title: Ten-Day War

text: It was agreed that all Yugoslav military units would leave Slovenia, with the Yugoslav government setting a deadline of the end of October to complete the process. The Slovenian government insisted that the withdrawal should proceed on its terms; the JNA was not allowed to take much of its heavy weaponry and equipment, which was later either deployed locally or sold to other Yugoslav republics. The withdrawal began about ten days later and was completed by 26 October.


title: Ten-Day War

text: Due to the short duration and low intensity of the war, casualties were not high. According to Slovenian estimates, the JNA suffered 44 fatalities and 146 wounded, while the Slovenians had 19 killed and 182 wounded. Twelve foreign nationals were killed in the conflict, principally journalists and Bulgarian truck drivers who had strayed into the line of fire. 4,692 JNA soldiers and 252 federal police officers were captured by the Slovenian side. According to post-war assessments made by the JNA, its material losses amounted to 31 tanks, 22 armoured personnel carriers, 6 helicopters, 6,787 infantry weapons, 87 artillery pieces and 124 air defence weapons damaged, destroyed or confiscated. Property damage was not heavy, due to the scattered and short-term nature of the fighting.


title: Ten-Day War

text: In the opening stages of the Ten-Day War, SFR Yugoslav authorities bombed the airport. Two Austrian journalists were injured, and several commercial aircraft were damaged in the process.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The border station at Holmec was the location of an alleged war crime perpetrated by Slovenian TO forces on 28 June, and filmed by the Austrian public broadcasting station ORF. Video footage shows a small group of JNA soldiers standing or walking slowly with raised hands, holding up a white sheet in an apparent attempt to surrender. Moments later, gunfire is heard and the soldiers fall or jump to the ground. Neither the origin of the gunfire nor its exact effect are clearly visible on the video segment. Slovene officials maintain that the JNA soldiers jumped for cover and were not hit, and that the matter was thoroughly investigated years ago. However, the incident sparked renewed public debate after the footage was shown on Serbian TV station B92 in 2006, with many claiming that the soldiers were shot and killed by Slovenian TO troops and that Slovenia is trying to cover up the affair.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The fate of the JNA soldiers identified on the footage is disputed. One report claims that the soldiers are still alive, 15 years after the conflict. Other reports identify three young soldiers as victims (Zoran Ješić, Goran Maletić and Antonio Šimunović) and claim that they were killed in the Holmec incident.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The actions of Slovenia's forces were largely dictated by the military strategy devised some months before and were tightly integrated with an equally detailed media management plan. An international media centre was established prior to the outbreak of conflict with Jelko Kacin designated to act as information minister and Slovenia's public face to the world. The Slovenian government and media successfully presented the conflict to Western European audiences as a case of a "David versus Goliath" struggle between an emerging democracy and an authoritarian communist state, and the columns of Yugoslav tanks brought to mind the events of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 two years earlier. This won considerable international sympathy and favourable media coverage for the cause of independent Slovenia.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The Slovenians had the advantage of superior morale, compared to their adversaries in the Yugoslav army. Many of the Yugoslav soldiers did not realise they were taking part in a real military operation, rather than an exercise, until they came under attack. They sent only 2000 untried conscripts, which split up into smaller groups. It was a tactical error. The officer corps was dominated by Serbs and Montenegrins and in many cases ideologically committed to Yugoslav unity. The rank and file troops however were conscripts, many of whom had no strong motivation in fighting against Slovenes. Of the soldiers of the 5th Military District, which was in action in Slovenia, in 1990 30% were Albanians, 20% Croats, 15 to 20% Serbs and Montenegrins, 10% Bosniaks, and 8% Slovenes.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The Slovenians were also well aware that the Serbian government of Slobodan Milošević was not particularly concerned about Slovenia's independence, given the lack of any significant Serbian minority in the country. On 30 June, Defence Minister General Kadijević suggested to the Yugoslav federal presidency a massive attack on Slovenia to break down the unexpectedly heavy resistance. But the Serb representative, Borisav Jović, shocked the military establishment by declaring that Serbia did not support further military action against Slovenia. Serbia was at this point more concerned with the situation in Croatia; even before the war had ended, JNA troops were already repositioning themselves for the imminent war in Croatia.


title: Ten-Day War

text: For Slovenia, the war marked the decisive defence of its independence in regard to Yugoslavia. It was officially recognised by all European Community member states on 15 January 1992 and joined the United Nations on 22 May.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The war led to a series of major shifts on the Yugoslav side. The JNA eventually lost nearly all of its Slovenian and Croat personnel, becoming an almost entirely Serbian and Montenegrin force. Its poor performance in Slovenia and later in Croatia discredited its leadership – Kadijević resigned as defence minister in January 1992, and Adžić was forced into medical retirement shortly afterwards.


title: Ten-Day War

text: The Slovenian and Croatian governments were urged by the European Commission to freeze their declaration of independence for a period of three months, hoping to ease tension, to which Slovenia and Croatia agreed. Slovenia used the period to consolidate its institutions, deliver some of the most urgent economic reforms and prepare for international recognition of the country.


title: Computing platform

text: A computing platform or digital platform is an environment in which a piece of software is executed. It may be the hardware or the operating system (OS), even a web browser and associated application programming interfaces, or other underlying software, as long as the program code is executed with it. Computing platforms have different abstraction levels, including a computer architecture, an OS, or runtime libraries. A computing platform is the stage on which computer programs can run.


title: Computing platform

text: A platform can be seen both as a constraint on the software development process, in that different platforms provide different functionality and restrictions; and as an assistant to the development process, in that they provide low-level functionality ready-made. For example, an OS may be a platform that abstracts the underlying differences in hardware and provides a generic command for saving files or accessing the network.


title: Computing platform

text: Some architectures have multiple layers, with each layer acting as a platform to the one above it. In general, a component only has to be adapted to the layer immediately beneath it. For instance, a Java program has to be written to use the Java virtual machine (JVM) and associated libraries as a platform but does not have to be adapted to run for the Windows, Linux or Macintosh OS platforms. However, the JVM, the layer beneath the application, does have to be built separately for each OS.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Hyperemesis gravidarum (HG) is a pregnancy complication that is characterized by severe nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and possibly dehydration. Feeling faint may also occur. It is considered more severe than morning sickness. Symptoms often get better after the 20th week of pregnancy but may last the entire pregnancy duration.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: The exact causes of hyperemesis gravidarum are unknown. Risk factors include the first pregnancy, multiple pregnancy, obesity, prior or family history of HG, trophoblastic disorder, and a history of eating disorders. Diagnosis is usually made based on the observed signs and symptoms. HG has been technically defined as more than three episodes of vomiting per day such that weight loss of 5% or three kilograms has occurred and ketones are present in the urine. Other potential causes of the symptoms should be excluded, including urinary tract infection and an overactive thyroid.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Treatment includes drinking fluids and a bland diet. Recommendations may include electrolyte-replacement drinks, thiamine, and a higher protein diet. Some people require intravenous fluids. With respect to medications, pyridoxine or metoclopramide are preferred. Prochlorperazine, dimenhydrinate, ondansetron (sold under the brand-name Zofran) or corticosteroids may be used if these are not effective. Hospitalization may be required due to the severe symptoms associated. Psychotherapy may improve outcomes. Evidence for acupressure is poor.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: While vomiting in pregnancy has been described as early as 2,000 BC, the first clear medical description of HG was in 1852 by Paul Antoine Dubois. HG is estimated to affect 0.3–2.0% of pregnant women, although some sources say the figure can be as high as 3%. While previously known as a common cause of death in pregnancy, with proper treatment this is now very rare. Those affected have a lower risk of miscarriage but a higher risk of premature birth. Some pregnant women choose to have an abortion due to HG symptoms.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Symptoms can be aggravated by hunger, fatigue, prenatal vitamins (especially those containing iron), and diet. Many women with HG are extremely sensitive to odors in their environment; certain smells may exacerbate symptoms. Excessive salivation, also known as sialorrhea gravidarum, is another symptom experienced by some women.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Hyperemesis gravidarum tends to occur in the first trimester of pregnancy and lasts significantly longer than morning sickness. While most women will experience near-complete relief of morning sickness symptoms near the beginning of their second trimester, some people with HG will experience severe symptoms until they give birth to their baby, and sometimes even after giving birth.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: A small percentage rarely vomit, but the nausea still causes most (if not all) of the same issues that hyperemesis with vomiting does.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: There are numerous theories regarding the cause of HG, but the cause remains controversial. It is thought that HG is due to a combination of factors which may vary between women and include genetics. Women with family members who had HG are more likely to develop the disease.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: One factor is an adverse reaction to the hormonal changes of pregnancy, in particular, elevated levels of beta human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG). This theory would also explain why hyperemesis gravidarum is most frequently encountered in the first trimester (often around 8–12 weeks of gestation), as β-hCG levels are highest at that time and decline afterward. Another postulated cause of HG is an increase in maternal levels of estrogens (decreasing intestinal motility and gastric emptying leading to nausea/vomiting).


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: More recently, another cause of HG was discovered: "Evidence suggests abnormal levels of the hormone GDF15 are associated with HG. The validation of a second risk variant, rs1054221, provides further support for GDF15's role in the etiology of HG. Additionally, maternal genes appear to play a more significant role than paternal DNA in contributing to the severity of NVP."


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Although the pathophysiology of HG is poorly understood, the most commonly accepted theory suggests that levels of β-hCG are associated with it. Leptin, a hormone that inhibits hunger, may also play a role.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Hyperemesis gravidarum is considered a diagnosis of exclusion. HG can be associated with serious problems in the mother or baby, such as Wernicke's encephalopathy, coagulopathy and peripheral neuropathy.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Women experiencing hyperemesis gravidarum often are dehydrated and lose weight despite efforts to eat. The onset of the nausea and vomiting in hyperemesis gravidarum is typically before the 20th week of pregnancy.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Common investigations include blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and electrolytes, liver function tests, urinalysis, and thyroid function tests. Hematological investigations include hematocrit levels, which are usually raised in HG. An ultrasound scan may be needed to know gestational status and to exclude molar or partial molar pregnancy.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Dry bland food and oral rehydration are first-line treatments. Due to the potential for severe dehydration and other complications, HG is treated as an emergency. If conservative dietary measures fail, more extensive treatment such as the use of antiemetic medications and intravenous rehydration may be required. If oral nutrition is insufficient, intravenous nutritional support may be needed. For women who require hospital admission, thromboembolic stockings or low-molecular-weight heparin may be used as measures to prevent the formation of a blood clot.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Intravenous (IV) hydration often includes supplementation of electrolytes as persistent vomiting frequently leads to a deficiency. Likewise, supplementation for lost thiamine (Vitamin B) must be considered to reduce the risk of Wernicke's encephalopathy. A and B vitamins are depleted within two weeks, so extended malnutrition indicates a need for evaluation and supplementation. In addition, electrolyte levels should be monitored and supplemented; of particular concern are sodium and potassium.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: After IV rehydration is completed, patients typically begin to tolerate frequent small liquid or bland meals. After rehydration, treatment focuses on managing symptoms to allow normal intake of food. However, cycles of hydration and dehydration can occur, making continuing care necessary. Home care is available in the form of a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) line for hydration and nutrition. Home treatment is often less expensive and reduces the risk for a hospital-acquired infection compared with long-term or repeated hospitalizations.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: A number of antiemetics are effective and safe in pregnancy including: pyridoxine/doxylamine, antihistamines (such as diphenhydramine), and phenothiazines (such as promethazine). With respect to effectiveness, it is unknown if one is superior to another for relieving nausea or vomiting. Limited evidence from published clinical trials suggests the use of medications to treat hyperemesis gravidarum.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: While pyridoxine/doxylamine, a combination of vitamin B and doxylamine, is effective in nausea and vomiting of pregnancy, some have questioned its effectiveness in HG.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Ondansetron may be beneficial, however, there are some concerns regarding an association with cleft palate, and there is little high-quality data. Metoclopramide is also used and relatively well tolerated. Evidence for the use of corticosteroids is weak; there is some evidence that corticosteroid use in pregnant women may slightly increase the risk of cleft lip and cleft palate in the infant and may suppress fetal adrenal activity. However, hydrocortisone and prednisolone are inactivated in the placenta and may be used in the treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum after 12 weeks.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Women not responding to IV rehydration and medication may require nutritional support. Patients might receive parenteral nutrition (intravenous feeding via a PICC line) or enteral nutrition (via a nasogastric tube or a nasojejunal tube). There is only limited evidence from trials to support the use of vitamin B to improve outcome. An oversupply of nutrition (hyperalimentation) may be necessary in certain cases to help maintain volume requirements and allow weight gain. A physician might also prescribe Vitamin B (to prevent Wernicke's encephalopathy) and folic acid.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Acupuncture (both with P6 and traditional method) has been found to be ineffective. The use of ginger products may be helpful, but evidence of effectiveness is limited and inconsistent, though three recent studies support ginger over placebo.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: If HG is inadequately treated, anemia, hyponatremia, Wernicke's encephalopathy, kidney failure, central pontine myelinolysis, coagulopathy, atrophy, Mallory-Weiss tears, hypoglycemia, jaundice, malnutrition, pneumomediastinum, rhabdomyolysis, deconditioning, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, splenic avulsion, or vasospasms of cerebral arteries are possible consequences. Depression and post-traumatic stress disorder are common secondary complications of HG and emotional support can be beneficial.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: The effects of HG on the fetus are mainly due to electrolyte imbalances caused by HG in the mother. Infants of women with severe hyperemesis who gain less than during pregnancy tend to be of lower birth weight, small for gestational age, and born before 37 weeks gestation. In contrast, infants of women with hyperemesis who have a pregnancy weight gain of more than 7 kilograms appear similar to infants from uncomplicated pregnancies. There is no significant difference in the neonatal death rate in infants born to mothers with HG compared to infants born to mothers who do not have HG. Children born to mothers with undertreated HG have a fourfold increase in neurobehavioral diagnoses.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Vomiting is a common condition affecting about 50% of pregnant women, with another 25% having nausea. However, the incidence of HG is only 0.3–1.5%. After preterm labor, hyperemesis gravidarum is the second most common reason for hospital admission during the first half of pregnancy. Factors such as infection with "Helicobacter pylori", a rise in thyroid hormone production, low age, low body mass index prior to pregnancy, multiple pregnancies, molar pregnancies, and a history of hyperemesis gravidarum have been associated with the development of HG.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Thalidomide was prescribed for treatment of HG in Europe until it was recognized that thalidomide is teratogenic and is a cause of phocomelia in neonates.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Hyperemesis gravidarum is from the Greek "hyper-", meaning excessive, and "emesis", meaning vomiting, and the Latin "gravidarum", the feminine genitive plural form of an adjective, here used as a noun, meaning "pregnant [woman]". Therefore, hyperemesis gravidarum means "excessive vomiting of pregnant women".


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Author Charlotte Brontë is often thought to have had hyperemesis gravidarum. She died in 1855 while four months pregnant, having been affected by intractable nausea and vomiting throughout her pregnancy, and was unable to tolerate food or even water.


title: Hyperemesis gravidarum

text: Catherine, Princess of Wales was hospitalised due to hyperemesis gravidarum during her first pregnancy, and was treated for a similar condition during the subsequent two.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: In physics, two wave sources are coherent if their frequency and waveform are identical. Coherence is an ideal property of waves that enables stationary (i.e., temporally or spatially constant) interference. It contains several distinct concepts, which are limiting cases that never quite occur in reality but allow an understanding of the physics of waves, and has become a very important concept in quantum physics. More generally, coherence describes all properties of the correlation between physical quantities of a single wave, or between several waves or wave packets.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Interference is the addition, in the mathematical sense, of wave functions. A single wave can interfere with itself, but this is still an addition of two waves (see Young's slits experiment). Constructive or destructive interference are limit cases, and two waves always interfere, even if the result of the addition is complicated or not remarkable. When interfering, two waves can add together to create a wave of greater amplitude than either one (constructive interference) or subtract from each other to create a wave of lesser amplitude than either one (destructive interference), depending on their relative phase. Two waves are said to be coherent if they have a constant relative phase. The amount of coherence can readily be measured by the interference visibility, which looks at the size of the interference fringes relative to the input waves (as the phase offset is varied); a precise mathematical definition of the degree of coherence is given by means of correlation functions.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Spatial coherence describes the correlation (or predictable relationship) between waves at different points in space, either lateral or longitudinal. Temporal coherence describes the correlation between waves observed at different moments in time. Both are observed in the Michelson–Morley experiment and Young's interference experiment. Once the fringes are obtained in the Michelson interferometer, when one of the mirrors is moved away gradually from the beam-splitter, the time for the beam to travel increases and the fringes become dull and finally disappear, showing temporal coherence. Similarly, in a double-slit experiment, if the space between the two slits is increased, the coherence dies gradually and finally the fringes disappear, showing spatial coherence. In both cases, the fringe amplitude slowly disappears, as the path difference increases past the coherence length.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Coherence was originally conceived in connection with Thomas Young's double-slit experiment in optics but is now used in any field that involves waves, such as acoustics, electrical engineering, neuroscience, and quantum mechanics. Coherence describes the statistical similarity of a field (electromagnetic field, quantum wave packet etc.) at two points in space or time. The property of coherence is the basis for commercial applications such as holography, the Sagnac gyroscope, radio antenna arrays, optical coherence tomography and telescope interferometers (astronomical optical interferometers and radio telescopes).


title: Coherence (physics)

text: where formula_4 is the cross-spectral density of the signal and formula_5 and formula_6 are the power spectral density functions of formula_1 and formula_2, respectively. The cross-spectral density and the power spectral density are defined as the Fourier transforms of the cross-correlation and the autocorrelation signals, respectively. For instance, if the signals are functions of time, the cross-correlation is a measure of the similarity of the two signals as a function of the time lag relative to each other and the autocorrelation is a measure of the similarity of each signal with itself in different instants of time. In this case the coherence is a function of frequency. Analogously, if formula_1 and formula_2 are functions of space, the cross-correlation measures the similarity of two signals in different points in space and the autocorrelations the similarity of the signal relative to itself for a certain separation distance. In that case, coherence is a function of wavenumber (spatial frequency).


title: Coherence (physics)

text: The coherence varies in the interval formula_11. If formula_12 it means that the signals are perfectly correlated or linearly related and if formula_13 they are totally uncorrelated. If a linear system is being measured, formula_1 being the input and formula_2 the output, the coherence function will be unitary all over the spectrum. However, if non-linearities are present in the system the coherence will vary in the limit given above.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: The coherence of two waves expresses how well correlated the waves are as quantified by the cross-correlation function. Cross-correlation quantifies the ability to predict the phase of the second wave by knowing the phase of the first. As an example, consider two waves perfectly correlated for all times (by using a monochromatic lightsource). At any time, the phase difference will be constant. If, when combined, they exhibit perfect constructive interference, perfect destructive interference, or something in-between but with constant phase difference, then it follows that they are perfectly coherent. As will be discussed below, the second wave need not be a separate entity. It could be the first wave at a different time or position. In this case, the measure of correlation is the autocorrelation function (sometimes called self-coherence). Degree of correlation involves correlation functions.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: These states are unified by the fact that their behavior is described by a wave equation or some generalization thereof.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: In most of these systems, one can measure the wave directly. Consequently, its correlation with another wave can simply be calculated. However, in optics one cannot measure the electric field directly as it oscillates much faster than any detector's time resolution. Instead, one measures the intensity of the light. Most of the concepts involving coherence which will be introduced below were developed in the field of optics and then used in other fields. Therefore, many of the standard measurements of coherence are indirect measurements, even in fields where the wave can be measured directly.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Temporal coherence is the measure of the average correlation between the value of a wave and itself delayed by τ, at any pair of times. Temporal coherence tells us how monochromatic a source is. In other words, it characterizes how well a wave can interfere with itself at a different time. The delay over which the phase or amplitude wanders by a significant amount (and hence the correlation decreases by significant amount) is defined as the coherence time "τ". At a delay of τ=0 the degree of coherence is perfect, whereas it drops significantly as the delay passes "τ=τ". The coherence length "L" is defined as the distance the wave travels in time τ.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: One should be careful not to confuse the coherence time with the time duration of the signal, nor the coherence length with the coherence area (see below).


title: Coherence (physics)

text: It can be shown that the larger the range of frequencies Δf a wave contains, the faster the wave decorrelates (and hence the smaller τ is). Thus there is a tradeoff:


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Formally, this follows from the convolution theorem in mathematics, which relates the Fourier transform of the power spectrum (the intensity of each frequency) to its autocorrelation.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: The high degree of monochromaticity of lasers implies long coherence lengths (up to hundreds of meters). For example, a stabilized and monomode helium–neon laser can easily produce light with coherence lengths of 300 m. Not all lasers have a high degree of monochromaticity, however (e.g. for a mode-locked Ti-sapphire laser, Δλ ≈ 2 nm - 70 nm). LEDs are characterized by Δλ ≈ 50 nm, and tungsten filament lights exhibit Δλ ≈ 600 nm, so these sources have shorter coherence times than the most monochromatic lasers.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Holography requires light with a long coherence time. In contrast, optical coherence tomography, in its classical version, uses light with a short coherence time.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: In optics, temporal coherence is measured in an interferometer such as the Michelson interferometer or Mach–Zehnder interferometer. In these devices, a wave is combined with a copy of itself that is delayed by time τ. A detector measures the time-averaged intensity of the light exiting the interferometer. The resulting visibility of the interference pattern (e.g. see Figure 4) gives the temporal coherence at delay τ. Since for most natural light sources, the coherence time is much shorter than the time resolution of any detector, the detector itself does the time averaging. Consider the example shown in Figure 3. At a fixed delay, here 2τ, an infinitely fast detector would measure an intensity that fluctuates significantly over a time "t" equal to τ. In this case, to find the temporal coherence at 2τ, one would manually time-average the intensity.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: In some systems, such as water waves or optics, wave-like states can extend over one or two dimensions. Spatial coherence describes the ability for two points in space, "x" and "x", in the extent of a wave to interfere, when averaged over time. More precisely, the spatial coherence is the cross-correlation between two points in a wave for all times. If a wave has only 1 value of amplitude over an infinite length, it is perfectly spatially coherent. The range of separation between the two points over which there is significant interference defines the diameter of the coherence area, "A" (Coherence length, often a feature of a source, is usually an industrial term related to the coherence time of the source, not the coherence area in the medium.) A is the relevant type of coherence for the Young's double-slit interferometer. It is also used in optical imaging systems and particularly in various types of astronomy telescopes. Sometimes people also use "spatial coherence" to refer to the visibility when a wave-like state is combined with a spatially shifted copy of itself.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Consider a tungsten light-bulb filament. Different points in the filament emit light independently and have no fixed phase-relationship. In detail, at any point in time the profile of the emitted light is going to be distorted. The profile will change randomly over the coherence time formula_17. Since for a white-light source such as a light-bulb formula_17 is small, the filament is considered a spatially incoherent source. In contrast, a radio antenna array, has large spatial coherence because antennas at opposite ends of the array emit with a fixed phase-relationship. Light waves produced by a laser often have high temporal and spatial coherence (though the degree of coherence depends strongly on the exact properties of the laser). Spatial coherence of laser beams also manifests itself as speckle patterns and diffraction fringes seen at the edges of shadow.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Holography requires temporally and spatially coherent light. Its inventor, Dennis Gabor, produced successful holograms more than ten years before lasers were invented. To produce coherent light he passed the monochromatic light from an emission line of a mercury-vapor lamp through a pinhole spatial filter.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: In February 2011 it was reported that helium atoms, cooled to near absolute zero / Bose–Einstein condensate state, can be made to flow and behave as a coherent beam as occurs in a laser.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Waves of different frequencies (in light these are different colours) can interfere to form a pulse if they have a fixed relative phase-relationship (see Fourier transform). Conversely, if waves of different frequencies are not coherent, then, when combined, they create a wave that is continuous in time (e.g. white light or white noise). The temporal duration of the pulse formula_19 is limited by the spectral bandwidth of the light formula_20 according to:


title: Coherence (physics)

text: which follows from the properties of the Fourier transform and results in Küpfmüller's uncertainty principle (for quantum particles it also results in the Heisenberg uncertainty principle).


title: Coherence (physics)

text: If the phase depends linearly on the frequency (i.e. formula_22) then the pulse will have the minimum time duration for its bandwidth (a "transform-limited" pulse), otherwise it is chirped (see dispersion).


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Measurement of the spectral coherence of light requires a nonlinear optical interferometer, such as an intensity optical correlator, frequency-resolved optical gating (FROG), or spectral phase interferometry for direct electric-field reconstruction (SPIDER).


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Light also has a polarization, which is the direction in which the electric or magnetic field oscillates. Unpolarized light is composed of incoherent light waves with random polarization angles. The electric field of the unpolarized light wanders in every direction and changes in phase over the coherence time of the two light waves. An absorbing polarizer rotated to any angle will always transmit half the incident intensity when averaged over time.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: If the electric field wanders by a smaller amount the light will be partially polarized so that at some angle, the polarizer will transmit more than half the intensity. If a wave is combined with an orthogonally polarized copy of itself delayed by less than the coherence time, partially polarized light is created.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: The polarization of a light beam is represented by a vector in the Poincaré sphere. For polarized light the end of the vector lies on the surface of the sphere, whereas the vector has zero length for unpolarized light. The vector for partially polarized light lies within the sphere.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Coherent superpositions of "optical wave fields" include holography. Holographic photographs have been used as art and as difficult to forge security labels.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Further applications concern the coherent superposition of "non-optical wave fields". In quantum mechanics for example one considers a probability field, which is related to the wave function formula_23 (interpretation: density of the probability amplitude). Here the applications concern, among others, the future technologies of quantum computing and the already available technology of quantum cryptography. Additionally the problems of the following subchapter are treated.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Coherence is used to check the quality of the transfer functions (FRFs) being measured. Low coherence can be caused by poor signal to noise ratio, and/or inadequate frequency resolution.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: According to quantum mechanics, all objects can have wave-like properties (see de Broglie waves). For instance, in Young's double-slit experiment electrons can be used in the place of light waves. Each electron's wave-function goes through both slits, and hence has two separate split-beams that contribute to the intensity pattern on a screen. According to standard wave theory these two contributions give rise to an intensity pattern of bright bands due to constructive interference, interlaced with dark bands due to destructive interference, on a downstream screen. This ability to interfere and diffract is related to coherence (classical or quantum) of the waves produced at both slits. The association of an electron with a wave is unique to quantum theory.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: When the incident beam is represented by a quantum pure state, the split beams downstream of the two slits are represented as a superposition of the pure states representing each split beam. The quantum description of imperfectly coherent paths is called a mixed state. A perfectly coherent state has a density matrix (also called the "statistical operator") that is a projection onto the pure coherent state and is equivalent to a wave function, while a mixed state is described by a classical probability distribution for the pure states that make up the mixture.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Macroscopic scale quantum coherence leads to novel phenomena, the so-called macroscopic quantum phenomena. For instance, the laser, superconductivity and superfluidity are examples of highly coherent quantum systems whose effects are evident at the macroscopic scale. The macroscopic quantum coherence (off-diagonal long-range order, ODLRO) for superfluidity, and laser light, is related to first-order (1-body) coherence/ODLRO, while superconductivity is related to second-order coherence/ODLRO. (For fermions, such as electrons, only even orders of coherence/ODLRO are possible.) For bosons, a Bose–Einstein condensate is an example of a system exhibiting macroscopic quantum coherence through a multiple occupied single-particle state.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: The classical electromagnetic field exhibits macroscopic quantum coherence. The most obvious example is the carrier signal for radio and TV. They satisfy Glauber's quantum description of coherence.


title: Coherence (physics)

text: Recently M. B. Plenio and co-workers constructed an operational formulation of quantum coherence as a resource theory. They introduced coherence monotones analogous to the entanglement monotones. Quantum coherence has been shown to be equivalent to quantum entanglement in the sense that coherence can be faithfully described as entanglement, and conversely that each entanglement measure corresponds to a coherence measure.


title: Lisa Eilbacher

text: Lisa Marie Eilbacher was born in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, the daughter of an American oil company executive. She was raised in France. Her two siblings are also actors; sister Cindy Eilbacher is best known for portraying Jerry Van Dyke's daughter on the series "My Mother the Car" and played the character "Betty Wilkens" on "Happy Days" (episode "The Lemon"), and brother Bobby Eilbacher portrayed "Mike Horton" on the soap opera "Days of Our Lives".


title: Lisa Eilbacher

text: Eilbacher started acting as a child, appearing on such shows as "My Three Sons" and "Gunsmoke". She later made a transition into adult roles on such shows as "The Amazing Spider-Man". Eilbacher is best known for her roles in two 1980s films: "An Officer and a Gentleman" and "Beverly Hills Cop". In "An Officer and a Gentleman", she played Naval Aviation Officer Candidate Casey Seeger, a popular and charming woman who nearly flunked out of the program due to her inability to complete the obstacle course; however, she persevered and graduated. An amateur bodybuilder in real life, Eilbacher said the hardest aspect of this role was "pretending" to be out of shape. In "Beverly Hills Cop", she played Jenny Summers, a childhood friend of Eddie Murphy's character who reunited with him to solve the murder of a mutual friend.


title: Lisa Eilbacher

text: Eilbacher was also featured in the 1983 miniseries "The Winds of War", playing Madeleine Henry. Eilbacher starred as Callie Shaw in "The Hardy Boys Mysteries" in 1977. The same year she appeared in the episode "The Innocent" of the short-lived "Logan's Run" TV series. She also guest starred on the TV series "Man from Atlantis" in an episode where she played Shakespeare's Juliet. She also appeared in the 1974 television movie "Bad Ronald", 1981's "This House Possessed", and several other theatrical and television films and episodes of television series. "This House Possessed" reunited her with Parker Stevenson, with whom she had worked on "The Hardy Boys Mysteries".


title: Chariot

text: A chariot is a type of cart driven by a charioteer, usually using horses to provide rapid motive power. The oldest known chariots have been found in burials of the Sintashta culture in modern-day Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, dated to c. 2000 BCE. The critical invention that allowed the construction of light, horse-drawn chariots was the spoked wheel.


title: Chariot

text: The chariot was a fast, light, open, two-wheeled conveyance drawn by two or more horses that were hitched side by side, and was little more than a floor with a waist-high guard at the front and sides. It was initially used for ancient warfare during the Bronze and Iron Ages, but after its military capabilities had been superseded by light and heavy cavalries, chariots continued to be used for travel and transport, in processions, for games, and in races.


title: Chariot

text: The word "chariot" comes from the Latin term carrus, a loanword from Gaulish. In ancient Rome and some other ancient Mediterranean civilizations, a "biga" required two horses, a "triga" three, and a "quadriga" four.


title: Chariot

text: The invention of the wheel used in transportation most likely took place in the Eurasian Steppes of modern-day Russia and Ukraine. Evidence of wheeled vehicles appears from the mid 4th millennium BC near-simultaneously in the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture), and in Central Europe. These earliest vehicles may have been ox carts. A necessary precursor to the invention of the chariot is the domestication of animals, specifically horses – a major step in the development of civilization. Despite the large impact horse domestication has had in transport and communication, tracing its origins has been challenging. Evidence supports horses having been domesticated in the Eurasian Steppes, with studies suggesting the Botai culture in modern-day Kazakhstan were the first, about 3500 BCE. Others say horses were domesticated earlier than 3500 in Eastern Europe (modern Ukraine and Western Kazkhstan), 6000 years ago


title: Chariot

text: The spread of spoke-wheeled chariots has been closely associated with early Indo-Iranian migrations. The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta culture burial sites, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare. These self-designated Aryan people migrated southward into South Asia, ushering in the Vedic period around 1750 BCE. Shortly after this, about 1700 BCE, evidence of chariots appears in Asia-Minor.


title: Chariot

text: The earliest fully developed spoke-wheeled horse chariots are from the chariot burials of the Andronovo (Timber-Grave) sites of the Sintashta-Petrovka Proto-Indo-Iranian culture in modern Russia and Kazakhstan from around 2000 BCE. This culture is at least partially derived from the earlier Yamna culture. It built heavily fortified settlements, engaged in bronze metallurgy on an industrial scale, and practiced complex burial rituals reminiscent of Hindu rituals known from the "Rigveda" and the "Avesta". Over the next few centuries, the Andronovo culture spread across the steppes from the Urals to the Tien Shan, likely corresponding to the time of early Indo-Iranian cultures.


title: Chariot

text: Peter Raulwing and Stefan Burmeister consider the Sintashta and Krivoe Ozero finds from the steppe to be carts rather than chariots.


title: Chariot

text: Chariots figure prominently in Indo-Iranian mythology. Chariots are also an important part of both Hindu and Persian mythology, with most of the gods in their pantheon portrayed as riding them. The Sanskrit word for a chariot is "rátha-" (m.), which is cognate with Avestan "raθa-" (also m.), and in origin a substantiation of the adjective Proto-Indo-European ' meaning "having wheels", with the characteristic accent shift found in Indo-Iranian substantivisations. This adjective is in turn derived from the collective noun ' "wheels", continued in Latin "rota", which belongs to the noun ' for "wheel" (from ' "to run") that is also found in Germanic, Celtic and Baltic (Old High German "rad" n., Old Irish "roth" m., Lithuanian "rãtas" m.). Nomadic tribes of the Pontic steppes, like Scythians such as Hamaxobii, would travel in wagons, carts, and chariots during their migrations.


title: Chariot

text: The oldest testimony of chariot warfare in the ancient Near East is the Old Hittite Anitta text (18th century BCE), which mentions 40 teams of horses (in the original cuneiform spelling: 40 "ṢÍ-IM-TI" ANŠE.KUR.RA) at the siege of Salatiwara. Since the text mentions "teams" rather than "chariots", the existence of chariots in the 18th century BCE is uncertain. The first certain attestation of chariots in the Hittite empire dates to the late 17th century BCE (Hattusili I). A Hittite horse-training text is attributed to Kikkuli the Mitanni (15th century BCE).


title: Chariot

text: The Hittites were renowned charioteers. They developed a new chariot design that had lighter wheels, with four spokes rather than eight, and that held three rather than two warriors. It could hold three warriors because the wheel was placed in the middle of the chariot and not at the back as in Egyptian chariots. Typically one Hittite warrior steered the chariot while the second man was usually the main archer; the third warrior would either wield a spear or sword when charging at enemies or hold up a large shield to protect himself and the others from enemy arrows.


title: Chariot

text: Hittite prosperity largely depended on their control of trade routes and natural resources, specifically metals. As the Hittites gained dominion over Mesopotamia, tensions flared among the neighboring Assyrians, Hurrians, and Egyptians. Under Suppiluliuma I, the Hittites conquered Kadesh and, eventually, the whole of Syria. The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE is likely to have been the largest chariot battle ever fought, involving over 5,000 chariots.


title: Chariot

text: Models of single axeled, solid wheeled, ox drawn vehicles, have been found at several mature Indus Valley cites, such as Chanhudaro, Daimabad, Harappa, and Nausharo, and are depicted in second millennium BCE Chalcolithic rock art, of the region.


title: Chariot

text: Spoked wheeled, horse drawn, chariots, often barring an armed passenger, are depicted, in second millennium BCE, Chalcolithic period rock paintings.. Examples are know from Chibbar Nulla, Chhatur Bhoj Nath Nulla, and Kathotia. There are some depictions of chariots among the petroglyphs in the sandstone of the Vindhya range. Two depictions of chariots are found in Morhana Pahar, Mirzapur district. One depicts a biga and the head of the driver. The second depicts a quadriga, with six-spoked wheels, and a driver standing up in a large chariot box. This chariot is being attacked. One figure, who is armed with a shield and a mace, stands in the chariot's path; another figure, who is armed with bow and arrow, threatens the right flank. It has been suggested (speculated) that the drawings record a story, most probably dating to the early centuries BCE, from some center in the area of the Ganges–Yamuna plain into the territory of still Neolithic hunting tribes. The very realistic chariots carved into the Sanchi stupas are dated to roughly the 1st century.


title: Chariot

text: Bronze Age solid-disk wheel carts were found in 2018 at Sinauli, which were interpreted by some as horse-pulled "chariots," predating the arrival of the horse-centered Indo-Aryans. They were ascribed by Sanjay Manjul, director of the excavations, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP)/Copper Hoard Culture, which was contemporaneous with the Late Harappan culture, and interpreted by him as horse-pulled chariots. Majul further noted that "the rituals relating to the Sanauli burials showed close affinity with Vedic rituals, and stated that "the dating of the Mahabharata is around 1750 BCE." According to Asko Parpola these finds were ox-pulled carts, indicating that these burials are related to an early Aryan migration of Proto-Indo-Iranian speaking people into the Indian subcontinent, "forming then the ruling elite of a major Late Harappan settlement."


title: Chariot

text: Horse-drawn chariots, as well as their cult and associated rituals, were spread by the Indo-Iranians, and horses and horse-drawn chariots were introduced in India by the Indo-Aryans.


title: Chariot

text: In "Rigveda", Indra is described as strong willed, armed with a thunderbolt, riding a chariot:Among Rigvedic deities, notably the Vedic Sun God Surya rides on a one spoked chariot driven by his charioteer Aruṇa. Ushas (the dawn) rides in a chariot, as well as Agni in his function as a messenger between gods and men.


title: Chariot

text: The Jain Bhagavi Sutra states that Indian troops used a chariot with a club or mace attached to it during the war against the Licchavis during the reign of Ajatashatru of Magadha.


title: Chariot

text: The Persians succeeded Elam in the mid 1st millennium. They may have been the first to yoke four horses to their chariots. They also used scythed chariots. Cyrus the Younger employed these chariots in large numbers at the Battle of Cunaxa.


title: Chariot

text: Herodotus mentions that the Ancient Libyan and the Ancient Indian (Sattagydia, Gandhara and Hindush) satrapies supplied cavalry and chariots to Xerxes the Great's army. However, by this time, cavalry was far more effective and agile than the chariot, and the defeat of Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE), where the army of Alexander simply opened their lines and let the chariots pass and attacked them from behind, marked the end of the era of chariot warfare (barring the Seleucid and Pontic powers, India, China, and the Celtic peoples).


title: Chariot

text: Chariots were introduced in the Near East in the 17(18)th–16th centuries BCE. Some scholars argue that the horse chariot was most likely a product of the ancient Near East early in the 2nd millennium BCE. Archaeologist Joost Crouwel writes that "Chariots were not sudden inventions, but developed out of earlier vehicles that were mounted on disk or cross-bar wheels. This development can best be traced in the Near East, where spoke-wheeled and horse-drawn chariots are first attested in the earlier part of the second millennium BC..." and were illustrated on a Syrian cylinder seal dated to either the 18th or 17th century BCE.


title: Chariot

text: Starokorsunskaya kurgan in the Kuban region of Russia contains a wagon grave (or chariot burial) of the Maikop Culture (which also had horses). The two solid wooden wheels from this kurgan have been dated to the second half of the fourth millennium. Soon thereafter the number of such burials in this Northern Caucasus region multiplied. Linguistic evidence also suggests that the inventors were Indo-European people from Eurasia.


title: Chariot

text: According to Christoph Baumer, the earliest discoveries of wheels in Mesopotamia come from the first half of the third millennium BCE – more than half a millennium later than the first finds from the Kuban region. At the same time, in Mesopotamia, some intriguing early pictograms of a sled that rests on wooden rollers or wheels have been found. They date from about the same time as the early wheel discoveries in Europe and may indicate knowledge of the wheel.


title: Chariot

text: The earliest depiction of vehicles in the context of warfare is on the Standard of Ur in southern Mesopotamia, . These are more properly called wagons which were double-axled and pulled by oxen or a hybrid of a donkey and a female onager, named Kunga in the city of Nagar which was famous for breeding them. The hybrids were used by the Eblaite, early Sumerian, Akkadian and Ur III armies. Although sometimes carrying a spearman with the charioteer (driver), such heavy wagons, borne on solid wooden wheels and covered with skins, may have been part of the baggage train (e.g., during royal funeral processions) rather than vehicles of battle in themselves.


title: Chariot

text: The Sumerians had a lighter, two-wheeled type of cart, pulled by four asses, and with solid wheels. The spoked wheel did not appear in Mesopotamia until the mid second millennium BCE.


title: Chariot

text: Chariots are frequently mentioned in the Hebrew Tanakh and the Greek Old Testament, respectively, particularly by the prophets, as instruments of war or as symbols of power or glory. First mentioned in the story of Joseph (Genesis 50:9), "Iron chariots" are mentioned also in Joshua (17:16, 18) and Judges (1:19,4:3, 13) as weapons of the Canaanites and Israelites. 1 Samuel 13:5 mentions chariots of the Philistines, who are sometimes identified with the Sea Peoples or early Greeks.


title: Chariot

text: Small domestic horses may have been present in the northern Negev before 3000 BC. Jezreel (city) has been identified as the chariot base of King Ahab. And the decorated lynchpin of Sisera's chariot was identified at a site identified as his fortress Harosheth Haggoyim.


title: Chariot

text: Chariot use made its way into Egypt around 1650 BCE during the Hyksos invasion of Egypt and establishment of the fourteenth dynasty. In 1659 BCE the Indo-European Hittites sacked Babylon, which demonstrated the superiority of chariots in antiquity.


title: Chariot

text: The chariot and horse were used extensively in Egypt by the Hyksos invaders from the 16th century BC onwards, though discoveries announced in 2013 potentially place the earliest chariot use as early as Egypt's Old Kingdom (–2181 BCE). In the remains of Egyptian and Assyrian art, there are numerous representations of chariots, which display rich ornamentation. The chariots of the Egyptians and Assyrians, with whom the bow was the principal arm of attack, were richly mounted with quivers full of arrows. The Egyptians invented the yoke saddle for their chariot horses in . As a general rule, the Egyptians used chariots as mobile archery platforms; chariots always had two men, with the driver steering the chariot with his reins while the main archer aimed his bow and arrow at any targets within range. The best preserved examples of Egyptian chariots are the four specimens from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Chariots can be pulled by two or more horses.


title: Chariot

text: As David W. Anthony writes in his book "The Horse, the Wheel, and Language", in Eastern Europe, the earliest well-dated depiction of a wheeled vehicle (a wagon with two axles and four wheels) is on the Bronocice pot (). It is a clay pot excavated in a Funnelbeaker settlement in Swietokrzyskie Voivodeship in Poland. The oldest securely dated real wheel-axle combination in Eastern Europe is the Ljubljana Marshes Wheel ().


title: Chariot

text: The later Greeks of the first millennium BCE had a (still not very effective) cavalry arm (indeed, it has been argued that these early horseback riding soldiers may have given rise to the development of the later, heavily armed foot-soldiers known as hoplites), and the rocky terrain of the Greek mainland was unsuited for wheeled vehicles. Consequently, in historical Greece the chariot was never used to any extent in war. Nevertheless, the chariot retained a high status and memories of its era were handed down in epic poetry. Linear B tablets from Mycenaean palaces record large inventories of chariots, sometimes with specific details as to how many chariots were assembled or not (i.e. stored in modular form). Later the vehicles were used in games and processions, notably for races at the Olympic and Panathenaic Games and other public festivals in ancient Greece, in "hippodromes" and in contests called "agons". They were also used in ceremonial functions, as when a "paranymph", or friend of a bridegroom, went with him in a chariot to fetch the bride home.


title: Chariot

text: Herodotus ("Histories", 5. 9) Reports that chariots were widely used in the Pontic–Caspian steppe by the Sigynnae.


title: Chariot

text: Greek chariots were made to be drawn by two horses attached to a central pole. If two additional horses were added, they were attached on each side of the main pair by a single bar or "trace" fastened to the front or "prow" of the chariot, as may be seen on two prize vases in the British Museum from the Panathenaic Games at Athens, Greece, in which the driver is seated with feet resting on a board hanging down in front close to the legs of the horses. The biga itself consists of a seat resting on the axle, with a rail at each side to protect the driver from the wheels. Greek chariots appear to have lacked any other attachment for the horses, which would have made turning difficult.


title: Chariot

text: The body or "basket" of the chariot rested directly on the axle (called "beam") connecting the two wheels. There was no suspension, making this an uncomfortable form of transport. At the front and sides of the basket was a semicircular guard about 3 ft (1 m) high, to give some protection from enemy attack. At the back the basket was open, making it easy to mount and dismount. There was no seat, and generally only enough room for the driver and one passenger.


title: Chariot

text: The reins were mostly the same as those in use in the 19th century, and were made of leather and ornamented with studs of ivory or metal. The reins were passed through rings attached to the collar bands or yoke, and were long enough to be tied round the waist of the charioteer to allow for defense.


title: Chariot

text: The wheels and basket of the chariot were usually of wood, strengthened in places with bronze or iron. The wheels had from four to eight spokes and tires of bronze or iron. Due to the widely spaced spokes, the rim of the chariot wheel was held in tension over comparatively large spans. Whilst this provided a small measure of shock absorption, it also necessitated the removal of the wheels when the chariot was not in use, to prevent warping from continued weight bearing. Most other nations of this time had chariots of similar design to the Greeks, the chief differences being the mountings.


title: Chariot

text: According to Greek mythology, the chariot was invented by Erichthonius of Athens to conceal his feet, which were those of a dragon.


title: Chariot

text: The most notable appearance of the chariot in Greek mythology occurs when Phaëton, the son of Helios, in an attempt to drive the chariot of the sun, managed to set the earth on fire. This story led to the archaic meaning of a "phaeton" as one who drives a chariot or coach, especially at a reckless or dangerous speed. Plato, in his "Chariot Allegory", depicted a chariot drawn by two horses, one well behaved and the other troublesome, representing opposite impulses of human nature; the task of the charioteer, representing reason, was to stop the horses from going different ways and to guide them towards enlightenment.


title: Chariot

text: The Greek word for chariot, ἅρμα, "hárma", is also used nowadays to denote a tank, properly called άρμα μάχης, "árma mákhēs", literally a "combat chariot".


title: Chariot

text: The Trundholm sun chariot is dated to c. 1400 BCE (see: Nordic Bronze Age). The horse drawing the solar disk runs on four wheels, and the Sun itself on two. All wheels have four spokes. The "chariot" comprises the solar disk, the axle, and the wheels, and it is unclear whether the sun is depicted as the chariot or as the passenger. Nevertheless, the presence of a model of a horse-drawn vehicle on two spoked wheels in Northern Europe at such an early time is astonishing.


title: Chariot

text: In addition to the Trundholm chariot, there are numerous petroglyphs from the Nordic Bronze Age that depict chariots. One petroglyph, drawn on a stone slab in a double burial from c. 1000 BCE, depicts a biga with two four-spoked wheels.


title: Chariot

text: The Celts were famous for their chariots and modern English words like "car", "carriage" and "carry" are ultimately derived from the native Brythonic language (Modern Welsh: "Cerbyd"). The word "chariot" itself is derived from the Norman French "charriote" and shares a Celtic root (Gaulish: "karros"). Some 20 iron-aged chariot burials have been excavated in Britain, roughly dating from between 500 BCE and 100 BCE. Virtually all of them were found in East Yorkshire – the exception was a find in 2001 in Newbridge, 10 km west of Edinburgh.


title: Chariot

text: The Celtic chariot, which may have been called "karbantos" in Gaulish (compare Latin "carpentum"), was a "biga" that measured approximately in width and in length.


title: Chariot

text: British chariots were open in front. Julius Caesar provides the only significant eyewitness report of British chariot warfare:


title: Chariot

text: Chariots could also be used for ceremonial purposes. According to Tacitus ("Annals" 14.35), Boudica, queen of the Iceni and a number of other tribes in a formidable uprising against the occupying Roman forces, addressed her troops from a chariot in 61:


title: Chariot

text: The last mention of chariot use in battle seems to be at the Battle of Mons Graupius, somewhere in modern Scotland, in 84 CE. From Tacitus ("Agricola" 1.35–36) "The plain between resounded with the noise and with the rapid movements of chariots and cavalry." The chariots did not win even their initial engagement with the Roman auxiliaries: "Meantime the enemy's cavalry had fled, and the charioteers had mingled in the engagement of the infantry."


title: Chariot

text: Later through the centuries, the chariot was replaced by the "war wagon". The "war wagon" was a medieval development used to attack rebel or enemy forces on battle fields. The wagon was given slits for archers to shoot enemy targets, supported by infantry using pikes and flails and later for the invention of gunfire by hand-gunners; side walls were used for protection against archers, crossbowmen, the early use of gunpowder and cannon fire.


title: Chariot

text: It was especially useful during the Hussite Wars, c. 1420, by Hussite forces rebelling in Bohemia. Groups of them could form defensive works, but they also were used as hardpoints for Hussite formations or as firepower in pincer movements. This early use of gunpowder and innovative tactics helped a largely peasant infantry stave off attacks by the Holy Roman Empire's larger forces of mounted knights.


title: Chariot

text: The only intact Etruscan chariot dates to c. 530 BCE and was uncovered as part of a chariot burial at Monteleone di Spoleto. Currently in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, it is decorated with bronze plates decorated with detailed low-relief scenes, commonly interpreted as depicting episodes from the life of Achilles.


title: Chariot

text: In Urartu (860–590 BC), the chariot was used by both the nobility and the military. In Erebuni (Yerevan), King Argishti of Urartu is depicted riding on a chariot which is pulled by two horses. The chariot has two wheels and each wheel has about eight spokes. This type of chariot was used around 800 BCE.


title: Chariot

text: In the Roman Empire, chariots were not used for warfare, but for chariot racing, especially in circuses, or for triumphal processions, when they could be pulled by as many as ten horses or even by dogs, tigers, or ostriches. There were four divisions, or "factiones", of charioteers, distinguished by the colour of their costumes: the red, blue, green and white teams. The main centre of chariot racing was the Circus Maximus, situated in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine Hills in Rome. The track could hold 12 chariots, and the two sides of the track were separated by a raised median termed the "spina". Chariot races continued to enjoy great popularity in Byzantine times, in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, even after the Olympic Games had been disbanded, until their decline after the Nika riots in the 6th century. The starting gates were known as the Carceres.


title: Chariot

text: An ancient Roman car or chariot pulled by four horses abreast together with the horses pulling it was called a "Quadriga", from the Latin "quadriugi" (of a team of four). The term sometimes meant instead the four horses without the chariot or the chariot alone. A three-horse chariot, or the three-horse team pulling it, was a "triga", from "triugi" (of a team of three). A two-horse chariot, or the two-horse team pulling it, was a "biga", from "biugi".


title: Chariot

text: A popular legend that has been around since at least 1937 traces the origin of the 4 ft  in standard railroad gauge to Roman times, suggesting that it was based on the distance between the ruts of rutted roads marked by chariot wheels dating from the Roman Empire. This is encouraged by the fact that the otherwise peculiar distance is almost exactly 5 Roman feet but there is no evidence to span the millennium and a half between the departure of the Romans from Britain and the adoption of the gauge on the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825.


title: Chariot

text: The earliest archaeological evidence of chariots in China, a chariot burial site discovered in 1933 at Hougang, Anyang in Henan province, dates to the rule of King Wu Ding of the late Shang Dynasty (). Oracle bone inscriptions suggest that the western enemies of the Shang used limited numbers of chariots in battle, but the Shang themselves used them only as mobile command-vehicles and in royal hunts.


title: Chariot

text: During the Shang Dynasty, members of the royal family were buried with a complete household and servants, including a chariot, horses, and a charioteer. A Shang chariot was often drawn by two horses, but four-horse variants are occasionally found in burials.


title: Chariot

text: Jacques Gernet claims that the Zhou dynasty, which conquered the Shang ca. 1046 BCE, made more use of the chariot than did the Shang and "invented a new kind of harness with four horses abreast". The crew consisted of an archer, a driver, and sometimes a third warrior who was armed with a spear or dagger-axe. From the 8th to 5th centuries BCE the Chinese use of chariots reached its peak. Although chariots appeared in greater numbers, infantry often defeated charioteers in battle.


title: Chariot

text: Massed-chariot warfare became all but obsolete after the Warring-States Period (476–221 BCE). The main reasons were increased use of the crossbow, use of long halberds up to long and pikes up to long, and the adoption of standard cavalry units, and the adaptation of mounted archery from nomadic cavalry, which were more effective. Chariots would continue to serve as command posts for officers during the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE) and the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), while armored chariots were also used during the Han Dynasty against the Xiongnu Confederation in the Han–Xiongnu War (133 BC to 89 CE), specifically at the Battle of Mobei (119 BCE).


title: Chariot

text: Before the Han Dynasty, the power of Chinese states and dynasties was often measured by the number of chariots they were known to have. A country of a thousand chariots ranked as a medium country, and a country of ten thousand chariots ranked as a huge and powerful country.


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: Stumptown is an American crime drama television series that premiered on ABC on September 25, 2019. The series is based on the comic book series of the same name, created by Greg Rucka, Matthew Southworth and Justin Greenwood and adapted for television by writer-producer Jason Richman. The title "Stumptown" is a nickname for the city of Portland, where the series is set. In October 2019, ABC issued a full season order.


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: In May 2020, the series was renewed for a second season. In September 2020, it was announced that ABC had canceled the renewal decision and canceled the series after one season, as production delays caused by the COVID-19 pandemic meant the series could not get ready until April 2021. ABC Studios was reported as trying to sell the series to another network or streaming site.


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: Dex Parios (Cobie Smulders) is a sharp-witted military veteran, who struggles to get by and take care of her younger brother Ansel (Cole Sibus), in Portland, Oregon. She also struggles with PTSD from her time as a Marine in Afghanistan, where she worked in military intelligence until she was injured by an explosion which killed her college sweetheart and former lover. Burdened by heavy gambling debts and unable to hold down a steady job, she becomes a private investigator to solve problems where the police cannot get involved. Detective Miles Hoffman (Michael Ealy) refers problems to her, and Grey McConnell (Jake Johnson), a bar owner and Dex's closest friend, provides moral support and employs her brother Ansel at his bar.


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: On January 29, 2019, it was announced that ABC had given the production a pilot order. The pilot was written by Jason Richman who executive produces along with Ruben Fleischer, Dave Bernad, Greg Rucka, Matthew Southworth and Justin Greenwood. Production companies involved with the pilot include The District and ABC Studios. On May 8, 2019, it was announced that the production had been given a series order. A day after that, it was announced that the series would premiere in the fall of 2019 and air on Wednesdays at 10:00 P.M. The series premiered on September 25, 2019. On October 28, 2019, the series received a full season order.


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: In February 2019, it was announced that Cobie Smulders had been cast in the pilot's lead role. Alongside the series order announcement, it was reported that Michael Ealy, Mark Webber and Camryn Manheim had joined the cast in starring roles. On May 11, 2019, it was reported that Webber, who was originally cast to play the male lead opposite Smulders in the series, had exited and his role would be recast. On May 29, 2019, Jake Johnson was cast as Grey McConnell, replacing Webber.


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: At the 2019 San Diego Comic Con preview of the pilot, Cobie Smulders confirmed that Dex's bisexuality would "definitely be addressed in the series". Smulders described Dex as "definitely attracted to women and men ... she tries to recover from her PTSD through sex. She's up for anything — it's one of the things that drew me to this character."


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: Although set in Portland, the series is filmed in Los Angeles. However, the pilot episode, filmed mostly in Vancouver, B.C., included a few scenes shot in Portland.


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: On May 21, 2020, ABC renewed the series for a second season. On July 25, 2020, Monica Owusu-Breen joined the series as an executive producer for the second season. On September 16, 2020, it was announced that production delays, caused by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, meant the series would not be ready in time, effectively canceling the series. ABC Studios shopped the series. According to "Deadline Hollywood", production had not yet started, the change of showrunner would also have delayed scripts and the show would not have been ready until April 2021.


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92% approval rating with an average rating of 7.56/10, based on 38 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Simple, but strong, "Stumptown" moves at a brisk pace and packs a serious punch thanks in large part to Cobie Smulders' star making performance." On Metacritic, the series has a weighted average score of 73 out of 100 based on reviews from 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: Caroline Framke of "Variety" wrote: "With only one episode to go on, it’s hard to say how “Stumptown” will handle its upcoming cases of the week, or if it will shade Dex out beyond her clichéd basics. But there are a couple standout elements of the show that point towards a more promising season than not." Allison Shoemaker of "The A.V. Club" reviewed the first episode and wrote:


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: "It’s likely that this origin story will lead to Dex getting a new case/distraction of the week; hopefully, those stories will stand on their own as much as they illuminate her inner life. Even if it doesn’t, even if life for Stumptown becomes a lot less interesting after this first trip, Cobie Smulders, and Dex Parios, are well worth visiting again."


title: Stumptown (TV series)

text: Mike Hale of "The New York Times" wrote: "There's a potentially appealing mix of wisecracking humor and underplayed, credible action, though, that could blossom if it's given precedence over the melodramatic back story.


title: Project

text: A project is any undertaking, carried out individually or collaboratively and possibly involving research or design, that is carefully planned to achieve a particular goal.


title: Project

text: An alternative view sees a project managerially as a sequence of events: a "set of interrelated tasks to be executed over a fixed period and within certain cost and other limitations".


title: Project

text: A project may be a temporary (rather than a permanent) social system (work system), possibly staffed by teams (within or across organizations) to accomplish particular tasks under time constraints.


title: Project

text: Note that open-source software "projects" or artists' musical "projects" (for example) may lack defined team-membership, precise planning and/or time-limited durations.


title: Project

text: The word "project" comes from the Latin word "projectum" from the Latin verb "proicere", "before an action," which in turn comes from "pro-", which denotes precedence, something that comes before something else in time (paralleling the Greek πρό) and "iacere", "to do". The word "project" thus originally meant "before an action".


title: Project

text: When the English language initially adopted the word, it referred to a plan of something, not to the act of actually carrying this plan out. Something performed in accordance with a project became known as an "object". Every project has certain phases of development.


title: Project

text: Based on the Project Management Institute, a project can be defined as a "temporary endeavor" aimed to drive changes in teams, organizations, or societies. The output of a project is normally a unique product, service, or result.


title: Project

text: Project cancellation is the termination of a project prior to its completion and generally includes the cessation of access to funding and other project resources. Project cancellation may result from cost overruns, schedule overruns, changes in budget, change or obviation of the goal of the project, political factors, or any combination of those and other factors. Contracts often stipulate the time and the manner in which a project may be cancelled.


title: Project

text: Contracted projects typically have a specified end date, when the contract may or may not be renewed; nonrenewal often has the same effect as cancellation but carries different legal ramifications.


title: Project

text: A project consists of a concrete and organized effort motivated by a perceived opportunity when facing a problem, a need, a desire or a source of discomfort (e.g., lack of proper ventilation in a building). It seeks the realization of a unique and innovative deliverable, such as a product, a service, a process, or in some cases, a scientific research. Each project has a beginning and an end,


title: Project

text: and as such is considered a closed dynamic system. It is developed along the 4 Ps of project management: Plan, Processes, People, and Power (e.g., line of authority). It is bound by the triple constraints that are calendar, costs and norms of quality,


title: Project

text: each of which can be determined and measured objectively along the project lifecycle. Some projects produce some level of formal documentation, the deliverable(s), and some impacts, which can be positive and/or negative.


title: Project

text: A project is an individual or collaborative enterprise that is carefully planned and researched about by students. At schools, educational institutes and universities, a project is a research assignment - given to a student - which generally requires a larger amount of effort and more independent work than that involved in a normal essay assignment. It requires students to undertake their fact-finding and analysis, either from library/internet research or from gathering data empirically. The written report that comes from the project is usually in the form of a dissertation, which will contain sections on the project's inception, analysis, findings and conclusions.


title: Project

text: In project management, a project consists of a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service or result. Another definition is a management environment that is created for the purpose of delivering one or more business products according to a specified business case. Projects can also be seen as temporary organizations.


title: Project

text: Project objectives define target status at the end of the project, reaching of which is considered necessary for the achievement of planned benefits. They can be formulated as SMART criteria: Projects are often guided by a steering group.


title: Project

text: The evaluation (measurement) occurs at the project closure. However, a continuous guard on the project progress should be kept by monitoring and evaluating.


title: Project

text: In civil, military and industry (e.g. oil and gas) infrastructure, capital projects refer to activities to construct and install equipment, facilities and buildings. As these activities are temporary endeavors with clear start and end dates, the term "project" is applied. Because the results of these activities are typically long-standing infrastructure, with a life measured in years or decades, these projects are typically accounted for in financial accounting as capital expenditures, and thus they are termed "capital projects".


title: Project

text: In computer software, a project can consist of programs, configuration definitions and related data. For example, in Microsoft Visual Studio, a "solution" consists of projects and other definitions.


title: Project

text: It can be defined as "a set of state policies and/or agencies unified around a particular issue or oppression". Therefore, these kinds of projects involve constant change and dynamism due to the social constructions that evolve among time. State projects have to adapt to the current moment. They are mostly community services based.


title: Project

text: In the context of infrastructure code, a project is a collection of code used to build a discrete component of the system. There is no rule on how much a single project or its component can include.


title: Project

text: Some analyses of project-oriented activity distinguish - using military-style terminology - between grandiose strategic projects and more trivial or component operational projects: tactical projects.


title: Swedish Navy

text: The Swedish Navy () is the naval branch of the Swedish Armed Forces. It is composed of surface and submarine naval units – the Fleet (') – as well as marine units, the Amphibious Corps (').


title: Swedish Navy

text: In Swedish, vessels of the Swedish Navy are given the prefix "HMS", short for (His/Her Majesty's Ship). In English, this is sometimes changed to "HSwMS" ("His Swedish Majesty's Ship") to differentiate Swedish vessels from those of the British Royal Navy.


title: Swedish Navy

text: Founded under King Gustav I in 1522, the Swedish navy is one of the oldest continuously serving navies in the world, celebrating its 500th anniversary in 2022.


title: Swedish Navy

text: Early Swedish kings ( 9th–14th centuries) organised a Swedish Navy along the coastline through . This involved combined rowing and sailing ships (without artillery). This system became obsolete with the development of society and changes in military technology. No later than in the 14th century, the duty to serve in was replaced by a tax. In 1427, when Sweden was still part of the Kalmar Union (with Denmark and Norway), Swedish warships did however participate in the naval battle of Öresund against the Hanseatic League. It is unclear how this force was organised and exactly on what basis.


title: Swedish Navy

text: On 7 June 1522, one year after the separation of Sweden from the Kalmar Union, Gustav Vasa purchased a number of ships from the Hanseatic town of Lübeck. Official Swedish histories since the 19th century have often recorded this day as the birth of the current Swedish Navy. The museum ship in Stockholm was a 17th-century ship of the Royal Swedish Navy ().


title: Swedish Navy

text: The Amphibious Corps dates back to 1 January 1902, when a separate "Coastal Artillery" () was established, and came into use as the name of the service as a whole. The last decade of the 20th century saw the abandonment of the coastal fortifications and the force became a more regular marine corps, renamed Amphibious Corps () in 2000.


title: Swedish Navy

text: For most of the twentieth century the Swedish Navy focused on the threat of a full-scale invasion of Sweden via the Baltic and on protecting commercial shipping. Sweden's location on the Scandinavian peninsula makes it highly dependent of maritime trade: 90% imports and exports enter or leave Sweden through the Baltic. In 1972 the government decreed that non-military measures should be used to protect merchant shipping. The resolution led to the de-commissioning of all the navy's destroyers and frigates, though the non-military measures the government intended to use to protect shipping have never been specified.


title: Swedish Navy

text: The navy first participated in a UN-led peacekeeping mission in October 2006 when the corvette began performing coastal surveillance duties for the United Nations Mission in Lebanon. HSwMS "Gävle" was relieved by , which returned to Sweden in September 2007.


title: Swedish Navy

text: , , and took part in the EU-led EUNAVFOR operation (2008- ) off the coast of the Horn of Africa. In 2010, was the EUNAVFOR flagship, housing the fleet headquarters led by RAdm (LH) Jan Thörnqvist.


title: Swedish Navy

text: Until recently, the Navy was led by the Chief of the Navy, who was typically a vice admiral. This office has been eliminated, and the highest officer of the Navy is now the Chief of Navy, Rear Admiral Ewa Skoog Haslum, who is the senior representative of the Swedish Navy's combat forces.


title: Swedish Navy

text: In the decades following World War II, the Swedish Navy was organised around three light cruiser groups (, and ). In the early 1960s, a decision, known as Navy Plan 60 (), was made to scrap the cruisers and move towards a larger fleet of smaller vessels. The last cruiser, "Göta Lejon", was sold in 1970 to Chile, where she was renamed "Almirante Latorre". The fleet at the time comprised some 24 destroyers and frigates for surface warfare (mainly in the Baltic Sea) and anti-submarine warfare.


title: Swedish Navy

text: The Swedish Navy started to experiment with missiles, based on a recovered German V-2 rocket, as early as 1944. The main armament of the fleet was artillery and torpedoes for surface warfare and anti-submarine rockets for anti-submarine warfare. Helicopters (Alouette II and Vertol 44) were introduced in the late 1950s and 1960s and this fleet air arm remained an integral part of the fleet and its operations until an independent helicopter arm was created in the 1990s.


title: Swedish Navy

text: The 1972 decision made by the Government to decommission all destroyers and frigates within the next decade limited the Navy's endurance considerably, but the use of smaller short-range ships was at the time deemed adequate for anti-shipping missions along the coast and in the archipelago. In the 1980s, this assessment was proven wrong by repeated failures in anti-submarine warfare operations with inadequate ships and equipment. Today, the largest (surface) combat ships are corvettes which combine surface warfare, anti-submarine warfare and mine clearance functions with a better endurance and seaworthiness than the budget fleet from the 1980s.


title: Swedish Navy

text: Since the 1980s, Swedish surface warships have been named after Swedish cities, while submarines are named after Swedish provinces and minehunters after Swedish lighthouses. The surface ships are mostly small, relying on agility and flexibility. Examples of these are the "Stockholm" and "Göteborg"-class corvettes. The Navy is currently taking into service the new, larger, of stealth corvettes. A new submarine class, , similar to the older , was commissioned in 1998. Its air-independent Stirling engine enables submerged endurance never before seen in conventional submarines. "Gotland" has been on lease with crew and all to the US Navy and was based in San Diego.


title: Swedish Navy

text: The Amphibious Battalion is built around the Stridsbåt 90H, a small combat boat capable of carrying 21 troops for fast transports and landings in the archipelago. It is also equipped with larger transport boats, but relies on the Army, Navy and Air Force for heavy transports and protection. Cooperation with the Royal Netherlands Navy is under investigation for Amphibious Warfare.


title: Swedish Navy

text: The Swedish Armed Forces () operate three types of helicopters: NHIndustries NH90 ("HKP14") (18 in service), AgustaWestland AW109 ("HKP15") (20 in service) and Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk ("HKP16") (15 in service). Eight of the AgustaWestland AW109 helicopters have been modified to be operational from the "Visby"-class corvettes and . Nine of the NHIndustries NH90 helicopters are equipped with sonars and radars for anti-submarine warfare.


title: Swedish Navy

text: The next generation of submarines, the A26 class, was ordered from Saab Technologies in 2015 and will join the navy starting 2022. The two units will replace the submarines of . In parallel, the will undergo a mid-life upgrade.


title: Swedish Navy

text: In 2017 a new intelligence ship to replace was ordered from Saab Technologies. The new ship is to be commissioned by 2020 and have a displacement of 2,300 tons.


title: Swedish Navy

text: An additional 18 units of the Swedish version of the named Stridsbåt 90HSM, where "M" stands for "modernized", will be delivered to the Amphibious Corps during the end of 2018. Like previous versions, the units will be built at "Dockstavarvet".


title: Bushmeat

text: Bushmeat is meat from wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption, most often referring to the meat of game in Africa. Bushmeat represents


title: Bushmeat

text: a primary source of animal protein and a cash-earning commodity for inhabitants of humid tropical forest regions in Africa, Latin America and Asia.


title: Bushmeat

text: The numbers of animals killed and traded as bushmeat in the 1990s in West and Central Africa were thought to be unsustainable.


title: Bushmeat

text: By 2005, commercial harvesting and trading of bushmeat was considered a threat to biodiversity. As of 2016, 301 terrestrial mammals were threatened with extinction due to hunting for bushmeat including primates, even-toed ungulates, bats, diprotodont marsupials, rodents and carnivores occurring in developing countries.


title: Bushmeat

text: Bushmeat provides increased opportunity for transmission of several zoonotic viruses from animal hosts to humans, such as Ebolavirus and HIV.


title: Bushmeat

text: The term 'bushmeat' is originally an African term for wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption, and usually refers specifically to the meat of African wildlife.


title: Bushmeat

text: In October 2000, the IUCN World Conservation Congress passed a resolution on the unsustainable commercial trade in "wild meat". Affected countries were urged to recognize the increasing impact of the bushmeat trade, to strengthen and enforce legislation, and to develop action programmes to mitigate the impact of the trade. Donor organisations were requested to provide funding for the implementation of such programmes.


title: Bushmeat

text: Wildlife hunting for food is important for the livelihood security of and supply of dietary protein for poor people. It can be sustainable when carried out by traditional hunter-gatherers in large landscapes for their own consumption. Due to the extent of bushmeat hunting for trade in markets, the survival of those species that are large-bodied and reproduce slowly is threatened. The term "bushmeat crisis" was coined in 2007 and refers to this dual threat of depleting food resources and wildlife extinctions, both entailed by the bushmeat trade.


title: Bushmeat

text: Bushmeat hunters use mostly leg-hold snare traps to catch any wildlife, but prefer to kill large species, as these provide a greater amount of meat than small species.


title: Bushmeat

text: The volume of the bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa was estimated at per year at the turn of the 21st century. In 2002, it was estimated that species weighing more than contribute of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in the Congo Basin, based on 24 individuals. Species weighing "less" than were estimated to contribute , also based on 24 individuals. Bushmeat extraction in the Amazon rainforest was estimated to be much lower, at in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg, based on 3 individuals.


title: Bushmeat

text: Based on these estimates, a total of bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year, ranging from in Equatorial Guinea to in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.


title: Bushmeat

text: The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates, 65 even-toed ungulates, 27 bats, 26 diprotodont marsupials, 21 rodents, 12 carnivores and all pangolin species.


title: Bushmeat

text: Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia's Cavally River included chimpanzee ("Pan troglodytes"), Diana monkey ("Cercopithecus diana"), putty-nosed monkey ("C. nictitans"), lesser spot-nosed monkey ("C. petaurista"), Campbell's mona monkey ("C. campbelli"), sooty mangabey ("Cercocebus atys"), king colobus ("Colobus polykomos"), olive colobus ("Procolobus verus"), western red colobus ("P. badius"). Duiker species constituted more than half of the total 723 animals offered.


title: Bushmeat

text: In 2012, the bushmeat trade was surveyed in three villages in the Sassandra Department, Ivory Coast. During six months, nine restaurants received 376 mammals and eight reptiles, including dwarf crocodile ("Osteolaemus tetraspis"), harnessed bushbuck ("Tragelaphus scriptus"), Maxwell's duiker ("Philantomba maxwellii"), bay duiker ("Cephalophus dorsalis"), Campbell's mona monkey, lesser spot-nosed monkey, potto ("Perodicticus potto"), tree pangolin ("Phataginus tricuspis"), long-tailed pangolin ("P. tetradactyla"), African brush-tailed porcupine ("Atherurus africanus"), giant pouched rat ("Cricetomys gambianus"), greater cane rat ("Thryonomys swinderianus"), striped ground squirrel ("Xerus erythropus") and western tree hyrax ("Dendrohyrax dorsalis").


title: Bushmeat

text: About 128,400 straw-coloured fruit bats ("Eidolon helvum") were estimated in 2011 to be traded as bushmeat every year in four cities in southern Ghana.


title: Bushmeat

text: In 2006, it was estimated that about 1,437,458 animals are killed every year in the Nigerian and Cameroon parts of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests, including about 43,880 Emin's pouched rats ("Cricetomys emini"), 41,800 tree pangolins, 39,700 putty-nosed monkeys, 22,500 Mona monkeys ("Cercopithecus mona"), 3,500 red-eared guenons ("C. erythrotis"), 20,300 drills ("Mandrillus leucophaeus"), 15,300 African civets ("Civettictis civetta"), 11,900 common kusimanses ("Crossarchus obscurus"), more than 7,600 African palm civets ("Nandinia binotata"), 26,760 Nile monitors ("Varanus niloticus") and 410 African forest elephants ("Loxodonta cyclotis").


title: Bushmeat

text: Between 1983 and 2002, the Gabon populations of western gorilla ("Gorilla gorilla") and common chimpanzee ("Pan troglodytes") were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for logging purposes.


title: Bushmeat

text: Marsh mongoose ("Atilax paludinosus") and long-nosed mongoose ("Herpestes naso") are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country.


title: Bushmeat

text: In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked bonobo ("Pan paniscus") carcasses were observed in Basankusu in the Province of Équateur in the Congo Basin.


title: Bushmeat

text: The main species killed by bushmeat hunters in Tanzania's Katavi-Rukwa Region include impala ("Aepyceros melampus"), common duiker ("Sylvicapra grimmia"), warthog ("Phacocherus africanus"), Cape buffalo ("Syncerus caffer"), harnessed bushbuck, red river hog ("Potamochoerus porcus") and plains zebra ("Equus quagga").


title: Bushmeat

text: A survey in a rural area in southwestern Madagascar revealed that bushmeat hunters target bushpig ("Potamochoerus larvatus"), ring-tailed lemur ("Lemur catta"), Verreaux's sifaka ("Propithecus verreauxi"), Hubbard's sportive lemur ("Lepilemur hubbardorum"), fat-tailed dwarf lemur ("Cheirogaleus medius"), common tenrec ("Tenrec ecaudatus"), grey mouse lemur ("Microcebus murinus"), reddish-gray mouse lemur ("M. griseorufus"), Madagascan fruit bat ("Eidolon dupreanum") and Madagascan flying fox ("Pteropus rufus").


title: Bushmeat

text: Logging concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade. Because they provide roads, trucks and other access to remote forests, they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres. Some, including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois (CIB) in the Republic of Congo, partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate. Numerous solutions are needed; because each country has different circumstances, traditions and laws, no one solution will work in every location.


title: Bushmeat

text: Bushmeat can be an important source of micronutrients and macronutrients. A study of South Americans in the Tres Fronteras region found that those who consumed bushmeat were at a lower risk of anemia and chronic health conditions, as their diets included more iron, zinc, and vitamin C than those who did not eat bushmeat.


title: Bushmeat

text: In Ghana, international illegal over-exploitation of African fishing grounds has increased demand for bushmeat. Both European Union-subsidized fleets and local commercial fleets have depleted fish stocks, leaving local people to supplement their diets with animals hunted from nature reserves. Over 30 years of data link sharp declines in both mammal populations and the biomass of 41 wildlife species with a decreased supply of fish.


title: Bushmeat

text: Consumption of fish and of bushmeat is correlated: the decline of one resource drives up the demand and price for the other.


title: Bushmeat

text: Transhumant pastoralists from the border area between Sudan and the Central African Republic are accompanied by armed merchants who also engage in poaching large herbivores. The decline of giant eland, Cape buffalo, hartebeest and waterbuck in the Chinko area between 2012 and 2017 is attributed to their poaching activities. They use livestock to transport bushmeat to markets.


title: Bushmeat

text: Animal sources may have been the cause for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, leprosy, cholera, smallpox, measles, influenza, and syphilis acquired by early agrarians. The emergence of HIV-1, AIDS, Ebola virus disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are attributed to animal sources today.


title: Bushmeat

text: Thomas's rope squirrel ("Funisciurus anerythrus") and red-legged sun squirrel ("Heliosciurus rufobrachium") were identified as reservoirs of the monkeypox virus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the 1980s.


title: Bushmeat

text: Outbreaks of the Ebola virus in the Congo Basin and in Gabon in the 1990s have been associated with the butchering and consumption of chimpanzees and bonobos. Bushmeat hunters in Central Africa infected with the human T-lymphotropic virus were closely exposed to wild primates.


title: Bushmeat

text: Anthrax can be transmitted when butchering and eating ungulates. The risk of bloodborne diseases to be transmitted is higher when butchering a carcass than when transporting, cooking and eating it.


title: Bushmeat

text: An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55% of the respondents knew of zoonoses, but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved.


title: Bushmeat

text: Results of research on wild chimpanzees in Cameroon indicate that they are naturally infected with the simian foamy virus and constitute a reservoir of HIV-1, a precursor of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans. There are several distinct strains of HIV, indicating that this cross-species transfer has occurred several times. Simian immunodeficiency virus present in chimpanzees is reportedly derived from older strains of the virus present in the collared mangabey ("Cercocebus torquatus") and the putty-nosed monkey. It is likely that HIV was initially transferred to humans after having come into contact with infected bushmeat.


title: Bushmeat

text: The natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are unknown. Possible reservoirs include non-human primates, megabats, rodents, shrews, carnivores, and ungulates.


title: Bushmeat

text: Between October 2001 and December 2003, five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo. Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus.


title: Bushmeat

text: The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat, with some researchers hypothesizing that megabats are a primary host of at least some variants of Ebola virus. Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014, the virus has transferred from animals to humans only 30 times, despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year. Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp, then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.