title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen was born on May 1, 1957, in Libertyville, Illinois, and raised in neighboring Grayslake. She is an alumna of Grayslake Central High School. Her grandparents were Danish immigrants.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen received a Bachelor of Science degree in psychology at Baylor University in 1979 and a master's degree in business administration at Southern Methodist University in 1980. She began her career at IBM working with computer systems, leaving to become part owner and President of Digitech, Inc. She received a Ph.D. in Industrial and Organizational Psychology from Clemson University in 2002. She has taught full-time at Clemson since 2006.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen first ran for office in the 1992 United States House of Representatives election. She ran as a Libertarian to represent SC-04, in northwest South Carolina, against incumbent Democrat Liz J. Patterson and Republican challenger Bob Inglis. Jorgensen placed third with 2.2% of the total vote.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Before the 1996 United States presidential election, the Libertarian Party nominated Jorgensen for vice president, as Harry Browne's running mate. She was nominated on the first ballot with 92% of the vote. She participated in a vice-presidential debate televised nationwide by C-SPAN on October 22, along with Herbert Titus of the Taxpayers Party and Mike Tompkins of the Natural Law Party.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Browne and Jorgensen, who were on the ballot in all 50 states and D.C., received 485,759 votes, finishing in fifth place with 0.5% of the popular vote. This was the Libertarian Party's best performance since 1980.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: On August 13, 2019, Jorgensen filed with the FEC to run for the Libertarian presidential nomination in the 2020 election. She formally launched her campaign at the November 2, 2019, Libertarian Party of South Carolina convention before participating in the South Carolina Libertarian presidential debate the same day.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: In the non-binding Libertarian primaries, Jorgensen was second in the cumulative popular vote, winning two of the 12 primaries.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: On May 23, 2020, Jorgensen became the Libertarian presidential nominee, making her the first woman to be the Libertarian nominee and the only female 2020 presidential candidate with ballot access to over 270 electoral votes. Spike Cohen, a mostly unknown figure in mainstream politics, was nominated for vice president. The same day, Jorgensen's supporters repurposed Hillary Clinton's unofficial 2016 campaign slogan, "I'm With Her". The slogan trended on Twitter that night and made national headlines. She registered minimal support in opinion polling.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen released a list of potential Supreme Court nominees in September 2020 in response to the vacancy on the Court created by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg's death.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen received more than 1.8 million votes in the general election, about 1.2% of the national total.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: After the election, several media outlets speculated that Jorgensen's candidacy resulted in vote splitting significant enough to be decisive in Democrat Joe Biden's victory over Republican Donald Trump, pointing to Jorgensen's vote share being higher than Biden's margin of victory over Trump in multiple battleground states.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen supports a free-market healthcare system financed by individual spending accounts that could keep any savings, which she believes would increase healthcare providers' incentive to compete by meeting consumer demand for low-cost services. She opposes single-payer healthcare, calling it "disastrous".


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen supports replacing Social Security with individual retirement accounts. In the final debate of the 2020 primaries, candidate Jacob Hornberger accused Jorgensen of "support[ing] the welfare state through Social Security and Medicare". In response, she called Social Security a "Ponzi scheme". She then expressed the desire to allow people to opt out of the program on her first day in office, while emphasizing the constitutional inability of a president to unilaterally end the program without Congress's support, as well as the need for the government to fulfill existing Social Security obligations. Under Jorgensen's plan, those who opt out would put 6.2% of their payroll taxes in individual retirement accounts and receive prorated Social Security benefits for existing contributions as zero-coupon bonds for retirement.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen opposes federal civil asset forfeiture and qualified immunity. She opposes the war on drugs and supports abolishing drug laws, promising to pardon all nonviolent drug offenders. She has urged the demilitarization of police.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen opposes embargoes, economic sanctions, and foreign aid; she supports non-interventionism, armed neutrality, and the withdrawal of U.S. troops from abroad.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen calls for deregulation, arguing that it would reduce poverty. She supports cutting government spending to reduce taxes.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen supports the freedom of American citizens to travel and trade, calls for the elimination of trade barriers and tariffs, and supports the repeal of quotas on the number of people who can legally enter the United States to work, visit, or reside. In a Libertarian presidential primary debate, Jorgensen said she would immediately stop construction on President Donald Trump's border wall. During another primary debate she blamed anti-immigration sentiment on disproportionate media coverage of crimes by immigrants. She argued that immigration helps the economy and that the blending of cultures is beneficial.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen has characterized the U.S. government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic as overly bureaucratic and authoritarian, calling restrictions on individual behavior (such as stay-at-home orders) and corporate bailouts "the biggest assault on our liberties in our lifetime".


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen opposes government mask mandates, considering mask-wearing a matter of personal choice. She argues that mask-wearing would be widely adopted without government intervention because market competition would drive businesses to adopt either mask-required or mask-optional policies, allowing consumers the freedom to choose their preferred environment. Jorgensen has invoked the analogy of dollar voting to argue that consumer preferences would shape businesses' policies on face masks in the absence of a government mandate.


title: Jo Jorgensen

text: Jorgensen is married and has two adult daughters and a grandson. She briefly paused her presidential campaign after her mother's death on September 3, 2020.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: A regular verb is any verb whose conjugation follows the typical pattern, or one of the typical patterns, of the language to which it belongs. A verb whose conjugation follows a different pattern is called an irregular verb. This is one instance of the distinction between regular and irregular inflection, which can also apply to other word classes, such as nouns and adjectives.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: In English, for example, verbs such as "play", "enter", and "like" are regular since they form their inflected parts by adding the typical endings "-s", "-ing" and "-ed" to give forms such as "plays", "entering", and "liked". On the other hand, verbs such as "drink", "hit" and "have" are irregular since some of their parts are not made according to the typical pattern: "drank" and "drunk" (not "drinked"); "hit" (as past tense and past participle, not "hitted") and "has" and "had" (not "haves" and "haved").


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: The classification of verbs as regular or irregular is to some extent a subjective matter. If some conjugational paradigm in a language is followed by a limited number of verbs, or it requires the specification of more than one principal part (as with the German strong verbs), views may differ as to whether the verbs in question should be considered irregular. Most inflectional irregularities arise as a result of series of fairly uniform historical changes so forms that appear to be irregular from a synchronic (contemporary) point of view may be seen as following more regular patterns when the verbs are analyzed from a diachronic (historical linguistic) viewpoint.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: When a language develops some type of inflection, such as verb conjugation, it normally produces certain typical (regular) patterns by which words in the given class come to make their inflected forms. The language may develop a number of different regular patterns, either as a result of conditional sound changes which cause differentiation within a single pattern, or through patterns with different derivations coming to be used for the same purpose. An example of the latter is provided by the strong and weak verbs of the Germanic languages; the strong verbs inherited their method of making past forms (vowel ablaut) from Proto-Indo-European, while for the weak verbs a different method (addition of dental suffixes) developed.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: Irregularities in verb conjugation (and other inflectional irregularities) may arise in various ways. Sometimes the result of multiple conditional and selective historical sound changes is to leave certain words following a practically unpredictable pattern. This has happened with the strong verbs (and some groups of weak verbs) in English; patterns such as "sing–sang–sung" and "stand–stood–stood", although they derive from what were more or less regular patterns in older languages, are now peculiar to a single verb or small group of verbs in each case, and are viewed as irregular.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: Irregularities may also arise from suppletion – forms of one verb may be taken over and used as forms of another. This has happened in the case of the English word "went", which was originally the past tense of "wend", but has come to be used instead as the past tense of "go". The verb "be" also has a number of suppletive forms ("be", "is", "was", etc., with various different origins) – this is common for copular verbs in Indo-European languages.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: The regularity and irregularity of verbs is affected by changes taking place by way of analogy – there is often a tendency for verbs to switch to a different, usually more regular, pattern under the influence of other verbs. This is less likely when the existing forms are very familiar through common use – hence among the most common verbs in a language (like "be", "have", "go", etc.) there is often a greater incidence of irregularity. (Analogy can occasionally work the other way, too – some irregular English verb forms such as "shown", "caught" and "spat" have arisen through the influence of existing strong or irregular verbs.)


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: The most straightforward type of regular verb conjugation pattern involves a single class of verbs, a single principal part (the root or one particular conjugated form), and a set of exact rules which produce, from that principal part, each of the remaining forms in the verb's paradigm. This is generally considered to be the situation with regular English verbs – from the one principal part, namely the plain form of a regular verb (the bare infinitive, such as "play", "happen", "skim", "interchange", etc.), all the other inflected forms (which in English are not numerous; they consist of the third person singular present tense, the past tense and past participle, and the present participle/gerund form) can be derived by way of consistent rules. These rules involve the addition of inflectional endings ("-s", "-[e]d", "-ing"), together with certain morphophonological rules about how those endings are pronounced, and certain rules of spelling (such as the doubling of certain consonants). Verbs which in any way deviate from these rules (there are around 200 such verbs in the language) are classed as irregular.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: A language may have more than one regular conjugation pattern. French verbs, for example, follow different patterns depending on whether their infinitive ends in "-er", "-ir" or "-re" (complicated slightly by certain rules of spelling). A verb which does not follow the expected pattern based on the form of its infinitive is considered irregular.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: In some languages, however, verbs may be considered regular even if the specification of one of their forms is not sufficient to predict all of the rest; they have more than one principal part. In Latin, for example, verbs are considered to have four principal parts (see Latin conjugation for details). Specification of all of these four forms for a given verb is sufficient to predict all of the other forms of that verb – except in a few cases, when the verb is irregular.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: To some extent it may be a matter of convention or subjective preference to state whether a verb is regular or irregular. In English, for example, if a verb is allowed to have three principal parts specified (the bare infinitive, past tense and past participle), then the number of irregular verbs will be drastically reduced (this is not the conventional approach, however). The situation is similar with the strong verbs in German (these may or may not be described as irregular). In French, what are traditionally called the "regular "-re" verbs" (those that conjugate like "vendre") are not in fact particularly numerous, and may alternatively be considered to be just another group of similarly behaving irregular verbs. The most unambiguously irregular verbs are often very commonly used verbs such as the copular verb "be" in English and its equivalents in other languages, which frequently have a variety of suppletive forms and thus follow an exceptionally unpredictable pattern of conjugation.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: It is possible for a verb to be regular in pronunciation, but irregular in spelling. Examples of this are the English verbs "lay" and "pay". In terms of pronunciation, these make their past forms in the regular way, by adding the sound. However their spelling deviates from the regular pattern: they are not spelt (spelled) "layed" and "payed" (although the latter form is used in some e.g. nautical contexts as "the sailor payed out the anchor chain"), but "laid" and "paid". This contrasts with fully regular verbs such as "sway" and "stay", which have the regularly spelt past forms "swayed" and "stayed". The English present participle is never irregular in pronunciation, with the exception that "singeing" irregularly retains the "e" to distinguish it from "singing".


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: In linguistic analysis, the concept of regular and irregular verbs (and other types of regular and irregular inflection) commonly arises in psycholinguistics, and in particular in work related to language acquisition. In studies of first language acquisition (where the aim is to establish how the human brain processes its native language), one debate among 20th-century linguists revolved around whether small children learn all verb forms as separate pieces of vocabulary or whether they deduce forms by the application of rules. Since a child can hear a regular verb for the first time and immediately reuse it correctly in a different conjugated form which he or she has never heard, it is clear that the brain does work with rules; but irregular verbs must be processed differently. A common error for small children is to conjugate irregular verbs as though they were regular, which is taken as evidence that we learn and process our native language partly by the application of rules, rather than, as some earlier scholarship had postulated, solely by learning the forms. In fact, children often use the most common irregular verbs correctly in their earliest utterances but then switch to incorrect regular forms for a time when they begin to operate systematically. That allows a fairly precise analysis of the phases of this aspect of first language acquisition.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: Regular and irregular verbs are also of significance in second language acquisition, and in particular in language teaching and formal learning, where rules such as verb paradigms are defined, and exceptions (such as irregular verbs) need to be listed and learned explicitly. The importance of irregular verbs is enhanced by the fact that they often include the most commonly used verbs in the language (including verbs such as "be" and "have" in English, their equivalents "être" and "avoir" in French, "sein" and "haben" in German, etc.).


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: In historical linguistics the concept of irregular verbs is not so commonly referenced. Since most irregularities can be explained by processes of historical language development, these verbs are only irregular when viewed synchronically; they often appear regular when seen in their historical context. In the study of Germanic verbs, for example, historical linguists generally distinguish between strong and weak verbs, rather than irregular and regular (although occasional irregularities still arise even in this approach).


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: When languages are being compared informally, one of the few quantitative statistics which are sometimes cited is the number of irregular verbs. These counts are not particularly accurate for a wide variety of reasons, and academic linguists are reluctant to cite them. But it does seem that some languages have a greater tolerance for paradigm irregularity than others.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: With the exception of the highly irregular verb "be", an English verb can have up to five forms: its plain form (or bare infinitive), a third person singular present tense, a past tense (or preterite), a past participle, and the "-ing" form that serves as both a present participle and gerund.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: The rules for the formation of the inflected parts of "regular" verbs are given in detail in the article on English verbs. In summary they are as follows:


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: The irregular verbs of English are described and listed in the article English irregular verbs (for a more extensive list, see List of English irregular verbs). In the case of these:


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: For regular and irregular verbs in other languages, see the articles on the grammars of those languages. Particular articles include, for example:


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: Some grammatical information relating to specific verbs in various languages can also be found in Wiktionary.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: Most natural languages, to different extents, have a number of irregular verbs. Artificial auxiliary languages usually have a single regular pattern for all verbs (as well as other parts of speech) as a matter of design, because inflectional irregularities are considered to increase the difficulty of learning and using a language. Other constructed languages, however, need not show such regularity, especially if they are designed to look similar to natural ones.


title: Regular and irregular verbs

text: The auxiliary language Interlingua has some irregular verbs, principally "esser" "to be", which has an irregular present tense form "es" "is" (instead of expected "esse"), an optional plural "son" "are", an optional irregular past tense "era" "was/were" (alongside regular "esseva"), and a unique subjunctive form "sia" (which can also function as an imperative). Other common verbs also have irregular present tense forms, namely "vader" "to go" — "va", "ir" "to go" — "va" (also shared by the present tense of "vader"), and "haber" "to have" — "ha".


title: Caudillo

text: A caudillo ( , ; , from Latin , diminutive of "caput" "head") is a type of personalist leader wielding military and political power. There is no precise definition of "caudillo", which is often used interchangeably with "warlord" and "strongman". The term is historically associated with Spain, and with Hispanic America after virtually all of the region won independence in the early nineteenth century.


title: Caudillo

text: The roots of "caudillismo" may be tied to the framework of rule in medieval and early modern Spain during the Reconquest from the Moors. Spanish conquistadors such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro exhibit characteristics of the "caudillo", being successful military leaders, having mutual reliance of the leader and their supporters, and rewarding them for their loyalty. During the colonial era, the Spanish crown asserted its power and established a plethora of bureaucratic institutions that prevented personalist rule. Historian John Lynch argues that the rise of "caudillos" in Spanish America is rooted not in the distant Spanish past but in the immediate context of the Spanish American wars of independence. Those wars overthrew colonial rule and left a power vacuum in the early nineteenth century. "Caudillos" were very influential in the history of Spanish America and have a legacy that has influenced political movements in the modern era. Also in HispanoAsia (Philippines) Emilio Aguinaldo titled as "the Caudillo" of "La Revolucion Pilipina", he ended up becoming the leader of two anti-colonial struggles: first against Spain, then against the US.


title: Caudillo

text: The term is often used pejoratively by critics of a regime. However, Spain's General Francisco Franco (1936–1975) proudly took the title as his own during and after his military overthrow of the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39), in parallel to the German and Italian equivalents of the same period: "Führer" and "Duce". Spanish censors during his rule attacked publishers who applied the term to Hispanic American strongmen. "Caudillos"' exercise of power is a form considered authoritarian. Most societies have had personalist leaders at times, but Hispanic America has had many more, the majority of whom were not self-described "caudillos". However, scholars have applied the term to a variety of Hispanic American leaders.


title: Caudillo

text: Since Spanish American independence in the early nineteenth century, the region has been noted for its number of "caudillos" and the duration of their rule. The early nineteenth century is sometimes called "The Age of Caudillos", with Juan Manuel de Rosas, dictator of Argentina, and his contemporary in Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna, dominating national politics. Brazil's transition to independence was the establishment of the Brazilian Empire, which kept intact Brazil's geographical integrity and central authority. Weak nation-states in Spanish America fostered the continuation of "caudillismo" from the late nineteenth century into the twentieth century. The formation of Mexico's Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1929 effectively ended "caudillismo". Men characterized as "caudillos" have ruled in Cuba (Gerardo Machado, Fulgencio Batista, Fidel Castro), Panama (Omar Torrijos, Manuel Noriega), the Dominican Republic (Desiderio Arias, Cipriano Bencosme), Paraguay (Alfredo Stroessner), Argentina (Juan Perón and other military strongmen), and Chile (Augusto Pinochet). "Caudillos" have been the subject of literature in Spanish America.


title: Caudillo

text: Hispanic America is not unique in having strong leaders emerge during times of turmoil. The cause of their emergence in Spanish America is generally seen to be in the destruction of the Spanish colonial state structure after the wars of independence, and in the importance of leaders from the independence struggles for providing government in the post-independence period, when nation-states came into being. Historian John Lynch states that "Before 1810 the caudillo was unknown. … The caudillo entered history as a local hero whom larger events promoted to a military chieftain." He gained in power by his success as a military leader. In a rural area that lacked any institutions of the state, and where the environment was one of violence and anarchy, a "caudillo" could impose order, often by using violence himself to achieve it. His local control as a strongman needed to be maintained by assuring the loyalty of his followers, so his bestowing material rewards reinforced his own position. "Caudillos" could also maintain their position by protecting the interests of regional elites. A local strongman who built a regional base could aspire to become a national "caudillo", taking control of the state. In this situation, "caudillos" could bestow patronage on a large retinue of clients, who in turn gave him their loyalty. In general, "caudillos" power benefited elites. But these strongmen were also mediators between elites and the popular classes, recruiting them into the power base, but also restraining them from achieving power themselves.


title: Caudillo

text: There were a few strongmen, whom historian E. Bradford Burns has named "folk "caudillos"", who either rose from a humble background to protect the interests of indigenous groups or other rural marginalized groups, or strongly identified with those groups. In his analysis, these folk "caudillos" were in contrast to Europeanized elites who viewed the lower orders with contempt. He gives examples of Juan Facundo Quiroga, Martín Güemes and other Argentine "caudillos", most importantly Juan Manuel de Rosas, who were popular and populist "caudillos". Burns attributes the urban elites' bafflement and their contempt for followers of these folk "caudillos" for much of the negative role assigned to "caudillos".


title: Caudillo

text: National "caudillos" often sought to legitimize their rule by holding titles of authority, such as "President of the Republic". If the constitution put formal limits on presidential power and term limits, "caudillos" could bend or break the rules to maintain power, a practice dubbed ""continuismo"".


title: Caudillo

text: Ideologically, "caudillos" could be either liberal or conservative. Liberalism had an advantage in the post-independence period, drawing on ideas of the liberators, and created the institutional frameworks of the new nation-states via written constitutions. Free trade as an economic policy created market-oriented economies. The model that these nation-states often adopted was federalism, keeping power in the component regions. Federalism, however, tended toward centrifugalism and fragmentation and were characterized by weak central governments. Conservative "caudillos" also emerged around 1830. New nation-states often rejected the institutions of the colonial era as legacies to be rejected, but the Roman Catholic Church and traditional values remained strong in many regions, supported by elites seeking to maintain their power in the new order. Conservative "caudillos", supported by the Church and elites, moved to the creation of strong, central governments. In Argentina, Juan Manuel de Rosas and in Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna were exemplars of conservative authoritarian rule.


title: Caudillo

text: The Spanish American wars of independence of the early nineteenth century disrupted Spain and the Spanish Empire, when in 1808 Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the Iberian Peninsula, overturned the Spanish Bourbon monarchy, and placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. Bonaparte is an example of a successful general who rose to national power during the massive disruption of the French Revolution and was crowned emperor in 1804. For Spain and Spain's empire, their loss of legitimate monarch to a usurper unleashed forces that might well have remained latent. In Spanish America, the eighteenth-century Bourbon Reforms had systematically excluded American-born Spanish men or "criollos" from positions of political power, with the crown privileging Iberian-born officials and imposing economic policies that had deleterious effects in part of the empire. Previously, Spanish America had developed a level of local rule within the empire, with local elites being able to aspire to official positions and economic relations operated within long-established patterns. The Napoleonic invasion of Spain sparked Spanish American movements for autonomy and various regions set up juntas which operated in the name of the displaced Bourbon monarch. With the restoration of Ferdinand VII in 1814 following Napoleon's defeat and his reassertion of absolutist rule, the struggles in many parts of Spanish America became unequivocal wars of independence. Except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, Spanish America had achieved that goal by 1825.


title: Caudillo

text: Although there was the hope of some Spanish American leaders of independence that the political contours of regions would reconstitute the former viceroyalties, but with local autonomy. The Roman Catholic Church as an institution remained strong and the militaries that won victories against royalist forces. The state as an institution in most areas was weak. Conflicts over the form the new governments should take were rampant, and veterans of the wars of independence saw themselves as the leaders of the nation-states they had helped bring into being.


title: Caudillo

text: In the wake of the violence and political disruption, new nations were faced with widespread property destruction, disappearance of trade, and states that lacked political authority. The first few decades after independence saw the rise of strongmen with roots in the military. Spanish America had known no other type of regime than monarchy, and Mexico established one under royalist general-turned insurgent Agustín de Iturbide. Brazil's transition to independence was via the Brazilian Empire, which kept its territory intact, and was ruled by a legitimate monarch. In Spanish America, new sovereign states grappled with the question of balancing a central authority, usually in the hands of the traditional elites, with some kind of representation of the new "citizenry" of the republics. Constitutions were written laying out division of powers, but the rule of personalist strongmen, "caudillos", dominated. Dictoratorial powers were granted to some "caudillos", nominally ruling as presidents under a constitution, as "constitutional dictators".


title: Caudillo

text: There were a number of strongmen who went beyond raw struggles for power and its spoils and established "integrative dictatorships". These regimes attempted to curtail centrifugal forces, often termed "federalism", whereby regions or states of a nation-state had more autonomy, and instead to establish the hegemony of the central government. According to political scientist Peter H. Smith, these include Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina; Diego Portales of Chile, whose system lasted nearly a century; and Porfirio Díaz of Mexico. Rosas and Díaz were military men, who continued to rely on armed forces to maintain themselves in power.


title: Caudillo

text: This region was vulnerable to stronger powers, particularly the United States as well as the United Kingdom. Cuba remained in the hands of the Spanish crown until 1898, and it could be a launching area for attempts to reconquer its former colonies. The United States seized a huge area of territory Mexico claimed. Britain attempted to set up a protectorate on the Mosquito Coast of Central America. The two strong men of this early century were Antonio López de Santa Anna in Mexico and Rafael Carrera in Guatemala.


title: Caudillo

text: Liberal Francisco Morazán is considered one of the most important figures in Central American independence and unity, alongside conservative José Cecilio del Valle. Morazán was recognised as a visionary and great thinker, as he enacted many liberal reforms in the Federal Republic of Central America, including freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of religion, also limited church power by making marriage secular and abolishing government-aided tithing. Valle was a philosopher, politician, lawyer, and journalist who displayed a wide-ranging expertise in public administration management, and is recognised as a founding father of Central America.


title: Caudillo

text: Mexico began its revolt against Spain in 1810, gaining independence in 1821. Political divisions in the post-independence period were labeled Federalist, seeking a weak central government and often associated with liberalism, and Centralist, who sought a strong central state and defense of traditional institutional structures, particularly the Mexican Army and the Roman Catholic Church. Many regional strongmen were in the Federalist-Liberal camp, which supported local control and the continuation of their power. The quintessential Mexican "caudillo", who gained national power for decades, was Santa Anna, who was initially a Liberal but became a Conservative and sought strengthening of the central government. Following the Mexican–American War, regional caudillos such as Juan Álvarez of the state of Guerrero and Santiago Vidaurri of Nuevo León-Coahuila ousted Santa Anna in the Revolution of Ayutla, bringing Liberals to power. General Juan Álvarez follows the pattern of the "folk "caudillo", whom historian François Chevalier calls a "good "cacique", [who] protected the mainly indigenous and mestizo peasants of Guerrero, who in turn gave him their loyalty. Álvarez briefly served as President of Mexico, returning to his home state, leaving ideological liberals to institute the era of La Reforma. During the era of the Mexican Reform and the French intervention in Mexico, there were a number of generals who had regional personal followings. Important figures whose local power had consequences nationally included Mariano Escobedo in San Luis Potosí; Ramón Corona in Jalisco and Durango, Porfirio Díaz in parts of Veracruz, Puebla, and Oaxaca. There were other "caudillos" whose power was more local but still important, including Gerónimo Treviño and Francisco Narajo in Nuevo León, Servando Canales and Juan Cortina in Tamaulipas, Florencio Antillón in Guanajuato, Ignacio Pesqueira in Sonora, Luis Terrazas in Chihuahua, and Manuel Lozada in Tepic. Following the defeat of the French in 1867, the government of Benito Juárez and his successor following his death, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada faced opponents who objected to their increasingly Centralist administrations. Those opponents gravitated to supporting Porfirio Díaz, a military hero of the French intervention, who challenged Juárez and Lerdo by attempting rebellions, the second of which, the Plan of Tuxtepec, was successful in 1876. Juárez and Lerdo removed some "caudillos" from office, but this prompted them to rebel. These included Trinidad García de la Cadena in Zacatecas, Luis Mier y Terán in Veracruz, Juan Haro in Tampico, Juan N. Méndez in Puebla, Vicente Jiménez in Guerrero, and Juan Cortina in Matamoros. Their opposition to Lerdo brought them together. "That they slowly gathered around Porfirio Díaz is the story of the rise of Porfirian Mexico."


title: Caudillo

text: Simón Bolívar, the foremost leader of independence in Spanish America, attempted to recreate the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the nation of Gran Colombia. As with other areas of Spanish America, centrifugal forces were at work so that despite the leadership of Bolívar, the country fragmented into separate nation-states. Bolivar saw the need for political stability, which could be put into effect with a president-for-life and the power to name his successor. In 1828 his supporters called on him to assume dictatorial powers and "save the republic". However, the political turmoil continued and Bolívar stepped down in 1830, going into self-imposed exile and dying shortly thereafter. "He is revered as the one person who made the greatest contribution to Spanish American independence" and admired by both the political Left, for opposing slavery and distrust of the U.S., and the Right, which admires his authoritarianism.


title: Caudillo

text: Veterans of the wars of independence assumed the leadership of the newly created nation-states, each with a new constitution. Despite constitutions and ideological labels of Liberal and Conservative, personalist and opportunistic leaders dominated the early nineteenth century. As with Mexico and Central America, the political turmoil and penury of the governments of the Bolivarian republics prevented foreign investors from risking their capital there.


title: Caudillo

text: One caudillo who was remarkably progressive for his time was Bolivia’s Manuel Isidoro Belzu. He served as Bolivia's fourteenth president from 1848 until 1855. The former president, Jose Miguel de Velasco, executed a coup for the presidency in 1848, promising the position of Minister of War to Belzu. Belzu, however, seized power for himself once the coup was completed, and cemented his position as president by quashing a counter-coup by Velasco. During his presidency, Belzu instituted several reforms to the country's economy in an effort to redistribute wealth more equitably. He rewarded the work of the poor and dispossessed. Like Paraguay’s Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia, Belzu chose to enact the aforementioned welfare programs because the idea of communalism was more in tune with the traditional values of native populations than the emphasis on private property that other caudillos embraced. Belzu was also known for his nationalization of the country’s profitable mining industry – he enacted protectionist policies to reserve Bolivian resources for Bolivian use. Thus, provoking the ire of influential British as well as Peruvian and Chilean shipping and mining interests. Many of Belzu’s policies won him favor among the long-downtrodden indigenous peoples of Bolivia, but this came at the cost of enraging wealthy Creole Bolivians as well as foreign countries like Britain that sought to use resources from Bolivian mines. Belzu even took steps to legitimize his leadership, and was at one point democratically elected. Despite his popularity in many sectors, Belzu had many powerful enemies, which was shown by him surviving 40 assassination attempts. His enemies wanted to destroy the state-run projects that helped nationalist program but likewise improved the public sphere on which the country's poor were reliant. However, the despotism that is so rife among the caudillos also found a home with Belzu – from the early 1850s until his abdication of power in 1855, he is said to have ruled despotically, making himself very wealthy in the process. Belzu considered to come back to presidency in 1861, however, he was gunned down by one of his rivals by the time he tried to run for presidency again. He was unable to leave a legacy and his populist programs died with him. After Bolivia's independence, Bolivia lost half of its territory to neighboring countries including Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Brazil through the war and agreements reached under the threat of invasion.


title: Caudillo

text: In contrast to most of Spanish America, post-independence Chile experienced political stability under the authoritarian rule of Conservatives, backed by the landowning class. Although he never sought the presidency, cabinet minister Diego Portales (1793–1837) is credited with creating a strong, centralized regime that lasted 30 years. In general Chile prospered with an export-oriented economy based on agriculture and mining, an exception to most of Spanish American regimes.


title: Caudillo

text: In the former viceroyalty of Río de la Plata, political instability and violence were more typical of the era. In Argentina, Juan Manuel de Rosas (r. 1829–1852) dominated the Argentine confederation. He came from a wealthy landowning family, but also acquired large tracts of land in Buenos Aires province. Rosas despised "the principles of political democracy and liberty [and] provided order in a region that had known near-anarchy since independence." This order came at the cost of severe repression of his enemies, using a variety of armed followers, most well known being the Mazorca. He had a popular following among the lower classes in Buenos Aires province.


title: Caudillo

text: During his two-decade reign, Rosas was able to rise to power and create an empire. He became the model for what a caudillo was supposed to be. He used his military experience to gain support from gauchos and estancias to create an army that would challenge the leadership of Argentina. After his rise to power using the rural workers, he changed his system in favor of using the military. He attempted to impose a ban on imported goods to help and win the support of the artisans in Argentina, but he failed. He was forced to lift the ban on certain imports, like textiles, which opened a trade with Great Britain. Through his power over the imports and exports, the military, the police, and even the legislative branch of government, Rosas created a monopoly that would ensure his remaining in power for over two decades; however there didn't ensure a peaceful twenty years. By the 1850s, Rosas was under attack by the very people who had helped him gain power. He was driven out of power and eventually ended up in Great Britain where he died in 1877.


title: Caudillo

text: Uruguay attained independence of Brazil and Argentina and was ruled by Fructuoso Rivera. In Paraguay, José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (r. 1814–1840) was Supreme Dictator of the Republic, maintaining the landlocked country's independence from Argentina and from foreign powers. Sealed off from outside trade, Paraguay developed economic self-sufficiency under Francia. He based society on communal properties, rather than centralized authoritarianism, attempting to revert to the methods of the communal Indian society that existed previously in Paraguay. After independence the state gained control of the land which was once under control of the Church and the Spanish state. Francia created state ranches and rented out land for the use of citizens who were able to pay a fee. Francia's repressive measures included crushing the power of the elite American-born Spaniards and curbing the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Francia allowed for religious freedom and abolished the tithe. He actively encouraged miscegenation. He has been a controversial figure in Hispanic American history, in an effort to aid the poor. Many modern historians credit him with bringing stability to Paraguay, preserving independence, and "bequeathing to his successors an egalitarian, homogeneous nation." However, because of his crackdown on the wealthy elite and the subsequent weakening of their power, he was accused of anti-clericalism. Nevertheless, Paraguay prospered under Francia in terms of economics and trade through a trade route with Buenos Aires, which was opposed by the wealthy Argentinian elites. "Sometimes counted among the dictators of the era, contemporary history has viewed Francia as an honest, populist leader who promoted sovereign economic prosperity in a war-torn Paraguay."


title: Caudillo

text: In the late nineteenth century, regimes in Spanish America were more stable and often less dominated by military men. Foreign investors, particularly the British, began building infrastructure in countries of greatest interest to the UK's economic needs. Such projects included railways, telegraph lines, and port facilities, which cut transportation time and costs and sped up communications. Stable political regimes that could ensure the security of foreign investments, facilitate extraction of resources, and production of agricultural crops and animals were the necessary structures. Industrialization also took hold in a few countries (Mexico, Argentina, Colombia) to produce consumer goods locally. In general, foreign governments and entrepreneurs had no interest in directly administering countries of Hispanic America in a formal colonial arrangement so long as their interests could be nurtured by modernizing national governments, often seen as neocolonialism. There are a number of examples of "continuismo" in Hispanic America whereby presidents continue in office beyond the legal term limits, with constitutional revision, plebiscites, and the creation of family dynasties, such as the Somoza family in Nicaragua.


title: Caudillo

text: A major example of a modernizing caudillo of the late nineteenth century is General Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1911), whose period of control is known as the Porfiriato. His slogan was “order and progress,” which was enforced by armed men controlled by the president, the "Rurales". Díaz was averse to being dependent on the Mexican army, since as a general and leader of a coup d'état himself, he knew their potential for intervening in national politics. Díaz coopted or crushed regional opposition to his regime, creating a political machine to forward his vision of modern Mexico. Desirous of economic development that necessitated foreign investment, Díaz sought capital and expertise from European powers (Britain, France, and Germany) to offset the closer power of the United States. Although elections were held in Mexico at regular intervals, they were by nature not democratic. The huge rural, illiterate, and mostly indigenous populations were more to be feared by the government than as a source for regime support. When Díaz failed to find a political solution to his succession, the Mexican Revolution erupted after the fraudulent 1910 general election.


title: Caudillo

text: Diaz came to power by a coup under the Plan of Tuxtepec and became president of Mexico 1876–1880, succeeded by his military and political "compadre" Manuel González (1880–1884) and returned to the presidency until he was overthrown in 1911 in the Mexican Revolution.


title: Caudillo

text: During that decade-long civil war, a number of regional caudillos arose. Pascual Orozco helped oust Díaz at the early stage of the Revolution, but then turned against Francisco I. Madero, who had been elected to the presidency in 1911. Pancho Villa also helped oust Díaz, supported Madero, and following his murder in 1913, became a general in the Constitutionalist Army commanded by civilian Venustiano Carranza. Emiliano Zapata, peasant leader from the state of Morelos, opposed to Díaz and every subsequent Mexican government until his murder in 1919 by agents of Carranza. Álvaro Obregón emerged as another brilliant general from northern Mexico, defeating Villa's Division of the North in 1915 after Villa had broken with Carranza. Obregón and fellow Sonoran generals Plutarco Elías Calles and Adolfo de la Huerta overthrew Carranza in 1920 under the Plan of Agua Prieta, with the presidency in the 1920s going in turn from de la Huerta, to Obregón, to Calles, and back to Obregón. During Calles's presidency (1924–28), he stringently enforced the anticlerical laws of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, leading to the Cristero War, a failed major uprising under the leadership of some regional caudillos, including Saturnino Cedillo of San Luis Potosí. Obregón was elected again in 1928, but was assassinated before he could again resume the presidency. In 1929, Plutarco Elías Calles founded a political party, then known as the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), and became the "Jefe Máximo" ("maximum chief"), being the power behind the presidency in a period known as the Maximato (1928–1934); PNR's iteration as the Institutional Revolutionary Party dominated Mexican politics until 2000 and functioned as a brake on the personalist power of regional caudillos in Mexico.


title: Caudillo

text: With the improvement of transportation, tropical products such as coffee and bananas could be transported to a growing consumer market in the United States. In Guatemala Justo Rufino Barrios ruled as a Liberal autocrat and expanded coffee cultivation. In El Salvador, Santiago González took power in 1871 and established Liberal dominance until 1944. In Nicaragua José Santos Zelaya ousted Conservatives in 1893 and embarked on agricultural exports and infrastructure projects. He later became hostile to the United States, which helped oust him in 1909. With the incorporation of the United Fruit Company in the U.S. in 1899, the company's presence in Hispanic America expanded especially in Costa Rica, Guatemala, Colombia, and Cuba.


title: Caudillo

text: In twentieth-century Nicaragua, the capitalist strongman Anastasio Somoza García held the presidential office and then was succeeded by his son Anastasio Somoza Debayle, establishing a political dynasty. A notoriously brutal dictatorship, it was supported by the United States as a means to maintain political stability in the region and shore up U.S. business interests. The Somoza dynasty was overthrown in the Sandinista Revolution in 1979.


title: Caudillo

text: Cuba was a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War (1898), so that caudillos arose to power only in the twentieth century. Gerardo Machado and Fulgencio Batista had their roots in the Cuban military. Machado ran for re-election in 1928 despite a promise to only serve one term as president, and became increasingly repressive against his critics, many who were killed by the police. Machado was overthrown in 1933 by the Sergeants' Revolt that saw Batista rise to prominence. Batista appointed himself head of the armed forces, ruled through puppet presidents and was elected president in 1940. After failing to be re-elected in 1952, Batista launched a coup, installing a right-wing dictatorship where American business interests, landowners, and the Cuban elite were favored. Under Batista, hundreds to 4,000 Cubans were killed by the army, police, Rural Guard and anti-communist secret police, with many more fleeing into exile. Batista's right-wing dictatorship was overthrown in 1959 by Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro, Che Guevara, Camilo Cienfuegos, and their left-wing nationalist 26th of July Movement. After worsening relations with the US culminated in the Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961, Fidel declared himself a communist and established an authoritarian Marxist-Leninist state. Fidel's brother Raúl succeeded as leader in 2011 when Fidel was too ill to remain in power. This kind of dynastic succession is an example of continuismo.


title: Caudillo

text: In the Dominican Republic, Rafael Trujillo came to power in 1930, ruling for over 31 years as an unchallenged military strongmen, either by himself or through puppet presidents. Trujillo established a personality cult, extended his policy of state terrorism into neighboring countries, the US and Central America, and ordered the Parsley massacre where tens of thousands of Haitians were killed by Dominican troops.


title: Caudillo

text: Argentina has experienced a long history of caudillismo. In the twentieth century, Juan Perón and his dynamic and charismatic wife, Evita Perón, held power. One historian has speculated whether Evita Perón can be considered a caudilla. With Eva's death in 1952 from cancer, Perón fell from power and went into exile. He returned to power with his third wife Isabel Perón, whom he made vice president. With his death, she succeeded to power but was later overthrown by the Argentine military.


title: Caudillo

text: Today, the term caudillo is still used in Argentina as a negative term to describe very powerful provincial governors, who might perpetuate themselves in power for decades and engage in corruption, particularly misappropriation of public funds. They also tend to practice nepotism. Some of the most powerful governors who have been called caudillos are Gildo Insfran, governor of Formosa from 1995 to the present, and Carlos Juárez in Santiago del Estero.


title: Caudillo

text: In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Chile had a significant period of civilian, constitutional rule. With the election of socialist Salvador Allende, the Chilean Army with the support of the U.S. government overthrew him by coup on September 11, 1973, and General Augusto Pinochet assumed power. Pinochet attempted to remain in power via constitutional means and staged a plebiscite in 1988 to get popular support. The plebiscite failed to provide a mandate and Chile entered a period of transition to democracy.


title: Caudillo

text: Paraguay was ruled by General Alfredo Stroessner from 1954 to 1989 and was ousted by military coup in 1989.


title: Caudillo

text: The Republic of Entre Ríos was a short-lived state comprising what are today the Argentine provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes. It was founded on September 29th, 1820 by General Francisco Ramírez (who styled himself "jefe supremo", supreme chief) and lasted only one year. In spite of the "Republic" in its title, Ramirez never really intended to declare an independent Entre Rios. Rather, he was making a political statement in opposition to the monarchist and unitarian ideas that back then permeated Buenos Aires' politics. Ramírez was killed on July 10th, 1821 after an unsuccessful attempt at saving his wife from captivity, and on September 28th, the republic was dissolved.


title: Caudillo

text: The Free Province of Guayaquil was the predecessor state of Ecuador that emerged as a result of the Revolution of October 9, led mainly by José Joaquín de Olmedo. The state lasted until July 31st, 1822, when, after the Guayaquil Conference, Simón Bolívar staged a coup d'état, which forcefully annexed the state to Gran Colombia. Its successor was the Guayaquil Department, which later would gain independence as Ecuador on May 13th, 1830, under Juan José Flores.


title: Caudillo

text: The Independent Republic of Spanish Haiti was the state that resulted from the defeat of Spanish royalists from Santo Domingo on November 9th, 1821, led by General José Núñez de Cáceres. Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer had been preparing for a rumored invasion by French and Spanish troops, so when the independence of Spanish Haiti was declared on December 1st, Boyer began do send emissaries to the central and northern parts of the republic to promote its annexation, and some cities began to fly the Haitian flag on public buildings and plazas. Originally the government was in favour of joining Gran Colombia, but some officials were persuaded into uniting with Haiti, which idea was more liked by the populous. By 1822 many cities had already agreed to annexation by Haiti, and on February 9th, Boyer formally entered the capital city, Santo Domingo, where it's full annexation was recognised and the republic was dissolved.


title: Caudillo

text: The State of Los Altos was a secessionist state founded mostly by Guatemalan liberals, seeking independence from the conservative regime in Guatemala, led by Mariano Rivera Paz, and later Rafael Carrera. The state was supported by the Federal Republic of Central America (later only El Salvador and Honduras), and was even officially made the sixth state within the Federal Republic, untill it was invaded and re-incorporated within Guatemala in 1840. The most important figure in Los Altan independence was General Agustín Guzmán, a supporter of Francisco Morazán, who originally attempted to defend Los Altos from the Guatemalan invasion, and later was the main leader of secessionist revolts in the 1840s. Guzmán died of wounds after an unsuccessful occupation of Guatemala City in 1849.


title: Caudillo

text: The Free State of the Isthmus was a short-lived independent state located in present day Panama. The state was created after a popular meeting on November 18, 1840 with General Tomás de Herrera as president, but the state was only recognised by the United States and Costa Rica and only lasted about 13 months. Tomás de Herrera originally fought against an independence movement in Panama led by Juan Eligio Alzuru and was appointed Colonel Commandant General of the Isthmus of Panama.


title: Caudillo

text: The Republic of Puerto Rico was the name of the revolting state during the ""Grito de Lares"". The revolt was originally planned by Ramón Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis, but Belvis died before the revolt was initiated. The republic was declared on September 28th, 1868 in the town of Lares, with Francisco Ramírez Medina as president, but the revolt itself was headed by Manuel Rojas Luzardo. After an unsuccessful attempt at taking San Sebastián del Pepino, the rebels returned to Lares, where they were arrested by Puerto Rican militia. The revolt ended, and the republic was dissolved.


title: Caudillo

text: Fictional Hispanic American caudillos, sometimes based on real historical figures, are important in literature. Colombian Nobel Prize winner Gabriel García Márquez published two works with strongmen as main characters, "The Autumn of the Patriarch" and "The General in his Labyrinth", a controversial novel about Simón Bolívar. In 1946, Nobel Prize laureate Miguel Ángel Asturias published "El Señor Presidente", based on the life of Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1898–1920), which was translated to English in 1975. Augusto Roa Bastos published a novel based on the life of Paraguayan caudillo Dr. Francia. In Mexico, two fictional caudillos are depicted by Mariano Azuela's 1916 novel "Los de Abajo" and Carlos Fuentes's novel "The Death of Artemio Cruz". Mexican writer Martín Luis Guzmán published in 1929 his novel "La sombra del caudillo ", a powerful critic of such strongmen. An outlier in terms of subject matter is Rómulo Gallegos's "Doña Bárbara", depicting a woman caudillo.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Forsythe Pendleton "Jughead" Jones III is one of the fictional characters created by Bob Montana and John L. Goldwater in Archie Comics who first appeared in the first Archie story, from "Pep Comics" #22 (December 1941). He is the drummer of the Archies and is a son of Forsythe Pendleton Jones II; in one of the early Archie newspaper comic strips, he is identified as John Jugworth Jones III (and in one strip, likely due to a continuity error, as Forsythe Van Jones). He has a white sheepdog named Hot Dog and a younger sister, Forsythia "Jellybean" Jones.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead (shortened to Jug or Juggie) is the best friend of vocalist/guitarist Archie Andrews. Jughead is a smart, sharp-tongued, laid-back, and eccentric high school student. He is obsessed with eating food and in some storylines is asexual. Most see him as being lazy. He can be identified by his long nose, half-closed eyes, "S" sweatshirt, and whoopee cap (a crown-like warped and trimmed fedora hat). Jughead is portrayed by Cole Sprouse in the live-action CW series, "Riverdale" and Mihir Ahuja in "The Archies".


title: Jughead Jones

text: Bob Montana stated that Jughead was a character he imagined, unlike other characters in the series who were based on people he knew. Montana's widow, Peg Bertholet, stated that high school friend of Montana's named Skinny Linehan supposedly had some of Jughead's peculiar traits. Bertholet has stated that the "S" insignia refers to a location called Skunk Hill in Haverhill, Massachusetts which Montana turned into Squirrel Hill. The "S" alludes to a combination of the location and Montana's elementary school athletic team near Haverhill called the Tigers. Bertholet has stated that "S" stands for "'Squirrel Hill Independent Tigers,' and you couldn't abbreviate it any other way."


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead generally has a characteristic wry and sarcastic sense of humor. He is considered a bit of an oddity, but prefers his nonconformism as opposed to going along with others' styles. His many quirks make him the butt of teasing and abuse from Reggie, Veronica, and even other classmates and teachers. Many episodes involve Reggie and Jughead trying to outdo one another with pranks and bets, and Jughead almost always comes out the victor. He is revealed to be extremely clever and creative when necessary and he often takes advantage of Reggie's and his other tormentors' weaknesses (and has fun all the while).


title: Jughead Jones

text: In the earlier comics, a running gag involved various characters trying to discover Jughead's real name, while Jughead thwarted their efforts. In one story, Archie Andrews and Reggie Mantle go to the school office, where a woman tells them that Jughead's real first name is Steve. After Archie and Reggie leave the office, the audience learns that the woman is actually Jughead's aunt who has just lied as a favor to Jughead to help keep his real first name (Forsythe) hidden. The earliest stories indicated that the mention of his name drove girls wild for him. The first of these appeared in "Jughead" #159 (August 1968). In Little Archie #49 (September 1968), Miss Grundy revealed his real name at the start of class, and it drove girls wild. In a later story (issue #1 of "The Jughead Jones Comics Digest," June 1977) we find out he is named after his ancestor, Forsythe P. Jones, who is an American hero. For a brief time, Jughead started to use his given name in honor of his ancestor. After learning that this ancestor was married nine times, Jughead reverted to his nickname.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Another mystery that follows Jughead's character is the meaning of the "S" on his sweatshirt. This remains a mystery to this day, although many stories have hinted at a meaning. In Jughead #30 (1992), when his psychiatrist, Sara, asked him "why an 'S'?" he replied "I dunno! My third cousin was called skinny..." The triangular banner on the cover of issue 140 of "Archie & Friends" shows that the "S" stands for "Silby", as in Silby High School, which he attended for a few months as a freshman. At one time after his sweater was filled with holes due to what he thought was a moth when it was actually a chemical accident caused in lab class, he reveals that he simply likes the letter S and finds it "compatible," because the letter can stand for "soup, sandwich, steak and all kinds of goodies!" after his friends ask him. Betty rolls her eyes at the explanation and adds, "S stands for "sorry I asked"!" Another theory is that, as he is a non-conformist, he wears an "S" as opposed to his classmates who wear sweaters adorned with an "R" which stands for Riverdale.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead is known for his love of food, especially hamburgers, and his ability to consume absurdly large quantities in a single sitting without getting sick or gaining weight, although he often sports a pot-belly immediately after a particularly large meal. Jughead is a preferred customer of most of Riverdale's food establishments, especially Pop Tate's Chock'lit Shoppe, except when he is behind on paying his usually lengthy tab. In one story, he was given a "Restaurant Club Card" and ate out at high-class restaurants until he found out how much interest the card charged, and Pop Tate loaned him the money on the condition that he eat exclusively at the Chock'lit Shoppe. His ability to eat so much food without gaining weight is attributed to a very rare and implausibly high metabolism . He once claimed that he weighed 300 pounds after a meal, although he is usually portrayed as slim and healthy.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead's special abilities concerning food extend to being able to identify food in a sealed can by smell, and being able to detect the slightest flaws in food preparation by taste. As such, he is a respected food critic, as well as a gourmet chef himself. One time, when he sought out Miss Grundy's help with his creative writing, she suggested that he write about a subject he knew, leading to the "Forsythe P. Jones Cookbook".


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead often participates in eating contests, usually winning outright, or else easily coming from behind after comic distractions, and often with room to spare while the competitor retires unwell. In a citywide eating contest, he ate a colossal burger made up of sixteen different burgers. Jughead also set two world records for eating pizza; one for speed-eating a pizza, and another for eating the most pizzas in one sitting: twelve. Jughead's appetite is so large that even if he eats shortly before such contests, it does not affect his performance. For example, a rival high school once sent a girl, Jane Dough, to take Jughead to various restaurants and feed him as much as possible. Amazingly, Jughead still managed to win the contest. He explained to Jane that top athletes need to train constantly in order to stay in shape, and she actually helped him "train" for the contest.


title: Jughead Jones

text: One running gag depicts Jughead visiting restaurants that promise "all you can eat" special deals, with the devastated restaurateur closing down as Jughead leaves.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Despite his appetite, Jughead is not known to be stingy with food, or to let others go hungry. When a store selling penny candy opened in Riverdale, he spent his whole allowance on a huge bag of candy, only to meet a penniless young boy outside the shop. Jughead wrestled with his desire, but he chose to give the candy to the boy. In a similar story, Jughead met a homeless person who liked the same kind of pizza as he did, and decided to give him the pizza he had just purchased. In another story, after winning three pizzas a week for six months for being a pizzeria's one-millionth customer, he donated them all to a soup kitchen where he volunteered.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Because of his well-known food obsession, Jughead was shown eating a hamburger on the facades of the short-lived Archie's Family Restaurants.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead is almost always seen wearing his trademark beanie with both a round and square pin. This type of crown-shaped cap, called a whoopee cap, sometimes a "Jughead cap" or "crown", was popular among boys in the 1930s and 1940s. It was made from a man's felt fedora hat with the brim trimmed in a zig-zag and turned up. Bottle caps could be "pinned" in place using the cap's removable cork lining. In the 1920s and 1930s, college freshmen were sometimes required to wear them for initiation purposes, and such caps were often worn by mechanics. Similar caps have appeared on other comic book/strip, cartoon, and children's book characters such as Eddie Stimson in "Little Lulu", Melvin Wisenheimer in "Little Audrey", Skuzz in The Berenstain Bears, and Bugs Meany in "Encyclopedia Brown" as well as on Goober Pyle on "The Andy Griffith Show" and Jeff Goldblum's character "Freak #1" in "Death Wish". Jughead's hat was recolored in black in the Filmation cartoons and pink in "The New Archies". Over the course of the character's publication, Jughead's hat has evolved from a modified fedora to its more recognisable "crown" appearance.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Though some view the hat as strange and immature, Jughead considers it a good luck charm and when it is taken from him, misfortune comes his way. While on the school baseball team, Jughead was pulled aside and reprimanded by school principal Mr. Weatherbee for wearing the hat instead of a proper baseball uniform cap. Jughead complied, but then started performing so badly that Weatherbee was forced to relent.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In the "Time Police" comic, there is a double of his beanie given to him by an unknown benefactor (later revealed to be himself) that allows him to travel in time.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Some stories showed him wear a unique pin on his hat which attracts many girls to him, so he hid it to avoid the crowd of girls rushing him.


title: Jughead Jones

text: The hat also seems to define part of Jughead's personality. One story has the gang try to convince him to try a different hat, but it is revealed that whatever hat he tried on changed his personality to suit the hat. When they had him try on a detective hat, he zeroed in on clues that would have gotten Archie in trouble with Betty and Veronica, and took a hair from Reggie's sweater that implied that he sneaked a date with Midge behind Moose's back (the look on both of their faces imply he was on to something). Jughead also stated that he felt naked without a hat. Finally, Veronica gave him a special hat to try on. When he did, everyone said it suited him (it was an ugly thing but looked comical. She said she was saving it for a Mad Hatter party). Jughead tried wearing it for a day at school, but scared several students, teachers, and even Miss Beazly the cafeteria lady) they begged him to go back to his trademark hat. When he asked what they'd do if he did, they offered him a platter of hamburgers and he happily agreed.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In Jughead and Friends Digest #25 story "The Secret of Jughead's Hat" his cap is destroyed in a laundry accident. Wendy Weatherbee (Principal Weatherbee's niece) replaces the lost hat by doing exactly as explained above when she takes an old fedora and cuts it and shapes it to remake the whoopee cap or crown.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead's best friend is Archie Andrews, despite their personality difference. Archie was the first person that Jughead met upon moving to Riverdale, and he is often dragged into Archie's schemes and antics. Jughead is usually the first one to bail Archie out of trouble (though some times he only makes things worse). Jughead, extremely loyal, is willing to do almost anything to help his friend, something that Archie occasionally takes for granted.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Reggie Mantle is another one of Jughead's close friends, though his and Jughead's relationship is defined by their constant competition. Reggie never loses an opportunity to insult Jughead ("needle-nose" being his favorite nickname) and Jughead often responds with tricks to aggravate Reggie. Though it often appears they hate each other, and neither will admit otherwise, they really do care for one another. Jughead will even help Reggie escape being injured when Moose Mason is angry with him.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Alongside Archie, Betty Cooper frequently slips into the best friend role for Jughead in the comics. Their mutual love and appreciation for food (she cooks, he eats), and continuously going to bat for each other have made their friendship a stronghold in the comics. While generally disinterested in matters of the heart, Jughead frequently stands up for Betty when Archie breaks her heart. In one comic, Jughead tells Betty that if he were to ever kiss a girl willingly, it would be her.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead and Veronica Lodge are constantly arguing. Veronica cannot stand his laid-back attitude witticisms, and Jughead enjoys teasing her and making her lose her temper with clever insults. Their relationship would be considered that of "frenemies". Although at times, he relishes causing her to get angry because sometimes he sees her as an uncaring selfish snob. He once told Veronica he was "mad with passion" for her, and began popping up wherever she went, to get her off his back after she criticized him publicly. They were once cast together in a school play, which required them to kiss. Due to the way Jughead kissed her, she was caught up in the moment and fell in love with him for a while. However, Jughead managed to get her over her crush, with the help of a garlic and onion sandwich.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead's other friends include Dilton Doiley and Moose Mason. Other than Dilton, Jughead probably gets along with Moose better than the other boys because of his non-confrontational attitude (and his lack of interest in Moose's girlfriend Midge). Jughead's nerdy ways and lack of interest in sports and girls probably account for how well he gets along with Dilton.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead's family includes his father, also named Forsythe, his mother Gladys, and in later comics, his younger sister Jellybean. He also has many eccentric relatives including slightly-addled Uncle Herman, or "Doc Jones", a daffy and slightly pompous inventor whose creations usually wreak havoc on Jughead and/or his friends and his lookalike younger cousin, Souphead. Other one-time relatives appear frequently. Jughead also tells many stories of his ancestors, who prove to be quite as interesting as himself. A 1970s "Archie" cartoon episode featured Jughead's paternal grandparents—"both" of whom resemble Jughead.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Another acquaintance of Jughead's is Trula Twyst, Riverdale High's budding pop psychologist, who is constantly trying to analyze Jughead to determine what makes him so odd. The two share a strange love/hate relationship that would have gone much smoother had they not met the way they did- Trula tricked Jughead into dating her in order to become more popular.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In one story, Jughead claimed his great-grandmother was a Native American "from the Pawtuxet tribe," despite the fact that the Patuxet were killed off by 1622. In another story from the same era, he claimed his great-great-grandfather was "an eskimo," who was "the only cop north of Nome...'Ol' Bluenose Jones' they called him!" It is likely that neither of these claims are meant to be taken seriously. In both stories he also used his claims to make fun of Veronica, which suggests more that his comments were meant as jokes, since Jughead has a history of making up fibs to tease Veronica and other opponents.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In the "Mad Magazine" universe, Jughead's doppelgänger is nicknamed Bottleneck. Bottleneck wears a beanie that resembles a broken bottleneck. His best friend (and fellow juvenile delinquent) is Starchie.


title: Jughead Jones

text: "Jughead's Time Police" was a series that began in 1990 featuring Jughead as a hero of the 29th century and a member of the Time Police, an organization that ensures history to remain the same for the future's sake. In this series, the beanie gives Jughead the ability to time travel by thinking. With his supervisor, Marshal January McAndrews, Jughead repairs disturbances in the past. The series was rebooted in 2019, with Jughead building a time machine to undo the mistakes he has made, forcing January McAndrews to intervene.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Other spin-offs include "Jughead's Diner" in 1990, where he ran a diner with an eclectic cast of patrons; and "Jughead's Fantasy", resulting from "Jughead's Folly", lasted for three issues and featured Jughead's dreams of various alter-egos, including "Sir Jugalot", "Peter Goon--Private Eye", and "Son of Hercules". Jughead also featured in "Explorers of the Unknown", playing Squint, a daredevil escape artist.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead is known for his lack of interest in romantic relationships with anyone. Jughead's philosophy on romantic relationships, gained from observing Archie's romantic entanglements, is that dating complicates a guy's life and deprives him of cash that could be used to buy burgers. This often attracts girls rather than repels them. His most ardent admirer is Ethel Muggs, an awkward but very friendly girl who chases after Jughead at every opportunity, despite Jughead's constant and blunt refusals. Later story-lines showed a decrease in her obsession with him, and even show her dating other guys, surprisingly making Jughead jealous. Jughead secretly enjoys the attention, although he claims he puts up with Ethel's company only if she cooks for him. He has shown romantic interest in her on rare occasions, and eventually fell in love with her in the "Life With Archie: The Married Life" series where the "Archie Marries Veronica" stories ended with Jughead and Ethel's wedding.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In 2016, Jughead's orientation was confirmed to be asexual in the stories of Chip Zdarsky (and later Ryan North and Mark Waid) for the "Jughead" comics as part of the "New Riverdale" line. Zdarsky said of his run on the book that "the next writer could make him discover girls or boys or both and that's totally fine. There have been iterations of Jughead over the decades where he HAS been interested in girls, so there's room to play around if someone was inclined. For me though, I like an asexual Jughead." He later tweeted that he viewed Jughead as "ace and probably demi-romantic, but for the purposes of his teen years, aro." Both "Riverdale" fans in the asexual community and Cole Sprouse, who portrays Jughead in The CW's "Riverdale", have complained of asexual erasure in mainstream television and expressed desire to see the character's asexuality explored. However, Sprouse later noted that the Jughead Zdarsky created is the only asexual version so far. At the same time, he said that Jughead is aromantic in the classic Archie stories, "a different thing [from asexuality] but deserves attention as well."


title: Jughead Jones

text: A group of girls formed the UGAJ (United Girls Against Jughead) in an effort to get him interested in romance, using methods such as computers or food, though ultimately failing.


title: Jughead Jones

text: For his first forty years or so, Jughead often claimed girls were despicable, and even as late as the 1990s. A shift in societal attitudes has caused later writers and fans to try different ways of explaining this, such as past heartbreak from childhood romance, bad impressions from Veronica and Ethel, and in the 2015 reboot, asexuality. There has never been one consistent canon explanation for Jughead's avoidance of girls and dating. In one story, Jughead declares, "I don't hate girls—I just love food more!" In the story "Phood Phobia", Archie and Dilton Doiley discover a hidden layer to this: it turns out that Jughead is actually nervous around girls, and he turns to food for comfort. When confronted with this, Jughead is stunned; finding out that girls are the reason he enjoys food so much makes him lose his appetite. In another story, when Jughead saw that Miss Grundy was upset on her birthday, he rallied the other students to cheer her up.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In "A Lass From The Past", written by Nate Butler and first appearing in "Jughead" #5 (April 1988), Jughead explains the reason he does not chase after girls is because of a childhood heartbreak, sustained before he moved to Riverdale. Little Jughead befriended Joani and they had a puppy love relationship. Jughead's family moved to Riverdale and he had to leave Joani behind. Determined to not endure heartbreak again, he swore off girls, keeping little Joani's picture in his wallet as a reminder. That changed when Debbie moved to town (in "Jughead's Journal," written by Rod Ollerenshaw and also first appearing in Jughead #5), and Jughead began to overcome his old heartbreak as they started dating. However, Joani suddenly visits town. Now a young woman, she tells Jughead that she never forgot him and still has a crush on him, and they share their first kiss. Before Jughead decides whether he wants to pursue a relationship with Joani, she leaves him, but with a promise that they will be together again. The comic even had Jughead say, "Sometimes, life is just more interesting than burgers and shakes." For a while, Debbie and Joani formed Jughead's own love triangle, but fans did not like it, so both girls disappeared and Jughead reverted to his classic independent lifestyle. A few years later, a girl named Trula Twyst appeared. She tends to drive Jughead crazy with her ability to predict his next moves, and they developed a love-hate relationship.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Another thread that has run through stories involves a psychic experience he is supposed to have had, caused by an odd pin he wears on his hat. In the early 1990s, Jughead had three girlfriends: Debbie, Joani, and January McAndrews. The latter is Archie's descendant in the future, who starred with Jughead in Jughead's Time Police, a short-lived spinoff comic about their adventures traveling through time.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead was the drummer for The Archies. In one four-part story, which included many flashbacks of Jughead's life, Archie had commented that the reason he'd chosen the position of drummer was that he was too introverted to play at the front of the stage. Another reason was that he could put food in his drums to eat while he played.


title: Jughead Jones

text: He has also professed a love for jazz music, once detailed in an issue of "Jughead Magazine" where he develops an obsession with an obscure jazz drummer named "Crazy" Willie Jim. After collecting his records, Jughead finally met Jim, who was now very old, ailing and reclusive, playing on a street corner. Jughead convinced Jim that he was trustworthy and they became fast friends. Jim even played with The Archies at one of their gigs. Jim died very soon after, so Jughead sat in with Jim's friends on the corner to play one last, mournful version of "St. James Infirmary Blues".


title: Jughead Jones

text: In spite of his reputation as slow and lazy, Jughead is frequently shown to be extremely intelligent, and often surprises his skeptical friends (notably Reggie Mantle and Veronica Lodge) with his vast knowledge on a wide variety of subjects, including history, Shakespeare, sports, and science. In several issues, Jughead has demonstrated that his IQ is well above average. He is an extremely good student, which exasperates his teachers when he sometimes pays them no attention.


title: Jughead Jones

text: His intelligence varies from story to story. In many cases, he has trouble keeping decent grades, but was once given an award for being the best student in the school. Once, in Little Archie, it was revealed that as a student, Jughead was second only to Dilton Doiley. His intelligence is displayed by his sharp wit, the occasional deep insight, and the odd chance he gets to upstage or outsmart Reggie Mantle. In one issue, Mr. Weatherbee tries to cut down on Jughead's food consumption, only to realize that Jughead's brain stops functioning without massive amounts of food. Professor Flutesnoot implies that Jughead's brain burns all the calories, which keeps him thin.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead is also a talented artist, and refers to his works as his "Dipsy Doodles", which feature in one-page comic strips. Often, what he paints comes to life or becomes a real, three-dimensional object. Another recurring gag, featured in the 1960s, was "Professor Jughead", where he would wear a gown and mortarboard and lecture to his fellow teenagers about subjects he considered relevant. However, the content of the lesson was often nonsensical and useless in real life. "Professor Jughead's Loony Laws" was a strip in which he presented various dumb laws. One strip explores the fact that Jughead is seldom drawn with his eyes open by noting that Jughead has the unusual ability to "see" with his eyes completely shut, and not see with them open.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In his spare time, he enjoys playing video games, reading comic books, and skateboarding. It was also noted in one issue that he has an interest in Japanese anime and manga as well, with titles such as Sailor Lunar, Dragon Tall 33, Tech Robo, and Tragic Knight Sayearth. In the late 1980s, Jughead became obsessed with the skateboarding subculture, and his interests and taste in fashion were revamped to fit this. A number of short-lived characters were added to the "Jughead" comics, including his paraplegic African-American crush Anita; blind rival for Ethel's affections Jeff and his guide dog Spike; and heavy metal band The Potholes. However, this makeover only lasted for a few years.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead rarely takes an interest in sports, but has a few unexpected athletic talents. These are often side effects of his other activities. For example, he is a very fast runner due to his constant evasion of Ethel and his determination to be at the front of the lunchline every day. Coach Kleats often tries to recruit him for various school teams, usually without longterm success. Over the years, he has been seen as a basketball player, baseball pitcher, martial artist, swimmer, dancer and gymnast.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Many stories revolve around other characters making comments about Jughead's appetite. One story has Dilton Doiley making calculations to scientifically prove that it's impossible for Jughead to eat the way that he does, and even convinces Pop Tate to cook everything Jughead ate earlier to prove it. When the entire gang isn't paying attention, Jughead ate all the food and ended the story by saying that if they didn't believe it they could make the food and he'd eat it again. Another story has Jughead going against a guy from another group in an eating contest. The rival gang sends a girl to feed Jughead to fill him up the night before in an effort to cheat but he manages to win anyway. In still another, Archie expresses concern over Jughead's eating and lack of exercise, which prompts Reggie to show off lifting a single crate of Pop's bottles over his head. Jughead helps Pop by effortlessly lifting three crates at once and carrying them to the back room, stunning Archie and Reggie. Unnerving them even more, he rips out a stool that Pop said he could take for a souvenir (he was replacing his counter stools later that day) with one hand again with no effort. In that story, he says he eats to get strong, cracking up Archie and Reggie, but they change their mind when they see he's very strong, and even take up eating in an effort to get strong, with no success.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Often, when Jughead attempts to join a team, he ends up with an undesirable menial task, such as water-boy or equipment manager. However, he often takes part in less strenuous school activities, such as the school newspaper, "the Blue and Gold". His reputation as a food critic and his unbiased views of the school teams make him a valuable member of the staff. In some stories, Jughead has been shown to have supernatural abilities that are never seen again. These include controlling weather, giving the evil-eye, learning the skills presented in any book he reads, and predicting the future.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In the "Super Teens" stories (where several of the main "Archie" characters are secretly superheroes), Jughead could become Captain Hero, gaining a caped costume and more muscular physique (varying from story to story), but retaining his crown-shaped cap. Captain Hero appeared when Jughead recites the magic incantation (similar to Green Lantern's oath):


title: Jughead Jones

text: "Teeny weeny magic beanie pointing towards the sky; give me muscle, power, vigor - form a super guy!"


title: Jughead Jones

text: Captain Hero often seemed to possess just the right powers for the problem at hand. These were never completely defined, but he maintained certain "stock" superhuman powers, such as flight, enhanced strength and resistance to injury. Early on, Captain Hero was often the most serious and competent of the Super Teens, and the others would defer to his leadership, in contrast to Jughead's perceived status as Archie's sidekick and a generally lazy individual.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Hot Dog is a long-haired mutt who resembles a white Old English Sheepdog. He belongs to Jughead, although when he first appeared in "Pep Comics" #224 (December 1968), he belonged to Archie. Hot Dog switched owners frequently in his early appearances, but was eventually given a permanent home with Jughead.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Hot Dog usually thinks like a human, in that his thoughts are presented in thought bubbles. He is lazy, constantly hungry, and, much like Jughead, has a dislike for Reggie Mantle.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Hot Dog is usually considered a member of Archie's Gang. He tends to be attracted to Veronica Lodge’s pedigreed dogs, and even had a litter of puppies with one of them, a poodle named Lucretia, much to Veronica's chagrin. In the 1970s series "Sabrina the Teenage Witch", Hot Dog has a sidekick, Chili Dog, who is smaller and red-haired. A running gag is the two dogs' "battles" with Sabrina's cat Salem Saberhagen. In the alternate universe limited series "Jughead's Pal, Hot Dog", when Jughead's family objects to Hot Dog living indoors because he is covered in dirt, Dilton Doiley builds Hot Dog a doghouse full of whimsical inventions. Hot Dog's sidekick in that short-lived series is a chihuahua named Pablito.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In the Filmation animated series "The Archie Show", Hot Dog is the mascot for The Archies and is often portrayed as pretending to "conduct" the band.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Hot Dog appears in "Archie's Weird Mysteries", once again as Jughead's dog. In this continuity, however, Jughead is shown to own multiple pets, so he isn't seen very often. Sometimes, Hot Dog is affected by the surreal occurrences that plague Riverdale. For instance, in the episode "Twisted Youth", he is transformed back into a puppy as a result of drinking some age-reversing water.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead appears in the first issue of "Afterlife with Archie" before being bitten by a resurrected Hot Dog, which transforms him into a zombie. He is referred to as "Patient Zero" in terms of being the first one affected. However, the eighth issue reveals that Jughead is a ghost and his soul is no longer in his body; whatever is controlling his corpse isn't him.


title: Jughead Jones

text: In this Archie Horror spin-off, Jughead is a werewolf responsible for a number of murders in Riverdale and becomes known as "The Riverdale Ripper." He and Archie realize he's a werewolf after he murders Dilton during a full moon. The next day, Betty reveals that he comes from a long-line of lycanthropy dating all the way back to medieval England and that her ancestors have always been there to stop them. Not wanting Betty to murder his friend, Archie suggests going to the botanical gardens to cure Jughead with Wolfsbane. This works for a couple of months, but after it wears off and Jughead murders Reggie in his wolf state, he leaves town with Hot Dog as he knows Betty wouldn't give him a second chance.


title: Jughead Jones

text: Jughead appears in "Life with Archie: The Married Life" beginning in 2010. In this series, Jughead has taken over Pop's from Pop Tate and has renamed it Jughead's, which later spanned a franchise in each respective universe. He ended up abandoning the franchise to operate the original shoppe in Riverdale. In this series, he ends up marrying Midge Klump in one universe, and Ethel in the other.


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: The 80th Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 2007. The award ceremony took place on February 24, 2008, at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles. During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 24 categories. The ceremony was televised in the United States by ABC, and produced by Gil Cates and directed by Louis J. Horvitz. Comedian Jon Stewart hosted the show for the second time, having previously presided over the 78th ceremony held in 2006. On February 9, at the Beverly Wilshire Hotel in Beverly Hills, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Jessica Alba.


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: "No Country for Old Men" won four awards, including Best Picture. Other winners included "The Bourne Ultimatum" with three awards, "La Vie en Rose" and "There Will Be Blood" with two, and "Atonement", "The Counterfeiters", "", "Freeheld", "The Golden Compass", "Juno", "Michael Clayton", "Le Mozart des Pickpockets", "Once", "Peter & the Wolf", "Ratatouille", "", and "Taxi to the Dark Side" with one. The telecast garnered 31 million viewers, making it the least watched Oscar broadcast since 1974, when Nielsen began keeping records of viewership.


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: The nominations were announced on January 22, 2008, at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California by Sid Ganis, president of the Academy, and actress Kathy Bates. "No Country for Old Men" and "There Will Be Blood" tied for the most nominations with eight each.


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: The winners were announced during the award ceremony of February 24, 2008. Best Director winners Joel and Ethan Coen became the second pair of directors to win the award for the same film. Jerome Robbins and Robert Wise first accomplished this feat for co-directing 1961's "West Side Story". This was also the second time in Oscar history (the first being 1964's 37th Academy Awards) that none of the four acting winners was American. Daniel Day-Lewis became the eighth person to win Best Actor twice. Best Actress winner Marion Cotillard was the fifth person to win for a non-English speaking performance and the second person to do so in the aforementioned category, after Sophia Loren who won for 1961's "Two Women". Cate Blanchett became the eleventh performer to receive double acting nominations in the same year. By virtue of her nomination for her role as the title character in "", she also was the first actress and fifth performer overall to be nominated for portraying the same character in two different films (she previously earned a nomination for playing Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1998's "Elizabeth"). At age 82, Best Supporting Actor nominee Hal Holbrook was at the time, the oldest male acting nominee in Oscar history until Christopher Plummer was nominated for "All the Money in the World" in the 90th Academy Awards. Robert F. Boyle became the oldest recipient of the Academy Honorary award at the age of 98.


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: In September 2007, the Academy hired Gil Cates to oversee production of the telecast for a record 14th time. Ganis explained his decision to hire Cates as producer stating, "He's so talented...so creative and inventive, and so enormously passionate about the Oscars. All of that will again translate into a night that people can't wait to experience." Immediately, Cates selected actor, comedian, and talk-show host Jon Stewart as host of the 2008 ceremony. "Jon was a terrific host for the 78th Awards," Cates said about Stewart in a press release. "He is smart, quick, funny, loves movies and is a great guy. What else could one ask for?"


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: Furthermore, the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike affected the telecast and its surrounding events. Over a month after the labor dispute began, the striking Writers Guild of America (WGA) denied a waiver requested by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in connection with film clips and excerpts from previous award ceremonies to be shown at the 2008 awards. The material could have been used, as the denial only affected the conditions under which the clips are shown. Previously, the 60th ceremony held in 1988 occurred 37 days after that year's writers strike began. At the time, material was already completed in anticipation for the strike, and actors were in full attendance of the ceremony.


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: In anticipation that the strike would continue through Oscar night, AMPAS developed a Plan B show that would not have included actors accepting their awards. It would have included the musical numbers, but would have relied heavily on historic film clips, emphasizing the 80th anniversary of the awards. However, both the WGA and Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP) reached an agreement effectively ending the strike on February 12, 2008, and the ceremony proceeded under its normal format.


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: Continuing a trend in recent years, the field of major nominees favored independent, low-budget films over blockbusters. The combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees when the Oscars were announced was $217 million; the average gross per film was $43.3 million.


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: None of the five Best Picture nominees was among the top ten releases in box office during the nominations. When the nominations were announced on January 22, "Juno" was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $87.1 million in domestic box office receipts. The film was followed by "No Country for Old Men" ($48.9 million), "Michael Clayton" ($39.4 million), "Atonement" ($32.7 million), and finally "There Will Be Blood" ($8.7 million).


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: Out of the top 50 grossing movies of the year (prior to announcement), 29 nominations went to 12 films on the list. Only "Ratatouille" (9th), "American Gangster" (18th), "Juno" (31st), "Charlie Wilson's War" (39th), and "Surf's Up" (41st) received nominations for Best Picture, Best Animated Feature, directing, acting, or screenwriting. The other top-50 box office hits that earned nominations were "Transformers" (3rd), "Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End" (4th), "The Bourne Ultimatum" (7th), "Enchanted" (20th), "Norbit" (29th), "The Golden Compass" (37th), and "3:10 to Yuma" (45th).


title: 80th Academy Awards

text: The show received a mixed reception from media publications. Some media outlets were more critical of the show. "The Washington Post" television critic Tom Shales quipped that the ceremony was "Overstocked with clips from movies -- from this year's nominees and from Oscar winners going back to 1929 -- that it was like a TV show with the hiccups." Columnist James Poniewozik of "Time" commented that Stewart was "an Oscar host–sometimes a funny one, but a pretty conventional one, whose routine was loaded up with kiss-up softballs about how hot Colin Farrell is, what range Cate Blanchett has and what a tomcat Jack Nicholson is." Of the show itself, he wrote, "What we got instead was a show that half the time seemed like the show the Academy would have put on if there had been a strike, chockful of montages. The other half of the time, it was an typical-to-dull Oscars." Columnist Robert Bianco of "USA Today" said, "Has it ever felt like more of a padded bore than it did Sunday night? If so, blame the writers' strike, which left the producers with only a few weeks to prepare for the ABC broadcast and persuaded them to lean less on the host and more on old clips." He also observed that numerous film montages seemed to diminish Stewart's job as host.