge had become convinced the defendants were innocent.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz began his defense by calling Chattanooga resident Dallas Ramsey, who testified that his home was next to the hobo jungle mentioned earlier. He said that he had seen both Price and Bates get on a train there with a white man on the morning of the alleged rape.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Train fireman Percy Ricks testified that he saw the two women slipping along the side of the train right after it stopped in Paint Rock, as if they were trying to escape the posse. Leibowitz put on the testimony of Chattanooga gynecologist, Dr. Edward A. Reisman, who testified that after a woman had been raped by six men, it was impossible that she would have only a trace of semen, as was found in this case.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz next called Lester Carter, a white man who testified that he had had intercourse with Bates. Jack Tiller, another white, said he had had sex with Price, two days before the alleged rapes. He testified that he had been on the train on the morning of the arrests. He had heard Price ask Orville Gilley, a white youth, to confirm that she had been raped. However, Gilley had told her to "go to hell." Morgan County Solicitor Wade Wright cross-examined Carter. Wright tried to get Carter to admit that the Communist Party had bought his testimony, which Carter denied. But he said that the defense attorney Joseph Brodsky had paid his rent and bought him a new suit for the trial.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Five of the original nine Scottsboro defendants testified that they had not seen Price or Bates until after the train stopped in Paint Rock. Willie Roberson testified that he was suffering from syphilis, with sores that prevented him from walking, and that he was in a car at the back of the train.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Olen Montgomery testified that he had been alone on a tank car the entire trip, and had not known about the fight or alleged rapes. Ozie Powell said that while he was not a participant, he had seen the fight with the white teenagers from his vantage point between a boxcar and a gondola car, where he had been hanging on. He said he saw the white teenagers jump off the train. Roberson, Montgomery, and Powell all denied they had known each other or the other defendants before that day. Andy Wright, Eugene Williams, and Haywood Patterson testified that they had previously known each other, but had not seen the women until the train stopped in Paint Rock. Knight questioned them extensively about instances in which their testimony supposedly differed from their testimony at their trial in Scottsboro. They did not contradict themselves in any meaningful way.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Haywood Patterson testified on his own behalf that he had not seen the women before stopping in Paint Rock; he withstood a cross-examination from Knight who "shouted, shook his finger at, and ran back and forth in front of the defendant." At one point, Knight demanded, "You were tried at Scottsboro?" Patterson snapped, "I was framed at Scottsboro." Knight thundered, "Who told you to say that?" Patterson replied, "I told myself to say it."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Just after the defense rested "with reservations", someone handed Leibowitz a note. The attorneys approached the bench for a hushed conversation, which was followed by a short recess. Leibowitz called one final witness. Thus far in the trial, Ruby Bates had been notably absent. She had disappeared from her home in Huntsville weeks before the new trial, and every sheriff in Alabama had been ordered to search for her, to no avail. Now, two guardsmen with bayonets opened the courtroom doors, and Bates entered, "in stylish clothes, eyes downcast."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Her dramatic and unexpected entrance drew stares from the residents of the courtroom. Victoria Price, brought out for Bates to identify, glared at her. Attorney General Knight warned Price to "keep your temper." Bates proceeded to testify and explained that no rape had occurred. She said none of the defendants had touched her or even spoken to her. When asked if she had been raped on March 25, 1931, Bates said, "No sir." When asked why she had initially said she had been raped, Bates replied, "I told it just like Victoria did because she said we might have to stay in jail if we did not frame up a story after crossing a state line with men." Bates explained that Price had said, "she didn't care if all the Negroes in Alabama were put in jail." This recantation seemed to be a severe blow to the prosecution.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Bates admitted having intercourse with Lester Carter in the Huntsville railway yards two days before making accusations. Finally, she testified she had been in New York City and had decided to return to Alabama to tell the truth, at the urging of Rev. Harry Emerson Fosdick of that city.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: With his eye turned to the southern jury, Knight cross-examined her. He noted her stylish dress and demanded where she had gotten her fine clothes. When she responded that the Communist Party had paid for her clothes, any credibility she had with the jury was destroyed. Judge Horton warned spectators to stop laughing at her testimony or he would eject them.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: By the time Leibowitz closed, the prosecution had employed anti-semitic remarks to discredit him. Wade Wright added to this, referring to Ruby's boyfriend Lester Carter as "Mr. Caterinsky" and called him "the prettiest Jew" he ever saw. He said, "Don't you know these defense witnesses are bought and paid for? May the Lord have mercy on the soul of Ruby Bates. Now the question in this case is this—Is justice in the case going to be bought and sold in Alabama with Jew money from New York?"


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz objected and moved for a new trial. Judge Horton refused to grant a new trial, telling the jury to "put [the remarks] out of your minds." One author describes Wright's closing argument as "the now-famous Jew-baiting summary to the jury." He goes on to say that, "Until Wright spoke, many of the newspapermen felt that there was an outside chance for acquittal, at least a hung jury. But ... from then on the defense was helpless."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: In his closing, Leibowitz called Wright's argument an appeal to regional bigotry, claiming talk about Communists was just to "befuddle" the jury. He described himself as a patriot, a "Roosevelt Democrat", who had served the "Stars and Stripes" in World War I, "when there was no talk of Jew or Gentile, white or black." As to Wright's reference to "Jew money", Leibowitz said that he was defending the Scottsboro Boys for nothing and was personally paying the expenses of his wife, who had accompanied him.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: "I'm interested", Leibowitz argued, "solely in seeing that that poor, moronic colored boy over there and his co-defendants in the other cases get a square shake of the dice, because I believe, before God, they are the victims of a dastardly frame-up." He called Price's testimony "a foul, contemptible, outrageous lie." He ended with the Lord's Prayer and a challenge to either acquit or render the death sentence—nothing in between.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Attorney General Knight delivered his rebuttal, roaring that if the jury found Haywood not guilty, they ought to "put a garland of roses around his neck, give him a supper, and send him to New York City." Considering the evidence, he continued, "there can be but one verdict—death in the electric chair for raping Victoria Price."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: The jury began deliberating Saturday afternoon and announced it had a verdict at ten the next morning, while many residents of Decatur were in church. The jury foreman, Eugene Bailey, handed the handwritten verdict to Judge Horton. The jury found the defendant guilty of rape and sentenced Patterson to death in the electric chair. Bailey had held out for eleven hours for life in prison, but in the end, agreed to the death sentence.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: According to one account, juror Irwin Craig held out against the imposition of the death penalty, because he thought that Patterson was innocent.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Irwin "Red" Craig (died 1970) (nicknamed from the color of his hair) was the sole juror to refuse to impose the death penalty in the retrial of Haywood Patterson, one of the Scottsboro Boys, in what was then the small town of Decatur, Alabama. His son, Sonny, later recalled him as saying: "Those young men were innocent; everybody knew that but they were going to be punished for what they didn't do." The Ku Klux Klan staked a burning cross in his family yard.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: He was called in to see the judge presiding over that retrial, James Horton, who exhorted him to change his vote to guilty. "If you don't, they will kill you, Red", said the judge. Craig protested: "I can't change my vote, judge." Horton replied: "Don't worry about that, I'll take care of it."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: The defense moved for a retrial and, believing the defendants innocent, Judge James Edwin Horton agreed to set aside the guilty verdict for Patterson. Horton ruled the rest of defendants could not get a fair trial at that time and indefinitely postponed the rest of the trials, knowing it would cost him his job when he ran for re-election.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Judge Horton heard arguments on the motion for a new trial in the Limestone County Court House in Athens, Alabama, where he read his decision to the astonished defense and a furious Knight: Horton ordered a new trial— which would turn out to be the third for Patterson.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: When Judge Horton announced his decision, Knight stated that he would retry Patterson. He said that he had found Orville "Carolina Slim" Gilley, the white teenager in the gondola car and that Gilley would corroborate Price's story in full. At Knight's request, the court replaced Judge Horton with Judge William Washington Callahan, described as a racist. He later instructed the jury in the next round of trials that no white woman would voluntarily have sex with a black man.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: During the Decatur retrial, held from November 1933 to July 1937, Judge Callahan wanted to take the case off "the front pages of America's newspapers." He banned photographers from the courthouse grounds and typewriters from his courtroom. "There ain't going to be no more picture snappin' round here", he ordered. He also imposed a strict three-day time limit on each trial, running them into the evening. He removed protection from the defense, convincing Governor Benjamin Meek Miller to keep the National Guard away.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: The defense moved for another change of venue, submitting affidavits in which hundreds of residents stated their intense dislike for the defendants, to show there was "overwhelming prejudice" against them. The prosecution countered with testimony that some of the quotes in the affidavits were untrue and that six of the people quoted were dead. The defense countered that they had received numerous death threats, and the judge replied that he and the prosecution had received more from the Communists. The motion was denied.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz led Commissioner Moody and Jackson County Circuit Clerk C.A. Wann through every page of the Jackson County jury roll to show that it contained no names of African-Americans. When, after several hours of reading names, Commissioner Moody finally claimed several names to be of African-Americans, Leibowitz got handwriting samples from all present. One man admitted that the handwriting appeared to be his. Leibowitz called in a handwriting expert, who testified that names identified as African-American had been added later to the list, and signed by former Jury Commissioner Morgan.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Judge Callahan did not rule that excluding people by race was constitutional, only that the defendant had not proven that African-Americans had been deliberately excluded. By letting Leibowitz go on record on this issue, Judge Callahan provided grounds for the case to be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court for a second time. It was the basis for the court's finding in "Norris v. Alabama" (1935), that exclusion of African-American grand jurors had occurred, violating the due process clause of the Constitution.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Haywood Patterson's Decatur retrial began on November 27, 1933. Thirty-six potential jurors admitted having a "fixed opinion" in the case, which caused Leibowitz to move for a change of venue. Callahan denied the motion. Callahan excluded defense evidence that Horton had admitted, at one point exclaiming to Leibowitz, "Judge Horton can't help you [now]." He routinely sustained prosecution objections but overruled defense objections.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Price testified again that a dozen armed negro men entered the gondola car. She said Patterson had fired a shot and ordered all whites but Gilley off the train. She said the negros had ripped her clothes off and repeatedly raped her at knifepoint, and pointed out Patterson as one of the rapists. She said they raped her and Bates, afterward saying they would take them north or throw them in the river. She testified that she had fallen while getting out of the gondola car, passed out, and came to seated in a store at Paint Rock. Leibowitz questioned her until Judge Callahan stopped court for the day at 6:30. When he resumed the next morning, he pointed out many contradictions among her various versions of the rape.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Judge Callahan repeatedly interrupted Leibowitz's cross-examination of Price, calling defense questions "arguing with the witness", "immaterial, "useless", "a waste of time" and even "illegal." The many contradictions notwithstanding, Price steadfastly stuck to her testimony that Patterson had raped her.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Orville Gilley's testimony at Patterson's Decatur retrial was a mild sensation. He denied being a "bought witness", repeating his testimony about armed blacks ordering the white teenagers off the train. He confirmed Price's rape account, adding that he stopped the rape by convincing the "negro" with the gun to make the rapists stop "before they killed that woman." Leibowitz cross-examined him at length about contradictions between his account and Price's testimony, but he remained "unruffled." Gilley testified to meeting Lester Carter and the women the evening before the alleged rapes and getting them coffee and sandwiches. Callahan interrupted before Leibowitz could find out if Gilley went "somewhere with [the women]" that night.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: The prosecution called several white farmers who testified that they had seen the fight on the train and saw the girls "a-fixin' to get out", but they saw the defendants drag them back.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Lester Carter took the stand for the defense. He had testified in the first Decatur trial that Price and Bates had had sex with him and Gilley in the hobo jungle in Chattanooga prior to the alleged rapes, which could account for the semen found in the women. But Judge Callahan would not let him repeat that testimony at the trial, stating that any such testimony was "immaterial."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Ruby Bates was apparently too sick to travel. She had had surgery in New York, and at one point Leibowitz requested that her deposition be taken as a dying declaration. While she was not dying, committed to his three-day time limit for the trial, Judge Callahan denied the request to arrange to take her deposition. Although the defense needed her testimony, by the time a deposition arrived, the case had gone to the jury and they did not hear it at all.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Haywood Patterson took the stand, admitting he had "cussed" at the white teenagers, but only because they cussed at him first. He denied seeing the white women before Paint Rock. On cross-examination Knight confronted him with previous testimony from his Scottsboro trial that he had not touched the women, but that he had seen the other five defendants rape them. Leibowitz objected, stating that the U.S. Supreme Court had ruled previous testimony illegal. Judge Callahan allowed it, although he would not allow testimony by Patterson stating that he had not seen the women before Paint Rock. Patterson explained contradictions in his testimony: "We was scared and I don't know what I said. They told us if we didn't confess they'd kill us—give us to the mob outside."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Patterson claimed the threats had been made by guards and militiamen while the defendants were in the Jackson County jail. He said threats were made even in the presence of the judge. Patterson pointed at H.G. Bailey, the prosecutor in his Scottsboro trial, stating, "And Mr. Bailey over there—he said send all the niggers to the electric chair. There's too many niggers in the world anyway."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Closing arguments were made November 29 through November 30, without stopping for Thanksgiving. Callahan limited each side to two hours of argument.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Knight declared in his closing that the prosecution was not avenging what the defendants had done to Price. "What has been done to her cannot be undone. What you can do now is to make sure that it doesn't happen to some other woman." Leibowitz objected that the argument was "an appeal to passion and prejudice" and moved for a mistrial. Knight agreed that it was an appeal to passion, and Callahan overruled the motion. Knight continued, "We all have a passion, all men in this courtroom to protect the womanhood in Alabama." For his summation, solicitor Wade Wright reviewed the testimony and warned the jury, "that this crime could have happened to any woman, even though she was riding in a parlor car, instead of the boxcar."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Solicitor H. G. Bailey reminded the jury that the law presumed Patterson innocent, even if what Gilley and Price had described was "as sordid as ever a human tongue has uttered." Finally, he defended the women, "Instead of painting their faces ... they were brave enough to go to Chattanooga and look for honest work." Bailey attacked the defense case.They say this is a frame-up! They have been yelling frame-up ever since this case started! Who framed them? Did Ory Dobbins frame them? Did brother Hill frame them? We did a lot of awful things over there in Scottsboro, didn't we? My, my, my. And now they come over here and try to convince you that that sort of thing happened in your neighboring county.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Judge Callahan charged the jury that Price and Bates could have been raped without force, just by withholding their consent. He instructed them, "Where the woman charged to have been raped is white, there is a strong presumption under the law that she will not and did not yield voluntarily to intercourse with the defendant, a Negro." He instructed the jury that if Patterson was so much as present for the "purpose of aiding, encouraging, assisting or abetting" the rapes "in any way", he was as guilty as the person who committed the rapes.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: He told them that they did not need to find corroboration of Price's testimony. If they believed her, that was enough to convict. Judge Callahan said he was giving them two forms – one for conviction and one for acquittal, but he supplied the jury with only a form to convict. He supplied them with an acquittal form only after the prosecution, fearing reversible error, urged him to do so.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: As "Time" described it: "Twenty-six hours later came a resounding thump on the brown wooden jury room door. The bailiff let the jurors out [from the Patterson trial]. The foreman unfisted a moist crumpled note, handed it to the clerk. A thin smile faded from Patterson's lips as the clerk read his third death sentence."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: In May 1934, despite having run unopposed in the previous election for the position, James Horton was soundly defeated when he ran for re-election as a circuit judge. The vote against him was especially heavy in Morgan County. In the same election, Thomas Knight was elected Lieutenant Governor of Alabama.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Judge Callahan started jury selection for the trial of defendant Norris on November 30, 1933, Thanksgiving afternoon. At this trial, Victoria Price testified that two of her alleged assailants had pistols, that they threw off the white teenagers, that she tried to jump off but was grabbed, thrown onto the gravel in the gondola, one of them held her legs, and one held a knife on her, and one raped both her and Ruby Bates. She claimed Norris raped her, along with five others.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Callahan would not allow Leibowitz to ask Price about any "crime of moral turpitude." Nor would he allow Leibowitz to ask why she went to Chattanooga, where she had spent the night there, or about Carter or Gilley. Neither would he allow questions as to whether she'd had sexual intercourse with Carter or Gilley. During more cross-examination, Price looked at Knight so often Leibowitz accused her of looking for signals. Judge Callahan cautioned Leibowitz he would not permit "such tactics" in his courtroom.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Dr. Bridges was a state witness, and Leibowitz cross-examined him at length, trying to get him to agree that a rape would have produced more injuries than he found. Callahan sustained a prosecution objection, ruling "the question is not based on the evidence."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Ruby Bates had given a deposition from her hospital bed in New York, which arrived in time to be read to the jury in the Norris trial. Judge Callahan sustained prosecution objections to large portions of it, most significantly the part where she said that she and Price both had sex voluntarily in Chattanooga the night before the alleged rapes.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz read the rest of Bates' deposition, including her version of what happened on the train. She said that there were white teenagers riding in the gondola car with them, that some black teenagers came into the car, that a fight broke out, that most of the white teenagers got off the train, and that the blacks "disappeared" until the posse stopped the train at Paint Rock. She testified that she, Price and Gilley were arrested and that Price made the rape accusation, instructing her to go along with the story to stay out of jail. She reiterated that neither she nor Price had been raped. Leibowitz chose to keep Norris off the stand.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Closing arguments were on December 4, 1933. In his closing argument, Leibowitz called the prosecution's case "a contemptible frame-up by two bums." He attempted to overcome local prejudice, saying "if you have a reasonable doubt, hold out. Stand your ground, show you are a man, a red-blooded he-man." The prosecution's closing argument was shorter and less "barbed" than it had been in the Patterson case. It was addressed more to the evidence and less to the regional prejudice of the jury.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz made many objections to Judge Callahan's charge to the jury. "The New York Times" described Leibowitz as "pressing the judge almost as though he were a hostile witness." New York City Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia had dispatched two burly New York City police officers to protect Leibowitz. During the long jury deliberations, Judge Callahan also assigned two Morgan County deputies to guard him.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: The jury began deliberation on December 5. After 14 hours of deliberation, the jury filed into the courtroom; they returned a guilty verdict and sentenced Norris to death. Norris took the news stoically.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz's prompt appeal stayed the execution date, so Patterson and Norris were both returned to death row in Kilby Prison. The other defendants waited in the Jefferson County jail in Birmingham for the outcome of the appeals. Leibowitz was escorted to the train station under heavy guard, and he boarded a train back to New York.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: The case went to the United States Supreme Court for a second time as "Norris v. Alabama." The court reversed the convictions for a second time on the basis that blacks had been excluded from the jury pool because of their race.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Attorneys Samuel Leibowitz, Walter H. Pollak and Osmond Frankel argued the case from February 15 to 18, 1935. Leibowitz showed the justices that the names of African Americans had been added to the jury rolls. The Justices examined the items closely with a magnifying glass. Thomas Knight maintained that the jury process was color blind.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Because the case of Haywood Patterson had been dismissed due to the technical failure to appeal it on time, it presented different issues. Attorneys Osmond Frankel and Walter Pollak argued those.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: On April 1, 1935, the United States Supreme Court sent the cases back a second time for retrials in Alabama.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Writing for the Court, Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes observed the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution clearly forbade the states from excluding citizens from juries due solely to their race. He noted that the Court had inspected the jury rolls, chastising Judge Callahan and the Alabama Supreme Court for accepting assertions that black citizens had not been excluded. According to the U.S. Supreme Court, "something more" was needed. The Court concluded, "the motion to quash ... should have been granted." The Court ruled that it would be a great injustice to execute Patterson when Norris would receive a new trial, reasoning that Alabama should have opportunity to reexamine Patterson's case as well.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Alabama Governor Bibb Graves instructed every solicitor and judge in the state, "Whether we like the decisions or not ... We must put Negroes in jury boxes. Alabama is going to observe the supreme law of America."


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: After the case was remanded, on May 1, 1935, Victoria Price swore new rape complaints against the defendants as the sole complaining witness. An African American, Creed Conyer, was selected as the first black person since Reconstruction to sit on an Alabama grand jury. The indictment could be made with a two-thirds vote, and the grand jury voted to indict the defendants. Thomas Knight, Jr. by now (May 1935) Lieutenant Governor, was appointed a special prosecutor to the cases.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Leibowitz recognized that he was viewed by Southerners as an outsider, and allowed the local attorney Charles Watts to be the lead attorney; he assisted from the sidelines. Judge Callahan arraigned all the defendants except the two juveniles in Decatur; they all pleaded not guilty.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Watts moved to have the case sent to the Federal Court as a civil rights case, which Callahan promptly denied. He set the retrials for January 20, 1936.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: By January 23, 1936, Haywood Patterson was convicted of rape and sentenced to 75 years—the first time in Alabama that a black man had not been sentenced to death in the rape of a white woman.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: On July 24, 1937, Ozie Powell was taken into court and the new prosecutor, Thomas Lawson, announced that the state was dropping rape charges against Powell and that he was pleading guilty to assaulting a deputy. He was sentenced to 20 years. The state dropped the rape charges as part of this plea bargain.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: On July 24, 1937, the state of Alabama dropped all charges against Willie Roberson, Olen Montgomery, Eugene Williams, and Roy Wright. The four had spent over six years in prison on death row, as "adults" despite their ages. Thomas Lawson announced that all charges were being dropped against the remaining four defendants: He said that after "careful consideration" every prosecutor was "convinced" that Roberson and Montgomery were "not guilty." Wright and Williams, regardless of their guilt or innocence, were 12 and 13 at the time and, in view of the jail time they had already served, justice required that they also be released.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: On July 26, 1937, Haywood Patterson was sent to Atmore State Prison Farm. The remaining "Scottsboro Boys" in custody, that of Norris, A Wright and Weems were at this time in Kilby Prison.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Governor Graves had planned to pardon the prisoners in 1938 but was angered by their hostility and refusal to admit their guilt. He refused the pardons but did commute Norris's death sentence to life in prison.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Ruby Bates toured for a short while as an ILD speaker. She said she was "sorry for all the trouble that I caused them", and claimed she did it because she was "frightened by the ruling class of Scottsboro." Later, she worked in a New York state spinning factory until 1938; that year she returned to Huntsville. Victoria Price worked in a Huntsville cotton mill until 1938, then moved to Flintville, Tennessee. Victoria Price never recanted her testimony.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: "Scottsboro: A Tragedy of the American South" (1969) by Dan T. Carter was widely thought to be authoritative, but it wrongly asserted that Price and Bates were dead. An NBC TV movie, "Judge Horton and the Scottsboro Boys" (1976), asserted that the defense had proven that Price and Bates were prostitutes; both sued NBC over their portrayals. Bates died in 1976 in Washington state, where she lived with her carpenter husband, and her case was not heard. Price's case was initially dismissed but she appealed. When the US Supreme Court agreed to hear the case in 1977, Price disregarded the advice of her lawyer and accepted a settlement from NBC. She used the money to buy a house. Price died in 1983, in Lincoln County, Tennessee.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Most residents of Scottsboro have acknowledged the injustice that started in their community. In January 2004, the town dedicated a historical marker in commemoration of the case at the Jackson County Court House. According to a news story, "An 87-year-old black man who attended the ceremony recalled that the mob scene following the Boys' arrest was frightening and that death threats were leveled against the jailed suspects. Speaking of the decision to install the marker, he said, 'I think it will bring the races closer together, to understand each other better.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: Sheila Washington founded the Scottsboro Boys Museum & Cultural Center in 2010 in Scottsboro. It is located in the former Joyce Chapel United Methodist Church and is devoted to exploring the case and commemorating the search for justice for its victims.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: In early May 2013, the Alabama legislature cleared the path for posthumous pardons. On November 21, 2013, the Alabama Board of Pardons and Paroles granted posthumous pardons to Weems, Wright and Patterson, the only Scottsboro Boys who had neither had their convictions overturned nor received a pardon.


title: Scottsboro Boys

text: While we could not take back what happened to the Scottsboro Boys 80 years ago, we found a way to make it right moving forward. The pardons granted to the Scottsboro Boys today are long overdue. The legislation that led to today's pardons was the result of a bipartisan, cooperative effort. I appreciate the Pardons and Parole Board for continuing our progress today and officially granting these pardons. Today, the Scottsboro Boys have finally received justice.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: The Inspector Montalbano ( ) television series are Italian police procedural stories. Based on Andrea Camilleri's detective novels, they are located in the imaginary town of Vigàta, Sicily, which is based on Camilleri's native Porto Empedocle. The series star Salvo Montalbano is the police chief, or "commissario".


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: "Inspector Montalbano" was produced and broadcast by RAI to critical acclaim. It premiered on Rai 2, and then, since the fourth series, on Rai 1. Over 65 countries have broadcast the series, including on BBC Four in the United Kingdom, MHz WorldView in the United States and SBS in Australia. In 2012, the series generated a spin-off, "The Young Montalbano".


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: Inspector Salvo Montalbano is in charge of the state police station in Vigàta, a fictional town in the fictional province of Montelusa (see locations) in Sicily, Southern Italy. Montalbano investigates criminal acts which he always manages to solve by reconstruction thanks to his intelligence and the help of his team which includes his deputy, Domenico 'Mimì' Augello, Giuseppe Fazio, Galluzzo, and Agatino Catarella. Salvo has a long-distance, tempestuous relationship with Livia Burlando who lives in Genoa.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: Given the success of the Andrea Camilleri novels, published by Sellerio (Palermo), RAI with , commissioned a television series, in co-operation with Sweden's SVT, Sveriges Television, of most of the novels and short stories. Each closely follows the plot of the novels, in some cases joining several short stories. Alberto Sironi (), who died suddenly in early August 2019, had directed the entire series up till then. He was taken ill during the filming of three new episodes in 2019 and Luca Zingaretti took over the direction. Camilleri was teaching at the same time that Zingaretti was studying at the Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica Silvio D'Amico. Luca Zingaretti had to adjust his accent to Sicilian having been born in Rome. "Inspector Montalbano" was initially launched on Rai 2. It moved to Rai 1 after the second series.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: Austrian actress Katharina Böhm, then Lina Perned, both dubbed by Claudia Catani, and now Sonia Bergamasco plays his girlfriend, Livia. Cesare Bocci plays his deputy and Peppino Mazzotta plays his most trusted detective Fazio.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: Although Camilleri set his books in a fictionalised province of Agrigento, much of the series is filmed in the province of Ragusa. The exteriors of "la Mànnara" were filmed at Fornace Penna in Sampieri. Montalbano's offices are in Scicli, as are the offices of Commissioner Bonetti-Alderighi (actually those of the mayor). Filming is in Ragusa Ibla, Modica, Donnafugata Castle and the Donnalucata, Pozzallo and Scoglitti ports, Marina di Ragusa, Comiso, Santa Croce Camerina, and other places in south-eastern Sicily. The opening shots in the series include the Guerrieri Viaduct in Modica. The Coast Guard office in Scoglitti, in reality, is the small lighthouse museum.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: The BBC holds the United Kingdom transmission rights. "Excursion to Tindari" and "Montalbano's Croquettes" were shown on BBC Four in December 2008. On 11 February 2012, "The Snack Thief" was broadcast in its 9 pm Saturday evening slot. On 25 August 2012, BBC Four began to broadcast a series of 12 episodes. From 19 October to 9 November 2013, the four series nine episodes were broadcast and referred to as Series 3. In June 2014, BBC Four began a re-run of all existing episodes and this time commencing in the correct running order. However the episodes (as detailed in dates above) for series 8 were shown in a different order than the Italian sequence. This remains the U.K. sequence for the BBC iPlayer stream.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: In Australia, the series was shown on Special Broadcasting Service in Italian, subtitled in English by SBS staff.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: In France, it was shown in winter 2013 on France 3 on Sundays with the title "Commissaire Montalbano". In Spain, it was on La 2 on Saturdays in spring 2013 and in Argentina on the Europa channel.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: In the UK, the earlier episodes are currently available in both a collection and series format, with the series numbering following BBC Four's. These titles are distributed by Acorn Media UK.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: In the Nordic countries the first 18 films are available as Box 1 (1–6), Box 2 (7–12) and Box 3 (13–18). All were released in 2009 (labelled 1999, the start date of the series) with Danish, Finnish, Norwegian and Swedish subtitles. They were released by AtlanticFilms AB on license from RAI Trade.


title: Inspector Montalbano (TV series)

text: In Spain, there is a confusing situation where episodes are dubbed in Spanish, as well as Italian with Spanish subtitles being available in both box sets containing six episodes each and overlapping mini box sets containing two films each. Both are labelled, "Colección Montalbano" in identical boxes just to add to the confusion. Distribution is by Track Media SL.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: How to Train Your Dragon is a series of children's books written by British author Cressida Cowell. The books are set in a fictional Viking world, and focus on the experiences of protagonist Hiccup Horrendous Haddock the Third, as he overcomes obstacles on his journey of "becoming a hero, the hard way". The books were published by Hodder Children's Books in the UK and by Little, Brown and Company in the US. The first book was published in 2003 and the 12th and final one in 2015. By 2015, the series had sold more than seven million copies around the world. The books have subsequently been adapted into a media franchise consisting of three animated feature films, several television series and other media, all produced by DreamWorks Animation.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Cowell has published twelve full novels, based around the adventures of a young Viking named Hiccup Horrendous Haddock the Third. The first book was published in 2003, and the last book was released in 2015. All the books have titles based around an instruction guide.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: DreamWorks also published 6 early reader books based on the movies; these were not written by Cressida Cowell. They are:


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Cowell published the supplementary spin-off stories as part of the series: "The Day of the Dreader" is a short story published in 2012 and the novella "How To Train Your Viking" was published as part of World Book Day 2006 and is claimed to be written by the dragon Toothless and translated by Cowell. Both of these titles were published in the US as part of the May 2014 "How to Train Your Dragon Special Edition: With Brand New Short Stories!" paperback movie tie-in edition. A picture book, "Hiccup the Seasick Viking" published in 2000, is not considered a part of the series despite featuring the same character of Hiccup. An illustrative guide to the dragon world, titled "The Incomplete Book of Dragons", was released in June 2014 (in the US it is titled "The Complete Book of Dragons").


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Cowell cites the Scottish Inner Hebrides islands and stories of Scandinavian Scotland as inspirations for the book.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: The first book in the series follows Hiccup as he captures a dragon as a rite of passage and attempts to train him so that he will not be exiled from Berk, as is its tradition for young Viking boys on this island. Led by their teacher, Gobber the Belch, Hiccup manages to catch a small dragon, whom he names Toothless, and attempts to train it through his own methods. The Viking students are told to read a book called 'How to Train Your Dragon' by Professor Yobbish, but the book was found to have only one page and was therefore unhelpful. The Viking students must have their dragons trained before the Thor'sday Thursday Celebration in order to become proper Vikings. During this celebration, Toothless offends another dragon and a fight ensues between all the dragons. As this is seen as failure to train the dragons correctly, the boys are exiled, allowed to stay one night while a storm rages. During the storm, three Sea Dragons are washed up on the shore of the island and one seems a threat to the Vikings. Hiccup is chosen to negotiate with the dragon, who has eaten one of the other dragons. However, the dragon, who calls himself the Green Death, says he is going to kill all the Vikings. While the village elders argue over how to attack the Green Death, Hiccup, the boys and their dragons start a fight between the Green Death and the other sea dragon, the Purple Death, resulting in Hiccup nearly being swallowed and having to be rescued by Toothless, killing both sea dragons in the process. Hiccup and Toothless become heroes because of their bravery.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup finds the coffin of Grimbeard the Ghastly, the greatest pirate of all times and Hiccup's great-great-grandfather. The coffin contains a living man, named Alvin the Treacherous, who hides his true identity under the name Alvin the Poor-but-Honest-Farmer. Alvin tells the Hooligans that he was locked in the coffin and sent out to sea by "some very rude people". He claims that he found a riddle that tells how to find the treasure of Grimbeard the Ghastly and a map that depicts the island where the treasure is buried.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: The Hooligans travel to the Isle of the Skullions, where they believe the treasure is hidden. Snotlout finds a small chest containing Grimbeard's famous sword, the Stormblade. Opening the chest triggers a trap which wakes up the Skullion dragons which inhabit the island. A brief fight with the Skullions ensues, a few of the Skullions are killed, and the Vikings escape with the treasure. Upon nearing Berk, the Hooligans begin fighting over the treasure, and as they fight, they are ambushed by a group of cannibalistic Vikings known as the Outcasts. Alvin reveals himself to be the Outcast's chief, and another battle starts. The ship soon catches fire and sinks. Everyone abandons it, climbing on the Outcasts' ship to continue the battle, but Hiccup, Toothless, Fishlegs, and Alvin are trapped underneath the capsized ship, kept alive with an air pocket.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: As the air pocket is finally destroyed by the weight of the capsized ship, Toothless finds an underwater cavern filled with air. As the party begins to explore the cavern they come to a door and upon opening it, they find the real treasure of Grimbeard the Ghastly. Alvin turns on Hiccup to kill him using the Stormblade. In the sword-fight that follows, Alvin is eaten by a Monstrous Strangulator, an octopus-like creature which guards the treasure. As it comes next for Hiccup, Hiccup tricks the creature into injecting itself with its own poison. The creature's nervous system is destroyed and they escape, but Hiccup decides that the world is not ready for the treasure, and leaves it behind.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup and Fishlegs get lost while out at sea. Fishlegs is caught by Romans, while Hiccup hides and tries to figure out a way to free him and escape. Hiccup causes a distraction and escapes with Fishlegs, but not before losing half of his How to Speak Dragonese notebook. In the morning, Hiccup realizes he took home a Nanodragon from the Roman Ship. The Nanodragon is, in fact, the king of the Nanodragons and self-proclaimed 'living god', Ziggerastica. For saving his life, Ziggerastica tells Hiccup he can call his name and he will come.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: During another lesson, Hiccup and Fishlegs are again kidnapped and taken to Fort Sinister, a base of operations for the Roman Empire. Once there, Hiccup recognizes his old enemy Alvin the Treacherous. Fishlegs and Hiccup are imprisoned along with the young female Bog-Burglar heir, Camicazi. Toothless is eventually allowed to stay with Hiccup. After several failed attempts at escape, Hiccup calls for Ziggerastica and comes up with a plan of escape on Saturn's Day.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: When the festival day arrives, the gang are put on a ship and sail into the gladiatorial arena, where they are to fight deadly Sharkworms, rather than a traditional fight on land. However, due to Hiccup's planning with the nanodragon king, Hiccup appears to fly into the air like a God and 'blow' the cage roof off. The stunned Fat Consul gives him his Roman Shield, while Alvin the Treacherous gives Hiccup back his How to Speak Dragonese book. The arena erupts in chaos and the children escape in a Roman Observation Balloon. Alvin manages to get his hand-hook lodged into the balloon basket, but the children are able to twist him off, and he falls into Sharkworm-infested waters.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: They fly home in the balloon, then crash land onto the ships of Stoick and Big-Boobied Bertha. The two tribes make amends and return to their homes. Unbeknownst to Hiccup, Alvin had planted a Venomous Vorpent within the pages of his book, and it stings someone.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: During a hunting expedition, Hiccup and Fishlegs spot a group of Hysterics, a tribe of scary lunatic Vikings. Hiccup and Fishlegs flee, with the Hysterics behind in hot pursuit. They are saved by One-Eye, a Saber-Toothed Driver dragon. Fishlegs catches Vorpentitis, a disease caused by the sting of a Venomous Vorpent, and the only cure to this disease requires "the vegetable that no one dares name" (potato) from "the land that does not exist" (America). Old Wrinkly predicts the potato might be in the Hysteric Territories, and tells him that he must bring it back before ten o'clock the next morning, or else Fishlegs will die.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup brings Camicazi and Toothless on the journey to Hysteria, with One-Eye pulling them on a sleigh. The two children enter through the roof, but Hiccup falls into a pot of onion soup, and is discovered by Norbert the Nutjob. Hiccup makes Norbert show him the potato by pretending not to believe it exists. Norbert locks Hiccup in a cage. After the Hysterics fall asleep, Camicazi picks the lock of Hiccup's cage and they leave the Hall through the chimney.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: The three, along with One-eye, escape in Hiccup's boat, but get attacked by the Doomfang, which eats the potato. Hiccup realizes the Doomfang has Vorpentitis. Once he gets back, he realizes that Fishlegs had only caught a cold, and Old Wrinkly had made a mistake. Old Wrinkly examines Hiccup and explains that it is actually Hiccup who has Vorpentitis. Fishlegs shoots Hiccup on the foot with an arrow soaked in the juices of the potato, and Hiccup recovers.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: While on a herding exercise, the children are distracted by a huge fire rolling down the mountainside. The fire is found to be the doing of evil fire dragons called Exterminators. While most of the kids escape on Gobber's riding dragon, Goliath, Hiccup and Gobber are saved by Humungously Hotshot, one of the greatest heroes on the planet. Hiccup's father, Stoick, hires him as Hiccup's bodyguard.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: One night, Hiccup wakes up to Hotshot looming over him with his swords, arguing with himself whether or not to kill Hiccup. Hiccup asks him what he's doing. Hotshot begins to tell Hiccup his story of how he fell in love with a Viking woman, but her father wanted her to marry someone clever. The woman's father sent Hotshot to find and bring back the Firestone, and the reward was the woman's hand in marriage. Hotshot traveled to the volcano where the Firestone was hidden, but was captured by the Lava Louts. After a few weeks, he became friends with a jailkeeper named Terrific Al. Al told Humongous that he would bring the ruby heart to his ladylove if he killed Hiccup, stating that Hiccup is a Devil Child, who will send terror across the Archipelago.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup figures out that the woman is Hiccup's own mother and "Terrific Al" is really Alvin the Treacherous. Hiccup, his friends, and their dragons travel to Lava-Lout Island to put the fire stone inside the volcano to stop the volcano from exploding. They are attacked by Alvin riding an Exterminator. Hiccup puts the stone into the volcano and the stone hatches into a fire dragon. The dragon eats Alvin and the Exterminators and dives back into the lava. Hiccup and his riding dragon, Windwalker, run down the island away from lava and fall into the sea. Hiccup's father and others rescue him and everything works out well.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: On his birthday, Hiccup goes to the Finals of a Burglary Competition between the Bog-Burglars and the Hooligans. When Hiccup returns home, he realizes Toothless has eaten three-quarters of Stoick's throne. Stoick comes in the room in a bad temper. He throws a tantrum, but remembers that Gobber has stolen the "How to Train Your Dragon" manual from the Library. Stoick tells Hiccup that if Toothless does one more thing like this, he will banish him, and goes off to find the book. Toothless guiltily reveals that he also burned the copy of "How To Train Your Dragon". Camicazi suggests that the library might have another copy of the book.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup, Camicazi and Fishlegs go to the Island of Forget Me to visit the Meathead Public Library. They fly on a Stealth Dragon which had been stolen from the Murderous Tribe. With the help of Stormfly, Camicazi's dragon, they find a second edition of "How to Train Your Dragon". The Hairy Scary Librarian catches them stealing the book and fights with Camicazi and Hiccup. The noise attracts Driller Dragons who are dwelling in the Library. Hiccup finds a book that was written by Hiccup Horrendous Haddock II called "A Hero's Guide To Deadly Dragons" which was exactly the same book that had been taken from him earlier that morning. He pulls the book out and the library shelf opens, revealing a hole filled with Poisonous Piffleworms. Their only exit would be to go through the hole.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup takes back the second edition of "How to Train Your Dragon" to the Isle of Berk. The Hairy Scary Librarian arrives and shoots Stoick with a Northbow, but Hiccup's handwritten book saves Stoick's life. Hiccup, Fishlegs, and Camicazi come from the sky and squash the Librarian flat with the Stealth Dragon. Madguts the Murderous, Chief of the Murderous Tribe, arrives for the Stealth Dragon and are about to kill Big-Boobied Bertha, who stole the dragon. Hiccup saves her by telling Madguts that the Scary Hairy Librarian stole the Stealth Dragon instead. Madguts believes him and takes the Librarian away. Hiccup persuades Stoick that books are useful and books are unbanned by order of the Thing.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Madguts the Murderous invites the Bog-burglars and the Hairy Hooligans to join the Murderous Tribe for an Intertribal Friendly Swimming race. The winner, to be defined as the "last" person back, may have a single request granted by the three Chiefs. Madguts, Stoick and Big Boobied Bertha set off to the water more slowly than the others, more certain that they will win the race. During the race, Hiccup, Camicazi and Fishlegs are taken to a ship, along with their hunting dragons. On the ship are Madguts, Norbert the Nutjob, and Gumboil. Norbert has asked Madguts to take Hiccup, Camicazi and Fishlegs to the boat in order to get them out of the race.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup discovers there are slaves called the Northern Wanderers on the boat. Hiccup escapes with the Wanderers. After all Wanderers are safe on the emergency boats, Hiccup falls off the boat and lands on an iceberg, and is chased into a cave, where he wakes up a Leviathorgan. Hiccup gets back onto the boat as a storm breaks out, and the Leviathorgan attacks the ship. Norbert and Hiccup fight on the top of the ship. Lightning strikes Norbert's axe and it enters the sea, killing the Leviathorgan. Hiccup falls off the mast and is rescued by Fishlegs and Camicazi, who are themselves rescued by the Wanderers. The three fly to Berk on Norbert's flying machine, which the Wanderers had collected. The machine works well, but as they near Berk, the machine breaks and crashes into the ocean. Hiccup and his friends come just in time. Because Hiccup is the last person back, he demands Madguts to sing a love song at the next "Thing" while dressed up as an "ickle pretty shepherdess".


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: It is revealed that in turn for his life, the Northern Wanderers have tattooed Hiccup with the Slavemark, a Viking symbol which now means he is technically a slave. However, he can hide the Slavemark under his helmet and so now will have to wear his helmet forever.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Camicazi has been shipwrecked during a storm and the Hooligans are searching for her. They end up shipwrecked on a haunted beach belonging to wicked pirates called Uglithugs. While on the beach, they find a mysterious object, and they discover it is a throne belonging to Hooligans. In the middle of the night, the leader of the Uglithugs, UG, and his men, discover the Hooligans, waking them up. UG tells them that a Hooligan has been sending love letters to his daughter, Tantrum O'Ugerly, and explains that if the person is of royal blood, the person can ask for Tantrum's hand in marriage after the person finishes an Impossible Task. If not, the person will be killed. Hiccup realizes that Fishlegs is the one who sent the letters, and spares Fishlegs's life by telling UG that he himself wrote the letters. UG then tells him the Impossible Task: by 5:00 the next day, he must give them a barrel of mead made from the honey made by the bees on the Island of Berserk.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: On Berserk, Fishlegs successfully collects five pots of honey, but he and Hiccup are captured by Berserks. At the Berserk Village, Hiccup and Fishlegs meet the other fiancés of Tantrum, one of them being Humongously Hotshot the Hero. All of them are to be fed to "the Beast" later in the evening. Hiccup realizes that the chef of the Berserk Chief is actually his old nemesis Alvin the Treacherous. Hiccup tells Alvin that he can help him escape if he shows him where Camicazi is imprisoned. Alvin agrees; however, while they are in the woods, he pushes Hiccup into a tree cell, where Hiccup meets a witch named Hogtrude. The witch gives Hiccup a challenge: she will tell him a story and at the end, they will both guess each other's names. Whoever guesses right will get to kill the other. Both of them guess correctly. Hiccup escapes, rescues Camicazi, and they return to the Berserk Village.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup goes back into his cage just as the feeding of "the Beast" begins. Hiccup realizes that "the Beast" is actually Furious. Hiccup frees Furious and together, they free the thirteen fiancés. Furious sets fire to the Berserk woods and tells Hiccup that a year after he leaves the Archipelago, he shall return to destroy the humans along with a dragon army. Hiccup, Camicazi, Fishlegs, Toothless, and their dragons return to Berk along with the honey. Humongous bring his five pots of honey to UG's room and goes on his honeymoon with Tantrum.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup and other young warriors are brought to the island where "Flashburn's School of Swordfighting" waits for them. The children have 3 weeks at the school to train their sword fighting for New Year's Day. Once at the school, the only person there is the wicked witch Excellinor. She tells everyone that the dragons are revolting in a "Red Rage" and are led by the dragon Furious, who Hiccup released one year before. She tells the tribes that the sword fighting competition must be used to find the next king of the Wilderwest, who, according to prophecy has a dragon with no teeth, an arrow from a land that does not exist, Grimbeard's second-best sword, a ticking-thing, a rectangular shield, a throne, a crown, and the Dragon Jewel. Throughout his previous adventures, Hiccup has collected all of these things, except the throne, the crown, and the dragon jewel.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup finds the crown under Flashburn's school, guarded by an ancient dragon called the Wodensfang. Hiccup is declared winner until Snotlout throws a stone at his head, knocking Hiccup's helmet off and revealing his the Slavemark. Since Hiccup is a slave, he is disqualified from the competition and exiled from his tribe. Alvin is declared the new king and declares war on the dragons. Furious arrives and the war begins. Only Windwalker and Toothless stay faithful and bring Hiccup to safety. Hiccup discovers he has the map to find the Dragon Jewel and triumphantly cries: "This is not the end! I will be back!"


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: The book starts with Hiccup in exile. He is nearly killed by his mother, Vallhallarama, while he deactivates dragon traps, and loses the map to her. He travels to a slave jail under Alvin the Treacherous's control to spy on Alvin, where he finds his father looking for the Dragon Jewel. A three-headed Deadly Shadow swoops down and snatches Hiccup before he has a chance to look for the Jewel. The dragon brings him to a hill to kill him, but notices that he has the lobster claw necklace. The dragon tells him that they had promised to care for a Fishlegs when he was a baby. Hiccup tells them of Fishlegs' fate: to be sucked into a hole in the ground.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup goes to the hole and gets pulled in by a dragon with an eye on each finger. Hiccup vanquishes the dragon and ventures off into the creature's maze of glass walls, where he finds Fishlegs and the Dragon Jewel. Then they swim to shore through and exit, and the Deadly Shadow picks them up, all flying triumphantly into the distance. Valhallarama finds Hiccup and takes him to the slave jail, where she convinces the slaves to join Hiccup. The Dragons break into the jail and the humans flee. When Hiccup frees Toothless and the Wodensfang, he loses the Dragon Jewel to Alvin. The story ends with Hiccup happily being reunited with his human companions.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Ug the Uglithug tries to trick the Druid Guardian into crowning him king, but the Dragon Guardians of Tomorrow kill him by "Airy Oblivion". Hiccup and his friends hear a human calling for help, then abruptly stopping. They find Snotlout, with Wolf-fangs in the river and thousands of Dragon Rebellion dragons sleeping on the riverbank. Hiccup persuades the rest of the group to save him, accidentally waking up Snotlout's Hogfly and the nearby Rebellion dragons. They all flee to their secret hideout, hiding as Furious and the dragons search for them.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Alvin's Spydragons kidnap Camicazi, so Snotlout brings them on a rescue mission to save her. When escaping from the Alvinsmen, Snotlout is shot down and killed. Hiccup's lament forgives him for his bullying and praises his later work as a strong young Viking.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Hiccup wakes up on the beach at Hero's End with amnesia, sustained when he hit his head at the end of the previous book. As the Wodensfang tries to explain who Hiccup is, they are attacked by Sharkworms and the Vampire Spydragon. After defeating the dragons, Hiccup takes a boat which has washed up on the beach and sails towards Tomorrow.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Once Hiccup reaches Tomorrow, he makes his way to Grimbeard the Ghastly's castle just as Alvin is about to be crowned king by the Druid Guardian. Hiccup regains his memory and gives a speech convincing the Druid Guardian to crown him king instead. Hiccup is crowned and prepares to engage Furious in single combat. Hiccup rides the Windwalker into battle and Furious knocks him off the Windwalker's back. Hiccup threatens Furious with the Dragon Jewel. They reach a peace agreement and Hiccup throws the jewel into the sea.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: Alvin and the Witch attack Furious, violating the laws of single combat. Furious gets the dragon army to attack and so soon there is an all-out Vikings vs. Dragons battle. Alvin reveals that he is Fishlegs' father. He prepares to kill Fishlegs before the Dragon Guardians intervene. In battle, the Witch attacks Hiccup with a poisoned Stormblade. Furious takes the blow for Hiccup and kills the Witch. Furious leaves his command of the dragons to Luna, his second-in-command, and goes out to sea to die.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: The epilogue shows how Hiccup built a new kingdom of harmony on Tomorrow where humans and dragons could live in peace. Hiccup instructs Fishlegs to tell everyone that the whole story was just a myth. The series ends the way it began: "There were dragons when I was a boy..."


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: On 26 March 2010, DreamWorks Animation released a computer-animated film adaptation, titled "How to Train Your Dragon". It features Jay Baruchel as Hiccup, Gerard Butler as Stoick the Vast, Hiccup's father, and Craig Ferguson as Gobber the Belch, alongside characters from the books and original characters created for the film. The film was a critical and commercial success, and subsequently became a major media franchise for DreamWorks, including two feature film sequels—"How to Train Your Dragon 2" (2014) and "" (2019).


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: All twelve novels have been recorded as audio-books and released by Hachette Audio, narrated by actor David Tennant, who also plays the voice of Spitelout, Snotlout's father, in the film adaptations and in the series "DreamWorks Dragons". Audio-books of the novels have also been released in German, narrated by Benedikt Weber and released by Arena Verlag GmbH, and are currently available through Audible.com.


title: How to Train Your Dragon (novel series)

text: "How to be a Viking" was recorded and released by Hachette Audio in 2014, narrated by Cressida Cowell.


title: WYSIWYG

text: In computing, WYSIWYG ( ), an acronym for What You See Is What You Get, is a system in which editing software allows content to be edited in a form that resembles its appearance when printed or displayed as a finished product, such as a printed document, web page, or slide presentation. WYSIWYG implies a user interface that allows the user to view something very similar to the end result while the document is being created. In general, WYSIWYG implies the ability to directly manipulate the layout of a document without having to type or remember names of layout commands.


title: WYSIWYG

text: Before the adoption of WYSIWYG techniques, text appeared in editors using the system standard typeface and style with little indication of layout (margins, spacing, etc.). Users were required to enter special non-printing "control codes" (now referred to as markup "code tags") to indicate that some text should be in boldface, italics, or a different typeface or size. In this environment there was very little distinction between text editors and word processors.


title: WYSIWYG

text: These applications typically used an arbitrary markup language to define the codes/tags. Each program had its own special way to format a document, and it was a difficult and time-consuming process to change from one word processor to another.


title: WYSIWYG

text: The use of markup tags and codes remains popular today in some applications due to their ability to store complex formatting information. When the tags are made visible in the editor, however, they occupy space in the unformatted text, and as a result can disrupt the desired layout and flow.


title: WYSIWYG

text: Bravo, a document preparation program for the Alto produced at Xerox PARC by Butler Lampson, Charles Simonyi and colleagues in 1974, is generally considered to be the first program to incorporate the WYSIWYG technology, displaying text with formatting (e.g. with justification, fonts, and proportional spacing of characters). The Alto monitor (72 PPI, based on the typographic unit) was designed so that one full page of text could be seen and then printed on the first laser printers. When the text was laid out on the screen, 72 PPI font metric files were used, but when printed, 300 PPI files were used. As a result, one would occasionally find characters and words that are slightly off—a problem that would continue up to this day.


title: WYSIWYG

text: Bravo was released commercially, and the software eventually included in the Xerox Star can be seen as a direct descendant of it.


title: WYSIWYG

text: In late 1978, in parallel with but independent of the work at Xerox PARC, Hewlett Packard developed and released the first commercial WYSIWYG software application for producing overhead slides (or what today are referred to as presentation graphics). The first release, named BRUNO (after an HP sales training puppet), ran on the HP 1000 minicomputer, taking advantage of HP 2640—HP's first bitmapped computer terminal. BRUNO was then ported to the HP-3000 and re-released as "HP Draw".


title: WYSIWYG

text: By 1981, MicroPro advertised that its WordStar word processor had WYSIWYG, but its display was limited to displaying styled text in WYSIWYG fashion; bold and "italic" text would be represented on screen, instead of being surrounded by tags or special control characters. In 1983, the "Weekly Reader" advertised its Stickybear educational software with the slogan "what you see is what you get", with photographs of its Apple II graphics, but home computers of the 1970s and early 1980s lacked the sophisticated graphics capabilities necessary to display WYSIWYG documents, meaning that such applications were usually confined to limited-purpose, high-end workstations (such as the IBM Displaywriter System) that were too expensive for the general public to afford. As improving technology allowed the production of cheaper bitmapped displays, WYSIWYG software started to appear in more popular computers, including LisaWrite for the Apple Lisa, released in 1983, and MacWrite for the Apple Macintosh, released in 1984.


title: WYSIWYG

text: The Apple Macintosh system was originally designed so that the screen resolution and the resolution of the ImageWriter dot-matrix printers sold by Apple were easily scaled: 72 PPI for the screen and 144 DPI for the printers. Thus, the scale and dimensions of the on-screen display in programs such as MacWrite and MacPaint were easily translated to the printed output. If the paper were held up to the screen, the printed image would be the same size as the on-screen image, but at twice the resolution. As the ImageWriter was the only model of printer physically compatible with the Macintosh printer port, this created an effective closed system. Later, when Macs using external displays became available, the resolution was fixed to the size of the screen to achieve 72 DPI. These resolutions often differed from the VGA-standard resolutions common in the PC world at the time. Thus, while a Macintosh monitor had the same 640 × 480 resolution as a PC, a screen would be fixed at 832 × 624 rather than the 800 × 600 resolution used by PCs. With the introduction of third-party dot-matrix printers as well as laser printers and multisync monitors, resolutions deviated from even multiples of the screen resolution, making true WYSIWYG harder to achieve.


title: WYSIWYG

text: The phrase "what you see is what you get," from which the acronym derives, was a catchphrase popularized by Flip Wilson's drag persona Geraldine, first appearing in September 1969, then regularly in the early 1970s on "The Flip Wilson Show". The phrase was a statement demanding acceptance of Geraldine's entire personality and appearance.


title: WYSIWYG

text: Multiple hit songs and albums debuted in 1971 that could have also contributed to popularizing this phrase including "What You See Is What You Get" by Stoney & Meatloaf, "Stand by Me (Whatcha See Is Whatcha Get)" by Bernard Purdie, and "Whatcha See Is Whatcha Get" by The Dramatics.


title: WYSIWYG

text: Many variations are used only to illustrate a point or make a joke, and have very limited real use. Some that have been proposed include the following:


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard's transsexualism typology is a proposed psychological typology of gender dysphoria, transsexualism, and fetishistic transvestism, created by sexologist Ray Blanchard through the 1980s and 1990s, building on the work of prior researchers, including his colleague Kurt Freund. Blanchard categorized trans women into two groups: "homosexual transsexuals" who are attracted exclusively to men and are feminine in both behavior and appearance; and "autogynephilic transsexuals" who are sexually aroused at the idea of having a female body.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard's work has attracted significant controversy, especially following the 2003 publication of J. Michael Bailey's book "The Man Who Would Be Queen", which presented the typology to a general audience.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Critics of the typology include sexologists John Bancroft and Charles Allen Moser, psychologist Margaret Nichols, and biologist and activist Julia Serano. The World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) objected to the inclusion of a mention of autogynephilia that was added to the DSM-5, calling it an unproven theory.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Supporters of the typology include sexologists Bailey, James Cantor, Anne Lawrence, and bioethicist Alice Dreger. Supporters argue that the typology explains differences between the two groups in childhood gender nonconformity, sexual orientation, history of fetishism, and age of transition. Blanchard's typology broke from earlier ones which "excluded the diagnosis of transsexualism" for arousal in response to cross-dressing, according to Lawrence. Lawrence stated that, before Blanchard, the idea that arousal in response to cross-dressing or cross-gender fantasy meant that one was not transsexual was a recurring theme in scholarly literature.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Observations suggesting that there exist multiple types of transsexualism date back to the early 20th century. Havelock Ellis used the terms "eonism" and "sexo-aesthetic inversion" to describe cross-gender feelings and behaviors involving "imitation of, and identification with, the admired object." Magnus Hirschfeld classified transsexuals into four types: "homosexual", "bisexual", "heterosexual", and "automonosexual". Hirschfeld used the term "automonosexual" to describe excitement in natal males to the thought or image of themselves as women.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Beginning in the 1950s, clinicians and researchers developed a variety of classifications of transsexualism. These were variously based on sexual orientation, age of onset, and fetishism. The idea that there are two types of trans women is a recurring theme in the clinical literature. Prior to Blanchard's studies, the two groups were described as "homosexual transsexuals" if sexually attracted to men and "heterosexual fetishistic transvestites" if sexually attracted to women. These labels carried a social stigma of mere sexual fetishism, and contradicted trans women's self-identification as "heterosexual" or "homosexual", respectively.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: In 1982, Kurt Freund and colleagues argued there were two distinct types of male-to-female transsexuals, each with distinct causes: one type associated with childhood femininity and androphilia (sexual attraction to men), and another associated with fetishism and gynephilia (sexual attraction to women). Freund stated that the sexual arousal in this latter type could be associated, not only with crossdressing, but also with other feminine-typical behaviors, such as applying make-up or shaving the legs. Blanchard credited Freund with being the first author to distinguish between erotic arousal due to dressing as a woman (transvestic fetishism) and erotic arousal due to fantasizing about being female (which Freund called "cross-gender fetishism").


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: In 1989, Blanchard stated that when he began his studies, researchers had "identified a homosexual type of gender identity disturbance [which] occurs in homosexuals of both sexes. There is general agreement, moreover, on the clinical description of this syndrome as it appears in males and females". According to Blanchard, there was consensus "that gender identity disturbance also occurs in males who are not homosexual but only rarely, if at all, in nonhomosexual females". Blanchard also stated "there is no consensus, however, on the classification of nonhomosexual gender identity disorders. Authorities disagree on the number of different syndromes, the clinical characteristics of the various types, and the labels used to identify them".


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard's research and conclusions came to wider attention with the publication of popular science books on transsexualism, including "Men Trapped in Men's Bodies" by sexologist and trans woman Anne Lawrence and "The Man Who Would Be Queen" by sexologist J. Michael Bailey, both of which based their portrayals of male-to-female transsexuals on Blanchard's taxonomy. The concept of autogynephilia in particular received little public interest until Bailey's 2003 publication of "The Man Who Would Be Queen", though Blanchard and others had been publishing studies on the topic for nearly 20 years. Bailey's book was followed by peer-reviewed articles critiquing the methodology used by Blanchard.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard conducted a series of studies on people with gender dysphoria, analyzing the files of cases seen in the Gender Identity Clinic of the Clarke Institute of Psychiatry and comparing them on multiple characteristics. Studying patients who had felt like a woman at all times for at least a year, he started with Hirschfeld's four types (based on sexual attraction to men, women, both, or neither), and then classified the patients accordingly based on their scores on measures of attraction to men and attraction to women.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard then compared these four groups regarding how many in each group reported a history of sexual arousal together with cross-dressing. 73% of the heterosexual, asexual, and bisexual groups said they did experience such feelings, with these three groups being statistically indistinguishable from one another, but only 15% of the homosexual group did. He concluded that asexual and bisexual transsexualism were variant forms of heterosexual transsexualism, with tranvestism being a related phenomenon. He argued that the common feature among all these individuals was erotic arousal to the thought or image of oneself as a woman, and he coined the term "autogynephilia" to describe this.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard reported finding that heterosexual male-to-females were significantly older than homosexual male-to-females (i.e., male-to-females attracted to males): the heterosexual male-to-females said they felt their first cross-gender wishes around the time they first cross-dressed, whereas the homosexual group said their cross-gender wishes preceded cross-dressing (more than 3 years on average). Where fetishistic arousal was acknowledged by over 80% of the heterosexual male-to-females, fewer than 10% of the homosexual group did.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: The age at which trans women referred themselves to explore sex reassignment and their self-ratings of childhood femininity were also studied. The androphilic (homosexual) group usually reported that they were quite feminine in childhood, and they first presented clinically at an average age of 26. The other group, made up of heterosexual, bisexual, and analloerotic patients, reported less childhood femininity—some may not have been especially masculine, but few, if any, had been extremely feminine—and presented clinically at the average age of 34.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard and colleagues conducted a study in 1986 using phallometry (a measure of blood flow to the penis), demonstrating arousal in response to cross-dressing audio narratives among trans women. Although this study is often cited as evidence for autogynephilia, the authors did not attempt to measure subjects' ideas of themselves as women. This study has been cited by proponents of the theory to argue that gynephilic trans women who reported no autogynephilic interests were misrepresenting their erotic interests. The authors concluded that gynephilic gender identity patients who denied experiencing arousal to cross-dressing were still measurably aroused by autogynephilic stimuli, and that autogynephilia among non-androphilic trans women was negatively associated with tendency to color their narrative to be more socially acceptable.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard theorized that homosexual transsexualism was an extreme expression of homosexuality, considering there to be a continuum of phenomena from homosexuality alone, through gender dysphoric homosexuality, to transsexual homosexuality. Anne Lawrence argued that autogynephilic transsexualism shared a continuum with less severe forms of autogynephilia, such as partial autogynephilia.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Bailey and his book, and Blanchard and his research, have since attracted intense criticism. Some writers have criticized autogynephilia as being transphobic. Thomas E. Bevan writes that the concept is insufficiently operationalizable and therefore does not qualify as a scientific theory or hypothesis. Blanchard's findings have also been criticized on the grounds that they lack reproducibility and that they fail to control for the same traits occurring in cisgender women. Trans author and biologist Julia Serano criticizes the conclusion of the 1986 phallometry study as unfalsifiable. Clinical sexologist Charles Allen Moser writes that the 1986 study had methodological problems and that the reported data did not support the conclusion, stating that the measured arousal to cross-dressing situations was minimal and consistent with subjects' self-reported arousal.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: According to a 2016 review, structural neuroimaging studies seem to support Blanchard's prediction that androphilic and gynephilic trans women have different brain phenotypes. The authors state that more independent studies of gynephilic trans women are needed to fully confirm Blanchard's hypothesis, as well as "a specifically designed comparison of homosexual MtF, homosexual male, and heterosexual male and female people".


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Autogynephilia (derived from Greek for 'love of oneself as a woman') is the term Blanchard coined for "a male's propensity to be sexually aroused by the thought of himself as a female", intending for the term to refer to "the full gamut of erotically arousing cross-gender behaviors and fantasies". Blanchard states that he intended the term to subsume "transvestism", including for sexual ideas in which feminine clothing plays only a small or no role at all. Other terms for such cross-gender fantasies and behaviors include "automonosexuality", "eonism", and "sexo-aesthetic inversion".


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard arrived at his theory of autogynephilia mainly by interpreting self-reports by trans women. In a series of studies at the Clarke Institute of Psychiatry in the late 1980s, he gave questionnaires to gender-dysphoric patients, classing participants as "heterosexual", "asexual", "bisexual", or "homosexual" based on the results of two such questionnaires, the Modified Androphilia and Modified Gynephilia Scales. Blanchard assessed autogynephilia by asking about erotic arousal in association with the fantasy of having various female features such as a vulva or breasts, and the fantasy of being admired as a female by another person. Based on the results, Blanchard writes that the "heterosexual", "asexual", and "bisexual" groups were found to be more similar to each other than any was to the "homosexual" group, concluding that non-homosexual transsexuals, along with transvestites, shared a "history of erotic arousal in association with the thought or image of oneself as a woman".


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Following controversy over the portrayal of trans women in "The Man Who Would Be Queen", Blanchard distinguished between "the existence or nonexistence of autogynephilia", which he described as "settled", and "theoretical statements involving autogynephilia". Examples of the latter included: (1) all gender-dysphoric males (including MTF transsexuals) who are not attracted to males are instead autogynephilic; (2) autogynephilia does not occur in natal females; (3) the desire for sex reassignment among some natal males is a form of internalized pair-bonding; (4) autogynephilia is a type of heterosexual impulse that also competes with heterosexuality; and (5) autogynephilia is a type of "erotic target location error". Blanchard wrote that the accuracy of these theories needed further empirical research to resolve.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard provides specific case examples to illustrate the autogynephilic sexual fantasies that people reported:


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard identified four types of autogynephilic sexual fantasy, but stated that co-occurrence of types was common.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: According to Blanchard, the transvestic-fetishistic type has tended to overshadow the others. He states that anatomic autogynephilia is more associated with gender dysphoria than transvestic autogynephilia. In a later study, a different pattern was reported in a sample of non-transgender autogynephilic men, where higher degrees of anatomic autogynephilia were associated with less gender dysphoria; here, it was instead interpersonal/behavioral and physiological autogynephilia that predicted gender dysphoria. The men in this latter sample were significantly more gender dysphoric than the non-transgender male baseline.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard in 1993 and Lawrence in 2013 report that some natal males exhibit "partial autogynephilia", being sexually aroused by the image or idea of having "some" but not "all" normative female anatomy, such as having breasts but retaining their penis and testicles.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Other authors have distinguished between behavioral autogynephilia and interpersonal autogynephilia, with the latter being arousal to being seen or admired as a woman or to having sex with men.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: The exact nature of the relationship between autogynephilia and gender dysphoria is unclear, and the desire to live as a woman often remains as strong or stronger after an initial sexual response to the idea has faded. Blanchard and Lawrence argue that this is because autogynephilia causes a female gender identity to develop, which becomes an emotional attachment and something aspirational in its own right. Lawrence writes that some transsexual women identify with autogynephilia, many of these feeling positively and some negatively as a result, with a range of opinions reflected as to whether or not this played a motivating role in their decision to transition.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: In the first peer-reviewed critique of autogynephilia research, Charles Allen Moser found no substantial difference between "autogynephilic" and "homosexual" transsexuals in terms of gender dysphoria, stating that the clinical significance of autogynephilia was unclear. He writes that "although autogynephilia exists, the theory is flawed", and that "many MTFs readily admit that this construct describes their sexual interest and motivation. Nevertheless, it is not clear how accurately [Blanchard's theory] predicts the behavior, history, and motivation of MTFs in general". Moser states that "many of the tenets of the theory are not supported by the existing data, or both supporting and contradictory data exist". In a re-evaluation of the data used by Blanchard and others as the basis for the typology, he states, "it is not clear that autogynephilia is always present" in gynephilic trans women or "always absent" in androphilic trans women, that autogynephilia is significantly different than other paraphilias, and that there is "little reason to suggest that autogynephilia is the [primary] motivation" for gynephilic trans women to seek sex reassignment surgery (SRS). He concludes that the types identified by Blanchard and others may be primarily correlational, not causative, in which case "autogynephilia just becomes another trait" of some trans women, rather than their defining characteristic.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: In a 2011 study presenting an alternative to Blanchard's explanation, Larry Nuttbrock and colleagues reported that autogynephilia-like characteristics were strongly associated with a specific generational cohort as well as the ethnicity of the subjects; they hypothesized that autogynephilia may become a "fading phenomenon".


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard has suggested that "non-homosexual" trans women may deny autogynephilia in order to be seen as more socially acceptable and in order to secure a favorable recommendation for sex reassignment. While some trans women report autogynephilic arousal after their gender transition, many others do not. Blanchard and Lawrence argue that such trans women are nonetheless autogynephiles. Lawrence also argues that self-identified homosexual (androphilic) trans women who report histories of autogynephilia are mistaken. Moser disputes this, arguing that if such misrepresentations were common, the self-reported data on which the theory itself is based would be "similarly suspect". According to Moser: "It appears that substantial minorities of homosexual MTFs are autogynephilic and non-homosexual MTFs are not."


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard and Lawrence have classified autogynephilia as a sexual orientation. Blanchard wrote in 1993 that "autogynephilia might be better characterized as an orientation than as a paraphilia". Blanchard attributed the notion of some cross-dressing men being sexually aroused by the image of themselves as female to Magnus Hirschfeld, who stated, "They [automonosexuals] feel attracted not by the women outside them, but by the woman inside them." Blanchard and Lawrence argue that just like more common sexual orientations such as heterosexuality and homosexuality, it is not only reflected by penile responses to erotic stimuli, but also includes the capacity for pair bond formation and romantic love.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Later studies have found little empirical support for autogynephilia as a sexual identity classification, and sexual orientation is generally understood to be distinct from gender identity. Elke Stefanie Smith and colleagues describe Blanchard's approach as "highly controversial as it could erroneously suggest an erotic background" to transsexualism.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Gynandromorphophilia, an attraction to people with both male and female anatomy, has been cited as the inverse of autogynephilia, and has been reported as associated with it. Autogynephilic men are usually attracted to women and not to men. Blanchard and Lawrence state that autogynephiles who report attraction to men are actually experiencing "pseudobisexuality", in which the person, rather than being attracted to both the male and female phenotypes, is aroused by a male partner validating their status as an attractive woman; this coexists with the person's basic attraction to women.


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: According to Blanchard, "An autogynephile does not necessarily become sexually aroused every time he pictures himself as female or engages in feminine behavior, any more than a heterosexual man automatically gets an erection whenever he sees an attractive woman. Thus, the concept of autogynephilia—like that of heterosexuality, homosexuality, or pedophilia—refers to a "potential" for sexual excitation."


title: Blanchard's transsexualism typology

text: Blanchard conjectured that sexual interest patterns could have inwardly instead of outwardly directed forms, which he called erotic target location errors (ETLE). Autogynephilia would represent an inwardly directed form of gynephilia, with the attraction to women being redirected towards the self instead of others. These forms of erotic target location errors have also been observed with other base orientations, such as pedophilia, attraction to amputees, and attraction to plush animals.