title: Flag of California

text: Two days later, on July 9, 1846, Navy Lieutenant Joseph Warren Revere arrived in Sonoma and hauled down the Bear Flag, running up in its place the Stars and Stripes. The Bear Flag was given to young John E. Montgomery (son of Commander John B. Montgomery of ), who would later write in a letter to his mother "Cuffy came down growling"—"Cuffy" being his nickname for the bear on the flag.


title: Flag of California

text: The Bear Flag given to young Montgomery returned with USS "Portsmouth" to the east coast of the U.S. in 1848, but in 1855 was returned to California. The flag was given to California's two senators, John B. Weller and William M. Gwin. This flag was donated to the Society of California Pioneers on September 8, 1855, and was preserved at the Society's Pioneer Halls in San Francisco until it was destroyed on April 18, 1906, in the fires that followed the great San Francisco earthquake. Today, a replica hangs on display in the "Sonoma Barracks", or El Presidio de Sonoma. There is also a statue in the plaza at Sonoma, California, commemorating the raising of the flag, the Bear Flag Monument.


title: Flag of California

text: During the secession crisis and the early part of the American Civil War in 1861, California was divided between supporters of the union and supporters of southern secession. In the months leading up to the war some opposed to the government in Los Angeles County and San Bernardino County showed support for secession by flying variants of the Bear Flag instead of the Stars and Stripes.


title: Flag of California

text: During the war, Union soldiers protected the West against secessionists who ran up Confederate flags in many places, including above the California statehouse in Sacramento, then disappearing before they could be caught. On July 4, 1861, during U.S. Independence Day celebrations in Sacramento, Democrat and veteran Maj. J. P. Gillis celebrated the independence of the United States from Great Britain and the secession of the Confederacy by unfurling a flag based on the first Confederate flag, the Stars and Bars, but containing seventeen stars rather than the Confederate banner's seven, and marching down the street to the cheers of pro-slavery individuals. This was the only Confederate flag captured in California during the Civil War. Unionist Jack Biderman denounced Gillis, tore the flag from his hands, and taunted secessionists to try to take the flag back. No one tried. Because Gillis' flag was seized by Jack Biderman, it is referred to either as the "Biderman Flag" or the "Gillis Flag."


title: Flag of California

text: The flag of the governor of California consists of the seal of California centered on a field of azure. Like many other U.S. governors' flags, there are four five-point stars at the corners of the field.


title: Indemnity

text: In contract law, an indemnity is a contractual obligation of one party (the "indemnitor") to compensate the loss incurred by another party (the "indemnitee") due to the relevant acts of the indemnitor or any other party. The duty to indemnify is usually, but not always, coextensive with the contractual duty to "hold harmless" or "save harmless". In contrast, a "guarantee" is an obligation of one party (the "guarantor") to another party to perform the promise of a relevant other party if that other party defaults.


title: Indemnity

text: Indemnities form the basis of many insurance contracts; for example, a car owner may purchase different kinds of insurance as an indemnity for various kinds of loss arising from operation of the car, such as damage to the car itself, or medical expenses following an accident. In an agency context, a principal may be obligated to indemnify their agent for liabilities incurred while carrying out responsibilities under the relationship. While the events giving rise to an indemnity may be specified by contract, the actions that must be taken to compensate the injured party are largely unpredictable, and the maximum compensation is often expressly limited.


title: Indemnity

text: Under section 4 of the Statute of Frauds (1677), a "guarantee" (an undertaking of secondary liability; to answer for another's default) must be evidenced in writing. No such formal requirement exists in respect of indemnities (involving the assumption of primary liability; to pay irrespective of another's default) which are enforceable even if made orally.


title: Indemnity

text: Under current English law, indemnities must be clearly and precisely worded in the contract in order to be enforceable. The Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 stated that a consumer cannot be made to unreasonably indemnify another for their breach of contract or negligence, though this section was repealed by the Consumer Rights Act 2015 schedule 4 paragraph 6.


title: Indemnity

text: In England and Wales an "indemnity" monetary award may form part of rescission during an action of restitutio in integrum. The property and funds are exchanged, but indemnity may be granted for costs necessarily incurred to the innocent party pursuant to the contract. The leading case is "Whittington v Seale-Hayne", in which a contaminated farm was sold. The contract made the buyers renovate the real estate and, the contamination incurred medical expenses for their manager, who had fallen ill. Once the contract was rescinded, the buyer could be indemnified for the cost of renovation as this was necessary to the contract, but not the medical expenses as the contract did not require them to hire a manager. Were the sellers at fault, damages would clearly be available.


title: Indemnity

text: The distinction between indemnity and damages is subtle and may be differentiated by considering the roots of the law of obligations: how can money be paid if the defendant is not at fault? The contract before rescission is voidable but not void, so, for a period of time, there is a legal contract. During that time, both parties have legal obligation. If the contract is to be voided "ab initio" the obligations performed must also be compensated. Therefore, the costs of indemnity arise from the (transient and performed) obligations of the claimant rather than a breach of obligation by the defendant.


title: Indemnity

text: An indemnity is distinct from a guarantee, which is the promise of a third party to honor the obligation of a party to a contract should that party be unable or unwilling to do so (usually a guarantee is limited to an obligation to pay a debt). This distinction between indemnity and guarantee was discussed as early as the eighteenth century in "Birkmya v Darnell". In that case, concerned with a guarantee of payment for goods rather than payment of rent, the presiding judge explained that a guarantee effectively says "Let him have the goods; if he does not pay you, I will."


title: Indemnity

text: Many private contracts and terms of service in the United States require one party (indemnitor, typically a customer) to pay (indemnify) the other side's costs for legal claims arising from the relationship. They are particularly common in online services.


title: Indemnity

text: The US government publishes special Terms of Service, which it has negotiated with many companies, to exclude indemnification for official US government work. US law "is violated by any indemnification agreement that, without statutory authorization, imposes on the United States an open-ended, potentially unrestricted liability."


title: Indemnity

text: Under US law, interpretation of indemnification clauses varies by state. For example, in California indemnification clauses do not cover certain risks unless the risks are listed in the contract, but in New York, the brief clause, "X shall defend and indemnify Y for all claims arising from the Product" makes X responsible for all claims against Y. Indemnity can be extremely costly since X's liability insurance typically does not cover claims against Y, but X still has to cover them.


title: Indemnity

text: In 2017, the Utah Supreme Court stated, "By statute, a contractual provision requiring a purchaser of a product to indemnify a manufacturer is 'void and unenforceable' in certain circumstances. UTAH CODE § 78B-6-707."


title: Indemnity

text: In 2012–2014, a New Jersey woman had to pay a lawyer to get out of an indemnity payment for injury at a storage unit. When someone slipped on ice in 2012 while going to a unit, Public Storage sued in court to make the woman who rented the unit pay for the injury. She tried to ignore the case and so state court ruled that she had to pay. She then retained a lawyer and went to court. In 2014, the US District Court decided that the specific indemnity clause was unenforceable in New Jersey because it covered Public Storage's own negligence without explicitly saying so, contrary to New Jersey law (other states differ).


title: Indemnity

text: A 2013 decision in New Jersey upheld a broad indemnity clause since it was followed by another sentence: "indemnity agreement is intended to be as broad and inclusive as is permitted by the law of the State of New Jersey." The judge said, "It is true that a consumer, unfamiliar with the laws of New Jersey, would not be able to state with certainty how far the waiver extends."


title: Indemnity

text: In 2010, the Colorado Supreme Court required a flower shop to indemnify its shopping center for a customer who slipped on the icy parking lot, though of no fault of the flower shop, because the tenant was there to visit that shop, and the shop's lease had a broad indemnity clause.


title: Indemnity

text: In 1999, the United States District Court for the District of Wyoming did not require a customer to indemnify a whitewater rafting company for injury to his wife since the wording may have applied only to him and his children, and clauses cannot be enforced in Wyoming to indemnify a company for its own negligence.


title: Indemnity

text: In 1979, the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled that a subcontractor must indemnify the builder for damages that it caused, according to an indemnification clause in their purchase order.


title: Indemnity

text: In 1966, the Supreme Court of California ruled that The Hertz Corporation could not enforce its clause requiring renters to indemnify Hertz's insurer.


title: Indemnity

text: Indemnities can be expensive enough to bankrupt a company which pays them: "If manufacturers ... are to survive, they will need liability insurance, as well as favorable contracts with retailers. If you look at a big retailers, such as Trader Joe's or Costco or Walmart or Randalls, very often there will be an indemnity provision providing that, if you want to sell a product in our stores, and if it gets someone sick or if it has to be recalled, and it's your fault, you must pay us back for that."


title: Indemnity

text: When a contract is "negotiable," the indemnitor negotiates to control those legal costs. It will not let the indemnified party (indemnitee) overspend: "An arrangement in which the indemnitee makes decisions about how to defend and settle the claim while the indemnitor writes the checks presents a moral hazard. Knowing that its defense and settlement costs are being borne by the indemnitor, the indemnitee may be encouraged to engage a more expensive legal team or pursue a riskier defense strategy than it would otherwise. For this reason, most indemnitors are unwilling to indemnify against claims when they do not control the defense of the claim."


title: Indemnity

text: The American Bar Association has published advice on negotiations of construction contracts: that (1) owners try to get contractors to indemnify as much as possible and for (2) contractors (a) indemnify only for their own negligence and (b) "establish a right but not a duty for the contractor to defend under an indemnification claim."


title: Indemnity

text: An example of letting the indemnitor control costs is in the case of a contractor for a homeowners' association (HOA) in which "Contractor shall indemnify, defend (by counsel reasonably acceptable to Association) and hold harmless the Association." Companies and HOAs also use indemnity to protect directors since few would serve as directors if their risks were not indemnified. Negotiation is important for both parties. "Just about all homeowner association management contracts have a provision which states that the HOA shall indemnify the manager under certain circumstances ... There are several ways the indemnification clause can be drafted and both management and HOA must take into account what protects each the best."


title: Indemnity

text: If indemnitors can negotiate a limit on liability in their contract, that limits the cost of a potential indemnity if they "make clear in the agreement that any limitations of liability (whether in the form of caps or exclusions of certain types of damages e.g., consequential) apply to the ... indemnification."


title: Indemnity

text: When a contract is negotiable (adhesion contract), the wording often lets the indemnitee decide what to spend on legal costs and bill the indemnitor. Most clauses are quite broad. The following are examples of indemnity requirements from a range of businesses. The last one, Angie's List, limits issues to the user's fault, but decisions and costs are still controlled by the indemnitee (Angie's List).


title: Indemnity

text: Indemnity insurance compensates the beneficiaries of the policies for their actual economic losses, up to the limiting amount of the insurance policy. It generally requires the insured to prove the amount of its loss before it can recover. Recovery is limited to the amount of the provable loss even if the face amount of the policy is higher. This is in contrast to, for example, life insurance, where the amount of the beneficiary's economic loss is irrelevant. The death of the person whose life is insured for reasons not excluded from the policy obligate the insurer to pay the entire policy amount to the beneficiary.


title: Indemnity

text: Most business interruption insurance policies contain an Extended Period of Indemnity Endorsement, which extends coverage beyond the time that it takes to physically restore the property. This provision covers additional expenses that allow the business to return to prosperity and help the business restore revenues to pre-loss levels.


title: Indemnity

text: As part of the appointment of officers, the board will often approve indemnification agreements with the officer. Such agreements provide for indemnification of officers for personal liability for actions taken on behalf of the corporation. The board will also approve separate resolutions that approve indemnification for decisions made by directors. Indemnity agreements are included in the post-incorporation processes of companies.


title: Indemnity

text: Slave owners were considered to have suffered a loss whenever their slaves were granted their freedom.


title: Indemnity

text: When the slaves of Zanzibar were freed in 1897, it was by compensation since the prevailing opinion was that the slave owners suffered the loss of an asset whenever a slave was freed.


title: Indemnity

text: In the 1860s in the United States, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln had requested many millions of dollars from Congress with which to compensate slave owners for the loss of their slaves. On 9 July 1868, dismissed all of the claims that slave owners had been injured by the freeing of the slaves.


title: Indemnity

text: In 1807–1808, in Prussia, statesman Baron Heinrich vom Stein introduced a series of reforms, the principal of which was the abolition of serfdom with indemnification to territorial lords.


title: Indemnity

text: Haiti was required to pay an indemnity of 150,000,000 francs to France in order to atone for the loss suffered by the French slave owners.


title: Indemnity

text: In Peru, Antonio Salinas y Castañeda (1810–1874), a wealthy Peruvian landowner and conservative politician, led the meeting of the main landowners of the country for an indemnity after slavery abolition and ruled the commission who promoted the immigration of Asians to replace former slaves as a workforce during Ramón Castilla government.


title: Indemnity

text: The nation that wins a war may insist on being paid compensations for the costs of the war, even after having been the instigator of the war.


title: Joe vs. Carole

text: Joe vs. Carole is an American drama streaming limited series created by Etan Frankel. It stars John Cameron Mitchell, Kate McKinnon, Kyle MacLachlan, Dean Winters, Brian Van Holt, William Fichtner, Nat Wolff, Sam Keeley, Lex Mayson, Joel Marsh Garland, Marlo Kelly, Kenneth Radley and Aliandra Calabrese. The series began streaming on Peacock on March 3, 2022.


title: Joe vs. Carole

text: The series is based on the second season of Wondery's "Over My Dead Body" podcast, entitled "Joe Exotic: Tiger King" (before being retitled to "Joe vs. Carole"), which follows the criminal case of Joe Exotic, a zookeeper who has been convicted of murder-for-hire. The series received mixed to negative reviews upon release.


title: Joe vs. Carole

text: In March 2020, following the commercial success of the Netflix series "Tiger King", development started on a limited series adaptation of Carole Baskin's life, headed by Universal Content Productions, with Kate McKinnon executive producing and portraying Baskin, and is based on "Joe Exotic: Tiger King", later retitled to "Joe vs Carole", which is the second season of Wondery's "Over My Dead Body" podcast. The series was expected to air on NBC, Peacock, and USA Network (the show eventually made it's linear premiere on the latter network in October of 2022). In May 2021, it was announced that the series would instead be streaming exclusively on Peacock. The series was created by Etan Frankel, who also served as writer and executive producer, while Justin Tipping directed the first four episodes, including the pilot. It was also announced that Natalie Bailey would direct episodes five, six, and seven.


title: Joe vs. Carole

text: On January 21, 2022, the show's title was announced, and its March 3, 2022 release date was revealed in the first trailer.


title: Joe vs. Carole

text: In June 2021, Dean Winters, John Cameron Mitchell, Brian Van Holt, Sam Keeley, Nat Wolff, and Dennis Quaid were cast to portray Jeff Lowe, Joe Exotic, John Reinke, John Finlay, Travis Maldonado, and Rick Kirkham, respectively. In July 2021, William Fichtner replaced Quaid in the role of Kirkham. In the same month, Kyle MacLachlan, Lex Mayson, Joel Marsh Garland, Marlo Kelly, and Aliandra Calabrese joined the series, to portray Howard Baskin, Kelci "Saff" Saffery, James Garretson, Jamie Murdock, and Lauren Lowe respectively. In September 2021, Will McNeill, Jack Scott, Jenna Owen, Nic English, Benedict Hardie, Shareena Clanton, Alexandra Jensen, and Anthony Sharpe were revealed to have been added to the supporting cast during production, to portray Tyler, Joshua Dial, Amber, Brian Rhyne, Agent Thomas, Susan, Chealsi, and Erik Cowie, respectively.


title: Joe vs. Carole

text: Principal photography began in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, on July 12, 2021. By September 2021, filming also occurred in areas around Queensland, Australia, including Screen Queensland Studios, which doubled for Oklahoma and Florida. In October 2021, due to filming commitments with "Joe vs. Carole", McKinnon was precluded from appearing in the first seven episodes of season 47 of "Saturday Night Live".


title: Joe vs. Carole

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 33% based on 27 critic reviews, with an average rating of 5.40/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Kate McKinnon and John Cameron Mitchell do an admirable job of bringing these larger-than-life figures back down to earth, but "Joe vs. Carole" feels like a pale retread of an already overdone tale." Metacritic assigned the series a weighted average score of 53 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed to average reviews".


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: Interdisciplinarity or interdisciplinary studies involves the combination of multiple academic disciplines into one activity (e.g., a research project). It draws knowledge from several other fields like sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, etc. It is about creating something by thinking across boundaries. It is related to an "interdiscipline" or an "interdisciplinary field," which is an organizational unit that crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions emerge. Large engineering teams are usually interdisciplinary, as a power station or mobile phone or other project requires the melding of several specialties. However, the term "interdisciplinary" is sometimes confined to academic settings.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: The term "interdisciplinary" is applied within education and training pedagogies to describe studies that use methods and insights of several established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Interdisciplinarity involves researchers, students, and teachers in the goals of connecting and integrating several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies—along with their specific perspectives—in the pursuit of a common task. The epidemiology of HIV/AIDS or global warming requires understanding of diverse disciplines to solve complex problems. "Interdisciplinary" may be applied where the subject is felt to have been neglected or even misrepresented in the traditional disciplinary structure of research institutions, for example, women's studies or ethnic area studies. Interdisciplinarity can likewise be applied to complex subjects that can only be understood by combining the perspectives of two or more fields.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: The adjective "interdisciplinary" is most often used in educational circles when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand, including the case of the team-taught course where students are required to understand a given subject in terms of multiple traditional disciplines. For example, the subject of land use may appear differently when examined by different disciplines, for instance, biology, chemistry, economics, geography, and politics.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: Although "interdisciplinary" and "interdisciplinarity" are frequently viewed as twentieth century terms, the concept has historical antecedents, most notably Greek philosophy. Julie Thompson Klein attests that "the roots of the concepts lie in a number of ideas that resonate through modern discourse—the ideas of a unified science, general knowledge, synthesis and the integration of knowledge", while Giles Gunn says that Greek historians and dramatists took elements from other realms of knowledge (such as medicine or philosophy) to further understand their own material. The building of Roman roads required men who understood surveying, material science, logistics and several other disciplines. Any broadminded humanist project involves interdisciplinarity, and history shows a crowd of cases, as seventeenth-century Leibniz's task to create a system of universal justice, which required linguistics, economics, management, ethics, law philosophy, politics, and even sinology.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: Interdisciplinary programs sometimes arise from a shared conviction that the traditional disciplines are unable or unwilling to address an important problem. For example, social science disciplines such as anthropology and sociology paid little attention to the social analysis of technology throughout most of the twentieth century. As a result, many social scientists with interests in technology have joined science, technology and society programs, which are typically staffed by scholars drawn from numerous disciplines. They may also arise from new research developments, such as nanotechnology, which cannot be addressed without combining the approaches of two or more disciplines. Examples include quantum information processing, an amalgamation of quantum physics and computer science, and bioinformatics, combining molecular biology with computer science. Sustainable development as a research area deals with problems requiring analysis and synthesis across economic, social and environmental spheres; often an integration of multiple social and natural science disciplines. Interdisciplinary research is also key to the study of health sciences, for example in studying optimal solutions to diseases. Some institutions of higher education offer accredited degree programs in Interdisciplinary Studies.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: At another level, interdisciplinarity is seen as a remedy to the harmful effects of excessive specialization and isolation in information silos. On some views, however, interdisciplinarity is entirely indebted to those who specialize in one field of study—that is, without specialists, interdisciplinarians would have no information and no leading experts to consult. Others place the focus of interdisciplinarity on the need to transcend disciplines, viewing excessive specialization as problematic both epistemologically and politically. When interdisciplinary collaboration or research results in new solutions to problems, much information is given back to the various disciplines involved. Therefore, both disciplinarians and interdisciplinarians may be seen in complementary relation to one another.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: Because most participants in interdisciplinary ventures were trained in traditional disciplines, they must learn to appreciate differences of perspectives and methods. For example, a discipline that places more emphasis on quantitative rigor may produce practitioners who are more scientific in their training than others; in turn, colleagues in "softer" disciplines who may associate quantitative approaches with difficulty grasp the broader dimensions of a problem and lower rigor in theoretical and qualitative argumentation. An interdisciplinary program may not succeed if its members remain stuck in their disciplines (and in disciplinary attitudes). Those who lack experience in interdisciplinary collaborations may also not fully appreciate the intellectual contribution of colleagues from those discipline. From the disciplinary perspective, however, much interdisciplinary work may be seen as "soft", lacking in rigor, or ideologically motivated; these beliefs place barriers in the career paths of those who choose interdisciplinary work. For example, interdisciplinary grant applications are often refereed by peer reviewers drawn from established disciplines; not surprisingly, interdisciplinary researchers may experience difficulty getting funding for their research. In addition, untenured researchers know that, when they seek promotion and tenure, it is likely that some of the evaluators will lack commitment to interdisciplinarity. They may fear that making a commitment to interdisciplinary research will increase the risk of being denied tenure.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: Interdisciplinary programs may also fail if they are not given sufficient autonomy. For example, interdisciplinary faculty are usually recruited to a joint appointment, with responsibilities in both an interdisciplinary program (such as women's studies) and a traditional discipline (such as history). If the traditional discipline makes the tenure decisions, new interdisciplinary faculty will be hesitant to commit themselves fully to interdisciplinary work. Other barriers include the generally disciplinary orientation of most scholarly journals, leading to the perception, if not the fact, that interdisciplinary research is hard to publish. In addition, since traditional budgetary practices at most universities channel resources through the disciplines, it becomes difficult to account for a given scholar or teacher's salary and time. During periods of budgetary contraction, the natural tendency to serve the primary constituency (i.e., students majoring in the traditional discipline) makes resources scarce for teaching and research comparatively far from the center of the discipline as traditionally understood. For these same reasons, the introduction of new interdisciplinary programs is often resisted because it is perceived as a competition for diminishing funds.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: Due to these and other barriers, interdisciplinary research areas are strongly motivated to become disciplines themselves. If they succeed, they can establish their own research funding programs and make their own tenure and promotion decisions. In so doing, they lower the risk of entry. Examples of former interdisciplinary research areas that have become disciplines, many of them named for their parent disciplines, include neuroscience, cybernetics, biochemistry and biomedical engineering. These new fields are occasionally referred to as "interdisciplines". On the other hand, even though interdisciplinary activities are now a focus of attention for institutions promoting learning and teaching, as well as organizational and social entities concerned with education, they are practically facing complex barriers, serious challenges and criticism. The most important obstacles and challenges faced by interdisciplinary activities in the past two decades can be divided into "professional", "organizational", and "cultural" obstacles.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: An initial distinction should be made between interdisciplinary studies, which can be found spread across the academy today, and the study of interdisciplinarity, which involves a much smaller group of researchers. The former is instantiated in thousands of research centers across the US and the world. The latter has one US organization, the Association for Interdisciplinary Studies (founded in 1979), two international organizations, the International Network of Inter- and Transdisciplinarity (founded in 2010) and the Philosophy of/as Interdisciplinarity Network (founded in 2009), and one research institute devoted to the theory and practice of interdisciplinarity, the Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity at the University of North Texas (founded in 2008). As of 1 September 2014, the Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity has ceased to exist. This is the result of administrative decisions at the University of North Texas.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: An interdisciplinary study is an academic program or process seeking to synthesize broad perspectives, knowledge, skills, interconnections, and epistemology in an educational setting. Interdisciplinary programs may be founded in order to facilitate the study of subjects which have some coherence, but which cannot be adequately understood from a single disciplinary perspective (for example, women's studies or medieval studies). More rarely, and at a more advanced level, interdisciplinarity may itself become the focus of study, in a critique of institutionalized disciplines' ways of segmenting knowledge.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: In contrast, studies of interdisciplinarity raise to self-consciousness questions about how interdisciplinarity works, the nature and history of disciplinarity, and the future of knowledge in post-industrial society. Researchers at the Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity have made the distinction between philosophy 'of' and 'as' interdisciplinarity, the former identifying a new, discrete area within philosophy that raises epistemological and metaphysical questions about the status of interdisciplinary thinking, with the latter pointing toward a philosophical practice that is sometimes called 'field philosophy'.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: Perhaps the most common complaint regarding interdisciplinary programs, by supporters and detractors alike, is the lack of synthesis—that is, students are provided with multiple disciplinary perspectives, but are not given effective guidance in resolving the conflicts and achieving a coherent view of the subject. Others have argued that the very idea of synthesis or integration of disciplines presupposes questionable politico-epistemic commitments. Critics of interdisciplinary programs feel that the ambition is simply unrealistic, given the knowledge and intellectual maturity of all but the exceptional undergraduate; some defenders concede the difficulty, but insist that cultivating interdisciplinarity as a habit of mind, even at that level, is both possible and essential to the education of informed and engaged citizens and leaders capable of analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information from multiple sources in order to render reasoned decisions.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: While much has been written on the philosophy and promise of interdisciplinarity in academic programs and professional practice, social scientists are increasingly interrogating academic discourses on interdisciplinarity, as well as how interdisciplinarity actually works—and does not—in practice. Some have shown, for example, that some interdisciplinary enterprises that aim to serve society can produce deleterious outcomes for which no one can be held to account.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: Since 1998, there has been an ascendancy in the value of interdisciplinary research and teaching and a growth in the number of bachelor's degrees awarded at U.S. universities classified as multi- or interdisciplinary studies. The number of interdisciplinary bachelor's degrees awarded annually rose from 7,000 in 1973 to 30,000 a year by 2005 according to data from the National Center of Educational Statistics (NECS). In addition, educational leaders from the Boyer Commission to Carnegie's President Vartan Gregorian to Alan I. Leshner, CEO of the American Association for the Advancement of Science have advocated for interdisciplinary rather than disciplinary approaches to problem-solving in the 21st century. This has been echoed by federal funding agencies, particularly the National Institutes of Health under the direction of Elias Zerhouni, who has advocated that grant proposals be framed more as interdisciplinary collaborative projects than single-researcher, single-discipline ones.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: At the same time, many thriving longstanding bachelor's in interdisciplinary studies programs in existence for 30 or more years, have been closed down, in spite of healthy enrollment. Examples include Arizona International (formerly part of the University of Arizona), the School of Interdisciplinary Studies at Miami University, and the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies at Wayne State University; others such as the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies at Appalachian State University, and George Mason University's New Century College, have been cut back. Stuart Henry has seen this trend as part of the hegemony of the disciplines in their attempt to recolonize the experimental knowledge production of otherwise marginalized fields of inquiry. This is due to threat perceptions seemingly based on the ascendancy of interdisciplinary studies against traditional academia.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: There are many examples of when a particular idea, almost on the same period, arises in different disciplines. One case is the shift from the approach of focusing on "specialized segments of attention" (adopting one particular perspective), to the idea of "instant sensory awareness of the whole", an attention to the "total field", a "sense of the whole pattern, of form and function as a unity", an "integral idea of structure and configuration". This has happened in painting (with cubism), physics, poetry, communication and educational theory. According to Marshall McLuhan, this paradigm shift was due to the passage from an era shaped by mechanization, which brought sequentiality, to the era shaped by the instant speed of electricity, which brought simultaneity.


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: An article in the "Social Science Journal" attempts to provide a simple, common-sense, definition of interdisciplinarity, bypassing the difficulties of defining that concept and obviating the need for such related concepts as transdisciplinarity, pluridisciplinarity, and multidisciplinary:


title: Interdisciplinarity

text: In turn, interdisciplinary "richness" of any two instances of knowledge, research, or education can be ranked by weighing four variables: number of disciplines involved, the "distance" between them, the novelty of any particular combination, and their extent of integration.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: The Sedlec Ossuary (; ) is a Roman Catholic chapel, located beneath the Cemetery Church of All Saints (Czech: ), part of the former Sedlec Abbey in Sedlec, a suburb of Kutná Hora in the Czech Republic. The ossuary is estimated to contain the skeletons of between 40,000 and 70,000 people, whose bones have, in many cases, been artistically arranged to form decorations and furnishings for the chapel. The ossuary is among the most visited tourist attractions of the Czech Republic, attracting over 200,000 visitors annually.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: Four bell-shaped mounds occupy the corners of the chapel. A chandelier of bones, which contains at least one of every bone in the human body, hangs from the center of the nave with garlands of skulls draping the vault. Other works include piers and monstrances flanking the altar, a coat of arms of the House of Schwarzenberg, and the signature of František Rint, also executed in bone, on the wall near the entrance.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: Along with Sedlec Abbey and the rest of the Kutná Hora city centre, it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995, because of its unique Baroque architecture.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: In 1278, Henry, the abbot of the Cistercian monastery in Sedlec, was sent to the Holy Land by King Ottokar II of Bohemia. He returned with a small amount of earth he had removed from Golgotha and sprinkled it over the abbey cemetery. The word of this pious act soon spread and the cemetery in Sedlec became a desirable burial site throughout Central Europe.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: In the mid 14th century, during the Black Death, and after the Hussite Wars in the early 15th century, many thousands were buried in the abbey cemetery, so it had to be greatly enlarged.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: Around 1400, a Gothic church was built in the center of the cemetery with a vaulted upper level and a lower chapel to be used as an ossuary for the mass graves unearthed during construction, or simply slated for demolition to make room for new burials.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: After 1511, the task of exhuming skeletons and stacking their bones in the chapel was given to a half-blind monk of the order.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: Between 1703 and 1710, a new entrance was constructed to support the front wall, which was leaning outward, and the upper chapel was rebuilt. This work, in the Czech Baroque style, was designed by Jan Santini Aichel.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: In 1870, František Rint, a woodcarver, was employed by the Schwarzenberg family to put the bone heaps into order, yielding a macabre result. The signature of Rint, also executed in bone, appears on the wall near the entrance to the chapel.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: In 1970, the 100th anniversary of Rint's contributions, Czech filmmaker Jan Švankmajer was commissioned to document the ossuary. The result was a 10-minute-long frantic-cut film of skeletal images overdubbed with an actual tour-guide's neutral voice narration. This version was initially banned by the Czech Communist authorities for alleged subversion, and the soundtrack was replaced by a brief spoken introduction and a jazz arrangement by Zdeněk Liška of the poem "" ("How to Draw the Portrait of a Bird") by Jacques Prévert. Since the Velvet Revolution, the original tour guide soundtrack has been made available.


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: In the documentary "Long Way Round", Ewan McGregor and Charley Boorman stop to see this church. Dan Cruickshank also views the church in his "Adventures in Architecture".


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: The ossuary is used as a location for the "Dungeons & Dragons" movie and the movie "Blood & Chocolate".


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: The ossuary was featured in "Ripley's Believe it or Not" and is described by Cara Seymour in the final scene of the film "Adaptation".


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: The ossuary appeared on two versions of "The Amazing Race": "The Amazing Race Australia 1" and "HaMerotz LaMillion 2".


title: Sedlec Ossuary

text: A photograph of the chapel's interior was also used as the cover art for the 1998 album "Nightwork", by Swedish progressive black metal band Diabolical Masquerade.


title: Afrika Korps

text: The Afrika Korps or German Africa Corps (, }; DAK) was the German expeditionary force in Africa during the North African Campaign of World War II. First sent as a holding force to shore up the Italian defense of its African colonies, the formation fought on in Africa, under various appellations, from March 1941 until its surrender in May 1943. The unit's best known commander was Field Marshal Erwin Rommel.


title: Afrika Korps

text: The Afrika Korps formed on 11 January 1941 and one of Hitler's favourite generals, Erwin Rommel, was designated as commander on 11 February. Originally Hans von Funck was to have commanded it, but Hitler loathed von Funck, as he had been a personal staff officer of Werner von Fritsch until von Fritsch was dismissed in 1938.


title: Afrika Korps

text: The German Armed Forces High Command ("Oberkommando der Wehrmacht", OKW) had decided to send a "blocking force" to Italian Libya to support the Italian army. The Italian 10th Army had been routed by the British Commonwealth Western Desert Force in Operation Compass (9 December 1940 – 9 February 1941) and captured at the Battle of Beda Fomm. The German blocking force, commanded by Rommel, at first consisted of a force based only on Panzer Regiment 5, which was put together from the second regiment of the 3rd Panzer Division. These elements were organized into the 5th Light Division when they arrived in Africa from 10 February – 12 March 1941. In late April and into May, the 5th Light Division was joined by elements of 15th Panzer Division, transferred from Italy. At this time, the "Afrika Korps" consisted of the two divisions, and was subordinated to the Italian chain of command in Africa.


title: Afrika Korps

text: On 15 August 1941, the German 5th Light Division was redesignated 21st Panzer Division, the higher formation of which was still the Afrika Korps. During the summer of 1941, the OKW increased the presence in Africa and created a new headquarters called Panzer Group Africa. On 15 August, the Panzer Group was activated with Rommel in command, and command of the Afrika Korps was turned over to Ludwig Crüwell. The Panzer Group comprised the Afrika Korps, with some additional German units now in North Africa, plus two corps of Italian units. The Panzer Group was, in turn, redesignated as Panzer Army Africa on 30 January 1942.


title: Afrika Korps

text: After the German defeat in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the Allied landings in Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch), the OKW once more upgraded the presence in Africa by adding first the XC Army Corps, under Nehring, in Tunisia on 19 November 1942, then an additional 5th Panzer Army on 8 December, under the command of Colonel-General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim.


title: Afrika Korps

text: On 23 February 1943, the original Panzer Army Africa, which had since been re-styled as the German-Italian Panzer Army, was now redesignated as the Italian 1st Army and put under the command of Italian general Giovanni Messe. Rommel, meanwhile, was placed in command of a new Army Group Africa, created to control both the Italian 1st Army and the 5th Panzer Army. The remnants of the Afrika Korps and surviving units of the 1st Italian Army retreated into Tunisia. Command of the Army Group was turned over to Arnim in March. On 13 May, the Afrika Korps surrendered, along with all other remaining Axis forces in North Africa.


title: Afrika Korps

text: Most Afrika Korps POWs were transported to the United States and held in Camp Shelby in Mississippi, Camp Hearne in Texas and other POW camps until the end of the war.


title: Afrika Korps

text: When Rommel was promoted to the newly formed Panzer Army Africa, his command included a number of Italian units, including four infantry divisions. Two Italian armoured divisions, Ariete and Trieste, initially remained under Italian control as the Italian XX Motorized Corps under the command of General Gastone Gambara.


title: Afrika Korps

text: The Afrika Korps was restructured and renamed in August 1941. "Afrikakorps" was the official name of the force for less than six months but the officers and men used it for the duration. The "Afrikakorps" was the major German component of "Panzerarmee Afrika", which was later renamed the "Deutsch-Italienische Panzerarmee" and finally renamed "Heeresgruppe Afrika" (Army Group Africa) during the 27 months of the Desert campaign.


title: Afrika Korps

text: The Afrika Korps gained a reputation by the Allies and by many historians as being magnanimous with Allied prisoners of war, since then many historians have used the term "War without hate" to describe the North African campaign as a whole. However, Jewish people suffered during the Fascist regime laws, and the local administration took part in the Holocaust deporting some thousands of Jews to Italy, under the supervision of "Generalfeldmarschall" Albert Kesselring Wehrmacht commander of the Axis in the Mediterranean theater. While others suffered from forced labour and ill treatment at the hands of the Italian administration, including an SS and SD detachment. Robert Satloff described in his book "Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust's Long Reach into Arab Lands" that as the German and Italian forces retreated across Libya towards Tunisia, the Jewish population became victims upon which they released their anger and frustration. According to Satloff, Afrika Korps soldiers plundered Jewish property all along the Libyan coast. This violence and persecution only came to an end with the arrival of General Montgomery in Tripoli on 23 January 1943. Giordana Terracina writes that: "On April 3, the Italians recaptured Benghazi and a few months later the Afrika Korps led by Rommel was sent to Libya and began the deportation of the Jews of Cyrenaica in the concentration camp of Giado and other smaller towns in Tripolitania. This measure was accompanied by shooting, also in Benghazi, of some Jews guilty of having welcomed the British troops, on their arrival, treating them as liberators."


title: Andamanese peoples

text: The Andamanese are the indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands, part of India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory in the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal in Southeast Asia. The Andamanese peoples are among the various groups considered Negrito, owing to their dark skin and diminutive stature. All Andamanese traditionally lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, and appear to have lived in substantial isolation for thousands of years. It is suggested that the Andamanese settled in the Andaman Islands around the latest glacial maximum, around 26,000 years ago.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: The Andamanese peoples included the Great Andamanese and Jarawas of the Great Andaman archipelago, the Jangil of Rutland Island, the Onge of Little Andaman, and the Sentinelese of North Sentinel Island. At the end of the 18th century, when they first came into sustained contact with outsiders, an estimated 7,000 Andamanese remained. In the next century, they experienced a massive population decline due to epidemics of outside diseases and loss of territory. Today, only roughly 400–450 Andamanese remain, with the Jangil being extinct. Only the Jarawa and the Sentinelese maintain a steadfast independence, refusing most attempts at contact by outsiders.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Until the late 18th century, the Andamanese culture, language, and genetics were preserved from outside influences by their fierce reaction to visitors, which included killing any shipwrecked foreigners, and by the remoteness of the islands. The various tribes and their mutually unintelligible languages thus are believed to have evolved on their own over millennia.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: According to Chaubey and Endicott (2013), the Andaman Islands were settled less than 26,000 years ago, by people who were not direct descendants of the first migrants out of Africa. According to Wang et al. (2011),


title: Andamanese peoples

text: It was previously assumed that the Andaman ancestors were part of the initial Great Coastal Migration (South-Eurasians or Australasians) that was the first expansion of humanity out of Africa, via the Arabian peninsula, along the coastal regions of the South Asia towards Insular Southeast Asia, and Oceania. The Andamanese were considered to be a pristine example of a hypothesized Negrito population, which showed similar physical characteristics, and was supposed to have existed throughout southeast Asia. The existence of a specific Negrito-population is nowadays doubted. Their commonalities could be the result of evolutionary convergence and/or a shared history.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: The Andamanese's protective isolation changed with the establishment of a British colonial presence on the islands. Lacking immunity against common infectious diseases of the Eurasian mainland, the large Jarawa habitats on the southeastern regions of South Andaman Island experienced a massive population decline due to disease within four years of the establishment of a colonial presence on the island in 1789. Epidemics of pneumonia, measles and influenza spread rapidly and exacted heavy tolls, as did alcoholism. In the 19th century, a measles epidemic killed 50% of the Andamanese population. By 1875, the Andamanese were already "perilously close to extinction". In 1888, the British government set in place a policy of "organized gift giving" that continued in varying forms until the islands, as part of the British Raj, gained independence from the British Empire.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Tensions between the colonial administration and the Andamanese increased due to British officials introducing alcohol and opium to the Andamanese. During mid-19th century, the British government in India established penal colonies on the islands and an increasing number of Indian and Karen arrived, both as settlers and prisoners.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: In 1867, the British launched the Andaman Islands expedition in order to rescue shipwrecked sailors from the "Assam Valley" on the Andamanese islands. The expedition was attacked by the Onge people upon their approach to the islands and were forced to withdraw. Four Victoria crosses were awarded to members of the expedition.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: In 1923, the British ornithologist and anthropologist Frank Finn, who visited the islands in the 1890s while working for the Indian Museum, described the Andamanese as "The World's Most Primitive People", writing:


title: Andamanese peoples

text: In the 1940s, the Jarawa were attacked by imperial Japanese forces for their hostility. This Japanese attack was criticized as a war crime by many observers.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: In 1974, a film crew and anthropologist Triloknath Pandit attempted friendly contact by leaving a tethered pig, some pots and pans, some fruit, and toys on the beach at North Sentinel Island. One of the islanders shot the film director in the thigh with an arrow. The following year, European visitors were repulsed with arrows.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: On 2 August 1981, the Hong Kong freighter ship "Primrose" grounded on the North Sentinel Island reef. A few days later, crewmen on the immobile vessel observed that small black men were carrying spears and arrows and building boats on the beach. The captain of the Primrose radioed for an urgent airdrop of firearms so the crew could defend themselves, but did not receive them. Heavy seas kept the islanders away from the ship. After a week, the crew were rescued by an Indian navy helicopter.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Until 1996, the Jarawa met most visitors with flying arrows. From time to time, they attacked and killed poachers on the lands reserved to them by the Indian government. They also killed some workers building the Andaman Trunk Road (ATR), which traverses Jarawa lands. One of the earliest peaceful contacts with the Jarawa occurred in 1996. Settlers found a teenaged Jarawa boy named Enmei near Kadamtala town. The boy was immobilized with a broken foot. They took Enmei to a hospital, where he received good care. Over several weeks, Enmei learned a few words of Hindi before returning to his jungle home. The following year, Jarawa individuals and small groups began appearing along roadsides and occasionally venturing into settlements to steal food. The ATR may have interfered with traditional Jarawa food sources.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: On 17 November 2018, a United States missionary, John Allen Chau, was killed when he tried to introduce Christianity to the Sentinelese tribe. The Sentinelese have been protected from contact with the outside world. Trips to the Island are prohibited by Indian law. Chau was brought near the island by local fishermen, who were later arrested during the investigation into his death. Indian authorities attempted to retrieve Chau's remains without success.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: By the end of the eighteenth century, there were an estimated 5,000 Great Andamanese living on Great Andaman. Altogether they comprised ten distinct tribes with different languages. The population quickly dwindled to 600 in 1901 and to 19 by 1961. It has increased slowly after that, following their move to a reservation on Strait Island. As of 2010, the population was 52, representing a mix of the former tribes.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: The Jarawa originally inhabited southeastern Jarawa Island and have migrated to the west coast of Great Andaman in the wake of the Great Andamanese. The Onge once lived throughout Little Andaman and now are confined to two reservations on the island. The Jangil, who originally inhabited Rutland Island, were extinct by 1931; the last individual was sighted in 1907. Only the Sentinelese are still living in their original homeland on North Sentinel Island, largely undisturbed, and have fiercely resisted all attempts at contact.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: The Andamanese languages are considered to be the fifth language family of India, following the Indo-European, Dravidian, Austroasiatic, and Sino-Tibetan.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: While some connections have been tentatively proposed with other language families, such as Austronesian, or the controversial Indo-Pacific family, the consensus view is currently that Andamanese languages form a separate language family – or rather, two unrelated linguistic families: "Greater Andamanese" and "Ongan".


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Until contact, the Andamanese were strict hunter-gatherers. They did not practice cultivation, and lived off hunting indigenous pigs, fishing, and gathering. Their only weapons were the bow, adzes, and wooden harpoons. The Andamanese knew of no method for making fire in the nineteenth century. They instead carefully preserved embers in hollowed-out trees from fires caused by lightning strikes.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: The men wore girdles made of hibiscus fiber which carried useful tools and weapons for when they went hunting. The women on the other hand wore a tribal dress containing leaves that were held by a belt. A majority of them had painted bodies as well. They usually slept on leaves or mats and had either permanent or temporary habitation among the tribes. All habitations were man made.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Some of the tribe members were credited to having supernatural powers. They were called oko-pai-ad, which meant dreamer. They were thought to have an influence on the members of the tribe and would bring misfortune to those who did not believe in their abilities. Traditional knowledge practitioners were the ones who helped with healthcare. The medicine that was used to cure illnesses were herbal most of the time. Various types of medicinal plants were used by the islanders. 77 total traditional knowledge practitioners were identified and 132 medicinal plants were used. The members of the tribes found various ways to use leaves in their everyday lives including clothing, medicine, and to sleep on.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Anthropologist A.R. Radcliffe Brown argued that the Andamanese had no government and made decisions by group consensus.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: The native Andamanese religion and belief system is a form of animism. Ancestor worship is an important element in the religious traditions of the Andaman islands. Andamanese Mythology held that humans emerged from split bamboo, whereas the women were fashioned from clay. One version found by Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown held that the first man died and went to heaven, a pleasurable world, but this blissful period ended due to breaking a food taboo, specifically eating the forbidden vegetables in the Puluga's garden. Thus Catastrophe ensued, and eventually the people grew overpopulated and didn't follow Puluga's laws, and hence there was a Great Flood that left four survivors, who lost their fire.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Negritos, specifically Andamanese, are grouped together by phenotype and anthropological features. Three physical features that distinguish the Andaman islanders include: skin colour, hair, and stature. Those of the Andaman islands have dark skin, are short in stature, and have "frizzy" hair, while displaying "Asiatic facial features".


title: Andamanese peoples

text: When comparing dental morphology the focus is on overall size and tooth shape. To measure the size and shape, Penrose's size and shape statistic is used. To calculate tooth size, the sum of the tooth area is taken. Factor analysis is applied to tooth size to achieve tooth shape. Results have shown that the dental morphology of Andaman Islanders resembles that of tribal populations of South Asia (Adivasi) the most, followed by Philippine Negrito groups, contemporary Southeast Asians, and East Asians. The tooth size of the Andamanese was found to be most similar to that of Han Chinese and Japanese.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Genetic analysis, both of nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA provide information about the origins of the Andamanese. The Andamanese are most genetically similar to the Malaysian Negrito tribes, followed by contemporary East Asian people.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: The Andamanese show a very small genetic variation, which is indicative of populations that have experienced a population bottleneck and then developed in isolation for a long period.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: An allele has been discovered among the Jarawas that is found nowhere else in the world. Blood samples of 116 Jarawas were collected and tested for Duffy blood group and malarial parasite infectivity. Results showed a total absence of both Fya and Fyb antigens in two areas (Kadamtala and R.K Nallah) and low prevalence of both Fya antigen in another two areas (Jirkatang and Tirur). There was an absence of malarial parasite "Plasmodium vivax" infection though "Plasmodium falciparum" infection was present in 27·59% of cases. A very high frequency of Fy (a–b–) in the Jarawa tribe from all the four jungle areas of Andaman Islands along with total absence of "P. vivax" infections suggests the selective advantage offered to Fy (a–b–) individuals against "P. vivax" infection.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Genetic studies have revealed that the Andamanese people are relatively closely related to the indigenous South Asian hunter-gatherers, often termed "Ancient Ancestral South Indians" (AASI). The Andamanese also show high affinity to other Australasian populations (AA), such as Melanesians, as well as to East/Southeast Asian peoples (ESEA). Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial eastern lineage trifurcated somewhere in South Asia, and gave rise to Australasians (Oceanians), the AASI and Andamanese, as well as East/Southeast Asians, although Oceanians (Papuans and Aboriginal Australians) may have also received some geneflow from an earlier group (xOoA), around 2%, next to additional archaic admixture in the Sahul region. While the Andamanese are often used as proxy for AASI ancestry, a study by Yelmen et al. (2019) argues that isolated South Indian tribal groups, such as the Paniya, Kharia, or Soliga people, would serve as a better proxy for AASI ancestry. Overall, the Malaysian Negritos (Semang), such as the Maniq people, Jahai people, and Batek people, are the closest modern living relatives of the Andamanese people.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: When compared with ancient DNA samples, Andamanese peoples are closest to the pre-Neolithic Hoabinhians in Mainland Southeast Asia (covered by two samples from Malaysia and Laos).


title: Andamanese peoples

text: The male Y-chromosome in humans is inherited exclusively through paternal descent. All sampled males of Onges (23/23) and Jarawas (4/4) belong to a sublineage of D-M174(D1a3). However, male Great Andamanese do not appear to carry these clades. A low resolution study suggests that they belong to haplogroups K, L, O and P1 (P-M45).


title: Andamanese peoples

text: A 2017 study by Mondal et al. finds that the Y-chromosome of the Riang people (a Tibeto-Burmese population), sublineage D1a3 (D-M174*) and the Andamanese D1a3 (*D-Y34637) have their nearest related lineages in East Asia, splitting about 23,000 years ago from an East Asian-related population. The Jarawa and Onge shared this D1a3 lineage with each other within the last ~7,000 years, suggesting a bottleneck event. They further suggest that: “This strongly suggests that haplogroup D does not indicate a separate ancestry for Andamanese populations. Rather, haplogroup D was part of the standing variation carried by the OOA expansion, and later lost from most of the populations except in Andaman and partially in Japan and Tibet”. Other haplogroups found among Andamanese include haplogroup P, and L-M20.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Several studies (Hammer et al. 2006, Shinoda 2008, Matsumoto 2009, Cabrera et al. 2018) suggest that the paternal haplogroup D-M174 originated somewhere in Central Asia. According to Hammer et al., haplogroup D-M174 originated between Tibet and the Altai mountains. He suggests that there were multiple waves into Eastern Eurasia. In a 2019 study by Haber et al. showed that Haplogroup D-M174 originated in Central Asia and evolved as it migrated to different directions of the continent. One group of population migrated to Siberia, others to Japan and Tibet, and another group migrated to the Andaman islands.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Bulbeck (2013) shows the Andamanese maternal mtDNA is entirely mitochondrial Haplogroup M. Haplogroup M (mtDNA) is a descendant of haplogroup L3, typically found in Eurasia and parts of Africa. The mtDNA M is found in all Onge and is also the predominant lineages of Negrito Semang tribes from Thailand and Malaysia, as well as of other East Asian people. Analysis of mtDNA, which is inherited exclusively by maternal descent, confirms the above results. Haplogroup M is however also the single most common mtDNA haplogroup in Asia, where it represents 60% of all maternal lineages. Haplogroup M is also relatively common in Northeast Africa of Somalis, Oromo over 20%. Also in the Tuareg in Mali and Burkina Faso at 18.42%.


title: Andamanese peoples

text: Unlike some Negrito populations of Southeast Asia, Andaman Islanders have not been found to have Denisovan ancestry. However, they are estimated, like all other non-African populations, to possess approximately 1-2% Neanderthal ancestry. A study suggests that all Asian and Australo-Papuan populations, including Andaman Islanders, also share between 2.6 and 3.4% of the genetic profile of a previously unknown hominin that was genetically roughly equidistant to Denisovans and Neanderthals. However, a 2018 study by Skoglund et al. led by the Harvard Reich lab team did not replicate that result and did not find evidence for admixture from an unknown hominin in the Andamanese or other Asians. Wall et al. 2019 did not find evidence of archaic admixture in Andamanese.


title: Dabangg

text: Dabangg () is a 2010 Indian Hindi-language action comedy film directed by Abhinav Singh Kashyap and produced by Malaika Arora Khan and Arbaaz Khan under Arbaaz Khan Productions with Dhilin Mehta under Shree Ashtavinayak Cine Vision. Khan's elder brother Salman Khan stars in the lead role, with Sonakshi Sinha in her acting debut; Arbaaz, Om Puri, Dimple Kapadia, Vinod Khanna, Anupam Kher, Mahesh Manjrekar and Mahie Gill featuring in supporting roles, while Sonu Sood plays the main antagonist. The film marks the debut of Arbaaz as a producer and Kashyap as a director. Malaika appears in the item number "Munni Badnaam Hui".


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg" is set in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, and tells the story of a fearless police officer, Chulbul Pandey, and his troubled relationship with his stepfather and half-brother. Made with a budget of 30 crore and marketed at 12 crore, "Dabangg" was shot primarily in the town of Wai in Maharashtra, while other major scenes were shot in the United Arab Emirates.


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg" was released during Eid-Ul-Fitr on 10 September 2010 in nearly 2,100 cinemas worldwide. It opened to generally positive reviews, with praise for the performances (especially those of Khan and Sood), action sequences, music and humour, but criticism for its script and screenplay. It went on to gross () worldwide. It is the highest-grossing Bollywood film of 2010. "Dabangg" has won several awards—the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment and six Filmfare Awards, including Best Film and Best Female Debut (Sinha). Later remade in Tamil as "Osthe" and in Telugu as "Gabbar Singh", the film was followed by two sequels: "Dabangg 2" (2012) and "Dabangg 3" (2019). The latter serves as a partial prequel, describing a flashback which formed the events of "Dabangg" itself.


title: Dabangg

text: Chulbul Pandey, a young boy, lives with his younger half-brother, Makkhanchand "Makkhi" Pandey, stepfather Prajapati Pandey and mother, Naina Devi in Laalgunj, Uttar Pradesh. He has a troubled relationship with Prajapati and Makkhi. After 21 years, Chulbul becomes a policeman. Chulbul, who calls himself "Robin Hood" Pandey, still lives with his family. Makkhi is in love with Nirmala, whose father Masterji opposes the relationship. Chulbul falls in love with a girl named Rajjo, whom he meets during a police chase culminating in an encounter.


title: Dabangg

text: A corrupt political leader named Chedi Singh meets Chulbul and both quickly become enemies. Makkhi asks Prajapati to arrange his marriage with Nirmala. Prajapati refuses because he needs money to repay the loans he took to make his factory, and he believes that he can acquire money through his son marrying a rich girl. In desperate need of money, Makkhi steals some cash from Chulbul's cupboard and gives the stolen cash to Masterji, hoping that he will permit Makkhi to marry Nirmala. Meanwhile, Chulbul meets Rajjo and proposes marriage, which she rejects, as she has to take care of her father, Hariya—a drunkard.


title: Dabangg

text: Chulbul comes home to find his mother, Naini Devi, dead. He goes to Prajapati to make peace, as he is the only family left. However, Prajapati rejects and despises him as an outcast. Makkhi invites Chulbul to his marriage with Nirmala. Chulbul convinces Hariya to marry Rajjo. Hariya commits suicide, as he knows that Rajjo will not marry anyone while he is alive. Chulbul takes Rajjo to Makkhi's exuberant wedding. Realising that Makkhi has stolen his money to finance the wedding, Chulbul marries Rajjo in an impromptu ceremony. Masterji feels disgraced and cancels Makkhi's wedding with Nirmala.


title: Dabangg

text: Makkhi, still feeling cross about Chulbul jeopardising his wedding, beats up one of the workers in his factory due to a small mishap. The worker goes to the police station with his mother to file a complaint. Rather than simply ask Makkhi to apologise to the worker, Chulbul beats up Makkhi in public to disgrace him. Chedi takes advantage of the situation and takes Makkhi along with Prajapati to the police station. Prajapati not wishing to aggravate the matter any further resolves the situation by accepting an apology from Chulbul but still, after a conversation between him and his stepfather that shows their troubled relation, Chulbul slaps his brother as a form of disgrace. Chulbul meets Dayal Sahu a.k.a. Dayal Babu, a local political leader, who also dislikes Chedi. With his help, Chulbul adulterates Chedi's breweries and wrongly frames him for it.


title: Dabangg

text: To take revenge, Chedi burns Makkhi's factory. Prajapati is shocked, and suffers a heart attack and is hospitalised. Makkhi goes to Chedi for help, little knowing that he was the one responsible. Chedi agrees to finance Prajapati's treatment if he delivers a crate of mangoes to Dayal Babu's house. Unbeknownst to Makkhi, Chedi has placed a bomb inside the crate, which explodes after he leaves, killing Dayal Babu. Chedi gives Makkhi a task to kill Chulbul. Makkhi accepts, but ends up confessing it to Chulbul. He reveals to Chulbul that Chedi made him plant the bomb unknowingly. Chulbul forgives him and reconciles with him. During a final confrontation between Chulbul and Chedi, Makkhi reveals to Chulbul that it was Chedi, who killed Naini. Both men then kill Chedi by forcing him to inhale smoke.


title: Dabangg

text: Salman Khan grew a moustache after consulting with his brother and prepared his hair to suit his role. For the former, he had to try out nearly fifty styles in a span of four months before commencement of the filming. Photo-shoots were held to finalise his look. Abhinav Kashyap, in an interview with Bollywood Hungama, revealed that initially he had considered a few others for the role of Chulbul Pandey, but eventually changed his mind and approached Salman. Kashyap had seen Arbaaz in "Jaane Tu Ya Jaane Na", doing a cameo and approached him to be a part of the project. After reading it, he had instantly accepted to produce and star in it. Sonu Sood was selected for playing the lead antagonist. He revealed that his character was that of a "youth leader with grey shades." Mahesh Manjrekar was later approached to play the father of Sinha's character, although he had plans to quit acting.


title: Dabangg

text: In April 2009, Sonakshi Sinha signed for her debut role. Salman had seen her at a function engaging in dancing and offered her the role. Speaking about it, she said that she had lost a weight of 30 kg over two years to prepare for her character of a village girl by "a combination of proper diet and vigorous exercise". She added that she had been "observing people and trying to pick up nuances" as a step of further preparation. Malaika Arora, who had performed a few item numbers in her career, most notably in "Dil Se..", was confirmed to do the same in the film. This was the first of its kind in her home production.


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg"s shooting took place primarily in Wai and the United Arab Emirates. The shooting commenced in September 2009. Production designer Wasiq Khan drew over 100 sketches detailing out every set in the film. The cinematography was performed by Mahesh Limaye. The first schedule began in the town of Wai and continued for 45 days, during which Sonu Sood, the main antagonist fractured his nose. A schedule, primarily involving a song shoot, was captured in the Khalid Bin Al Waheed station in Dubai, making "Dabangg" the first film to be shot there. Some scenes were also filmed at the Emirates Palace hotel in Abu Dhabi.


title: Dabangg

text: The film, involving around five action sequences, was choreographed by S. Vijayan, who previously served as the stunt director of "Wanted", and shot over 60 days. Later, special effects were incorporated into those scenes. The songs were choreographed by Raju Khan and Shabina Khan, while Farah Khan choreographed the item number, "Munni Badnaam Hui". The shooting was completed in early June 2010, and the film went into post-production. A party was held to commemorate the completion of the shooting and the success of the theatrical promo. It was attended by the main cast and crew.


title: Dabangg

text: The 10-song soundtrack album consisted of five original songs, four remixes and one theme song. Lalit Pandit wrote and composed the item number "Munni Badnaam Hui" while the music director duo Sajid–Wajid composed the remainder of it. Faiz Anwar and Jalees Sherwani wrote the lyrics for those tracks. The audio rights of "Dabangg" were sold for about to T-Series, and the album was launched on 20 August 2010 in Delhi. It received positive response and the album performed well on the charts after its release. The tracks "Tere Mast Mast Do Nain" and "Munni Badnaam Hui" were successful upon release and topped the music, radio and streaming charts.


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg" was described as one of the most anticipated films of the year by "The Indian Express". The film's theatrical trailer, running for about two and a half minutes, was released on 23 July 2010, alongside Priyadarshan's "Khatta Meetha". Khan promoted the film on the reality show "Entertainment Ke Liye Kuch Bhi Karega", "India's Got Talent" and "Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Singing Superstar". An event for the film was held at DLF Promenade in Vasant Kunj, New Delhi with the main cast in attendance, an exclusive merchandise for the film was launched. Another set of promotions were held at Nagpur and Hyderabad. It was reported to have broken pre-release records for hype by "Cinematix", a filming awareness product originated by Ormax Media.


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg" released worldwide on 10 September 2010. Before the film's theatrical release, a special screening of the film took place at Film City on 6 September 2010. The premiere of "Dabangg" was held in Mumbai on 9 September 2010. It opened up across 1,800 screens in India and around 300 screens overseas. The film was released in 2300 theatres worldwide. It was also screened in Norway at an international film festival. The film's DVDs and VCDs were launched by the Reliance Big Home Video on 12 October 2010. It was released on YouTube on 28 January 2011 for free viewing to audiences in India. The satellite rights were pre-sold for to Colors. The film is now available on Netflix.


title: Dabangg

text: The film generally received positive reviews from critics, most of whom praised the performances of Salman Khan and Sonu Sood, music, humour and action sequences. In a 4-star review for Koimoi, Komal Nahta ensured that the film would be a commercial success and said ""Dabangg" may be a routine subject but its other plus points will ensure that it proves a runaway hit". Kaveree Bamzai of "India Today" gave the film four stars while labelling it as "one Zandu Balm of a movie." Film critic Aniruddha Guha of "Daily News and Analysis" called the film "slightly mad, and terribly entertaining."


title: Dabangg

text: Mathures Paul of "The Statesman" gave the film 3.5 stars and commented, ""Dabangg" aligns itself with viewers frustrated by the nonexistence of uncomplicated heroism on screen." In a 3-star review for Rediff.com, Abhishek Mande stated ""Dabangg" is not a movie for non-Salman fans. But for those who worship him it's a film you simply cannot afford to miss." Anupama Chopra of NDTV gave 3 stars and stated that the film is watchable for the "sheer pleasure of watching Salman Khan in top form". Sukanya Venkataraghavan of "Filmfare" also rated 3-stars, and praised Khan's performance.


title: Dabangg

text: Gaurav Malani of "Indiatimes" was critical towards the film's story, remarking "the film doesn't care a damn for coming up with any innovative storyline." Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN panned the film's screenplay, but praised Khan's performance. Shobhaa De of the "Bangalore Times" was critical, concluding "Let's hand it to Salman who has pulled off the stunts and pelvic thrusts. Nothing new there. But it is the naughty self-parodying, which is so camp, so out there, which delivers the biggest punch. What's left for this guy now – all he needs is a cape. And he can call himself Superman."


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg" opened to nett collections in its first day, and became the highest opener of all time across India. On the second day, it netted . At the end of its weekend, the film collected the total of . The film netted on Monday, on Tuesday, on Wednesday, and on Thursday taking the total nett collections to around in its first week of release. It subsequently became the highest opening week nett grosser.


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg" netted on the second Friday, on Saturday and on Sunday, for a second weekend, a drop of around 50% from the opening weekend. In its second week, the film earned , taking the total nett collections to in two weeks, thus becoming the second highest-grossing film of all time in two weeks. The distributor share of "Dabangg" was declared to be —the second highest in Bollywood. "Dabangg" collected during the third week and in its fourth week, taking the domestic nett collections to . The domestic nett collections in eleven weeks was . It eventually progressed to .


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg" opened to a positive response in the overseas markets as well. The film's final overseas collections were US$6.10 million. It grossed a total of US$4.20 million in the international markets at the end of its second weekend.


title: Dabangg

text: In the United States, "Dabangg" collected $628,137 from 62 screens in its opening weekend and $1,068,589 at the end of its second weekend. In the United Arab Emirates, it collected 3.2 million Dirhams in the opening weekend, and $1,550,000 at the end of the second weekend. "Dabangg" collected a total of $5.50 million, making it the fifth highest-grossing in United Arab Emirates with a $2 million gross. In the United Kingdom, it collected £332,673 from 41 screens in its opening weekend and £570,566 by the end of its second weekend. In Australia, the film collected $126,000 from 14 screens in the opening weekend, and A$272,909 at the end of its second weekend. In Mauritius and South Africa, it collected US$25,000 each in its opening weekend. In Fiji, the film collected US$20,000 the opening weekend. In other territories of Europe and Africa, the film collected $100,000 in its opening weekend.


title: Dabangg

text: "Munni Badnaam Hui" included a brand name 'Zandu Balm' in its lyrics, much to the displeasure of Emami—the makers of the brand. A trademark case was settled by the producers and Emami out of court, and Malaika Arora was later chosen to an official advertising campaign promoting Zandu Balm. Activist Rajkumar Tak filed a case in the Bombay High Court, demanding that the deletion of the word "Hindustan" from the song, claiming that the censor board had not responded to his queries in regard to the "defaming" lyrics. He found them "highly objectionable" and "unpardonable" and labelled the song a "mockery" for the country, as a girl was "indecently" dancing in the presence of corrupted officers, which, according to him, threw bad light on the nation and "hurt the patriotic sentiments of every Indian".


title: Dabangg

text: Before release, critic and writer Shobhaa De called for a boycott of "Dabangg", due to Salman's comments on the 2008 Mumbai attacks. She criticised it as "arrogance, ignorance and plain stupidity." This sparked off a fight with the producers via Twitter, and continued after her negative review of the film. Anurag Kashyap, brother of Abhinav Kashyap, tweeted "Salman khan thinks he made my brother's life.. Hope he can do the same for his brother Arbaaz with "Dabangg 2"." This was taken as "slamming" Salman and resulted in Arbaaz retorting back by referring to the comment as "attitude" instead of "gratitude". However, Anurag later apologised for his remarks, which Arbaaz accepted.


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg" received accolades in major film award functions in India. Among them, it won the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment. It was given six awards at the 56th Filmfare Awards, including one for Best Film, seven Screen Awards, nine Zee Cine Awards, and ten IIFA Awards.


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg"'s success attributed to the extensive promotional campaigns and the commercial factors present in the film. The stock prices of the film's co-producers Shree Ashtavinayak Cine Vision at Bombay Stock Exchange saw an increase with the company gaining about 40% of its prices from 1 September 2010. About the promotional tactics of the film, Dhilin Mehta said that "We promoted the character Chulbul Pandey instead of brand Salman Khan. Today, the character has become a national rave in the league of Gabbar Singh from "Sholay" (1975) and Mogambo from "Mr. India" (1987)".


title: Dabangg

text: Film critic and trade analyst Komal Nahta also compared these campaign to the marketing gimmicks used by Rajkumar Hirani in "Munna Bhai M.B.B.S." (2003), "Lage Raho Munna Bhai" (2006) and "3 Idiots" (2009), where the characters Munna Bhai and Ranchoddas Chanchad are promoted to pull crowd till a time they become an established brand. He added "All the stars and producers have realized the value of marketing and promotion [...] In fact theses gimmicks have become as important as, say, making a good film."


title: Dabangg

text: 10 years after the film's release, Arbaaz Khan had stated in an interview that the film's budget was hiked from to , leading to few losses for him, but after the monumental success, he paid the salary for Salman Khan. In January 2022, the official merchandise of the film featuring movie clips, posters, and stills, among other collectables were released through non-fungible tokens (NFT). It was headlined by Salman Khan-backed BollyCoin in collaboration with the technology-backed marketplace creator NFTically. It was featured in Time Out's "100 Best Bollywood Films".


title: Dabangg

text: While the film was appreciated for its commercial elements, the flip side, it was criticised for the misogyny, objectification of women and the blatant sexism of the character Chulbul Pandey. In 2021, Mumbai Police shared few dialogues and quotes from the film denouncing misogyny.


title: Dabangg

text: After the release of "Dabangg", Arbaaz Khan announced that he was planning a sequel to it. After the commercial success of the film, Khan reported ""Dabangg 2" may take time to hit the floors, but it is definitely on the cards." He also announced that the main leads, Salman Khan and Sonakshi Sinha were already cast to reprise their parts in the sequel. Among the new cast members are Prakash Raj, who plays the main antagonist, while Kareena Kapoor performs an item number in the film. Director Abhinav Kashyap opted out of directing the sequel, and therefore Arbaaz took over as the film's director. "Dabangg 2" which released in December 2012, became one of the highest-grossing Bollywood film of all time in India. Another sequel, "Dabangg 3", was released in December 2019. It serves both as a prequel to "Dabangg" and a sequel to "Dabangg 2", taking the story back and forth.


title: Dabangg

text: In November 2021, director Rohit Shetty had planned for a potential inclusion of Chulbul Pandey, Khan's character in his Cop Universe franchise, and work on the film might commence only after completing Ranveer Singh's Cirkus. Later, that month, a fourth instalment of the franchise titled "Dabangg 4" was announced with Khan deciding to make few changes on the script and the character, in order to be raw and realistic, which followed after the critical response of his role in "" (2021). Later, impressed by the narration of the script, Tigmanshu Dhulia was roped in to direct the film in late-December.


title: Dabangg

text: "Dabangg" was remade in Tamil as "Osthe" (2011) by Dharani with Silambarasan playing the lead role, and Sonu Sood reprising his original role. It was also remade in Telugu as "Gabbar Singh" (2012), starring Pawan Kalyan and was directed by Harish Shankar.


title: Dabangg

text: An animated series based on the film titled "Dabangg – The Animated Series" is produced by Salman Khan Films, Arbaaz Khan Productions and Cosmos Maya. Conceptualised in late-2020, the series featured an animated version of the character Chulbul Pandey. It premiered through Cartoon Network on 31 May 2021 and also through the Disney+ Hotstar streaming service.


title: Bill Cobbs

text: William Francisco Cobbs (born June 16, 1934) is an American actor. He is known for his roles in movies such as Louisiana Slim in "The Hitter" (1979), Water in "The Brother from Another Planet" (1984), and as Lewis Coleman on "I'll Fly Away" (1991–1993), as Jack on "The Michael Richards Show" (2000), and guest appearances on "Walker, Texas Ranger" and "The Sopranos". In 2020, he won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Performance in a Daytime Program for the series "Dino Dana".


title: Bill Cobbs

text: Cobbs was born in Cleveland, Ohio, to a mother, Vera, who was a domestic worker and a father, David, who worked in construction. He is the second cousin of James Baskett.


title: Bill Cobbs

text: Cobbs served in the United States Air Force as a radar technician for eight years; he also worked in office products at IBM and sold cars in Cleveland. In 1970, at the age of 36, he left for New York to seek work as an actor. He supported himself by driving a cab, repairing office equipment, selling toys, and performing odd jobs.


title: Bill Cobbs

text: Cobb credits Reuben Silver with his start in acting at the African American Performing Arts Center and Karamu House Theatre in Cleveland Ohio. His first professional acting role was in "Ride a Black Horse" at the Negro Ensemble Company. From there, he appeared in small theater productions, street theater, regional theater, and at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre.


title: Bill Cobbs

text: As an amateur actor in the city's Karamu House Theater, Cobbs starred in the Ossie Davis play "Purlie Victorious." Cobbs was in "Vegetable Soup" (1976), a New York public television educational series, and he made his feature film debut in "The Taking of Pelham One Two Three" in 1974. Cobbs has an extensive film career and has appeared and been a regular on many television programs, including "The Michael Richards Show"; "The Outer Limits"; "I'll Fly Away"; "Yes, Dear"; "The Sopranos"; "Six Feet Under"; "The Others"; "JAG"; "The Drew Carey Show"; "October Road"; "One Tree Hill"; "" (as Dr. Emory Erickson, inventor of the Transporter); and many more. He had a recurring role as George, a blind grief-support-group member, in the TV series, "Go On", which premiered in 2012.


title: Bill Cobbs

text: In 2006, Cobbs played a supporting role in "Night at the Museum" as Reginald, a security guard on the verge of retirement. The character also served as an antagonist to the story. He played basketball coach and retired basketball player Arthur Chaney in Disney's "Air Bud" and Medgar Evers' older brother Charles Evers in Rob Reiner's "Ghosts of Mississippi." He had a role in the Coen Brothers' "The Hudsucker Proxy" and played fictional jazz pianist Del Paxton in Tom Hanks' "That Thing You Do". He has a brief appearance in the 2010 film "The Search for Santa Paws."


title: Bill Cobbs

text: In 2013, Cobbs co-starred in "Oz the Great and Powerful" as the Master Tinker, and in late 2014 reprised his role of Reginald in "". He recorded a public service announcement for Deejay Ra's Hip-Hop Literacy2 campaign, encouraging reading of Ice-T's autobiography.


title: Bill Cobbs

text: In 2020, he guest starred in the two-part series finale of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", portraying an unnamed elderly S.H.I.E.L.D. agent.


title: IOS 13

text: iOS 13 is the thirteenth major release of the iOS mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc. for their iPhone, iPod Touch, and HomePod lines. The successor to iOS 12 on those devices, it was announced at the company's Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) on June 3, 2019, and released on September 19, 2019. It was succeeded by iOS 14, released on September 16, 2020.


title: IOS 13

text: As of iOS 13, the iPad lines run a separate operating system, derived from iOS, named iPadOS. Both iPadOS 13 and iOS 13 dropped support for devices with less than 2 GB of RAM.


title: IOS 13

text: iOS 13 and iPadOS 13 were introduced by Senior Vice President of Software Engineering Craig Federighi at the WWDC keynote address on June 3, 2019.


title: IOS 13

text: The first beta was made available to registered developers after the keynote. The second beta was released to registered developers on June 18, 2019, and the first public beta was released on June 24, 2019. The initial release of iOS 13 was version 13.0, which was released to the public on September 19, 2019.


title: IOS 13

text: iOS 13 changes the handling of location data. When an app requests access to location, the user chooses whether to grant access whenever they are using the app, never, or only once. The user will receive similar prompts for background location access, and when an app requests access to Bluetooth or Wi-Fi (which may also be used for non-consensual location tracking).


title: IOS 13

text: In August 2019, it was reported that beginning in April 2020, the PushKit API for VoIP would be restricted to internet telephone usage, closing a "loophole" that had been used by other apps for background data collection.


title: IOS 13

text: A system-wide dark mode allows users to enable a light-on-dark color scheme for the entire iOS and iPadOS user interface, all native applications, and supported third-party apps. It can be manually turned on or set to automatically switch between light and dark modes based on the time of day.


title: IOS 13

text: The volume indicator was redesigned, replacing the larger, centered overlay with a slimmer bar shown vertically near the volume keys in portrait orientation, or at the top in landscape. The bar can also be manipulated directly.


title: IOS 13

text: The card UI elements from Apple Music, Apple Podcasts, and Apple Books has been implemented system-wide, being an option for third-parties to use in their apps.


title: IOS 13

text: Siri uses a software-generated voice called "Neural TTS", intended to sound more natural than previous versions that use clips of human voices. Siri also became more functional and new sound control is available. The Siri Shortcuts app is installed by default. Siri also uses HomePod to learn and recognize voices of different people. It is also possible for Siri to automatically read incoming messages aloud on AirPods.


title: IOS 13

text: The QuickType virtual keyboard features QuickPath, allowing the user to swipe their finger across the keyboard to complete words and phrases. This functionality was previously exclusively available via third-party keyboard applications such as SwiftKey, Adaptxt, Gboard, or Swype. Emoji stickers have been included on the emoji keyboard and can be used wherever regular emoji can be.


title: IOS 13

text: iOS 13 and iPadOS 13 add a new system-wide gesture interface for cut, copy, paste, undo, and redo. A three-finger swipe left or up will undo; three fingers right or down will redo. A single three-finger pinch will copy, a second three-finger pinch will cut, and a three-finger spread pastes. A three-finger single tap will bring up a shortcut menu with all five options.


title: IOS 13

text: The blue text cursor can be moved around text fields by pressing and holding to pick it up and move it. Many new options for text selection have also been added: double-tapping a word will select it, triple-tapping selects a sentence, and quadruple-tapping a paragraph selects it.


title: IOS 13

text: A new single sign-on service known as "Sign in with Apple" is integrated with iOS 13, and allows users to create accounts for third-party services with a minimal amount of personal information. Users may optionally generate a disposable email address for each account, improving privacy and anonymity, and reducing the amount of information that can be associated with a single email address.


title: IOS 13

text: All iOS applications that support third-party social login are required to implement Sign in with Apple, The iOS human interface guidelines also state that Sign in with Apple should be given prominence above any other login provider in application interfaces.


title: IOS 13

text: iOS 13 contains several performance improvements. Face ID unlocks the iPhone X, XS / XS Max, and XR up to 30% faster than on iOS12. A new file format makes app downloads as much as 50% smaller, app updates as much as 60% smaller, and app launches up to twice as fast.


title: IOS 13

text: Keeping the battery percentage more centered instead of complete charges and discharges reduces strain onto the battery. This reduces the battery aging of the lithium-ion battery and extends its lifespan.


title: IOS 13

text: iOS 13 introduced a new Core Haptics framework. Prior to iOS 13, apps could only provide the default haptic patterns. Core Haptics gives developers more fine-grained control over the iPhone's Taptic Engine, including synchronized audio, allowing apps to provide customized haptic and audio feedback. This feature is only available on iPhone 8 or newer. It is also not supported on the iPod Touch due to the lack of a haptic motor in those devices.


title: IOS 13

text: iOS 13 introduced the ability to connect to external USB drives. Although primarily designed for thumb drives and hard drives, a wide variety of USB disk devices will work, thanks to the iOS's support of the SCSI subclass of USB Mass Storage. Native SCSI disk devices will work as well, when used with a SCSI to USB adapter.


title: IOS 13

text: On 20 May 2020, Apple released iOS 13.5, which includes the Exposure Notification API that provides access to the Apple / Google privacy-preserving contact tracing system that Apple have developed jointly with Google. This is provided to support digital contact tracing which came to light during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: IOS 13

text: ARKit 3 was released as a part of iOS 13 and brought new features, such as People occlusion, which allowed AR objects to be in front or behind people in a more realistic way. New features were restricted to devices with A12 processors and newer – like iPhone XS, iPhone XR, and the 2018 iPad Pro. Other features of ARKit 3 were multiple face tracking and collaborative sessions.


title: IOS 13

text: Released with the 2020 iPad Pro, ARKit 3.5 vastly improved positioning in virtual environments due to new anchors and use of data from a LiDAR scanner. It also improved its motion capture and people occlusion.


title: IOS 13

text: The version of iOS for iPad devices was renamed iPadOS, reflecting the precedence for the OS to include additional features intended primarily for use on tablets.


title: IOS 13

text: iOS13 adds official support for the Sony DualShock 4 and the Microsoft Xbox One controller. iOS13 also adds support for wireless audio sharing for AirPods and certain Beats headphones.


title: IOS 13

text: A new multi-select gesture is available in supported applications such as Files and Mail. Multiple items, such as files or emails, can be quickly selected by dragging two fingers over the desired items.


title: IOS 13

text: Apple has added a fun new feature to Apple Music - time synced lyrics. The updated lyrics experience presents real-time synced song words that animate along with the music as they’re being sung, rapped or spoken. While lyrics are displayed on the phone, Apple Music will highlight the currently playing line in white color. The feature also lets you navigate music in a new way - skip to a part of a song simply by tapping on the lyric.


title: IOS 13

text: User profiles can be created and Memoji can be used as an iMessage profile picture. All iOS devices with an A9 processor or newer can create custom Memoji. Memoji and Animoji can be used as a sticker in iMessage and other apps; they are also available as regular emoji for use anywhere the emoji keyboard is available. There are a variety of new customization options for Memoji.


title: IOS 13

text: The Maps app features a redesigned maps UI, featuring more detailed maps, and Look Around, a street level imagery implementation similar to Google Street View.


title: IOS 13

text: Redesigned and rebuilt from the ground up with new features such as the ability to suggest when a reminder should be delivered to the user, and the ability to tag contacts so that references to reminders can be surfaced elsewhere, such as in Messages.


title: IOS 13

text: The Photos app includes a redesigned UI and uses machine learning to auto-hide "clutter" images such as screenshots and documents.


title: IOS 13

text: Photos has a redesigned interface showing users photos they took in the past year, month, week and day. This brings all photos to one page and shows users photos based on what their device suggests for them.


title: IOS 13

text: There were a number of issues following the release of iOS 13, some relating to battery drain, call-dropping, and ringtones not functioning properly, resulting in frequent software updates and patches. Despite the frequency of bug fix releases, the updates have introduced new issues.


title: IOS 13

text: Other issues included incorrect artwork for user's playlists. Users reported the artwork is repeated for some playlists or uses a different picture.


title: IOS 13

text: iOS13 requires 2 GB of RAM. It ended support for all iPhones and iPod touches using an Apple A7 or A8 SoC and devices that shipped with 1 GB of RAM: the iPhone 5S, iPhone 6/6 Plus, and iPod touch (6th generation).


title: IOS 13

text: The HomePod used iOS 13 as a base for the system software until the release of iOS 13.4, where the base software was changed to tvOS.


title: IOS 13

text: To further differentiate features between iPhones and iPads, Apple rebranded the tablet-oriented platform with its own operating system, iPadOS.