title: Dacians

text: Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisa River before the rise of the Celtic Boii, and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians under king Burebista. During the second half of the 4th century BC, Celtic cultural influence appears in the archaeological records of the middle Danube, Alpine region, and north-western Balkans, where it was part of the Middle La Tène material culture. This material appears in north-western and central Dacia, and is reflected especially in burials. The Dacians absorbed the Celtic influence from the northwest in the early third century BC. Archaeological investigation of this period has highlighted several Celtic warrior graves with military equipment. It suggests the forceful penetration of a military Celtic elite within the region of Dacia, now known as Transylvania, that is bounded on the east by the Carpathian range. The archaeological sites of the third and second centuries BC in Transylvania revealed a pattern of co-existence and fusion between the bearers of La Tène culture and indigenous Dacians. These were domestic dwellings with a mixture of Celtic and Dacian pottery, and several graves in the Celtic style containing vessels of Dacian type. There are some seventy Celtic sites in Transylvania, mostly cemeteries, but most if not all of them indicate that the native population imitated Celtic art forms that took their fancy, but remained obstinately and fundamentally Dacian in their culture.


title: Dacians

text: The Celtic Helmet from Ciumeşti, Satu Mare, Romania (northern Dacia), an Iron Age raven totem helmet, dated around the 4th century BC. A similar helmet is depicted on the Thraco-Celtic Gundestrup cauldron, being worn by one of the mounted warriors (detail tagged here). See also an illustration of Brennos wearing a similar helmet.


title: Dacians

text: Around 150 BC, La Tène material disappears from the area. This coincides with the ancient writings which mention the rise of Dacian authority. It ended the Celtic domination, and it is possible that Celts were driven out of Dacia. Alternatively, some scholars have proposed that the Transylvanian Celts remained, but merged into the local culture and thus ceased to be distinctive.


title: Dacians

text: Archaeological discoveries in the settlements and fortifications of the Dacians in the period of their kingdoms (1st century BC and 1st century AD) included imported Celtic vessels and others made by Dacian potters imitating Celtic prototypes, showing that relations between the Dacians and the Celts from the regions north and west of Dacia continued. In present-day Slovakia, archaeology has revealed evidence for mixed Celtic-Dacian populations in the Nitra and Hron river basins.


title: Dacians

text: After the Dacians subdued the Celtic tribes, the remaining Cotini stayed in the mountains of Central Slovakia, where they took up mining and metalworking. Together with the original domestic population, they created the Puchov culture that spread into central and northern Slovakia, including Spis, and penetrated northeastern Moravia and southern Poland. Along the Bodrog River in Zemplin they created Celtic-Dacian settlements which were known for the production of painted ceramics.


title: Dacians

text: Greek and Roman chroniclers record the defeat and capture of the Macedonian general Lysimachus in the 3rd century BC by the Getae (Dacians) ruled by Dromihete, their military strategy, and the release of Lysimachus following a debate in the assembly of the Getae.


title: Dacians

text: Herodotus says: "before Darius reached the Danube, the first people he subdued were the Getae, who believed that they never die". It is possible that the Persian expedition and the subsequent occupation may have altered the way in which the Getae expressed the immortality belief. The influence of thirty years of Achaemenid presence may be detected in the emergence of an explicit iconography of the "Royal Hunt" that influenced Dacian and Thracian metalworkers, and of the practice of hawking by their upper class.


title: Dacians

text: The Scythians' arrival in the Carpathian mountains is dated to 700 BC. The Agathyrsi of Transylvania had been mentioned by Herodotus (fifth century BC), who regarded them as not a Scythian people, but closely related to them. In other respects, their customs were close to those of the Thracians. The Agathyrsi were completely denationalized at the time of Herodotus and absorbed by the native Thracians.


title: Dacians

text: The opinion that the Agathyrsi were almost certainly Thracians results also from the writings preserved by Stephen of Byzantium, who explains that the Greeks called the Trausi the Agathyrsi, and we know that the Trausi lived in the Rhodope Mountains. Certain details from their way of life, such as tattooing, also suggest that the Agathyrsi were Thracians. Their place was later taken by the Dacians. That the Dacians were of Thracian stock is not in doubt, and it is safe to assume that this new name also encompassed the Agathyrsi, and perhaps other neighbouring Thracian people as well, as a result of some political upheaval.


title: Dacians

text: The Goths, a confederation of east German peoples, arrived in southern Ukraine no later than 230. During the next decade, a large section of them moved down the Black Sea coast and occupied much of the territory north of the lower Danube. The Goths' advance towards the area north of the Black Sea involved competing with the indigenous population of Dacian-speaking Carpi, as well as indigenous Iranian-speaking Sarmatians and Roman garrison forces. The Carpi, often called "Free Dacians", continued to dominate the anti-Roman coalition made up of themselves, Taifali, Astringi, Vandals, Peucini, and Goths until 248, when the Goths assumed the hegemony of the loose coalition. The first lands taken over by the Thervingi Goths were in Moldavia, and only during the fourth century did they move in strength down into the Danubian plain. The Carpi found themselves squeezed between the advancing Goths and the Roman province of Dacia. In 275 AD, Aurelian surrendered the Dacian territory to the Carpi and the Goths. Over time, Gothic power in the region grew, at the Carpi's expense. The Germanic-speaking Goths replaced native Dacian-speakers as the dominant force around the Carpathian mountains. Large numbers of Carpi, but not all of them, were admitted into the Roman empire in the twenty-five years or so after 290 AD. Despite this evacuation of the Carpi around 300 AD, considerable groups of the natives (non-Romanized Dacians, Sarmatians and others) remained in place under Gothic domination.


title: Dacians

text: In 330 the Gothic Thervingi contemplated moving to the Middle Danube region, and from 370 relocated with their fellow Gothic Greuthungi to new homes in the Roman Empire. The Ostrogoths were still more isolated, but even the Visigoths preferred to live among their own kind. As a result, the Goths settled in pockets. Finally, although Roman towns continued on a reduced level, there is no question as to their survival.


title: Dacians

text: In 336 AD, Constantine took the title "Dacicus Maximus" 'great victor in Dacia', implying at least partial reconquest of Trajan Dacia. In an inscription of 337, Constantine was commemorated officially as Germanicus Maximus, Sarmaticus, Gothicus Maximus, and Dacicus Maximus, meaning he had defeated the Germans, Sarmatians, Goths, and Dacians.


title: Dacians

text: Dacian polities arose as confederacies that included the Getae, the Daci, the Buri, and the Carpi (cf. Bichir 1976, Shchukin 1989), united only periodically by the leadership of Dacian kings such as Burebista and Decebal. This union was both military-political and ideological-religious on ethnic basis. The following are some of the attested Dacian kingdoms:


title: Dacians

text: The kingdom of Cothelas, one of the Getae, covered an area near the Black Sea, between northern Thrace and the Danube, today Bulgaria, in the 4th century BC. The kingdom of Rubobostes controlled a region in Transylvania in the 2nd century BC. Gaius Scribonius Curio (proconsul 75–73 BC) campaigned successfully against the Dardani and the Moesi, becoming the first Roman general to reach the river Danube with his army. His successor, Marcus Licinius Lucullus, brother of the famous Lucius Lucullus, campaigned against the Thracian Bessi tribe and the Moesi, ravaging the whole of Moesia, the region between the Haemus (Balkan) mountain range and the Danube. In 72 BC, his troops occupied the Greek coastal cities of Scythia Minor (the modern Dobrogea region in Romania and Bulgaria), which had sided with Rome's Hellenistic arch-enemy, king Mithridates VI of Pontus, in the Third Mithridatic War. Greek geographer Strabo claimed that the Dacians and Getae had been able to muster a combined army of 200,000 men during Strabo's era, the time of Roman emperor Augustus.


title: Dacians

text: The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum extent under king Burebista (ruled 82 – 44 BC). The capital of the kingdom was possibly the city of Argedava, also called Sargedava in some historical writings, situated close to the river Danube. The kingdom of Burebista extended south of the Danube, in what is today Bulgaria, and the Greeks believed their king was the greatest of all Thracians. During his reign, Burebista transferred the Geto-Dacians' capital from Argedava to Sarmizegetusa. For at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegethusa was the Dacian capital, reaching its peak under king Decebalus. Burebista annexed the Greek cities on the Pontus.(55–48 BC). Augustus wanted to avenge the defeat of Gaius Antonius Hybrida at Histria (Sinoe) 32 years before, and to recover the lost standards. These were held in a powerful fortress called Genucla (Isaccea, near modern Tulcea, in the Danube delta region of Romania), controlled by Zyraxes, the local Getan petty king. The man selected for the task was Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of Crassus the triumvir, and an experienced general at 33 years of age, who was appointed proconsul of Macedonia in 29 BC.


title: Dacians

text: By the year AD 100, more than 400,000 square kilometres were dominated by the Dacians, who numbered two million. Decebalus was the last king of the Dacians, and despite his fierce resistance against the Romans was defeated, and committed suicide rather than being marched through Rome in a triumph as a captured enemy leader.


title: Dacians

text: Burebista's Dacian state was powerful enough to threaten Rome, and Caesar contemplated campaigning against the Dacians. Despite this, the formidable Dacian power under Burebista lasted only until his death in 44 BC. The subsequent division of Dacia continued for about a century until the reign of Scorilo. This was a period of only occasional attacks on the Roman Empire's border, with some local significance.


title: Dacians

text: The unifying actions of the last Dacian king Decebalus (ruled 87–106 AD) were seen as dangerous by Rome. Despite the fact that the Dacian army could now gather only some 40,000 soldiers, Decebalus' raids south of the Danube proved unstoppable and costly. In the Romans' eyes, the situation at the border with Dacia was out of control, and Emperor Domitian (ruled 81 to 96 AD) tried desperately to deal with the danger through military action. But the outcome of Rome's disastrous campaigns into Dacia in AD 86 and AD 88 pushed Domitian to settle the situation through diplomacy.


title: Dacians

text: Emperor Trajan (ruled 98–117 AD) opted for a different approach and decided to conquer the Dacian kingdom, partly in order to seize its vast gold mines wealth. The effort required two major wars (the Dacian Wars), one in 101–102 AD and the other in 105–106 AD. Only fragmentary details survive of the Dacian war: a single sentence of Trajan's own Dacica; little more of the Getica written by his doctor, T. Statilius Crito; nothing whatsoever of the poem proposed by Caninius Rufus (if it was ever written), Dio Chrysostom's Getica or Appian's Dacica. Nonetheless, a reasonable account can be pieced together.


title: Dacians

text: In the first war, Trajan invaded Dacia by crossing the river Danube with a boat-bridge and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Dacians at the Second Battle of Tapae in 101 AD. The Dacian king Decebalus was forced to sue for peace. Trajan and Decebalus then concluded a peace treaty which was highly favourable to the Romans. The peace agreement required the Dacians to cede some territory to the Romans and to demolish their fortifications. Decebalus' foreign policy was also restricted, as he was prohibited from entering into alliances with other tribes.


title: Dacians

text: However, both Trajan and Decebalus considered this only a temporary truce and readied themselves for renewed war. Trajan had Greek engineer Apollodorus of Damascus construct a stone bridge over the Danube river, while Decebalus secretly plotted alliances against the Romans. In 105, Trajan crossed the Danube river and besieged Decebalus' capital, Sarmizegetusa, but the siege failed because of Decebalus' allied tribes. However, Trajan was an optimist. He returned with a newly constituted army and took Sarmizegetusa by treachery. Decebalus fled into the mountains, but was cornered by pursuing Roman cavalry. Decebalus committed suicide rather than being captured by the Romans and be paraded as a slave, then be killed. The Roman captain took his head and right hand to Trajan, who had them displayed in the Forums. Trajan's Column in Rome was constructed to celebrate the conquest of Dacia.


title: Dacians

text: The Roman people hailed Trajan's triumph in Dacia with the longest and most expensive celebration in their history, financed by a part of the gold taken from the Dacians. For his triumph, Trajan gave a 123-day festival (ludi) of celebration, in which approximately 11,000 animals were slaughtered and 11,000 gladiators fought in combats. This surpassed Emperor Titus's celebration in AD 70, when a 100-day festival included 3,000 gladiators and 5,000 to 9,000 wild animals.


title: Dacians

text: Only about half part of Dacia then became a Roman province, with a newly built capital at Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, 40 km away from the site of Old Sarmisegetuza Regia, which was razed to the ground. The name of the Dacians' homeland, Dacia, became the name of a Roman province, and the name Dacians was used to designate the people in the region. "Roman Dacia", also "Dacia Traiana" or "Dacia Felix", was a province of the Roman Empire from 106 to 271 or 275 AD. Its territory consisted of eastern and southeastern Transylvania, and the regions of Banat and Oltenia (located in modern Romania). Dacia was organised from the beginning as an imperial province, and remained so throughout the Roman occupation. It was one of the empire's Latin provinces; official epigraphs attest that the language of administration was Latin. Historian estimates of the population of Roman Dacia range from 650,000 to 1,200,000.


title: Dacians

text: Dacians that remained outside the Roman Empire after the Dacian wars of AD 101–106 had been named Dakoi prosoroi (Latin "Daci limitanei"), "neighbouring Dacians". Modern historians use the generic name "Free Dacians" or "Independent Dacians". The tribes Daci Magni (Great Dacians), Costoboci (generally considered a Dacian subtribe), and Carpi remained outside the Roman empire, in what the Romans called "Dacia Libera" (Free Dacia). By the early third century the "Free Dacians" were a significantly troublesome group, by now identified as the Carpi. Bichir argues that the Carpi were the most powerful of the Dacian tribes who had become the principal enemy of the Romans in the region. In 214 AD, Caracalla campaigned against the Free Dacians. There were also campaigns against the Dacians recorded in 236 AD.


title: Dacians

text: Roman Dacia was evacuated by the Romans under emperor Aurelian (ruled 271–5 AD). Aurelian made this decision on account of counter-pressures on the Empire there caused by the Carpi, Visigoths, Sarmatians, and Vandals; the lines of defence needed to be shortened, and Dacia was deemed not defensible given the demands on available resources. Roman power in Thracia rested mainly with the legions stationed in Moesia. The rural nature of Thracia's populations, and the distance from Roman authority, encouraged the presence of local troops to support Moesia's legions. Over the next few centuries, the province was periodically and increasingly attacked by migrating Germanic tribes. The reign of Justinian saw the construction of over 100 legionary fortresses to supplement the defence. Thracians in Moesia and Dacia were Romanized, while those within the Byzantine empire were their Hellenized descendants that had mingled with the Greeks.


title: Dacians

text: Roman Dacia was never a uniformly or fully Romanized area. Post-Aurelianic Dacia fell into three divisions: the area along the river, usually under some type of Roman administration even if in a highly localized form; the zone beyond this area, from which Roman military personnel had withdrawn, leaving a sizable population behind that was generally Romanized; and finally what is now the northern parts of Moldavia, Crisana, and Maramures, which were never occupied by the Romans. These last areas were always peripheral to the Roman province, not militarily occupied but nonetheless influenced by Rome as part of the Roman economic sphere. Here lived the free, unoccupied Carpi, often called "Free Dacians".


title: Dacians

text: The Aurelian retreat was a purely military decision to withdraw the Roman troops to defend the Danube. The inhabitants of the old province of Dacia displayed no awareness of impending dissolution. There were no sudden flights or dismantling of property. It is not possible to discern how many civilians followed the army out of Dacia; it is clear that there was no mass emigration, since there is evidence of continuity of settlement in Dacian villages and farms; the evacuation may not at first have been intended to be a permanent measure. The Romans left the province, but they didn't consider that they lost it. Dobrogea was not abandoned at all, but continued as part of the Roman Empire for over 350 years. As late as AD 300, the tetrarchic emperors had resettled tens of thousands of Dacian Carpi inside the empire, dispersing them in communities the length of the Danube, from Austria to the Black Sea.


title: Dacians

text: Dacians were divided into two classes: the aristocracy ("tarabostes") and the common people ("comati"). Only the aristocracy had the right to cover their heads, and wore a felt hat. The common people, who comprised the rank and file of the army, the peasants and artisans, might have been called "capillati" in Latin. Their appearance and clothing can be seen on Trajan's Column.


title: Dacians

text: The chief occupations of the Dacians were agriculture, apiculture, viticulture, livestock, ceramics and metalworking. They also worked the gold and silver mines of Transylvania. At Pecica, Arad, a Dacian workshop was discovered, along with equipment for minting coins and evidence of bronze, silver, and iron-working that suggests a broad spectrum of smithing. Evidence for the mass production of iron is found on many Dacian sites, indicating guild-like specialization. Dacian ceramic manufacturing traditions continue from the pre-Roman to the Roman period, both in provincial and unoccupied Dacia, and well into the fourth and even early fifth centuries. They engaged in considerable external trade, as is shown by the number of foreign coins found in the country (see also Decebalus Treasure). On the northernmost frontier of "free Dacia", coin circulation steadily grew in the first and second centuries, with a decline in the third and a rise again in the fourth century; the same pattern as observed for the Banat region to the southwest. What is remarkable is the extent and increase in coin circulation after Roman withdrawal from Dacia, and as far north as Transcarpathia.


title: Dacians

text: The first coins produced by the Geto-Dacians were imitations of silver coins of the Macedonian kings Philip II and Alexander the Great. Early in the 1st century BC, the Dacians replaced these with silver denarii of the Roman Republic, both official coins of Rome exported to Dacia, as well as locally made imitations of them. The Roman province Dacia is represented on the Roman sestertius coin as a woman seated on a rock, holding an aquila, a small child on her knee. The aquila holds ears of grain, and another small child is seated before her holding grapes.


title: Dacians

text: Dacians had developed the murus dacicus (double-skinned ashlar-masonry with rubble fill and tie beams) characteristic to their complexes of fortified cities, like their capital Sarmisegetuza Regia in what is today Hunedoara County, Romania. This type of wall has been discovered not only in the Dacian citadel of the Orastie mountains, but also in those at Covasna, Breaza near Făgăraș, Tilișca near Sibiu, Căpâlna in the Sebeș valley, Bănița not far from Petroșani, and Piatra Craivii to the north of Alba Iulia. The degree of their urban development was displayed on Trajan's Column and in the account of how Sarmizegetusa Regia was defeated by the Romans. The Romans were given by treachery the locations of aqueducts and pipelines of the Dacian capital, only after destroying the water supply being able to end the long siege of Sarmisegetuza.


title: Dacians

text: According to Romanian nationalist archaeology, the cradle of the Dacian culture is considered to be north of the Danube towards the Carpathian mountains, in the historical Romanian province of Muntenia. It is identified as an evolution of the Iron Age Basarabi culture. Such narrative believe that the earlier Iron Age Basarabi evidence in the northern lower Danube area connects to the iron-using Ferigile-Birsesti group. This is an archaeological manifestation of the historical Getae who, along with the Agathyrsae, are one of a number of tribal formations recorded by Herodotus. In archaeology, "free Dacians" are attested by the Puchov culture (in which there are Celtic elements) and Lipiţa culture to the east of the Carpathians. The Lipiţa culture has a Dacian/North Thracian origin. This North Thracian population was dominated by strong Celtic influences, or had simply absorbed Celtic ethnic components. Lipiţa culture has been linked to the Dacian tribe of Costoboci.


title: Dacians

text: These standpoints are highly problematic, as there is no linear continuity between aforementioned cultures. in reality, the creation of the Dacian ethnos was foreshadowed by migratory movements from the lower Danube region following the collapse of the Celtic cultural circle c. 300 BCE (The grave with a helmet from Ciumeşti – 50 years from its discovery. Comments on the greaves. 2. The Padea-Panagjurski kolonii group in Transylvania. Old and new discoveries)


title: Dacians

text: Specific Dacian material culture includes: wheel-turned pottery that is generally plain but with distinctive elite wares, massive silver dress fibulae, precious metal plate, ashlar masonry, fortifications, upland sanctuaries with horseshoe-shaped precincts, and decorated clay heart altars at settlement sites. Among many discovered artifacts, the Dacian bracelets stand out, depicting their cultural and aesthetic sense. There are difficulties correlating funerary monuments chronologically with Dacian settlements; a small number of burials are known, along with cremation pits, and isolated rich burials as at Cugir. Dacian burial ritual continued under Roman occupation and into the post-Roman period.


title: Dacians

text: The Dacians are generally considered to have been Thracian speakers, representing a cultural continuity from earlier Iron Age communities. Some historians and linguists consider Dacian language to be a dialect of or the same language as Thracian. The vocalism and consonantism differentiate the Dacian and Thracian languages. Others consider that Dacian and Illyrian form regional varieties (dialects) of a common language. (Thracians inhabited modern southern Bulgaria and northern Greece. Illyrians lived in modern Albania, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia.)


title: Dacians

text: The ancient languages of these people became extinct, and their cultural influence highly reduced, after the repeated invasions of the Balkans by Celts, Huns, Goths, and Sarmatians, accompanied by persistent hellenization, romanisation and later slavicisation. Therefore, in the study of the toponomy of Dacia, one must take account of the fact that some place-names were taken by the Slavs from as yet unromanised Dacians. A number of Dacian words are preserved in ancient sources, amounting to about 1150 anthroponyms and 900 toponyms, and in Discorides some of the rich plant lore of the Dacians is preserved along with the names of 42 medicinal plants.


title: Dacians

text: The Dacians knew about writing. Permanent contacts with the Graeco-Roman world had brought the use of the Greek and later the Latin alphabet. It is also certainly not the case that writing with Greek and Latin letters and knowledge of Greek and Latin were known in all the settlements scattered throughout Dacia, but there is no doubt about the existence of such knowledge in some circles of Dacian society. However, the most revealing discoveries concerning the use of the writing by the Dacians occurred in the citadels on the Sebes mountains. Some groups of letters from stone blocks at Sarmisegetuza might express personal names; these cannot now be read because the wall is ruined, and because it is impossible to restore the original order of the blocks in the wall.


title: Dacians

text: Dacian religion was considered by the classic sources as a key source of authority, suggesting to some that Dacia was a predominantly theocratic state led by priest-kings. However, the layout of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa indicates the possibility of co-rulership, with a separate high king and high priest. Ancient sources recorded the names of several Dacian high priests (Deceneus, Comosicus and Vezina) and various orders of priests: "god-worshipers", "smoke-walkers" and "founders". Both Hellenistic and Oriental influences are discernible in the religious background, alongside chthonic and solar motifs.


title: Dacians

text: According to Herodotus' account of the story of Zalmoxis or Zamolxis, the Getae (speaking the same language as the Dacians and the Thracians, according to Strabo) believed in the immortality of the soul, and regarded death as merely a change of country. Their chief priest held a prominent position as the representative of the supreme deity, Zalmoxis, who is called also Gebeleizis by some among them. Strabo wrote about the high priest of King Burebista Deceneus: "a man who not only had wandered through Egypt, but also had thoroughly learned certain prognostics through which he would pretend to tell the divine will; and within a short time he was set up as god (as I said when relating the story of Zamolxis)."


title: Dacians

text: The Goth Jordanes in his "Getica" ("The origin and deeds of the Goths"), also gives an account of Deceneus the highest priest, and considered Dacians a nation related to the Goths. Besides Zalmoxis, the Dacians believed in other deities, such as Gebeleizis, the god of storm and lightning, possibly related to the Thracian god Zibelthiurdos. He was represented as a handsome man, sometimes with a beard. Later Gebeleizis was equated with Zalmoxis as the same god. According to Herodotus, Gebeleizis (*Zebeleizis/Gebeleizis who is only mentioned by Herodotus) is just another name of Zalmoxis.


title: Dacians

text: By a decree of the oracle of Dodona, which required the Athenians to grant land for a shrine or temple, her cult was introduced into Attica by immigrant Thracian residents, and, though Thracian and Athenian processions remained separate, both cult and festival became so popular that in Plato's time (c. 429–13 BC) its festivities were naturalised as an official ceremony of the Athenian city-state, called the Bendideia.


title: Dacians

text: Known Dacian theonyms include "Zalmoxis", "Gebeleïzis" and "Darzalas". Gebeleizis is probably cognate to the Thracian god Zibelthiurdos (also "Zbelsurdos", "Zibelthurdos"), wielder of lightning and thunderbolts. Derzelas (also "Darzalas") was a chthonic god of health and human vitality. The pagan religion survived longer in Dacia than in other parts of the empire; Christianity made little headway until the fifth century.


title: Dacians

text: Fragments of pottery with different "inscriptions" with Latin and Greek letters incised before and after firing have been discovered in the settlement at Ocnita – Valcea. An inscription carries the word Basileus (Βασιλεύς in Greek, meaning "king") and seems to have been written before the vessel was hardened by fire. Other inscriptions contain the name of the king, believed to be Thiemarcus, and Latin groups of letters (BVR, REB). BVR indicates the name of the tribe or union of tribes, the Buridavensi Dacians who lived at Buridava and who were mentioned by Ptolemy in the second century AD under the name of Buridavensioi.


title: Dacians

text: The history of Dacian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 2nd century AD in the region typically referred to by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Dacia. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Dacian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans. Apart from conflicts between Dacians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Dacian tribes as well.


title: Dacians

text: The weapon most associated with the Dacian forces that fought against Trajan's army during his invasions of Dacia was the falx, a single-edged scythe-like weapon. The falx was able to inflict horrible wounds on opponents, easily disabling or killing the heavily armored Roman legionaries that they faced. This weapon, more so than any other single factor, forced the Roman army to adopt previously unused or modified equipment to suit the conditions on the Dacian battlefield.


title: Dacians

text: "The ducks come from the trucks" – Romanian language pun about a mistranslation (duck and truck sound like dac and trac, the ethnonyms for Dacian and Thracian).


title: Dacians

text: Study of the Dacians, their culture, society and religion is not purely a subject of ancient history, but has present day implications in the context of Romanian nationalism. Positions taken on the vexed question of the origin of the Romanians and to what degree are present-day Romanians descended from the Dacians might have contemporary political implications. For example, the government of Nicolae Ceaușescu claimed an uninterrupted continuity of a Dacian-Romanian state, from King Burebista to Ceaușescu himself. The Ceaușescu government conspicuously commemorated the supposed 2,050th anniversary of the founding of the "unified and centralized" country that was to become Romania, on which occasion the historical film "Burebista" was produced.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The prime minister of Singapore is the head of government of the Republic of Singapore. The president appoints the prime minister, a Member of Parliament (MP) who in their opinion, is most likely to command the confidence of the majority of MPs. The incumbent prime minister is Lee Hsien Loong, who took office on 12 August 2004.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: As Singapore is modelled after the Westminster system, the prime minister only governs with the confidence of the majority in Parliament; as such, the prime minister typically sits as a Member of Parliament (MP) and leads the largest party or a coalition of parties. In practice, the prime minister is the leader of the political party with the majority number of elected MPs.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The office of Prime Minister succeeded the office of Chief Minister in 1959 after Singapore had attained self-governance from the United Kingdom, as the State of Singapore, with Lee Kuan Yew being sworn in as the first prime minister on 5 June 1959. The title of prime minister remained unchanged after Singapore's merger with Malaya, Sarawak and North Borneo to form Malaysia in 1963, despite the existence of the prime minister of Malaysia for the entire federation of which Singapore was part of.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: Following the independence of Singapore in 1965, the office of Prime Minister was retained, with the president of Singapore becoming a ceremonial head of state. In 1991, amendments to the Constitution of Singapore vested executive powers in the presidency, along with discretionary veto powers over the government. The Constitution also vests "general direction and control of the government" in the Cabinet, with the president almost always bound to act on the advice of the Cabinet or any minister acting under the Cabinet authority. Thus, in practice, most of the actual work of governing is done by the prime minister and Cabinet.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: Under Article 26(4)(a) of the Constitution of Singapore, the prime minister may appoint a Cabinet minister, subject to presidential approval, as acting prime minister if the prime minister is on medical leave, away from Singapore or is granted a leave of absence under Article 32 of the Constitution. The deputy prime minister or senior minister will usually become the acting prime minister, but any Cabinet minister may be appointed to the role.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: Under the Constitution, executive power is nominally vested in the president. However, the president can only exercise that authority on the advice of the Cabinet or a minister acting under general Cabinet authority. Hence, in practice the prime minister, as the Cabinet's leader, does most of the actual work of governing.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The prime minister is responsible for overseeing the overall day-to-day affairs of the government and executing government policy. As leader of the majority party in Parliament, the prime minister is responsible for passing legislation through Parliament.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The prime minister also nominates the speaker of Parliament and leader of the house, who are responsible for arranging government business and organising legislative programmes, usually under the directive of the prime minister and the Cabinet.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The prime minister chooses the other members of the Cabinet by advising the president; the president must exercise their powers in accordance with the advice of the prime minister. The prime minister may change, retain, or revoke any sitting minister's appointment under their prerogative. The prime minister also advises the president on appointments, such as Attorney-General, and Permanent Secretary of a ministry.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The prime minister can advise the president for a Proclamation of Emergency; the president issues the proclamation if satisfied.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The prime minister can declare a defence or security measure, and has executive authority over the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) through the Armed Forces Council, which consists of Minister for Defence, Permanent Secretaries of the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF), Chief of Defence Force, Chief of Army, Chief of Air Force and Chief of Navy; all of whom are appointed by the president under the prime minister's advice.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: Sri Temasek is the official residence of the prime minister, though none of the prime ministers have ever lived there. The Istana is the working office of the prime minister.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The prime minister is protected by the Specialised Security Command of the Singapore Police Force (SPF), who also ensure the protection of the president, Cabinet ministers, and visiting foreign dignitaries.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The annual total salary package the prime minister would receive, including the 13th month bonus, Annual Variable Component and National Bonus, that is twice the MR4 benchmark, stands at .


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: As there is no one to decide on the annual performance bonus for the prime minister, the prime minister's bonus will be based only on the National Bonus. The prime minister is also on the Medisave-cum-Subsidised Outpatient (MSO) scheme—where an additional 2% of their gross monthly salary will be credited into their Medisave account.


title: Prime Minister of Singapore

text: The prime minister's annual salary was prior to a salary review in 2011. On 21 May 2011, a committee was set by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, to review the salaries of the prime minister as well as the president, ministers, members of Parliament and other political officeholders. After the recommended wage reductions by the committee were accepted in Parliament, the prime minister's salary was reduced by 36%—including the removal of his pension to or approximately at that time.


Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is a statutory body established under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India. The FSSAI has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, which is a consolidating statue related to food safety and regulation in India. FSSAI is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and supervision of food safety.


title: Food Safety and Standards Authority of India

text: The FSSAI is headed by a non-executive chairperson, appointed by the Central Government, either holding or has held the position of not below the rank of Secretary to the Government of India. Rajesh Bhusan is the current chairperson for FSSAI and Shri Arun Singhal is the current chief executive officer for FSSAI.


text: The FSSAI has its headquarters at New Delhi. The authority also has 6 regional offices located in Delhi, Guwahati, Mumbai, Kolkata, Cochin, and Chennai. 14 referral laboratories notified by FSSAI, 72 State/UT laboratories located throughout India and 112 laboratories are NABL accredited private laboratories notified by FSSAI.


text: In 2021, with the aim of benefitting industries involved in manufacturing, handling, packaging and selling of food items, FSSAI decided to grant perpetual licenses to restaurants and food manufacturers on the condition that they file their returns every year.


text: FSSAI was established on 5 August 2008 under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which was operationalized in year 2006. The FSSAI consists of a chairperson & 22 members. The FSSAI is responsible for setting standards for food so that there is one body to deal with and no confusion in the minds of consumers, traders, manufacturers, and investors. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India is the Administrative Ministry of Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. The following are the statutory powers that the FSS Act, 2006 gives to the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).


text: The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India is a statutory body under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. The Food Safety and Standards Act (FSS), 2006 is the primary law for the regulation of food products. This act also sets up the formulation and enforcement of food safety standards in India. The FSSAI appoints food safety authorities on the state level.


text: The FSSAI functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The main aim of FSSAI is to


text: The FSS Act is a bucket for all the older laws, rules and regulations for food safety. The FSS Act took 7 older acts into one umbrella.


text: FSSAI has set certain guidelines for food safety research. The Research and Development division is responsible for research with the following objectives:


text: FSSAI has been mandated to perform various functions related to the quality and standards of food and drinks


text: . These functions in addition to others include "Laying down procedure and guidelines for notification of the accredited laboratories as per ISO17025." The FSSAI notified laboratories that are classified as:


text: Standards framed by FSSAI are prescribed under Food Safety and Standards (Food Product Standards and Food Additives) Regulation, 2011, Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Regulation, 2011 and Food Safety and Standards (Contaminants, Toxins, and Residues) Regulations, 2011.


text: The development of standards is a dynamic process based on the latest developments in food science, food consumption pattern, new food products, and additives, changes in the processing technology leading to changed specifications, advancements in food analytical methods, and identification of new risks or other regulatory options.


text: Formulation of standards of any article of food under the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006, involves several stages. After consideration by the Food Authority, the draft standard is published (Draft notified), for inviting stakeholder comments. Since India is a signatory to the WTO-SPS Committee, Draft Standard is also notified in WTO. Thereafter, taking into account the comments received from the stakeholders, the Standard is finalized and notified in the Gazette of India, and implemented.


text: Consumers can connect to FSSAI through various channels. A GAMA portal for concerns regarding misleading claims and advertisements too is operated.


text: Other criteria like the location of the business, number of retail stores, etc. are needed while evaluating the nature of the license application.


text: In 2009 the FSSAI instigated a pilot project "Safe Food, Tasty Food" to improve the safety and quality of food being served at restaurants and other outlets, implementing agencies being local municipal authorities and industry associations (FICCI, CII, AIFPA and NRAI).


title: Hanako-san

text: Hanako-san, or , is a Japanese urban legend about the spirit of a young girl named Hanako-san who haunts school toilets. Like many urban legends, the details of the origins of the legend vary depending on the account; different versions of the story include that Hanako-san is the ghost of a World War II–era girl who was killed while playing hide-and-seek during an air raid, that she was murdered by a parent or stranger, or that she committed suicide in a school toilet due to bullying.


title: Hanako-san

text: Legends about Hanako-san have achieved some popularity in Japanese schools, where children may challenge classmates to try to summon Hanako-san. The character has been depicted in a variety of media, including films, manga, anime, and video games, and not just as the notorious Hanako-san but in some as Hanako-kun, the male version.


title: Hanako-san

text: According to legend, Hanako-san is the spirit of a young girl who haunts school toilets, and can be described as a "yōkai" or a "yūrei". The details of her physical appearance vary across different sources, but she is commonly described as having a bobbed haircut and as wearing a red skirt or dress. The details of Hanako-san's origins also vary depending on the account; in some versions, Hanako-san was a child who was murdered by a stranger or an abusive parent in a school toilet; in other versions, she was a girl who committed suicide in a school toilet; in still other versions, she was a child who lived during World War II and was killed in an air raid while hiding in a school toilet during a game of hide-and-seek.


title: Hanako-san

text: To summon Hanako-san, it is often said that individuals must enter a girls' toilet (usually on the third floor of a school), knock three times on the third stall, and ask if Hanako-san is present. If Hanako-san is there, she will reply with some variation of "Yes, I am." Depending on the story, the individual may then witness the appearance of a bloody or ghostly hand; the hand, or Hanako-san herself, may pull the individual into the toilet, which may lead to Hell; or the individual may be eaten by a three-headed lizard who claims that the individual was invading Hanako’s privacy.


title: Hanako-san

text: Author and folklorist Matthew Meyer has described the legend of Hanako-san as dating back to the 1950s. Michael Dylan Foster, author of "The Book of Yōkai: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore", has stated that Hanako-san "is well known because it is essentially an 'urban legend' associated with schools all over Japan. Since the 1990s, it has also been used in films, so it became part of popular culture ... not just orally transmitted or local folklore". In 2014, an article published by NPR described Hanako-san as having "become a fixture of Japanese urban folklore over the last 70 years".


title: Hanako-san

text: The Hanako-san character has appeared in films, manga, anime, and video games. She made her first cinematic appearance in the 1995 film "Toire no Hanako-san", directed by Joji Matsuoka, in which she is depicted as the benevolent spirit of a girl who committed suicide, and who haunts the toilet of a school. She was later depicted in the 1998 film "Shinsei Toire no Hanako-san", directed by Yukihiko Tsutsumi, in which she is portrayed as a vengeful ghost who haunts the middle school that she attended before she died. She is also depicted in the 2013 film "Toire no Hanako-san: Shin Gekijōban", directed by Masafumi Yamada.


title: Hanako-san

text: Hanako-san appears in the manga series "Hanako and the Terror of Allegory", written and illustrated by Sakae Esuno, as the roommate and friend of Daisuke Aso, a private detective who investigates urban legends. Hanako-san has also been depicted in the manga series "Toilet-Bound Hanako-kun" by Iro Aida—which debuted in 2014—in which the character is portrayed as a young boy. An anime television series adaptation of "Toilet-Bound Hanako-kun" produced by Lerche premiered in early 2020. Other anime series which feature the Hanako-san character include "Kyōkai no Rinne," "GeGeGe no Kitarō", and "Ghost Stories". Hanako-san also appears in the anime and video game franchise "Yo-kai Watch" but is renamed Toiletta in the English versions.


title: Hanako-san

text: The Hanako-san legend was also incorporated into the 2020 young adult short story "Who's at the Door?".


title: Murdeshwar

text: Murdeshwar is a town in Uttara Kannada district in the state of Karnataka, India, It is famous for the world's second tallest Shiva statue, the town lies on the coast of the Arabian Sea and is also famous for the Murudeshwara Temple. The town has a railway station on the Mangalore–Mumbai Konkan railway route.


title: Murdeshwar

text: The origin of the name "Murdeshwar" dates to the time of Ramayana. The Hindu gods attained immortality and invincibility by worshiping a divine Linga called the "Atma-Linga". The Lanka King Ravana wanted to attain immortality by obtaining the Atma-Linga (Soul of Shiva). Since the "Atma-Linga" belonged to Shiva, Ravana worshipped Shiva with devotion. Pleased by his prayers, Shiva appeared before him and asked him what he wanted. Ravana asked for the "Atma-Linga". Shiva agreed to give him the boon on the condition that it should never be placed on the ground before he reaches Lanka. If the "Atma-Linga" was ever placed on the ground, it would be impossible to move it. Having obtained his boon, Ravana started back on his journey to Lanka.


title: Murdeshwar

text: Lord Vishnu, who learned of this incident, realised that with the "Atma-Linga", Ravana may obtain immortality and wreak havoc on earth. He approached Ganesha and requested him to prevent the "Atma-Linga" from reaching Lanka. Ganesha knew that Ravana was a very devoted person who performed prayer rituals every evening without fail. He decided to make use of this fact and came up with a plan to confiscate the "Atma-Linga" from Ravana.


title: Murdeshwar

text: As Ravana was nearing Gokarna, Vishnu blotted out the sun to give the appearance of dusk. Ravana now had to perform his evening rituals but was worried because with the "Atma-Linga" in his hands, he would not be able to do his rituals. At this time, Ganesha in the disguise of a Brahmin boy accosted him. Ravana requested him to hold the "Atma-Linga" until he performed his rituals, and asked him not to place it on the ground. Ganesha struck a deal with him saying that he would call Ravana thrice, and if Ravana did not return within that time, he would place the "Atma-Linga" on the ground.


title: Murdeshwar

text: Ravana returned to find that Ganesha had already placed the "Atma-Linga" on the ground. Vishnu then removed his illusion and it was daylight again. Ravana, realising that he had been tricked, tried to uproot and destroy the linga. Due to the force exerted by Ravana, some pieces were scattered. One such piece from the head of the linga is said to have fallen in present-day Surathkal. The famous Sadashiva temple is said to be built around that piece of linga. Then he decided to destroy the covering of the "Atma-Linga", and threw the case covering it to a place called "Sajjeshwar", 37 kilometers away. Then he threw the lid of the case to a place called "Guneshwar" (now Gunavanthe) and Dhareshwar, 16-19 kilometers away. Finally, he threw the cloth covering the "Atma-Linga" to a place called Mrideshwar in Kanduka-Giri ("Kanduka Hill"). Mrideshwar has been renamed to Murdeshwar.


title: Murdeshwar

text: Murdeshwar Temple was built on the Kanduka Hill which is surrounded on three sides by the waters of the Arabian Sea. It is dedicated to lord shiva, and a 20-storied Raja Gopura is constructed at the temple. The temple authorities have installed a lift that provides a view of the 123-feet Sri Shiva idol from the top of the Raja Gopura. There is also a Rameshwara linga at the bottom of the hill, where devotees can do seva themselves. A Shaneswar temple has been built next to the idol of Sri Akshayaguna. Two life-size elephants in concrete stand guard at the steps leading to it. The entire temple and temple complex, including the 209-feet-tall Raja Gopura, is one among the tallest.


title: Murdeshwar

text: There are statues of Sun Chariot on side of a park, pool, statues depicting Arjuna receiving Geetopadesham from Lord Krishna, Ravana being deceived by Ganesha in disguise, Shiva's manifestation as Bhagirath, descending Ganga, carved around the hill.


title: Murdeshwar

text: The temple is entirely modernised with exception of the sanctum sanctorum which is still dark and retains its composure. The main deity is Sri Mridesa Linga, also called Murdeshwar. The linga is believed to be a piece of the original Atma Linga and is about two feet below ground level. The devotees performing special sevas like Abhisheka, Rudrabhisheka, Rathotsava etc., can view the deity by standing before the threshold of the sanctum and the Linga is illuminated by oil lamps held close by the priests. The Linga is essentially a rough rock inside a hollowed spot in the ground. Entry into the sanctum is banned for all devotees.


title: Murdeshwar

text: A huge towering statue of Shiva, visible from great distances, is present in the temple complex. It is the second tallest statue of "Shiva" in the world. The tallest Shiva statue is in Nepal, known as the (Kailashnath Mahadev Statue). The statue is in height and took about two years to build. The statue was built by Shivamogga's Kashinath and several other sculptors, financed by businessman and philanthropist R. N. Shetty, at a cost of approximately 50 million. The idol is designed such that it gets the sunlight directly and thus appears sparkling.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The Philippine National Police (, acronymed as PNP) is the armed national police force in the Philippines. Its national headquarters is located at Camp Crame in Bagong Lipunan ng Crame, Quezon City. Currently, it has approximately 220,000 personnel to police a population in excess of 100 million.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The agency is administered and controlled by the National Police Commission and is part of the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG). Local police officers are operationally controlled by municipal mayors. DILG, on the other hand, organizes, trains and equips the PNP for the performance of police functions as a police force that is national in scope and civilian in character.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The PNP was formed on January 29, 1991, when the Philippine Constabulary and the Integrated National Police were merged pursuant to Republic Act 6975 of 1990.


title: Philippine National Police

text: Until January 1991, the Philippines did not have a civilian national police force, and instead had the Philippine Constabulary under the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and city and municipal police organized under the Integrated National Police, which was likewise nationalized and integrated under the command of the military under martial law in 1975.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The need to assert civilian control of the military was a reform agenda which began being addressed almost as soon as Ferdinand Marcos was deposed by the 1986 People Power Revolution; within a year of Marcos' ouster, the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines enshrined the principle of civilian supremacy over the military. This was because of broad local and international consensus that "human rights abuses became rampant" during the dictatorship, with Philippine Constabulary units such as the Metrocom Intelligence and Security Group (MISG), and the 5th Constabulary Security Unit (5CSU), identified with many particular cases. These units had also been associated with acts of intimidation and violence media entities, corporate management, and opposition groups.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The recommendations of the Davide Commission in 1990 thus included the dissolution of the Philippine Constabulary as a service under the AFP. It was determined that a new civilian Philippine National Police was to be formed by merging the Integrated National Police into the Philippine Constabulary, with the PC forming the basis as it had the more developed infrastructure. The PC was then removed from the Ministry of National Defense and eventually civilianized, as part of the Department of the Interior and Local Government, through attrition and recruitment of new personnel.


title: Philippine National Police

text: Passed on December 13, 1990, "Republic Act No. 6975", the Department of the Interior and Local Government Act of 1990 paved the way for a new era for Philippine law enforcement as the law ordered the total merger of both the Philippine Constabulary and the Integrated National Police and formally created the Philippine National Police.


title: Philippine National Police

text: "R.A. 6975" was further amended by "R.A. 8551", the Philippine National Police Reform and Reorganization Act of 1998, and by "R.A. 9708".


title: Philippine National Police

text: "R.A. 8551" envisioned the PNP to be a community- and service-oriented agency and included the creation of the Internal Affairs Service of Philippine National Police.


title: Philippine National Police

text: On June 14, 2019, the PNP announced that the Counter-Intelligence Task Force will be replaced with the Integrity Monitoring and Enforcement Group.


title: Philippine National Police

text: Regional Police Offices manage and administer Police Stations within the various regions of the Philippines, each of which include several provinces and independent cities. Each unit exercises independent control over all police units within their areas of operation and attached units of the PNP National Headquarters are ordered to assist these Regional Offices. The National Capital Region Police Office is one such regional office.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The PNP created a national Internal Affairs Service (IAS) in June 1999. It is an organization within the structure of the PNP and one of its tasks is to help the Chief institute reforms to improve the image of the police force through assessment, analysis and evaluation of the character and behavior of the PNP personnel. It is headed by the Inspector General.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The National Operations Center (NOC) is at Camp Crame. Chief Superintendent Constante Azares Jr., chief of the PNP-NOC, explained that "the NOC is the hub and nerve of this facility."


title: Philippine National Police

text: The Philippine National Police Academy is located at Camp Gen. Mariano N. Castaneda, Silang, Cavite and is the premier training academy for the Philippine National Police, Bureau of Jail Management & Penology and Bureau of Fire Protection.


title: Philippine National Police

text: Per the current (2019) rank system, the National Police has no rank holders of Second Lieutenant, Technical Sergeant, Sergeant and Patrolman First Class.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The PNP conducts regular recruitment programs, depending on the annual budget. The entry level for non-commissioned officers is the rank of Police Patrolman (for male recruits) or Police Patrolwoman (for female recruits). The new recruits will undergo Public Safety Basic Recruit Course for six months, and a Field Training Program for another six months. Prior to their actual duty, they are required to undergo the mandatory special training of PNP BISOC or PNP Basic Internal Security Operations Course for 45 days to 5 months to enhance them in militaristic/tactics for future assignment in the field whether in the Striking Force or in the Police Station.


title: Philippine National Police

text: Commissioned officers for the Philippine National Police are from the Philippine National Police Academy as well as through "lateral entry" for specialized disciplines and requirements such as criminologists in line-officers, lawyers, doctors, engineers, chaplain and other technical positions and also the rose-from-the-rank personnel who have reached the qualifications to be a commissioned officer.


title: Philippine National Police

text: A police officer has to two ways for retirement i.e. Optional and Mandatory Retirement. Optional Retirement is an option of an uniformed personnel to retire who rendered at least 20 years retire from the service, while the latter is when they reach the mandatory retirement age of 56. Any officer may opt to go on non-duty status at most three months before the date when they reach the mandatory retirement age so they could prepare the pertinent documents for their retirement (some called it Terminal Leave). While on this status they are still considered as part of the police force and retains their ranking.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The PNP is one of the "core security actors" that are the focus of security sector governance and reform in the Philippines, which involves civilianizing, professionalizing, modernizing, and capacitating the Philippine government's security institutions to align them good governance and to principles such as human rights, freedom of information, and the rule of civilian law. This has been a continuing process since the establishment of the Fifth Philippine Republic after the 1986 People Power Revolution, before the concept had even been fully defined internationally in the 1990s. The creation of the PNP itself, merging and replacing the PC and the INP, was an early and major step towards civilianization of the Philippine security sector.


title: Philippine National Police

text: A blackmail case occurred in Binondo, Manila when police officers abducted and blackmailed seven Chinese citizens suspected of drug trafficking on December 30, 1998. After many months of detainment and torture, two Hong Kong residents were killed when the ransom money was not paid. One police superintendent who knew of the operation was also killed.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The Euro Generals scandal involves Eliseo de la Paz and several Philippine National Police officials who went to Russia in October 2008 to attend an Interpol conference. De la Paz was detained for carrying a large sum of undeclared money. A House panel investigating the scandal concluded that the six police officials who attended the conference had made the trip without authorization. In 2010, the Office of the Ombudsman filed graft charges against twelve former and active ranking PNP officials for their alleged involvement in the incident.


title: Philippine National Police

text: On December 5, 2008, ten suspected criminals, one policeman, and five civilians, a total of 16 people, including a seven-year-old girl, were killed in a bloody shootout in Parañaque. Several others were wounded, including a ranking officer of the Highway Patrol Group, two members of the Special Action Force, a village watchman, and a security guard, said Director Leopoldo Bataoil, head of the Metro Manila regional police. The criminals belonged to a Waray-Waray gang and were armed with high-caliber M16 rifles fitted with grenade launchers.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The head of the Internal Affairs Service of the PNP said, "We failed in our mission to protect the civilians. Because during the conduct of operation many civilian lives were lost," On July 29, 2009, it was reported that the Department of Justice (DOJ) had filed multiple murder charges against 29 policemen, including three generals, in connection with the shootout following the filing of a complaint-affidavit by Lilian de Vera, who lost her husband and daughter, age seven, in the incident. On January 11, 2010, the Commission on Human Rights recommended the filing of criminal and administrative charges against 26 policemen In March, it was reported that after two witnesses had said De Vera and his daughter were not killed in the shootout, that policemen already had complete control of the area where the two were killed, the Department of Justice filed two counts of murder charges against 25 policemen for the killings.


title: Philippine National Police

text: Inspector Joselito Binayug, chief of the Asuncion police community precinct in Tondo arrested Darius Evangelista on March 5, 2009, for alleged robbery. A torture video was leaked to the media and shown on television showing a police officer whipping and cursing the suspect and pulling on a rope that was tied to the victim's genitals. The incident allegedly happened inside the Asuncion police precinct in Tondo. Binayug was arrested for violating the Anti-Torture act of 2009. Separate charges were filed for Evangelista being tortured to death.


title: Philippine National Police

text: On November 24, 2009, Senior Superintendent Abusana Maguid, the police chief of Maguindanao province, was reported to have been relieved of his duties after witnesses reported seeing three of his officers at the scene of the Maguindanao massacre in which 57 people, including journalists, lawyers, aides, and motorists who were witnesses were killed. On November 25 Maguid and Chief Inspector Sukarno Dikay were reported to have been relieved from post and placed under restrictive custody. On November 26, Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) Secretary Ronaldo Puno announced that Maguid, Dikay, and others were suspected of involvement in the massacre. On December 19, Maguid, Dikay, and others were reported to have been recommended for summary dismissal by the PNP high command. On April 16, 2010, the National Police Commission ordered a 90-day suspension against Maguid, Dikay, and 60 other police personnel for their possible involvement in the killings. On July 10, it was reported that Dikay had applied to become state witness, saying that he is confident that his testimony will pin down the masterminds of the killing.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The Philippine National Police conceded that in the 2010 Manila hostage crisis they made blunders in ending a bus hijacking, as outrage grew over the bloody assault played out on live television that left eight Hong Kong tourists dead. The Hong Kong Economic Journal was reported to have accused the PNP of having "appalling professional standards" and "...[a] lack of strategic planning".


title: Philippine National Police

text: The Philippine Commission on Human Rights filed charges against ten police officers after it was discovered that they routinely tortured detainees inside a secret detention facility in Biñan, Laguna. It was alleged that some "were tortured for the police officers’ amusement" when they're intoxicated. The facility is notorious for utilizing a roulette called the "Wheel of Torture", a play on the "Wheel of Fortune", where various torture methods were printed. The wheel is rotated and wherever the pin stops, the indicated torture method is perpetrated on the detainee.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The torture methods included a 20-second Manny Pacman punch, named after the famous boxer Manny Pacquiao, where the detainee is beaten for 20 seconds; "Paniki" which means being hung like a bat; "Tusok ulo ka" which means being pierced through the head; "Zombies" which means being electrocuted; and other degrading tasks like "duck walk" and "Ferris wheel".


title: Philippine National Police

text: Sometime in January 2017, a Korean was killed inside Camp Crame. The Philippine National Police Anti-Kidnapping Group (PNP-AKG) charged former NBI officials Roel Boliv, Ricardo Diaz, and Jose Yap in relation to the case.


title: Philippine National Police

text: In 2013, an anti-illegal drug unit led by Police Chief Inspector (now Police Major) Rodney Baloyo launched an operation against a certain Chinese national inside a subdivision in Mexico, Pampanga. However, an alleged recycling of Methamphetamine Hydrocloride locally known as "Shabu" worth 648 million Philippine Pesos confiscated dubbed as "Agaw-Bato" by the media and setting drug lord Johnson Lee free were discovered by then Criminal Investigation and Detection Group (CIDG) Chief (now Baguio Mayor) Benjamin Magalong resulting to a dismissal of the 13 Policemen dubbed as "Ninja Cops" (including Baloyo) involved in the said operation. In 2019, Magalong revealed that PNP Chief Oscar Albayalde who was then the Pampanga Provincial Director when the incident happened, asked not to implement the dismissal of the cops involved in the recycling of drugs and often profited along with the cops involved. The revelations caused Magalong receiving death threats and the resignation of Albayalde on October 14, 2019.


title: Philippine National Police

text: In 2019, German news outlets reported that the Philippine National Police received training from Uniter Association (German: Verein Uniter), a non-government organization suspected to be a neo-Nazi paramilitary due to its alleged affiliation with a far-right network called "Hannibal". Kontraste, a news magazine of Germany's public broadcasting network ARD reported that Uniter members held a training seminar at the Seda Hotel with high-ranking officers of the PNP, and other government officials, including E.R. Ejercito who posted photos of the seminar on his Facebook page two days after he was convicted for graft. Uniter denied claims of training Filipino police forces in an attempt to establish right-wing extremist networks overseas, but insisted that they were there for "humanitarian" support for the Philippine's national police, which they claimed it as "unfortunate" timing given the ongoing war on drugs. Despite being reported across Germany amidst a neo-Nazi scandal that hit the "Bundeswehr" (which revolves around an alleged terror plot called "Day X"), not even a single news article of it was made in Philippine local and national news. The PNP has never made any statements of its involvement with Uniter (nor any of its affiliation) ever since.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The holding of a mañanita for NCRPO's chief (later PNP Chief) Debold Sinas amidst the COVID-19 pandemic in Metro Manila was criticized for breaching quarantine regulations. A mañanita is a customary celebration in the PNP where senior officers are greeted by their personnel early in the morning of their birthdays. The national police has filed charges against Sinas over the event for violation of existing regulations on social distancing and mass gatherings. However, Sinas was still able to keep his post due to the "emergency situation" posed by the pandemic, as self-proclaimed by him.


title: Philippine National Police

text: Police Senior Master Sergeant Jonel Nuezca shot to death his two unarmed neighbors, Sonya Gregorio and her son Frank, in Paniqui, Tarlac, on December 20, 2020, at 5:10 pm (PST). The incident was reported to the police 20 minutes later and, at 6:19 pm, Nuezca surrendered at the police station in Pangasinan.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The incident started when Nuezca went to investigate the Gregorios who were shooting a boga–an improvised bamboo cannon used as a noisemaker every December. Nuezca tried to arrest Frank, who appeared to be drunk. This led to a heated argument with Sonya, which culminated in Nuezca killing the two by shooting them at close range. According to Police Colonel Renante Cabico, director of the Tarlac Provincial Police Office, Nuezca was "off duty" at the time of the incident. The police called the incident an "isolated case."


title: Philippine National Police

text: The incident was captured on video and spread online. Several netizens and celebrities condemned the killings on social media with the hashtags #StopTheKillingsPH, #EndPoliceBrutality, #PulisAngTerorista, and #JusticeForSonyaGregorio dominating on Twitter in the Philippines, as well as in Singapore and Dubai. Some critics also pointed at the government over the acts of impunity and human rights abuses in recent years.


title: Philippine National Police

text: An indignation rally was done by numerous groups on December 21, 2020, at the Boy Scout Circle, Quezon City.


title: Philippine National Police

text: The disgraced former PNP officer Jonel Nuezca was found guilty of murder in August 2021 and sentenced to "reclusion perpetua", which is 40 years imprisonment with parole possible after 30 years. He was also ordered to pay PHP 476,000 (US$9,377) to the heirs of each of the people he brutally murdered.


title: Philippine National Police

text: On February 24, 2021, personnel of the Philippines National Police (PNP) and the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA) was involved in a friendly fire incident. Personnel from both sides engaged in a gunfight with both sides saying they were conducting an anti-drug operation. The shootout resulted 2 deaths and 1 injured in the side of the PNP and 2 deaths and 3 injured in the PDEA Side.


title: Philippine National Police

text: On May 31, 2021, a police officer Police Master Sergeant Hensie Zinampan, who appeared to be drunk, was filmed with a cell phone when he shot a 52-year-old woman named Lilybeth Valdez dead in close range outside the store in Fairview, Quezon City at around 9:30pm, following the heated argument between the two. The incident was caught on video. PNP Chief Guillermo Eleazar confronts Zinampan for his crime. The police filed an "administrative and criminal charges" against the police officer. The incident sparked outrage on social media, trending the hashtag #PulisAngTerorista on June 1, 2021, with the netizen rejected the claims that the incident was "isolated case." The incident was likened to the case of Tarlac shooting in December 2020. As is typical with PNP cases like this, there has been no further news on the status of the disgraced officer.


title: Philippine National Police

text: A crew member identified as Patrolman Allen Noel Ona was killed while two police pilots identified as Police Lieutenant Colonel Dexter Vitug and co-pilot Police Lieutenant Colonel Michael Mellora were injured after an Airbus H-125 of the Philippine National Police crashed in Real, Quezon while on an administrative mission on Monday. The ill-fated H-125 with registry number RP-9710 was earlier reported missing hours after taking off at 6:17 a.m. from the Manila Domestic Airport in Pasay City en route to Northern Quezon on an administrative mission.


title: Philippine National Police

text: "The chopper is on administrative flight to fetch the Chief PNP because he is supposed to attend the flag-raising in Camp Crame, Quezon City. The commercial flight that he was supposed to take was not available so our air unit volunteered to pick him up. There are two choppers reserved for the Chief PNP so one of them flew to pick him up to bring him to Camp Crame so he could attend the flag-raising. Nobody wanted the accident to happen," PNP spokesperson Col. Jean Fajardo said.


title: Philippine National Police

text: Fajardo added that Carlos was on the island since Sunday via a chartered flight to have some private time with his family.


title: Philippine National Police

text: Despite Administrative Order No. 239, s. 2008 section 2 saying that ANY government vehicles can not be used for personal use, Department of the Interior and Local Government secretary and National Police Commission Chairperson Eduardo Año assured in a separate statement to reporters that Carlos’ supposed trip was legal even if it was for a personal function.


title: Philippine National Police

text: " You cannot separate private time from an official time. As CPNP, it’s included in his privileges as head of the organization. " Año added.


title: Chikungunya

text: Chikungunya is an infection caused by the Chikungunya virus (CHIKV). Symptoms include fever and joint pains. These typically occur two to twelve days after exposure. Other symptoms may include headache, muscle pain, joint swelling, and a rash. Symptoms usually improve within a week; however, occasionally the joint pain may last for months or years. The risk of death is around 1 in 1,000. The very young, old, and those with other health problems are at risk of more severe disease.


title: Chikungunya

text: The virus is spread between people by two types of mosquitos: "Aedes albopictus" and "Aedes aegypti". They mainly bite during the day. The virus may circulate within a number of animals including birds and rodents. Diagnosis is by either testing the blood for the virus's RNA or antibodies to the virus. The symptoms can be mistaken for those of dengue fever and Zika fever. It is believed most people become immune after a single infection.


title: Chikungunya

text: The best means of prevention is overall mosquito control and the avoidance of bites in areas where the disease is common. This may be partly achieved by decreasing mosquito access to water and with the use of insect repellent and mosquito nets. There is no vaccine and no specific treatment as of 2016. Recommendations include rest, fluids, and medications to help with fever and joint pain.


title: Chikungunya

text: While the disease typically occurs in Africa and Asia, outbreaks have been reported in Europe and the Americas since the 2000s. In 2014 more than a million suspected cases occurred. In 2014 it was occurring in Florida in the continental United States but as of 2016 there were no further locally acquired cases. The disease was first identified in 1952 in Tanzania. The term is from the Kimakonde language and means "to become contorted".


title: Chikungunya

text: Around 85% of people infected with Chikungunya virus experience symptoms, typically beginning with a sudden high fever above . The fever is soon followed by severe muscle and joint pain. Pain usually affects multiple joints in the arms and legs, and is symmetric – i.e. if one elbow is affected, the other is as well. People with Chikungunya also frequently experience headache, back pain, nausea, and fatigue. Around half of those affected develop a rash, with reddening and sometimes small bumps on the palms, foot soles, torso, and face. For some, the rash remains constrained to a small part of the body; for others, the rash can be extensive, covering more than 90% of the skin. Some people experience gastrointestinal issues, with abdominal pain and vomiting. Others experience eye problems, namely sensitivity to light, conjunctivitis, and pain behind the eye. This first set of symptoms – called the "acute phase" of Chikungunya – lasts around a week, after which most symptoms resolve on their own.


title: Chikungunya

text: Many people continue to have symptoms after the "acute phase" resolves, termed the "post-acute phase" for symptoms lasting three weeks to three months, and the "chronic stage" for symptoms lasting longer than three months. In both cases, the lasting symptoms tend to be joint pains: arthritis, tenosynovitis, and/or bursitis. If the affected person had pre-existing joint issues, these tend to worsen. Overuse of a joint can result in painful swelling, stiffness, nerve damage, and neuropathic pain. Typically the joint pain improves with time; however, the chronic stage can last anywhere from a few months to several years.


title: Chikungunya

text: Joint pain is reported in 87–98% of cases, and nearly always occurs in more than one joint, though joint swelling is uncommon. Typically the affected joints are located in both arms and legs. Joints are more likely to be affected if they have previously been damaged by disorders such as arthritis. Pain most commonly occurs in peripheral joints, such as the wrists, ankles, and joints of the hands and feet as well as some of the larger joints, typically the shoulders, elbows and knees. Pain may also occur in the muscles or ligaments. In more than half of cases, normal activity is limited by significant fatigue and pain. Infrequently, inflammation of the eyes may occur in the form of iridocyclitis, or uveitis, and retinal lesions may occur. Temporary damage to the liver may occur.


title: Chikungunya

text: People with Chikungunya occasionally develop neurologic disorders, most frequently swelling or degeneration of the brain, inflammation or degneration of the myelin sheaths around neurons, Guillain–Barré syndrome, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, hypotonia (in newborns), and issues with visual processing. In particularly rare cases, people may develop behavioral changes, seizures, irritation of the cerebellum or meninges, oculomotor nerve palsy, or paralysis of the eye muscles.


title: Chikungunya

text: Newborns are susceptible to particularly severe effects of Chikungunya infection. Signs of infection typically begin with fever, rash, and swelling at the extremities. Around half of newborns have a mild case of the disease that resolves on its own; the other half have severe disease with inflammation of the brain and seizures. In severe cases, affected newborns may also have issues with bleeding and bloodflow, and problems with heart function.


title: Chikungunya

text: In addition to newborns, the elderly, and those with diabetes, heart disease, liver and kidney diseases, and human immunodeficiency virus infection tend to have more severe cases of Chikungunya. Around 1 to 5 in 1,000 people with symptomatic Chikungunya die of the disease.


title: Chikungunya

text: "Chikungunya virus" (CHIKV), is a member of the genus "Alphavirus", and family "Togaviridae". It was first isolated in 1953 in Tanzania and is an RNA virus with a positive-sense single-stranded genome of about 11.6kb. It is a member of the Semliki Forest virus complex and is closely related to Ross River virus, O'nyong'nyong virus, and Semliki Forest virus. Because it is transmitted by arthropods, namely mosquitoes, it can also be referred to as an arbovirus ("ar"thropod-"bo"rne virus). In the United States, it is classified as a category B priority pathogen, and work requires biosafety level III precautions.


title: Chikungunya

text: Chikungunya is generally transmitted from mosquitoes to humans. Less common modes of transmission include vertical transmission, which is transmission from mother to child during pregnancy or at birth. Transmission via infected blood products and through organ donation is also theoretically possible during times of outbreak, though no cases have yet been documented. The incubation period ranges from one to twelve days, and is most typically three to seven.


title: Chikungunya

text: Chikungunya is related to mosquitoes, their environments, and human behavior. The adaptation of mosquitoes to the changing climate of North Africa around 5,000 years ago made them seek out environments where humans stored water. Human habitation and the mosquitoes' environments were then very closely connected. During periods of epidemics humans are the reservoir of the virus. Because high amounts of virus are present in the blood in the beginning of acute infection, the virus can be spread from a viremic human to a mosquito, and back to a human. During other times, monkeys, birds and other vertebrates have served as reservoirs. Three genotypes of this virus have been described, each with a distinct genotype and antigenic character: West African, East/Central/South African, and Asian genotypes. The Asian lineage originated in 1952 and has subsequently split into two lineages – India (Indian Ocean Lineage) and South East Asian clades. This virus was first reported in the Americas in 2014. Phylogenetic investigations have shown that there are two strains in Brazil – the Asian and East/Central/South African types – and that the Asian strain arrived in the Caribbean (most likely from Oceania) in about March 2013. The rate of molecular evolution was estimated to have a mean rate of 5 × 10 substitutions per site per year (95% higher probability density 2.9–7.9 × 10).


title: Chikungunya

text: Chikungunya is spread through bites from "Aedes" mosquitoes, and the species "A. aegypti" was identified as the most common vector, though the virus has recently been associated with many other species, including "A. albopictus". Research by the Pasteur Institute in Paris has suggested "Chikungunya virus" strains in the 2005-2006 Reunion Island outbreak incurred a mutation that facilitated transmission by the Asian tiger mosquito ("A. albopictus"). Other species potentially able to transmit "Chikungunya virus" include "Ae. furcifer-taylori", "Ae. africanus", and "Ae. luteocephalus".


title: Chikungunya

text: "Chikungunya virus" is passed to humans when a bite from an infected mosquito breaks the skin and introduces the virus into the body. The pathogenesis of chikungunya infection in humans is still poorly understood, despite recent outbreaks. It appears that "in vitro", "Chikungunya virus" is able to replicate in human epithelial and endothelial cells, primary fibroblasts, and monocyte-derived macrophages. Viral replication is highly cytopathic, but susceptible to type-I and -II interferon. "In vivo", in studies using living cells, chikungunya virus appears to replicate in fibroblasts, skeletal muscle progenitor cells, and myofibers.


title: Chikungunya

text: The type-1 interferon response seems to play an important role in the host's response to chikungunya infection. Upon infection with chikungunya, the host's fibroblasts produce type-1 alpha and beta interferon (IFN-α and IFN-β). In mouse studies, deficiencies in INF-1 in mice exposed to the virus cause increased morbidity and mortality. The chikungunya-specific upstream components of the type-1 interferon pathway involved in the host's response to chikungunya infection are still unknown. Nonetheless, mouse studies suggest that IPS-1 is an important factor, and that IRF3 and IRF7 are important in an age-dependent manner. Mouse studies also suggest that chikungunya evades host defenses and counters the type-I interferon response by producing NS2, a nonstructural protein that degrades RBP1 and turns off the host cell's ability to transcribe DNA. NS2 interferes with the JAK-STAT signaling pathway and prevents STAT from becoming phosphorylated.


title: Chikungunya

text: In the acute phase of chikungunya, the virus is typically present in the areas where symptoms present, specifically skeletal muscles, and joints. In the chronic phase, it is suggested that viral persistence (the inability of the body to entirely rid itself of the virus), lack of clearance of the antigen, or both, contribute to joint pain. The inflammation response during both the acute and chronic phase of the disease results in part from interactions between the virus and monocytes and macrophages. "Chikungunya virus" disease in humans is associated with elevated serum levels of specific cytokines and chemokines. High levels of specific cytokines have been linked to more severe acute disease: interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1β, RANTES, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG), and interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10). Cytokines may also contribute to chronic "Chikungunya virus" disease, as persistent joint pain has been associated with elevated levels of IL-6 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). In those with chronic symptoms, a mild elevation of C-reactive protein (CRP) has been observed, suggesting ongoing chronic inflammation. However, there is little evidence linking chronic "Chikungunya virus" disease and the development of autoimmunity.


title: Chikungunya

text: The virus consists of four nonstructural proteins and three structural proteins. The structural proteins are the capsid and two envelope glycoproteins: E1 and E2, which form heterodimeric spikes on the viron surface. E2 binds to cellular receptors in order to enter the host cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis. E1 contains a fusion peptide which, when exposed to the acidity of the endosome in eukaryotic cells, dissociates from E2 and initiates membrane fusion that allows the release of nucleocapsids into the host cytoplasm, promoting infection. The mature virion contains 240 heterodimeric spikes of E2/E1, which after release, bud on the surface of the infected cell, where they are released by exocytosis to infect other cells.


title: Chikungunya

text: Chikungunya is diagnosed on the basis of clinical, epidemiological, and laboratory criteria. Clinically, acute onset of high fever and severe joint pain would lead to suspicion of chikungunya. Epidemiological criteria consist of whether the individual has traveled to or spent time in an area in which chikungunya is present within the last twelve days (i.e.) the potential incubation period). Laboratory criteria include a decreased lymphocyte count consistent with viremia. However a definitive laboratory diagnosis can be accomplished through viral isolation, RT-PCR, or serological diagnosis.


title: Chikungunya

text: The differential diagnosis may include other mosquito-borne diseases, such as dengue or malaria, or other infections such as influenza. Chronic recurrent polyarthralgia occurs in at least 20% of chikungunya patients one year after infection, whereas such symptoms are uncommon in dengue.


title: Chikungunya

text: Virus isolation provides the most definitive diagnosis, but takes one to two weeks for completion and must be carried out in biosafety level III laboratories. The technique involves exposing specific cell lines to samples from whole blood and identifying "Chikungunya virus"-specific responses. RT-PCR using nested primer pairs is used to amplify several chikungunya-specific genes from whole blood, generating thousands to millions of copies of the genes in order to identify them. RT-PCR can also be used to quantify the viral load in the blood. Using RT-PCR, diagnostic results can be available in one to two days. Serological diagnosis requires a larger amount of blood than the other methods, and uses an ELISA assay to measure chikungunya-specific IgM levels in the blood serum. One advantage offered by serological diagnosis is that serum IgM is detectable from 5 days to months after the onset of symptoms, but drawbacks are that results may require two to three days, and false positives can occur with infection due to other related viruses, such as o'nyong'nyong virus and Semliki Forest virus.


title: Chikungunya

text: Presently, there is no specific way to test for chronic signs and symptoms associated with Chikungunya fever although nonspecific laboratory findings such as C reactive protein and elevated cytokines can correlate with disease activity.


title: Chikungunya

text: Because no approved vaccine exists, the most effective means of prevention are protection against contact with the disease-carrying mosquitoes and controlling mosquito populations by limiting their habitat. Mosquito control focuses on eliminating the standing water where mosquitos lay eggs and develop as larva; if elimination of the standing water is not possible, insecticides or biological control agents can be added. Methods of protection against contact with mosquitos include using insect repellents with substances such as DEET, icaridin, PMD (p-menthane-3,8-diol, a substance derived from the lemon eucalyptus tree), or ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535). However, increasing insecticide resistance presents a challenge to chemical control methods.


title: Chikungunya

text: Wearing bite-proof long sleeves and trousers also offers protection, and garments can be treated with pyrethroids, a class of insecticides that often has repellent properties. Vaporized pyrethroids (for example in mosquito coils) are also insect repellents. As infected mosquitoes often feed and rest inside homes, securing screens on windows and doors will help to keep mosquitoes out of the house. In the case of the day-active "A. aegypti" and "A. albopictus", however, this will have only a limited effect, since many contacts between the mosquitoes and humans occur outdoors.


title: Chikungunya

text: , no approved vaccines are available. A phase-II vaccine trial used a live, attenuated virus, to develop viral resistance in 98% of those tested after 28 days and 85% still showed resistance after one year. However, 8% of people reported transient joint pain, and attenuation was found to be due to only two mutations in the E2 glycoprotein. Alternative vaccine strategies have been developed, and show efficacy in mouse models. In August 2014 researchers at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases in the USA were testing an experimental vaccine which uses virus-like particles (VLPs) instead of attenuated virus. All the 25 people participated in this phase 1 trial developed strong immune responses. As of 2015, a phase 2 trial was planned, using 400 adults aged 18 to 60 and to take place at 6 locations in the Caribbean. Even with a vaccine, mosquito population control and bite prevention will be necessary to control chikungunya disease. In 2021, two vaccine manufacturers, one in France, the other in the United States, reported successful completion of Phase II clinical trials.


title: Chikungunya

text: Currently, no specific treatment for chikungunya is available. Supportive care is recommended, and symptomatic treatment of fever and joint swelling includes the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as naproxen, non-aspirin analgesics such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) and fluids. Aspirin is not recommended due to the increased risk of bleeding. Despite anti-inflammatory effects, corticosteroids are not recommended during the acute phase of disease, as they may cause immunosuppression and worsen infection.


title: Chikungunya

text: Passive immunotherapy has potential benefit in treatment of chikungunya. Studies in animals using passive immunotherapy have been effective, and clinical studies using passive immunotherapy in those particularly vulnerable to severe infection are currently in progress. Passive immunotherapy involves administration of anti-CHIKV hyperimmune human intravenous antibodies (immunoglobulins) to those exposed to a high risk of chikungunya infection. No antiviral treatment for "Chikungunya virus" is currently available, though testing has shown several medications to be effective "in vitro".


title: Chikungunya

text: In those who have more than two weeks of arthritis, ribavirin may be useful. The effect of chloroquine is not clear. It does not appear to help acute disease, but tentative evidence indicates it might help those with chronic arthritis. Steroids do not appear to be an effective treatment. NSAIDs and simple analgesics can be used to provide partial symptom relief in most cases. Methotrexate, a drug used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, has been shown to have benefit in treating inflammatory polyarthritis resulting from chikungunya, though the drug mechanism for improving viral arthritis is unclear.


title: Chikungunya

text: The mortality rate of chikungunya is slightly less than 1 in 1000. Those over the age of 65, neonates, and those with underlying chronic medical problems are most likely to have severe complications. Neonates are vulnerable as it is possible to vertically transmit chikungunya from mother to infant during delivery, which results in high rates of morbidity, as infants lack fully developed immune systems. The likelihood of prolonged symptoms or chronic joint pain is increased with increased age and prior rheumatological disease.


title: Chikungunya

text: Historically, chikungunya has been present mostly in the developing world. The disease causes an estimated 3 million infections each year. Epidemics in the Indian Ocean, Pacific Islands, and in the Americas, continue to change the distribution of the disease.


title: Chikungunya

text: In Africa, chikungunya is spread by a sylvatic cycle in which the virus largely cycles between other non-human primates, small mammals, and mosquitos between human outbreaks. During outbreaks, due to the high concentration of virus in the blood of those in the acute phase of infection, the virus can circulate from humans to mosquitoes and back to humans. The transmission of the pathogen between humans and mosquitoes that exist in urban environments was established on multiple occasions from strains occurring on the eastern half of Africa in non-human primate hosts. This emergence and spread beyond Africa may have started as early as the 18th century. Currently, available data does not indicate whether the introduction of chikungunya into Asia occurred in the 19th century or more recently, but this epidemic Asian strain causes outbreaks in India and continues to circulate in Southeast Asia. In Africa, outbreaks were typically tied to heavy rainfall causing increased mosquito population. In recent outbreaks in urban centers, the virus has spread by circulating between humans and mosquitoes.


title: Chikungunya

text: Global rates of chikungunya infection are variable, depending on outbreaks. When chikungunya was first identified in 1952, it had a low-level circulation in West Africa, with infection rates linked to rainfall. Beginning in the 1960s, periodic outbreaks were documented in Asia and Africa. However, since 2005, following several decades of relative inactivity, chikungunya has re-emerged and caused large outbreaks in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. In India, for instance, chikungunya re-appeared following 32 years of absence of viral activity. Outbreaks have occurred in Europe, the Caribbean, and South America, areas in which chikungunya was not previously transmitted. Local transmission has also occurred in the United States and Australia, countries in which the virus was previously unknown. In 2005, an outbreak on the island of Réunion was the largest then documented, with an estimated 266,000 cases on an island with a population of approximately 770,000. In a 2006 outbreak, India reported 1.25 million suspected cases. Chikungunya was recently introduced to the Americas, and from 2013 to 2014 in the Americas, 1,118,763 suspected cases and 24,682 confirmed cases were reported by the PAHO.


title: Chikungunya

text: An analysis of the genetic code of "Chikungunya virus" suggests that the increased severity of the 2005–present outbreak may be due to a change in the genetic sequence which altered the E1 segment of the virus' viral coat protein, a variant called E1-A226V. This mutation potentially allows the virus to multiply more easily in mosquito cells. The change allows the virus to use the Asian tiger mosquito (an invasive species) as a vector in addition to the more strictly tropical main vector, "Aedes aegypti". Enhanced transmission of "Chikungunya virus" by "A. albopictus" could mean an increased risk for outbreaks in other areas where the Asian tiger mosquito is present. "A albopictus" is an invasive species which has spread through Europe, the Americas, the Caribbean, Africa and the Middle East.


title: Chikungunya

text: After the detection of zika virus in Brazil in April 2015, the first ever in the Western Hemisphere, it is now thought some chikungunya and dengue cases could in fact be zika virus cases or coinfections.


title: Chikungunya

text: The word 'chikungunya' is believed to have been derived from a description in the Makonde language, meaning "that which bends up", of the contorted posture of people affected with the severe joint pain and arthritic symptoms associated with this disease. The disease was first described by Marion Robinson and W.H.R. Lumsden in 1955, following an outbreak in 1952 on the Makonde Plateau, along the border between Mozambique and Tanganyika (the mainland part of modern-day Tanzania).


title: Chikungunya

text: According to the initial 1955 report about the epidemiology of the disease, the term 'chikungunya' is derived from the Makonde root verb "kungunyala", meaning to dry up or become contorted. In concurrent research, Robinson glossed the Makonde term more specifically as "that which bends up". Subsequent authors apparently overlooked the references to the Makonde language and assumed the term to have been derived from Swahili, the "lingua franca" of the region. The erroneous attribution to Swahili has been repeated in numerous print sources. Many erroneous spellings of the name of the disease are also in common use.


title: Chikungunya

text: Since its discovery in Tanganyika, Africa, in 1952, "Chikungunya virus" outbreaks have occurred occasionally in Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, but recent outbreaks have spread the disease over a wider range.


title: Chikungunya

text: The first recorded outbreak of this disease may have been in 1779. This is in agreement with the molecular genetics evidence that suggests it evolved around the year 1700.


title: Blue House

text: Cheong Wa Dae (; Hanja: ; ), also known as the Blue House, is a public park that formerly served as the executive office and official residence of the president of South Korea from 1948 to 2022. It is located in the Jongno district of the South Korean capital Seoul.