title: Tridentine Mass

text: The term "Tridentine Mass" applies to celebrations in accordance with the successive editions of the Roman Missal whose title attribute them to the Council of Trent ("Missale Romanum ex decreto Sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum") and to the pope or popes who made the revision represented in the edition in question. The first of these editions is that of 1570, in which the mention of the Council of Trent is followed by a reference to Pope Pius V ("Pii V Pont. Max. iussu editum"). The last, that of 1962, mentions the popes only generically ("Missale Romanum ex decreto SS. Concilii Tridentini restitutum Summorum Pontificum cura recognitum"). Editions later than that of 1962 mention the Second Vatican Council instead of the Council of Trent, as in the 2002 edition: "Missale Romanum ex decreto Sacrosancti Oecumenici Concilii Vaticani II instauratum auctoritati Pauli Pp. VI promulgatum Ioannis Pauli Pp. II cura recognitum".


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Sometimes the term "Tridentine Mass" is applied restrictively to Masses in which the final 1962 edition of the Tridentine Roman Missal is used, the only edition still authorized, under certain conditions, as an extraordinary form of the Roman Rite Mass.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Some speak of this form of Mass as "the Latin Mass". This too is a restrictive use of a term whose proper sense is much wider. Even the Second Vatican Council Mass has its normative text, from which vernacular translations are made, in Latin, and, except at Masses scheduled by the ecclesiastical authorities to take place in the language of the people, it can everywhere be celebrated in Latin.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: A few speak of the Tridentine Mass in general or of its 1962 form as the "Gregorian Rite". The term "Tridentine Rite" is also sometimes met with, but Pope Benedict XVI declared it inappropriate to speak of the 1962 version and that published by later Popes as if they were two "rites". Rather, he said, it is a matter of a twofold "use" of one and the same Roman "rite". Adrian Fortescue, Prosper Guéranger, and Benedictine Hugh Somerville-Knapman say that they should be separate rites, as the Mass promulgated at the Council of Trent was already the pre-existing liturgy of the Diocese of Rome and has direct continuity with the Mass practiced by the apostles, whereas the changes made in implementing the Mass of Paul VI are so great that it no longer resembles any Catholic liturgy practiced prior to the 20th century.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Other names for the edition promulgated by Pope John XXIII in 1962 (the last to bear the indication "ex decreto Sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum") are the "Extraordinary Form", or the "usus antiquior" ("more ancient usage" in Latin ).


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Traditionalist Catholics, whose best-known characteristic is an attachment to the Tridentine Mass, frequently refer to it as the "Traditional Mass" or the "Traditional Latin Mass". They describe as a "codifying" of the form of the Mass the preparation of Pius V's edition of the Roman Missal, of which he said that the experts to whom he had entrusted the work collated the existing text with ancient manuscripts and writings, restored it to "the original form and rite of the holy Fathers" and further emended it. To distinguish this form of Mass from the Vatican II Mass, traditionalist Catholics sometimes call it the "Mass of the Ages", and say that it comes down to us "from the Church of the Apostles, and ultimately, indeed, from Him Who is its principal Priest and its spotless Victim".


title: Tridentine Mass

text: At the time of the Council of Trent, the traditions preserved in printed and manuscript missals varied considerably, and standardization was sought both within individual dioceses and throughout the Latin West. Standardization was required also in order to prevent the introduction into the liturgy of Protestant ideas in the wake of the Protestant Reformation.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pope Pius V accordingly imposed uniformity by law in 1570 with the papal bull ""Quo primum"", ordering use of the Roman Missal as revised by him. He allowed only those rites that were at least 200 years old to survive the promulgation of his 1570 Missal. Several of the rites that remained in existence were progressively abandoned, though the Ambrosian rite survives in Milan, Italy and neighbouring areas, stretching even into Switzerland, and the Mozarabic rite remains in use to a limited extent in Toledo and Madrid, Spain. The Carmelite, Carthusian and Dominican religious orders kept their rites, but in the second half of the 20th century two of these three chose to adopt the Roman Rite. The rite of Braga, in northern Portugal, seems to have been practically abandoned: since 18 November 1971 that archdiocese authorizes its use only on an optional basis.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Beginning in the late 17th century, France and neighbouring areas, such as Münster, Cologne and Trier in Germany, saw a flurry of independent missals published by bishops influenced by Jansenism and Gallicanism. This ended when Abbot Guéranger and others initiated in the 19th century a campaign to return to the Roman Missal.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pius V's revision of the liturgy had as one of its declared aims the restoration of the Roman Missal "to the original form and rite of the holy Fathers". Due to the relatively limited resources available to his scholars, this aim was in fact not realised.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Three different printings of Pius V's Roman Missal, with minor variations, appeared in 1570, a folio and a quarto edition in Rome and a folio edition in Venice. A reproduction of what is considered to be the earliest, referred to therefore as the "editio princeps", was produced in 1998. In the course of the printing of the "editio princeps", some corrections were made by pasting revised texts over parts of the already printed pages. There were several printings again in the following year 1571, with various corrections of the text.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In the Apostolic Constitution (papal bull) "Quo primum", with which he prescribed use of his 1570 edition of the Roman Missal, Pius V decreed: "We order and enjoin that nothing must be added to Our recently published Missal, nothing omitted from it, nor anything whatsoever be changed within it." This of course did not exclude changes by a Pope, and Pope Pius V himself added to the Missal the feast of Our Lady of Victory, to celebrate the victory of Lepanto of 7 October 1571. His immediate successor, Pope Gregory XIII, changed the name of this feast to "The Most Holy Rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary" and Pope John XXIII changed it to "Our Lady of the Rosary".


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pius V's work in severely reducing the number of feasts in the Roman Calendar (see this comparison) was very soon further undone by his successors. Feasts that he had abolished, such as those of the Presentation of Mary, Saint Anne and Saint Anthony of Padua, were restored even before Clement VIII's 1604 typical edition of the Missal was issued.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In the course of the following centuries new feasts were repeatedly added and the ranks of certain feasts were raised or lowered. A comparison between Pope Pius V's Tridentine Calendar and the General Roman Calendar of 1954 shows the changes made from 1570 to 1954. Pope Pius XII made a general revision in 1955, and Pope John XXIII made further general revisions in 1960 simplifying the terminology concerning the ranking of liturgical celebrations.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: While keeping on 8 December what he called the feast of "the Conception of Blessed Mary" (omitting the word "Immaculate"), Pius V suppressed the existing special Mass for the feast, directing that the Mass for the Nativity of Mary (with the word "Nativity" replaced by "Conception") be used instead. Part of that earlier Mass was revived in the Mass that Pope Pius IX ordered to be used on the feast.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In addition to such occasional changes, the Roman Missal was subjected to general revisions whenever a new "typical edition" (an official edition whose text was to be reproduced in printings by all publishers) was issued.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: After Pius V's original Tridentine Roman Missal, the first new typical edition was promulgated in 1604 by Pope Clement VIII, who in 1592 had issued a revised edition of the Vulgate. The Bible texts in the Missal of Pope Pius V did not correspond exactly to the new Vulgate, and so Clement edited and revised Pope Pius V's Missal, making alterations both in the scriptural texts and in other matters. He abolished some prayers that the 1570 Missal obliged the priest to say on entering the church; shortened the two prayers to be said after the Confiteor; directed that the words "" ("Do this in memory of me") should not be said while displaying the chalice to the people after the consecration, but before doing so; inserted directions at several points of the Canon that the priest was to pronounce the words inaudibly; suppressed the rule that, at High Mass, the priest, even if not a bishop, was to give the final blessing with three signs of the cross; and rewrote the rubrics, introducing, for instance, the ringing of a small bell.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The next typical edition was issued in 1634, when Pope Urban VIII made another general revision of the Roman Missal.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: There was no further typical edition until that of Pope Leo XIII in 1884. It introduced only minor changes, not profound enough to merit having the papal bull of its promulgation included in the Missal, as the bulls of 1604 and 1634 were.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pope Pius XII radically revised the Palm Sunday and Easter Triduum liturgy, suppressed many vigils and octaves and made other alterations in the calendar (see General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII). John XXIII's 1960 Code of Rubrics were incorporated in the final 1962 typical edition of the Tridentine Missal, replacing both Pius X's "Additions and Changes in the Rubrics of the Missal" and the earlier "General Rubrics of the Missal".


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The General Roman Calendar was revised partially in 1955 and 1960 and completely in 1969 in Pope Paul VI's "motu proprio" "Mysterii Paschalis", again reducing the number of feasts.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The Roman Missal issued by Pope John XXIII in 1962 differed from earlier editions in a number of ways.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI authorized, under certain conditions, continued use of this 1962 edition of the Roman Missal as an "extraordinary form", alongside the later form, introduced in 1970, which he called the normal or ordinary form.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pre-1962 forms of the Roman Rite, which some individuals and groups employ, are generally not authorized for liturgical use, but in early 2018 the Ecclesia Dei Commission granted communities served by the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter an indult to use, at the discretion of the Fraternity's superior, the pre-1955 Holy Week liturgy for three years (2018, 2019, 2020).


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The Mass is divided into two parts, the Mass of the Catechumens and the Mass of the Faithful. Catechumens, those being instructed in the faith, were once dismissed after the first half, not having yet professed the faith. Profession of faith was considered essential for participation in the Eucharistic sacrifice.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: This rule of the "Didache" is still in effect. It is only one of the three conditions (baptism, right faith and right living) for admission to receiving Holy Communion that the Catholic Church has always applied and that were already mentioned in the early 2nd century by Saint Justin Martyr: "And this food is called among us the Eucharist, of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined" ("First Apology", Chapter LXVI).


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Asperges (Sprinkling with holy water, Psalm 51:9, 3) is an optional penitential rite that ordinarily precedes only the principal Mass on Sunday. In the sacristy, a priest wearing an alb, if he is to celebrate the Mass, or surplice, if he is not the celebrant of the Mass, and vested with a stole, which is the color of the day if the priest is the celebrant of the Mass or purple if he is not the celebrant of the Mass, exorcises and blesses salt and water, then puts the blessed salt into the water by thrice sprinkling it in the form of a cross while saying once, "Commixtio salis et aquæ pariter fiat in nomine Patris, et Filii et Spiritus Sancti" (May a mixture of salt and water now be made in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit). After that, the priest, vested in a cope of the color of the day, while the choir sings an antiphon and a verse of Psalm 50/51 or 117/118, sprinkles with the holy water the altar three times, and then the clergy and the congregation. This rite, if used, precedes the Prayers at the Foot of the Altar. During the Easter season, the "Asperges me..." verse is replaced by the "Vidi aquam..." verse, and "Alleluia" is added to the "Ostende nobis..." verse and to its response.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The priest then says, ' (Let us pray). After this he ascends to the altar, praying silently "Take away from us our iniquities, we beseech thee O Lord, that with pure minds we may worthily enter into the holy of holies", a reference to Exodus 26:33-34, 1 Kings 6:16, 1 Kings 8:6, 2 Chronicles 3:8, Ezekiel 41:4, and others. He places his joined hands on the edge of the altar, so that only the tips of the small fingers touch the front of it, and silently prays that, by the merits of the Saints whose relics are in the altar, and of all the Saints, God may pardon all his sins. At the words ' (whose relics are here), he spreads his hands and kisses the altar.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Until 1960, the Tridentine form of the Roman Missal laid down that a candle should be placed at the Epistle side of the altar and that it should be lit at the showing of the consecrated sacrament to the people. In practice, except in monasteries and on special occasions, this had fallen out of use long before Pope John XXIII replaced the section on the general rubrics of the Roman Missal with his Code of Rubrics, which no longer mentioned this custom. On this, see Elevation candle.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In later editions of the Roman Missal, including that of 1962, the introductory heading of these prayers indicates that they are to be recited "pro opportunitate" (as circumstances allow), which in practice means that they are merely optional and may be omitted. The original Tridentine Missal presents most of the prayers as obligatory, indicating as optional only a very long prayer attributed to Saint Ambrose (which later editions divide into seven sections, each to be recited on only one day of the week) and two other prayers attributed to Saint Ambrose and Saint Thomas Aquinas respectively.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In addition to these three prayers, the original Tridentine Missal proposes for the priest to recite before he celebrates Mass the whole of Psalms 83–85, 115, 129 (the numbering is that of the Septuagint and Vulgate), and a series of collect-style prayers. Later editions add, after the three that in the original Missal are only optional, prayers to the Blessed Virgin, Saint Joseph, all the angels and saints, and the saint whose Mass is to be celebrated, but, as has been said, treats as optional all the prayers before Mass, even those originally given as obligatory.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The original Tridentine Missal proposes for recitation by the priest after Mass three prayers, including the "Adoro te devote". Later editions place before these three the Canticle of the Three Youths (Dan) with three collects, and follow them with the "Anima Christi" and seven more prayers, treating as optional even the three prescribed in the original Tridentine Missal.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: From 1884 to 1965, the Holy See prescribed the recitation after Low Mass of certain prayers, originally for the solution of the Roman Question and, after this problem was solved by the Lateran Treaty, "to permit tranquillity and freedom to profess the faith to be restored to the afflicted people of Russia".


title: Tridentine Mass

text: These prayers are known as the Leonine Prayers because it was Pope Leo XIII who on 6 January 1884 ordered their recitation throughout the world.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In 1964, with effect from 7 March 1965, the Holy See ended the obligation to recite the Leonine Prayers after Low Mass.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The participation of the congregation at the Tridentine Mass is interior, involving eye and heart, and exterior by mouth.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Except in the Dialogue Mass form, which arose about 1910 and led to a more active exterior participation of the congregation, the people present at the Tridentine Mass do not recite out loud the prayers of the Mass. Only the server or servers join with the priest in reciting the prayers at the foot of the altar (which include the Confiteor) and in speaking the other responses. Most of the prayers that the priest says are spoken inaudibly, including almost all the Mass of the Faithful: the offertory prayers, the Canon of the Mass (except for the preface and the final doxology), and (apart from the Agnus Dei) those between the Lord's Prayer and the postcommunion.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: At a Solemn Mass or Missa Cantata, a choir sings the servers' responses, except for the Prayers at the Foot of the Altar. The choir sings the Introit, the Kyrie, the Gloria, the Gradual, the Tract or Alleluia, the Credo, the Offertory and Communion antiphons, the Sanctus, and the Agnus Dei. Of these, only the five that form part of the Ordinary of the Mass are usually sung at a Missa Cantata. In addition to the Gregorian Chant music for these, polyphonic compositions exist, some quite elaborate. The priest largely says quietly the words of the chants and then recites other prayers while the choir continues the chant.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In its article "The Liturgy of the Mass", the 1917 "Catholic Encyclopedia" describes how, when concelebration ceased to be practised in Western Europe, Low Mass became distinguished from High Mass:


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pius XII began in earnest the work of revising the Roman Missal with a revision of the rites of Holy Week, which, after an experimental period beginning in 1951, was made obligatory in 1955.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In 1960, Pope John XXIII (1958–1963) ordered the suppression of the word "perfidis" ("unbelieving" i.e. not believing in Jesus), applied to the Jews, in the rites for Good Friday. He revised the rubrics to the Order of Mass and the Breviary. Two years later, in 1962, he made some more minor modifications on the occasion of publishing a new typical edition of the Roman Missal. This is the edition authorized for use by virtue of the "Quattuor abhinc annos" indult (see below, under "Present status of the Tridentine Mass"). Among the other changes he made and that were included in the 1962 Missal were: adding St. Joseph's name to the Roman Canon; eliminating the second Confiteor before Communion; suppressing 10 feasts, such as St. Peter's Chair in Rome (or, more accurately, combining both feasts of St Peter's Chair into one, as they originally had been); incorporating the abolition of 4 festal octaves and 9 vigils of feasts and other changes made by Pope Pius XII; and modifying rubrics especially for Solemn High Masses.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: On 4 December 1963, the Second Vatican Council decreed in Chapter II of its Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy "Sacrosanctum Concilium":


title: Tridentine Mass

text: "[T]he rite of the Mass is to be revised ... the rites are to be simplified, due care being taken to preserve their substance. Parts which with the passage of time came to be duplicated, or were added with little advantage, are to be omitted. Other parts which suffered loss through accidents of history are to be restored to the vigor they had in the days of the holy Fathers, as may seem useful or necessary. The treasures of the Bible are to be opened up more lavishly so that a richer fare may be provided for the faithful at the table of God's word ... A suitable place may be allotted to the vernacular in Masses which are celebrated with the people ... communion under both kinds may be granted when the bishops think fit...as, for instance, to the newly ordained in the Mass of their sacred ordination, to the newly professed in the Mass of their religious profession, and to the newly baptized in the Mass which follows their baptism..."


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The instruction "Inter Oecumenici" of 26 September 1964 initiated the application to the Mass of the decisions that the Council had taken less than a year before. Permission was given for use, only in Mass celebrated with the people, of the vernacular language, especially in the Biblical readings and the reintroduced Prayers of the Faithful, but, "until the whole of the Ordinary of the Mass has been revised," in the chants (Kyrie, Gloria, Creed, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and the entrance, offertory and communion antiphons) and in the parts that involved dialogue with the people, and in the Our Father, which the people could now recite entirely together with the priest. Most Episcopal Conferences quickly approved interim vernacular translations, generally different from country to country, and, after having them confirmed by the Holy See, published them in 1965. Other changes included the omission of Psalm 43 (42) at the start of Mass and the Last Gospel at the end, both of which Pope Pius V had first inserted into the Missal (having previously been private prayers said by the priest in the sacristy), and the Leonine Prayers of Pope Leo XIII. The Canon of the Mass, which continued to be recited silently, was kept in Latin.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Three years later, the instruction "Tres abhinc annos" of 4 May 1967 gave permission for use of the vernacular even in the Canon of the Mass, and allowed it to be said audibly and even, in part, to be chanted; the vernacular could be used even at Mass celebrated without the people being present. Use of the maniple was made optional, and at three ceremonies at which the cope was previously the obligatory vestment the chasuble could be used instead.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pope Paul VI continued implementation of the Council's directives, ordering with Apostolic Constitution "Missale Romanum" of Holy Thursday, 3 April 1969, publication of a new official edition of the Roman Missal, which appeared (in Latin) in 1970.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Some Traditionalist Catholics reject to a greater or lesser extent the changes made since 1950. None advocate returning to the original (1570) form of the liturgy, though some may perhaps wish a re-establishment of its form before Pius X's revision of the rubrics in 1911. Some are critical of the 1955 changes in the liturgy of Palm Sunday and the Easter Triduum and in the liturgical calendar (see General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII), and instead use the General Roman Calendar as in 1954. Others accept the 1955 changes by Pius XII, but not those of Pope John XXIII. Others again, in accordance with the authorization granted by Pope Benedict XVI in "Summorum Pontificum", use the Missal and calendar as it was in 1962. They argue that many of the changes made to the liturgy in 1955 and onward were largely the work of liturgist Annibale Bugnini, whom traditionalists say was more interested in innovation than the preservation of the apostolic traditions of the Church.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Some of them argue that, unlike earlier reforms, the revision of 1969-1970 which replaced the Tridentine Mass with the Mass of Pope Paul VI represented a major break with the past. They consider that the content of the revised liturgy is, in Catholic terms, seriously deficient and defective; some hold that it is displeasing to God, and that no Catholic should attend it.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: When a preliminary text of two of the sections of the revised Missal was published in 1969, Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre (who later established Society of Saint Pius X) gathered a group of twelve theologians, who, under his direction, wrote a study of the text. They stated that it "represents, both as a whole and in its details, a striking departure from the Catholic theology of the Mass as it was formulated in Session 22 of the Council of Trent". Cardinal Alfredo Ottaviani, a former Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, supported this study with a letter of 25 September 1969 to Pope Paul VI. Cardinal Antonio Bacci signed the same letter. The critical study became known as "the Ottaviani Intervention". Cardinal Ottaviani subsequently stated in writing that he had not intended his letter to be made public, and that Pope Paul VI's doctrinal exposition, on 19 November and 26 November 1969, of the revised liturgy in its definitive form meant that "no one can be genuinely scandalized any more". Jean Madiran, a critic of Vatican II and founder-editor of the French journal "Itinéraires", claimed that this letter was fraudulently presented to the elderly and already blind cardinal for his signature by his secretary, Monsignor (and future Cardinal) Gilberto Agustoni, and that Agustoni resigned shortly afterwards. This allegation remains unproven, and Madiran himself was not an eyewitness of the alleged deception.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: From the 1960s onwards, Western countries have experienced a drop in Mass attendance (in the United States, from 75% of Catholics attending in 1958 to 25% attending by 2002). These same countries saw a decline in seminary enrollments and in the number of priests (in the United States, from 1,575 ordinations in 1954 to 450 in 2002), and a general erosion of belief in the doctrines of the Catholic faith. Opponents of the revision of the Mass liturgy argue, citing opinion poll evidence in their support, that the revision contributed to this decline. Others, pointing, among other considerations, to the fact that, globally, there are more priests and seminarians now than in previous years (in 1970, there were 72,991 major seminarians worldwide, in 2002, there were 113,199, an increase of 55%, at a time, however, when there was an increase of global population of 64%), suggests that the apparent decline of Catholic practice in the West is due to the general influence of secularism and liberalism on Western societies rather than to developments within the Church. In the United States however, Traditional Catholic parishes have been growing since 2007 even as overall Catholic attendance continues to decline.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Following the introduction of the Mass of Paul VI in 1969-1970, the Holy See granted a significant number of permissions for the use of the former liturgy. For example, elderly priests were not required to switch to celebrating the new form. In England and Wales, occasional celebrations of the Tridentine Mass were allowed in virtue of what became known as the "Agatha Christie indult". However, there was no general worldwide legal framework allowing for the celebration of the rite. Following the rise of the Traditionalist Catholic movement in the 1970s, Pope Paul VI reportedly declined to liberalise its use further on the grounds that it had become a politically charged symbol associated with opposition to his policies.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In 1984, the Holy See sent a letter known as "Quattuor abhinc annos" to the presidents of the world's Episcopal Conferences. This document empowered diocesan bishops to authorise, on certain conditions, celebrations of the Tridentine Mass for priests and laypeople who requested them. In 1988, following the excommunication of Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre and four bishops that he had consecrated, the Pope issued a further document, a "motu proprio" known as "Ecclesia Dei", which stated that "respect must everywhere be shown for the feelings of all those who are attached to the Latin liturgical tradition". The Pope urged bishops to give "a wide and generous application" to the provisions of "Quattuor abhinc annos", and established the Pontifical Commission "Ecclesia Dei" to oversee relations between Rome and Traditionalist Catholics.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The Holy See itself granted authorisation to use the Tridentine Mass to a significant number of priests and priestly societies, such as the Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter, the Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest, and the Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: As a cardinal, Joseph Ratzinger was regarded as having a particular interest in the liturgy, and as being favourable towards the pre-Vatican II Mass. He criticized the erratic way in which, contrary to official policy, many priests celebrated the post-Vatican II form.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In September 2006, the Pontifical Commission "Ecclesia Dei" established the Institute of the Good Shepherd, made up of former members of the Society of St. Pius X, in Bordeaux, France, with permission to use the Tridentine liturgy. This step was met with some discontent from French clergy, and thirty priests wrote an open letter to the Pope. Consistently with its previous policy, the Society of St Pius X rejected the move.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Following repeated rumours that the use of the Tridentine Mass would be liberalised, the Pope issued a "motu proprio" called "Summorum Pontificum" on 7 July 2007, together with an accompanying letter to the world's Bishops. The Pope declared that "the Roman Missal promulgated by Paul VI is the ordinary expression of the "lex orandi" (law of prayer) of the Catholic Church of the Latin rite. Nevertheless, the Roman Missal promulgated by St. Pius V and reissued by St. John XXIII is to be considered as an extraordinary expression of that same 'Lex orandi'". He further stated that "the 1962 Missal ... was never juridically abrogated". He replaced with new rules those of "Quattuor Abhinc Annos" on use of the older form: essentially, authorization for using the 1962 form for parish Masses and those celebrated on public occasions such as a wedding is devolved from the local bishop to the priest in charge of a church, and "any priest of the Latin rite" may use the 1962 Roman Missal in "Masses celebrated without the people", a term that does not exclude attendance by other worshippers, lay or clergy. While requests by groups of Catholics wishing to use the Tridentine liturgy in parish Masses are to be dealt with by the parish priest (or the rector of the church) rather than, as before, by the local bishop, the Pope and Cardinal Darío Castrillón stated that the bishops' authority is not thereby undermined.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pope Francis on the 16th of July 2021 released an Apostolic Letter "Motu Proprio", "Traditionis custodes", on the use of the Roman Liturgy prior to the Reform of 1970. In "Traditionis custodes", the Pope says "the liturgical books promulgated by Saint Paul VI and Saint John Paul II, in conformity with the decrees of Vatican Council II, are the unique expression of the "lex orandi" of the Roman Rite". He also greatly restricted the use of the Tridentine Mass.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pope Francis added that it is the exclusive competence of the local bishop to authorize the use of the 1962 Roman Missal in his diocese, according to the guidelines of the Apostolic See.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: Pope Francis expressed to the Bishops of the world in his letter accompanying the motu proprio that there is a need in "due time" for those who are attached to the 1962 Mass to return to the celebration of the Mass of Paul VI.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In June 2022, Pope Francis issued an Apostolic Letter entitled, "Desiderio Desideravi", where he stated that he did not believe the 1962 Missal was the path forward for the Church, insisting that the Church could not "go back to the ritual form which the Council Fathers sought the need to reform".


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The "motu proprio Traditionis custodes" abrogates all previous norms, instructions, permissions and customs that do not conform to it.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In December 2021, additional restrictions and guidelines were issued by the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments in the form of a "Responsa ad dubia:"


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In December 2021, in an interview with the National Catholic Register, Arthur Roche, the Prefect for the Congregation in charge of the implementation of Traditionis Custodes, reiterated Pope Francis' statement that the Mass according to the Missal promulgated by Paul VI and John Paul II, is "the unique expression of the lex orandi of the Roman Rite". Roche also emphasized that "the liturgy is never simply a matter of personal tastes or preference" and that the lex orandi is "determined by the Church and not individual members". Roche also stated that continuing to allow the celebration of Mass according to the Tridentine form was a concession and that the promotion of the Tridentine Mass has "been curtailed".


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In February 2022, the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter, a society of apostolic life dedicated to the celebration of the Traditional Liturgy, was granted full permission to celebrate the Traditional Mass, Breviary, Sacraments and the Pontifical Missal. The permission is restricted to the Fraternity's churches and oratories, unless the local ordinary grants permission for priests of the fraternity to celebrate elsewhere in the Diocese, with the exception of private masses.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: The publication of "Summorum Pontificum" has led to an increase in the number of regularly scheduled public Tridentine Masses. On 14 June 2008 Cardinal Darío Castrillón Hoyos told a London press conference that Pope Benedict wanted every parish to offer both the old and the new forms for Sunday Mass.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In order to provide for priests who celebrate the Tridentine Mass, publishers have issued facsimiles or reprintings of old missals. There were two new printings of the 1962 Tridentine Missal in 2004: one, with the imprimatur of Bishop Fabian Bruskewitz of Lincoln, Nebraska, by Baronius Press in association with the Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter; the other by the Society of St. Pius X's publishing house, Angelus Press. In 2008 PCP Books also produced a facsimile of the 1962 altar missal.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: On March 25, 2020 the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued two decrees giving new Eucharistic prefaces and provision for the optional celebration of more recent saints in the Tridentine form. The decree "Quo magis" provides seven new Eucharistic prefaces for the extraordinary form of the Mass, which may be used for particular occasions, such as votive Masses or the feast days of saints. The second decree, "Cum sanctissima", establishes a provision for the celebration of the third class feasts of saints canonized after July 1960, whose memorials were established after the 1962 Roman Missal. "Cum sanctissima" includes a list of 70 third class feasts, equivalent to a memorial in the ordinary form.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: On 16 July 2021 Pope Francis issued a motu proprio entitled "Traditionis Custodes" in which he regulates the use of the 1962 Roman Missal. The new circumstances of Extraordinary Form celebration established by "Traditionis Custodes" are more restrictive than those of "Summorum Pontificum" and placed emphasis on celebration of the Ordinary Form according to the liturgical books of Popes Paul VI and John Paul II as "the unique expression of the "lex orandi" of the Roman Rite.". On 18 December 2021, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments issued a Responsa regarding certain provisions of Traditionis Custodes.


title: Tridentine Mass

text: In December 2021, it was noted that communities regularly attending the Tridentine Mass "show slow but steady growth each year and their members tend to be younger than average churchgoers." It has been estimated, in December 2021 that in the US, around 150 000 Catholics regularly attended the Tridentine Mass. Those Catholics represented 1% of the at the time 21 million regularly mass-going Catholics in the US. It was also estimated, still in December 2021, that there were possibly 60 000 Traditionalist Catholics in France. Those made up possibly 4% to 7% of all practicing Catholics in the country. An important part of Traditionalist Catholics of France are in groups not in communion with the Holy See.


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: Margaret Elizabeth Lindemann (born July 21, 1998) is an American singer-songwriter. She is best known for her 2016 breakout single "Pretty Girl", which peaked at number 4 in Sweden, number 6 in Ireland, and number 8 the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Following the song, Lindemann transitioned her music into pop punk and alternative rock genres with the release of her debut EP, "Paranoia" (2021).


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: Margaret Elizabeth Lindemann was born July 21, 1998, in Dallas, Texas, into a German-Scottish family. She began posting recordings of her singing on the social media app Keek, gaining a following both on the app and her other social media accounts. Her career in music began after her manager, Gerald Tennison, discovered a video of her singing on her Instagram page. She then relocated to Los Angeles to pursue music.


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: Lindemann's debut single "Knocking On Your Heart" was released in September 2015. Her second single "Couple of Kids" was released on October 30, 2015. On January 29, 2016, her third single "Things" was released. The official music video of "Things" was released on her YouTube channel on February 5, 2016.


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: On September 29, 2016, Lindemann released the single "Pretty Girl", her first single since signing to 300 Entertainment. The song peaked at number 4 on the Next Big Sound chart. Lindemann wrote the song to "show people that there's more to girls than just being pretty. We have so much to offer. People should get past the physical appearance to something deeper." The music video for "Pretty Girl" premiered through "People" on March 9, 2017. "Pretty Girl" is Lindemann's first song to ever chart on the US pop radio charts, peaking at number 50. It also peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart. Lindemann featured in The Vamps' single "Personal", released October 13, 2017. Lindemann released the single "Obsessed" on November 17, 2017.


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: On October 26, 2018, she released the single "Human". She released the single "Would I" on November 16, 2018. In March 2019, Lindemann was the supporting act for Sabrina Carpenter on the North American leg of the Singular Tour, and has also opened for The Vamps, as well as Madison Beer on her Life Support Tour in 2021.


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: Lindemann released the single "Friends Go" on April 24, 2019. The song was later rereleased, featuring Travis Barker. Through 2020, she released four singles; "Knife Under My Pillow", "Gaslight!", "Scissorhands" and "Loner". All four of the songs, as well as four new songs, were included on Lindemann's debut EP, "Paranoia", released on January 22, 2021. The EP and Lindemann herself received praise from "Alternative Press", who acknowledged her "pop background" and appreciated Lindemann "blending genres and experimenting with rock and metal sounds", and credited her with "keeping emo alive". Lindemann says Avril Lavigne was a big influence on the EP, particularly on "Knife Under My Pillow".


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: Her song "Crash and Burn" was Radio.com's Alternative Pick of the Week from March 20–27, 2021, which landed Maggie Lindemann's first debut on Mediabase radio chart peaking at number 33. Lindemann hosts a podcast called "swixxzaudio", sharing the name of her record label which she founded in 2020. On the podcast, which currently has 10 episodes and began on April 20, 2020, she has discussed various topics such as the making and release of "Paranoia". She describes the podcast as her "speaking to anyone that wants to listen".


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: On April 15, 2022, she announced the second single from her upcoming debut album, "Suckerpunch". The single, "How Could You Do This to Me", which follows the first single, "She Knows It", released in October 2021, features Kellin Quinn of Sleeping with Sirens and was released on April 29. It was performed live while Lindemann opened for Madison Beer on tour in 2021. The album's title was revealed the same day, and is slated for a release in the third quarter of 2022.The album's third single, "Break Me!" featuring Siiickbrain was released on June 3, 2022. On July 11, Lindemann announced the fourth single of the album, "You're Not Special", which released on July 15. On July 14, she announced "Suckerpunch" would be released on September 16. On August 12, the fifth single, "Self Sabotage" was released.


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: In 2015, a video leaked on Tumblr which showed Lindemann's then boyfriend, Vine star Carter Reynolds, attempting to convince Lindemann into oral sex, despite her continuously saying "this makes me so uncomfortable".


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: In 2016, Lindemann publicly came out as bisexual. Lindemann was in a relationship with Brandon Arreaga, a member of the boy band PrettyMuch, from 2019 to 2022. In May 2022, Lindemann shared via her Instagram stories that she and Arreaga had broken up.


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: In 2019, while performing in Malaysia, Lindemann was escorted off the stage and arrested for performing without a professional visit pass, as required by all foreigners performing work in the country. She was released on bail the next day, with the event organizers pleading guilty. She has described the incident as "five days of living hell".


title: Maggie Lindemann

text: Lindemann credits Lana Del Rey, Banks, and Spooky Black as some of her main influences, calling them "the 'anti pop stars'...off-kilter artists who do their individual thing and are unconcerned with being mainstream." She has credited rock and alternative acts of the early 2000s, such as Gwen Stefani, Avril Lavigne, Paramore, Evanescence and Flyleaf, as influences, saying, "That's actually my favorite time in music, but I felt like I had to hide that side of myself in order to fit this pop princess vibe." Lavigne particularly influenced Lindemann's song "Knife Under My Pillow".


title: Andy Buckley

text: Andrew P. Buckley Jr. (born February 13, 1965) is an American actor and financial analyst best known for his role as David Wallace on the NBC comedy series "The Office" from 2006 to 2013.


title: Andy Buckley

text: Buckley was born in Salem, Massachusetts, the son of Barbara J. (King) and Andrew P. Buckley. He has two brothers and a sister. He attended Pine Crest School, where he graduated in 1983, and Stanford University, where he graduated in 1987 with a bachelor's degree in political science. He played golf on the Stanford Men's Golf Team. He later studied sketch comedy and improvisation at the Groundlings Theatre, working with comedians Melissa McCarthy and Dax Shepard.


title: Andy Buckley

text: Buckley appeared in two 1997 music videos, "I'd Rather Ride Around with You" and "What if it's You", by country music artist Reba McEntire.


title: Andy Buckley

text: Buckley played David Wallace, embattled CFO and later CEO of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company, in 37 episodes of "The Office" from 2006 to 2013. At the time of his initial appearance, he had been working as a financial advisor at Merrill Lynch, and had been cast specifically because of his familiarity with the world of corporate finance. He continued to work in the finance industry full-time during his recurring role on "The Office."


title: Andy Buckley

text: In addition to "The Office", Buckley has appeared in television series such as "The League", "", "NYPD Blue", "The West Wing", and "Veep". In 2010, his bit in the film "The Other Guys" climaxed with a fall from an eighth-floor ledge. That year, he had another supporting role in the film "Life as We Know It" with Katherine Heigl and Josh Duhamel.


title: Andy Buckley

text: As of 2011, Buckley was cast as Captain Correlli in the children's film "". He played Rose Byrne's husband in the 2011 hit movie "Bridesmaids", though his part was mostly cut out. He was cast as Ted Mercer, a happily married adoptive parent and plastic surgeon, in ABC Family's "The Lying Game". In 2015, he appeared in a supporting role in the science fiction adventure film "Jurassic World". In 2017, Buckley joined the cast of writer/director Chris Blake's indie horror film, "All Light Will End", alongside Sarah Butler, John Schuck, and Sam Jones III.


title: Andy Buckley

text: In 2018 Buckley appeared with golfer Phil Mickelson in a commercial for Workday, Inc with Mickelson acting as his "Business Caddy" for important business decisions.


title: Andy Buckley

text: In 2020, Variety announced Buckley was joining the cast of the Chris Blake quarantine comedy, Distancing Socially. It would mark Buckley's second on-screen collaboration with the director. The film was shot at the height of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020, using remote technologies and the iPhone 11. The film was acquired and released by Cinedigm in October of 2021.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Brock Jeffrey Pierce (born November 14, 1981) is an American entrepreneur known primarily for his work in the cryptocurrency industry. As a child actor, he starred in Disney films "The Mighty Ducks" (1992), "" (1994), and "First Kid" (1996). He ran as an independent candidate in the 2020 United States presidential election.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce was born in Minnesota and appeared in commercials as a toddler. His first major role was playing a young Gordon Bombay in "The Mighty Ducks" (1992). Pierce reprised the role in "". He starred as Luke Davenport in "First Kid" (1996). Pierce had small roles in "Little Big League" (1994), "Ripper Man" (1995), "" (1995), "Three Wishes" (1995), "Earth Minus Zero" (1996), and "The Ride" (1997).


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce retired from acting at 16 and joined as a minor partner with Marc Collins-Rector and Chad Schackley in establishing Digital Entertainment Network (DEN), which raised $88 million in venture capital. DEN's goal was to deliver original episodic video content over the Internet aimed at niche audiences. DEN was one of a crop of dot-com startups that focused on the creation and delivery of original video content online in the late 1990s prior to the wide adoption of broadband internet access. Pierce produced its first show, a pilot for gay teenagers called "Chad's World". As an 18-year-old, Pierce was making $250,000 a year and held 1% of the company's shares.


title: Brock Pierce

text: DEN was slated for a US$75 million IPO in October 1999, but the IPO was withdrawn in the wake of allegations of sexual assault against Collins-Rector. All three executives subsequently resigned. Layoffs followed in February 2000. While a new executive team led by former Capitol Records President Gary Gersh and former Microsoft executive Greg Carpenter attempted to relaunch in May 2000, DEN filed for bankruptcy and shut down in June 2000.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In 2001, Pierce founded Internet Gaming Entertainment (IGE), a company that pioneered the MMORPG currency-selling services industry. Between 2004 and 2005, IGE spent more than $25 million buying out seven smaller competitors, including four auction platforms and a number of fan and content sites. In 2005, Pierce estimated that IGE accounted for about 50% of this online market in the U.S., which has about $500 million in annual volume.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce brought in Steve Bannon, formerly of Goldman Sachs and Breitbart News, to seek venture capital and a deal was made in February 2006 yielding $60 million of which Pierce took away $20 million for a minority stake. The next year the company facing a class-action lawsuit. With no assets, the company failed and Pierce was forced out.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce founded ZAM, a network of websites oriented around massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG), such as "World of Warcraft", "", "Rift", "EverQuest", etc., in 2003. The ZAM.com network included gaming websites such as ZAM.com, Wowhead, Thottbot, Torhead, and D3DB. In March, 2012, Chinese internet and tech giant, Tencent, acquired ZAM.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In 2010, Titan Gaming recruited Pierce to sit on its board along with EA Executive Keith McCurdy. Pierce joined other Southern California angel investors, including MP3.com's Michael Robertson, SOA Software's Eric Pulier and William Quigley, and Jim Armstrong of Clearstone Ventures. Also that year, Titan Gaming purchased the rising online gaming network Xfire from Viacom. In October 2011, after Xfire received over $4 million in fresh funding from Intel Capital, Titan Gaming and Xfire cut ties and went their own ways. Titan Gaming and Xfire now operate independently. In late April 2012, Titan Gaming announced that it would be rebranded as Playsino to embark in a complete makeover, with Pierce as the new CEO and $1.5 million of new funding.


title: Brock Pierce

text: As of 2013, Pierce was managing director of the Clearstone Global Gaming Fund a board member of IMI Exchange (a remnant of the IGE restructuring), Xfire, Playsino (having been replaced as CEO in 2013), GoCoin, FGL, Spicy Horse Games, KnCMiner.cn and the Mastercoin Foundation. He was also a member investor of Bit Angels and an investor in BTC China. IMI exchange was subsequently acquired by Moda Inc.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce has been a guest speaker at the Milken Global Conference, Singularity University, and the California Institute of Technology.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In 2013, Pierce joined brothers Bart and Bradford Stephens in founding venture capital firm Blockchain Capital (BCC) which was reported to have raised $85 million in two venture funds by October 2017. Blockchain Capital raised a third fund using digital security offering on the blockchain, one of the first traded security tokens.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce worked with Mastercoin, a startup that raised capital via an initial coin offering (ICO) in 2013. According to Bloomberg, this “kicked off a worldwide ICO craze, with hundreds of startups raising billions of dollars”.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In March 2014, Pierce and a group of investors filed an offer to purchase the assets of Mt Gox using a Cypriot entity called Sunlot Holdings Ltd. The month before, Mt Gox had shut down operations and filed for bankruptcy in Tokyo after announcing that it had lost 850,000 Bitcoin.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce was elected Director of the Bitcoin Foundation in May 2014. Several members of the Bitcoin Foundation resigned over concerns about the directors. The organization announced its insolvency in July 2015.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In a February 2018 issue of "Forbes" magazine Pierce was named in the "top 20 wealthiest people in crypto" with an estimated net worth between $700 million and $1.1 billion.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce was a co-founder of the cryptocurrency Tether with Reeve Collins and Craig Sellars in 2014. Tether surpassed Bitcoin in trading volume with the highest daily and monthly trading volume of any cryptocurrency on the market in 2019. Tether is a so-called stablecoin because it allegedly maintains $1 dollar in reserves for each tether issued. In 2020, a court permitted the Attorney General of New York to pursue a claim that Bitfinex, an affiliated exchange, did not disclose the loss of commingled funds. In an interview in July 2020, Pierce said his involvement in Tether ended in 2015 but described Tether as "one of the most important innovations in currency."


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce was a co-founder of Block.one, which released EOS.IO software. The ICO raised more than $4 billion, the largest in history. By March 2018, Pierce's role at Block.one had changed to chief strategy officer and he resigned from the company that month to pursue community building.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce led an international delegation to El Salvador in June, 2021, in order to advise the Salvadorian government on their formal adoption of Bitcoin as their national currency.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In 2018, Pierce converted a former monastery in the Old City of San Juan, Puerto Rico into his headquarters.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In 2020, Pierce acquired Dwight Howard's Pierce School Loft in Washington, D.C. Originally built in 1893, the Pierce School Lofts are located in a former schoolhouse named for US President Franklin Pierce. The Pierce School Loft is currently in use as a meeting place for national and local leaders and politicians.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In January 2022, Pierce purchased the W Hotel on the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico, which shuttered in the aftermath of hurricane Maria.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce is the vice chair and spokesperson of the U.S. Marines Toys for Tots Foundation of New York, Long Island and Puerto Rico. In late-2021, Pierce funded a new NYPD Gaming Trucks initiative in New York City.


title: Brock Pierce

text: On July 5, 2020, Pierce announced his candidacy for President of the United States in the 2020 election as an Independent. The campaign filed registration documents with the FEC on July 7. Pierce based his campaign around his background as an entrepreneur, and his running mate was Karla Ballard, a fellow entrepreneur. Pierce gained ballot access in Oklahoma on July 15, in Arkansas on August 12, Colorado on August 19. and was nominated by the New York Independence Party on August 24. Pierce was endorsed by venture capitalist and Bitcoin advocate Tim Draper. Pierce was also backed up by singer and entrepreneur Akon, who managed his presidential campaign as chief strategist. Pierce received just 0.03% of the votes in the election. On September 14, he announced that he would form a new party and run candidates in 2022. Jesse Ventura, former Minnesota governor, mayor, actor, and professional wrestler, also endorsed Pierce.


title: Brock Pierce

text: Pierce proposed "America 2.0", with a government that embraces technology, and believes technology is the biggest issue for the United States' future. Pierce has said that he would institute a universal basic income, which could be enabled by digital currencies. He also supports a single-payer health-care system and the legalization of marijuana. Stating that the war on drugs has failed, he advocates ending federal enforcement and to pardon and expunge all non-violent cannabis crimes. Pierce has criticized the two-party system and has stated that he intends to start a major third party.


title: Brock Pierce

text: The Free & Equal Elections Foundation hosted the Second Open Presidential Debate on October 8, 2020, in Denver, Colorado, with participation limited to candidates on the ballot in at least eight states. Participants in the debate included Pierce alongside Howie Hawkins of the Green Party, Brian Carroll of the American Solidarity Party, Don Blankenship of the Constitution Party; and Gloria La Riva of the Party for Socialism & Liberation.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In Casper, Wyoming, Pierce announced the Independent National Convention, to be held in Cheyenne, Wyoming on October 23–24, 2020. Pierce said the convention would include minor, third-party candidates to share their message. Pierce invited independent candidate Kanye West to attend the convention along with five other confirmed independent candidates. Pierce is the only independent candidate to appear on the Wyoming ballot.


title: Brock Pierce

text: On October 13, 2020, Pierce became the first presidential candidate in U.S. history to receive a vote through an app on a personal mobile phone using blockchain technology, in Utah County using the Voatz app.


title: Brock Pierce

text: He received the endorsement of the Independence Party of New York and the Independent Party of Florida.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In November 2021, Pierce filed a statement of organization with the FEC and later confirmed he was considering a 2022 run for the United States Senate to replace retiring Vermont senator Patrick Leahy After news reports indicated Pierce could lose his federal income tax-free status as a Puerto Rico resident by running in Vermont, he did not file to qualify for the ballot.


title: Brock Pierce

text: He is married to Crystal Rose, CEO of Sensay and co-chairman of the United Council of Rising Nations.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In 2000, three former DEN employees filed a lawsuit against Marc Collins-Rector and Pierce alleging that they provided the plaintiffs with drugs and pressured them for sex when Pierce and one of the plaintiffs were still teenagers. Pierce, along with the other two DEN employees, fled the United States. They were arrested by Interpol in 2002 in Marbella, Spain. Pierce was released without being charged. Rector eventually pleaded guilty and left the United States.


title: Brock Pierce

text: The three plaintiffs voluntarily dismissed all charges against Pierce without receiving any compensation. Court records show that Pierce paid $21,600 to one of the plaintiff's attorneys because said attorney refused to file the order of dismissal requested by his client until the attorney's expenses were reimbursed.


title: Brock Pierce

text: In 2017, he relocated to Puerto Rico along with other traders, becoming the leader of a group focused on building a utopia on the island in the aftermath of Hurricane Maria.


title: Jackson State University

text: Jackson State University (Jackson State or JSU) is a public historically black research university in Jackson, Mississippi. It is one of the largest HBCUs in the United States and the fourth largest university in Mississippi in terms of student enrollment. The university is a member of the Thurgood Marshall College Fund and classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".


title: Jackson State University

text: Jackson State University's athletic teams, the Tigers, participate in NCAA Division I athletics as a member of the Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC). The university is also the home of the Sonic Boom of the South, a marching band founded in the 1940s. Their accompanying danceline, the "Prancing J-Settes", are well known for their unique style of dance, known as J-Setting.


title: Jackson State University

text: Jackson State University developed from Natchez Seminary, founded October 23, 1877, in Natchez, Mississippi. The seminary was affiliated with the American Baptist Home Mission Society of New York, who established it "for the moral, religious, and intellectual improvement of Christian leaders of the colored people of Mississippi and the neighboring states". In 1883, the school changed its name to Jackson College and moved from Natchez to a site in Jackson, the capital. Today that site serves as the campus of Millsaps College.


title: Jackson State University

text: Jackson College moved to its current location early in the 20th century, where it developed into a full state university.


title: Jackson State University

text: In 1934, during the Great Depression, The Baptist Society withdrew financial support. The school became a state-supported public institution in 1940, known as the Mississippi Negro Training School. The name has since been changed to express development: Jackson College for Negro Teachers (1944). After desegregation, Jackson State College (1967); with the addition of graduate programs and expanded curriculum, Jackson State University (1974).


title: Jackson State University

text: Many students at Jackson State College became active in the civil rights movement. Work to gain integrated practice and social justice continued after civil rights legislation was passed in the mid-1960s.


title: Jackson State University

text: During an on-campus protest on May 14, 1970, two students were killed by police gunfire. An additional 12 students were injured by gunfire during the clash.<ref name="Reed, NYT, 5/16/1970"></ref> A dormitory still bears the bullet marks fired on that day.


title: Jackson State University

text: The main campus contains over 50 academic and administrative buildings on . It is located at 1400 John R. Lynch Street between Prentiss and Dalton Streets.


title: Jackson State University

text: Ayer Hall was constructed in 1903 and is the oldest structure on the main campus. It was named in honor of the first president of the institution, Charles Ayer. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977. Green-Gibb Pedestrian Walkway was named in honor of the two young men who died in the Jackson State shooting in 1970. As a result of the landmark "Ayers Settlement" in 2002, the university, along with the other two public HBCUs in the state, has completed extensive renovations and upgrades to campus.


title: Jackson State University

text: The board of trustees is the constitutional governing body of the Mississippi State Institutions of Higher Learning. This body appoints the president of the university. There are 575 faculty and 1,431 staff; 54% of the faculty are tenured, teaching approximately 7,000 undergraduate and graduate students.


title: Jackson State University

text: In 2015, JSU became the first university in Mississippi approved by the legislature to establish a School of Public Health which is housed under the College of Health Sciences. JSU is the only university in Mississippi to earn two consecutive "Apple Distinguished School" distinctions. Apple Inc. biennially acknowledges schools that uniquely incorporate technology into its curriculum. Since 2012, Jackson State University has provided all first-time, full-time freshmen brand new iPads to increase technology usage on campus. JSU is the first and only HBCU in Mississippi to support a bachelor's and master's level engineering program. JSU is one of only two universities in Mississippi with a comprehensive meteorology undergraduate level degree program. The W.E.B. Du Bois – Maria Luisa Alvarez Harvey Honors College is a selective interdisciplinary college at the university that provides a unique academic experience for the most high-achieving undergraduate students.


title: Jackson State University

text: Tiger Battalion, the university's Army ROTC program is the host US Army ROTC program for Belhaven University, Delta State University, Hinds Community College, Millsaps College, Mississippi College, Mississippi College School of Law, Mississippi Valley State University, Tougaloo College, and University of Mississippi Medical Center's School of Nursing. Air Force Detachment 006 is the Air Force ROTC Component for the Jackson metropolitan area. Hosted at Jackson State, it also serves students from Belhaven University, Millsaps College, Mississippi College and Tougaloo College.


title: Jackson State University

text: Jackson State is a member of the Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) and the Southwestern Athletic Conference. Currently, JSU fields teams in basketball, track and field, cross country, baseball, softball, golf, tennis, soccer, bowling, volleyball, and football. The university's mascot is the Tiger, and the teams are sometimes referred to as the "Blue Bengals."


title: Jackson State University

text: The Tiger men's football team has a heralded history, winning and sharing 16 SWAC titles, most recent in 2021. Its most famous alumni includes Pro Football Hall of Famers Lem Barney, Jackie Slater and Walter Payton, and former Jacksonville Jaguars wide receiver Jimmy Smith.


title: Jackson State University

text: The marching band began in the 1940s at what was then Jackson State College, under the directorship of Frederick D. Hall, who had directed a band at the college as early as the 1920s, in addition to the chorus and orchestra. It was initially made up of students from Jackson College and Lanier High School. Founded as the Jackson State University Marching Band, the name "Sonic Boom of the South" was adopted by the school in 1971, after having been suggested by band members. The first full-time band director, William W. Davis, was appointed in 1948, replacing Charles Saulsburg, who had been director since 1947. Davis had previously played trumpet in Cab Calloway's band, and Calloway's musical style and showmanship influenced Davis's conceptualization of the marching band. The band at this time had around 20 members, increasing to 88 in 1963. Davis retired as director in 1971, but remained the chief arranger for the band. He was replaced by Harold J. Haughton. Haughton was instrumental in the creation of the "Prancing J-Settes", the band's accompanying danceline.


title: Jackson State University

text: As of fall 2017, 75% of Jackson State's student community was from Mississippi, with the majority from Hinds County and Madison County. The top three feeder states were Illinois (419 students), Louisiana (227), and Tennessee (192). China accounted for the highest number of international students on campus. 90% of students identified as Black, 6% identified as white, and 4% identified with various race categories. 34% of students were male, and 66% of students were female.


title: Jackson State University

text: Jackson State University offers over 100 registered student organizations on campus. There are academic, residential, religious, Greek, and special interest groups established to serve the diverse interests of JSU's student community. All student organizations are governed under the Student Affairs division.


title: Jackson State University

text: Jackson State University's National Pan Hellenic Council (NPHC) includes all nine NPHC organizations:


title: Jackson State University

text: Jackson State is home to radio station WJSU-88.5 FM which plays jazz, gospel, news and public affairs programming. Jackson State University also owns a television station, W23BC known as JSUTV aired on Comcast. Jackson State also publishes the independent "Blue and White Flash" weekly student newspaper and the "Jacksonian" magazine, which features news and highlights about the university, its students, and alumni.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: Shimerman was born into a Jewish family in Lakewood, New Jersey, on November 5, 1949, the son of accountant Susan and house painter Herbert Shimerman. When he was 15, he moved with his family to Los Angeles, where his mother enrolled him in a drama group in an effort to expand his social circle. He attended Santa Monica High School and was active in drama. As a senior, he played leading roles in school productions of "Hamlet", "The Crucible", and "The Skin of Our Teeth" before graduating in 1967. After graduating from UCLA, he was selected to apprentice at the Old Globe Theater in San Diego. He began pursuing a career in theater and eventually moved to New York City, where he was a member of the Impossible Ragtime Theater. Returning to Los Angeles, he took roles in two CBS series to launch his television acting career.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: Shimerman is known for his work as the Ferengi bar owner Quark in the long-running television series "", though his involvement with the "Star Trek" franchise began with appearances as other Ferengi characters in the "" episodes "" and "". As the character Quark, Shimerman became one of Star Trek's most widely known characters, and he appeared several times on the cover of "TV Guide", either with other actors or alone as part of a collector's series. He says that his favorite episode of Deep Space Nine is "" as it was the only episode where he is shown captaining a ship.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: Along with Patrick Stewart, Marina Sirtis, Jonathan Frakes, John de Lancie, Michael Ansara, and Richard Poe, he is one of only a few actors to play the same character on three different "Star Trek" series. He played Quark in "", "" and "". He reprised the role of Quark in the 1998 film "" but only in deleted scenes.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: In addition to "Star Trek", Shimerman has had roles as Pascal on "Beauty and the Beast" and as Principal Snyder in 19 episodes of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". He has also starred as Anteaus in "Stargate SG-1" as one of the Nox, an evil wizard in "Charmed", appeared as Stan the caddy in an episode of "Seinfeld" and as Dr. Patemkin on "Leverage".


title: Armin Shimerman

text: Shimerman has appeared in the first 7 episodes as Judge Brian Hooper in the third season of "Boston Legal", joining fellow "Star Trek" actors William Shatner, René Auberjonois, and Ethan Phillips. His character even shared a scene with Auberjonois, with the strife between the two characters reminiscent of the conflict between Shimerman's Quark and Auberjonois's Odo.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: He appeared in the series "Numb3rs" episode "Provenance" as Patrick Holden. He had a small cameo in the episode "Posse Comitatus" of "The West Wing" as Richard the III and another in the film as an Old Man in the subway in "What the Bleep Do We Know!?".


title: Armin Shimerman

text: He has made appearances in various television series such as "Babes" as Mr. Ian Anderson, "Married... with Children" as Mr. Lovejoy, "Warehouse 13" as Charlie Martin, "Tremors" as Cecil Carr, "The Young and the Restless" as Judge Graham Roberts, "Castle" as Benjamin Donnelly, "Bad Samaritans" as the Judge, and "Red Bird" as Max.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: He has voiced several video game villains, including Toad and Zealot (as well as the 5th Male Prisoner) in "X-Men Legends" and "" respectively, Andrew Ryan in the "BioShock" series, Razputin's father in "Psychonauts", and General Skarr from "Evil Con Carne" and "The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy". He then lent his voice talent to BioWare for their games "Jade Empire" (as Emperor Sun Hai, Abbot Song and the Innkeeper) and "Mass Effect" (as the original Salarian Councilor and Fai Dan). He also voiced Dr. Emil Narud, Mohandar and Dr. Emil Narud in its Human Form in the 2010 RTS video game "" and the 2013 expansion "" respectively.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: He also voiced the role of Quark in various Deep Space Nine video games such as "" and "" and reprised the role in the 2018 expansion "Star Trek Online: Victory is Life".


title: Armin Shimerman

text: He also voiced Ben Robbins and the Shopkeeper in the first 2 episodes of "Rocket Power" from 1999 to 2000.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: In 2008, he voiced the character of Wilmer in an audio dramatization of "The Maltese Falcon" that also featured actors Michael Madsen, Sandra Oh, and Edward Herrmann. In addition, he also voiced the character of Mr. Phillips in Focus on the Family Radio Theatre's production of "Anne of Green Gables". He also voiced Raanu along with the Villager and a Village Leader in the straight-to-DVD animated film "". He also voices Green Goblin in the action role-playing video game "".


title: Armin Shimerman

text: His best known voice work is that of Doctor Nefarious in the "Ratchet & Clank" franchise, a role for which he received much praise.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: He reprised his roles as Dr. Nefarious and Andrew Ryan and also voiced a Vox Populi enemy in the crossover fighting game "PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale".


title: Armin Shimerman

text: Shimerman co-authored a "" novel, "The 34th Rule", with David R. George III, published January 1, 1999. It focuses on his character Quark, who loses his bar and is imprisoned as a result of a diplomatic crisis between the Bajoran and Ferengi governments. The novel is an allegory for the internment of Japanese Americans during the Second World War.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: Shimerman has co-written a series of books in which he provides a science fictional basis for the life of Dr. John Dee. The first novel in the series, "The Merchant Prince", was co-written with Irish author Michael Scott, known for his Nicholas Flamel series. Published in 2000, it features the historical figure John Dee being placed in suspended animation in 1575 by an alien race known as the Roc and awakening in 2099. The cover features Shimerman in Elizabethan garb. Shimerman commented: "John Dee really did exist. We're pretty sure he was a member of Queen Elizabeth's secret service, which put it in his purview to kill if he needed to. The Elizabethan period was a much more perilous time; you had to be quick with a dagger and nefarious in order to survive". Shimerman thought there were aspects of both himself and his "" character, Quark, in the novel's interpretation of John Dee. Shimerman commented: "There are aspects of Quark similar to Dr. Dee, and undoubtedly there are aspects of Dr. Dee similar to Armin Shimerman, which would make him seem like Quark as well".


title: Armin Shimerman

text: The other novels in the series are "Outrageous Fortune" (2002), co-written with Chelsea Quinn Yarbro, known for her historical horror novels, and "Capital Offense" (2003).


title: Armin Shimerman

text: In late 2020, Shimerman's new book, "Illyria: Betrayal of Angels", was released by publisher Jumpmaster Press. "Betrayal of Angels" is the first book in Shimerman's trilogy about John Dee.


title: Armin Shimerman

text: Shimerman has been teaching Shakespeare for years, and as an adjunct professor for the University of Southern California. He also serves as Shakespeare scholar for productions in and around the Los Angeles area.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: The Woolsey Fire was a wildfire that burned in Los Angeles and Ventura Counties of the U.S. state of California. The fire ignited on November 8, 2018, and burned of land. The fire destroyed 1,643 structures, killed three people, and prompted the evacuation of more than 295,000 people. It was one of several fires in California that ignited on the same day. While the nearby Hill Fire was contained with minimal damage on November 16, the Camp Fire in Northern California destroyed most of the town of Paradise, killing 85 people.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: The fire started in Woolsey Canyon on the Santa Susana Field Laboratory property, and burned 80% of the site, a complex of industrial research and development buildings belonging to Boeing, in the Santa Susana Mountains above the Simi Valley near the boundary between Los Angeles and Ventura counties. The Santa Ana winds, which often are a factor for Southern California fires, pushed the fire in a southerly direction throughout the first day. The Ventura freeway between the San Fernando Valley and the Conejo Valley was closed as the fire crossed and headed into the rugged Santa Monica Mountains.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: The fire raced through the chaparral-covered steep canyons where it encountered historic movie and TV sets, small ranches, and the houses of celebrities. Hundreds of houses in Malibu were destroyed or damaged on both sides of Pacific Coast Highway. Many of these were on Point Dume that juts out from the narrow coastal terrace that lies between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean. The mitigation measures Pepperdine University had in place successfully protected the campus, with students sheltering in place, to the south. The entire sparsely populated portion of the Malibu coast west to the community of Solromar, which includes state and national parklands, suffered damage from the fire. The fire cost at least $6 billion (2018 USD) in property damage.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: Thousands of residents were kept away from their houses in numerous neighborhoods along the Ventura Freeway and the communities along the Malibu coast. The evacuations frustrated residents as they lasted for many days as the fire continued to threaten houses especially when the winds increased and fanned the flames. The evacuated residents were incrementally allowed to return to see if their houses were damaged or destroyed as the fire continued to spread through the rugged wilderness at the western end of the Santa Monica Mountains. Authorities in many of the damaged communities declared that they needed to prevent residents from returning quickly as neighborhoods were crowded with crews repairing downed power lines and other hazardous conditions. In the months after the fire, residents criticized what they thought was a slow and inadequate response by cities and counties during public meetings held by public officials.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: While this and other fires were burning, President Donald Trump blamed poor forest management by the state. One fire scientist explained that forest management (good or bad) had a minor influence on the severity of the fires, and that Woolsey was not a forest fire.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: The California Public Utilities Commission is investigating an equipment problem near the point of origin reported by Southern California Edison.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: At 2:22 p.m. PST on Nov 8, Southern California Edison reported an outage on the Big Rock 16 kV circuit out of the Chatsworth substation on the Santa Susana Field Laboratory property, south of Simi Valley, Ventura County, California. At 2:24 p.m. PST a brush fire was reported in the same location. The first firefighters arrived almost 20 minutes later, a Ventura County engine carrying three firefighters from the Simi Valley station about away. Ventura County had heavily dedicated crews to the Hill Fire burning near Newbury Park. The nearest fire crew, part of a private company contracted to protect Santa Susana Field Laboratory, a Boeing Company facility nearby, was delayed by its engine breaking down. Powerful Santa Ana winds, reaching , caused the fire to spread rapidly and beyond firefighting capabilities. During the overnight hours into the early morning of November 9, the fire crossed U.S. Route 101 near Calabasas and spread through Liberty Canyon in Agoura Hills. Aerial suppression of the fire was unable to commence until 5:00 a.m. PST, November 9, when winds lessened enough.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: On the morning of November 9, Assistant L.A. County Fire Chief Williams told KBUU-LP that his request for 70 strike teams had been denied. The blaze spread rapidly throughout the day burning through the mountains and along the 101 Freeway, eventually reaching Pacific Coast Highway in Malibu by the afternoon devastating numerous houses there. Firefighters and firetrucks who did not know the area were reported idle by many frustrated citizens. Several homeowners stayed despite the mandatory evacuation to defend their houses. Pepperdine University in Malibu recommended that students shelter in place in specific buildings on campus rather than use the crowded highway to evacuate. Farther north, the flames spread to portions of Thousand Oaks, Bell Canyon, Westlake Village, Oak Park and the West Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles forcing residential evacuations and the closure of numerous business and corporate offices in the region. On the day before the Hill and Woolsey fires started, residents in the Conejo Valley experienced the shooting of thirteen people in a bar including a police officer and the perpetrator. As the fires threatened the community and otherwise disrupted their routine, memorial services had to be postponed.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: By November 9, Cal Fire and the United States Forest Service were also helping local services with the fire. This resulted in 3,242 firefighters being deployed to contain the blaze by the morning of November 10. The fire had engulfed more than of land, forcing the evacuation of an estimated 295,000 people from 105,000 residences. This included an unprecedented total evacuation of Bell Canyon, Malibu, Agoura Hills, Malibou Lake, and Oak Park.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: Before sunrise on November 14, the fire flared up in rugged wilderness at the western end of the Santa Monica Mountains with winds blowing strongly. The fire burned well away from populated neighborhoods, but was threatening scattered home sites. The flare-up sent a huge column of smoke over Point Mugu and out to sea.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: Many of the public and private parks and trails within the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area were closed indefinitely as damage due to the fire was being evaluated and necessary remediation measures were put in place. Closures included Malibu Creek State Park and Zuma Beach. Property owned by the federal government within the national recreation area includes some developed parks and large undeveloped tracts of land. The fire caused trails to be shut for months as 88% of the federal parkland was burned. The fire created a challenge to native plants as black mustard with bright yellow flowers quickly established itself post-fire. Thirteen mountain lions with radio collars were within the fire area according to National Park Service researchers. Repairs were needed to the Ventura Freeway at the proposed location of the Wallis Annenberg Wildlife Crossing designed to benefit the mountain lions.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: Two people were found dead in a vehicle on Mulholland Highway in Malibu. Emergency personnel were unable to reach the victims when a report of a critical burn victim was relayed, due to downed power lines. On Tuesday November 13, a third victim was discovered in the 32000 block of Lobo Canyon Road in Agoura Hills. The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department announced on January 22, 2019, that charred human remains had been found in the burn area in Malibu and that homicide detectives were trying to determine if the victim had been killed in the flames or had met with foul play.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: At least 1600 houses were destroyed by the fire. Several celebrities were among those who lost their houses, including Jonathan Banks, Kim Basinger, Tracey E. Bregman, Gerard Butler, Miley Cyrus and Liam Hemsworth, David Dreier, Scott Derrickson, Shannen Doherty, Fred Durst, Joe Flanigan, Mike Garson, Camille Grammer, Daryl Hannah and Neil Young, Gabe Kapler, Catherine Oxenberg, Lil Pump, Robin Thicke, Andrew von Oeyen and Eric Wynalda. Multiple filming locations and historical sites were directly impacted by the fire, including Paramount Ranch, Peter Strauss Ranch, the former Reagan Ranch now part of Malibu Creek State Park, and the lower house of Villa De La Vina, the mansion where "The Bachelor" and "The Bachelorette" are filmed. The numerous drug rehabilitation centers and sober living houses in Malibu that have given rise to the nickname "Rehab Riviera" were evacuated ahead of the fire. At least two were destroyed or significantly damaged. Three Jewish summer camps JCA Shalom, Gindling Hilltop, and Camp Hess Kramer were almost completely devastated in the fire. There were two cases of looting in Ventura County, one of which resulted in a car chase.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: Reporters and officials rescued animals from houses, and brought them to shelters and vets. Other animals at locations such as Malibu Wines were either evacuated or cared for at the locations. Local fire officials opened Zuma Beach as an evacuation point for large animals, with pictures by the "Los Angeles Times", showing llamas, alpacas, and horses tied to lifeguard stations and poles.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: Clean up of materials like asbestos, pesticides, plastics, and electronic devices began almost immediately after the flames were out. The ruins of burned homes and vehicles can have a harmful impact on the surrounding environment.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: On November 10, President Donald Trump, stated poor forest management by the state of California as the cause of the Woolsey Fire and the concurrent Camp Fire. In a controversial tweet, the President threatened to end federal assistance unless the state improves its "gross mismanagement of the forests".


title: Woolsey Fire

text: The small groves of California sycamores and coast live oaks amidst the sage and chaparral covered hillsides in the area of the fire are not considered to be forests as commonly understood by the public or wildfire experts. Since these small, critical habitats are not logged, President Trump's statements had little relevance to the Southern California fire.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: The firemens' union disagreed with President Trump's claims, noting that California experienced unusually dry conditions and abnormally high fire danger at the time. Brian Rice, president of the California Professional Firefighters, described Trump's assertion about the state's forest management practices as "dangerously wrong," noting that 60 percent of California forests are directly managed by the federal government, which has reduced spending on forestry in recent years.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: In public meetings, people affected by the fire were critical of the slow and inadequate response of the Los Angeles County Fire Department, the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department and California Highway Patrol and their poor handling of the evacuation, and the city of Malibu and their lack of preparation and overall response during and after the fire.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: California Public Utilities Commission launched a probe into Southern California Edison who reported a problem with a transmission grid at the point of origin two minutes before the start of the fire.<ref name="sfvbj 2018/nov/13"></ref> The redacted version of the Ventura County Fire Department Woolsey report, that was released in October 2020, concluded that the fire was started by electrical equipment associated with the Big Rock 16kV circuit that is owned and operated by Southern California Edison.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: A 2019 Los Angeles County report on missteps in the government's handling of the Woolsey Fire response (the 'Woolsey Report') cited the unavailability of firefighting units in Western Malibu during critical times of the fire, where hundreds of houses were lost. The report stated: "a significant number of requests by political figures to check on specific addresses of homes to ensure their protection distracted from Department leadership to accomplish priority objectives" which included a personal request to the city fire chief by Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: Amidst the coronavirus pandemic in March 2020, Alex Villanueva, Los Angeles County Sheriff, was removed from his position as head of county emergency operations by the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors due to the poor emergency response reported by investigators in the Woolsey Report.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: Scientists analyzed coastal water quality and found unusually high levels of fecal bacteria and sediment that remained for months.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: The Santa Susana Field Laboratory site has been undergoing a cleanup of the contamination from a partial nuclear meltdown in 1959 and extensive rocket engine testing. After the fire, the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health found "no discernible level of radiation in the tested area" and the California Department of Toxic Substances Control, which is overseeing cleanup of the site, said in an interim report that "previously handled radioactive and hazardous materials were not affected by the fire." Bob Dodge, President of Physicians for Social Responsibility-Los Angeles, said "When it burns and becomes airborne in smoke and ash, there is real possibility of heightened exposure for area residents."


title: Woolsey Fire

text: In 2020, the California Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) stated in their final report that the fire did not cause contaminants to be released from the site into Simi Valley and other neighboring communities and that the risk from smoke exposure during the fire was not higher than what is normally associated with wildfire.


title: Woolsey Fire

text: In 2021 a study which collected 360 samples of dust, ash, and soils from homes and public lands three weeks after the fire found that most samples were at normal levels, ("Data did not support a finding of widespread deposition of radioactive particles.") but that two locations "contained high activities of radioactive isotopes associated with the Santa Susana Field Laboratory."


title: Great Plague of London

text: The Great Plague of London, lasting from 1665 to 1666, was the last major epidemic of the bubonic plague to occur in England. It happened within the centuries-long Second Pandemic, a period of intermittent bubonic plague epidemics that originated in Central Asia in 1331 (the first year of the Black Death), and included related diseases such as pneumonic plague and septicemic plague, which lasted until 1750.


title: Great Plague of London

text: months. The plague was caused by the "Yersinia pestis" bacterium, which is usually transmitted through the bite to a human by a flea or louse.


title: Great Plague of London

text: The 1665–66 epidemic was on a much smaller scale than the earlier Black Death pandemic. It became known afterwards as the "great" plague mainly because it was the last widespread outbreak of bubonic plague in England during the 400-year Second Pandemic.


title: Great Plague of London

text: The plague was endemic in 17th-century London, as it was in other European cities at the time. The disease periodically erupted into massive epidemics. There were 30,000 deaths due to the plague in 1603, 35,000 in 1625, 10,000 in 1636, and smaller numbers in other years.


title: Great Plague of London

text: In late 1664, a bright comet was seen in the sky, and the people of London became fearful, wondering what evil event it portended. London at that time was a city of about 448 acres surrounded by a city wall that had originally been built to keep out raiding bands, and, in the south, by the River Thames. There were gates in the wall at Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate, and the Thames was crossable at London Bridge. In the poorer parts of the city, filled with overcrowded tenements and garrets, hygiene was impossible to maintain. There was no sanitation, and open drains flowed along the centre of winding streets. The cobbles were slippery with animal droppings, rubbish and the slops thrown out of the houses; they were muddy and buzzing with flies in summer, and awash with sewage in winter. The City Corporation employed "rakers" to remove the worst of the filth, and it was transported to mounds outside the walls, where it accumulated and continued to decompose. The stench was overwhelming, and people walked around with handkerchiefs or nosegays pressed against their nostrils.


title: Great Plague of London

text: Some of the city's necessities, such as coal, arrived by barge, but most came by road. Carts, carriages, horses and pedestrians were crowded together, and the gateways in the wall formed bottlenecks through which it was difficult to progress. The nineteen-arch London Bridge was even more congested. Those who were better-off used hackney carriages and sedan chairs to get to their destinations without getting filthy. The poor walked, and might be drenched by water tossed up by wheeled vehicles, slops thrown into the street, or water pouring off overhanging roofs. Another hazard was the choking black smoke belching forth from soap factories, breweries, iron smelters and about 15,000 households that were burning coal to heat their homes.


title: Great Plague of London

text: Outside the city walls, shanty towns with wooden shacks and no sanitation had sprung up, providing homes for the craftsmen and tradespeople who had flocked to the already overcrowded city. The government had tried to limit the development of these "suburbs", but had failed: Over a quarter of a million people lived in them. When Royalists had fled the country during the Commonwealth, they had left many fine town houses vacant, and some immigrants to London had crowded into them, converting them into tenements that housed different families in every room. These properties were soon vandalised and became rat-infested slums.


title: Great Plague of London

text: The City of London proper was administered by the Lord Mayor, the Aldermen and the common councillors, but some parts of the greater metropolitan area were not legally part of the city. Some of these areas, both inside the City walls and outside its boundaries, had long been organised into districts of various sizes, called "liberties", that had historically been granted rights to self-government. (Many had originally been associated with the religious institutions that were abolished in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, whereupon their historic rights and property had been transferred to secular owners.)


title: Great Plague of London

text: By 1665, the walled City was surrounded by a ring of liberties which had come under its authority, and these had come to be referred to collectively as 'the City and Liberties'. However, this area was surrounded by additional suburbs with other independent administrations. For example, Westminster was an independent town with its own liberties, joined to London by urban development, and the Tower of London was an independent liberty. Areas that were not part of any of these various independent administrations came under the authority of the county of Middlesex if they were north of the river, and under the authority of Surrey if they were south of the river.


title: Great Plague of London

text: At that time, bubonic plague was a much feared disease, but its cause was not understood. Many mistakenly blamed emanations from the earth, "pestilential effluvia", unusual weather, sickness in livestock, abnormal behaviour of animals or an increase in the numbers of moles, frogs, mice or flies. It was not until 1894 that its causal agent, the bacterium "Yersinia pestis", was identified by Alexandre Yersin, and its transmission by rat fleas became known. Although the Great Plague in London was long assumed to be bubonic plague, caused by "Yersinia pestis", this was only confirmed (by DNA analysis) in 2016. It is now believed that human body lice also played a key role in causing infections, perhaps more so than rats.


title: Great Plague of London

text: In order to judge the severity of an epidemic, it is first necessary to know how big the population was in which it occurred. There was no official census of the population to provide this figure, and the best contemporary count comes from the work of John Graunt (1620–1674), who was one of the earliest Fellows of the Royal Society and one of the first demographers, bringing a scientific approach to the collection of statistics. In 1662, he estimated that 384,000 people lived in the City of London, the Liberties, Westminster and the out-parishes, based on figures in the Bills of Mortality published each week in the capital. These different districts with different administrations constituted the officially recognized extent of London as a whole. In 1665, he revised his estimate to "not above 460,000". Other contemporaries put the figure higher (the French Ambassador, for example, suggested 600,000), but with no mathematical basis to support their estimates. The next largest city in the kingdom was Norwich, with a population of 30,000.


title: Great Plague of London

text: There was no duty to report a death to anyone in authority. Instead, each parish appointed two or more "searchers of the dead", whose duty was to inspect a corpse and determine the cause of death. A searcher was entitled to charge a small fee from relatives for each death they reported, and so habitually the parish would appoint someone to the post who would otherwise be destitute and would be receiving support from the parish poor rate. Typically, this meant searchers would be old women who were illiterate, might know little about identifying diseases and who would be open to dishonesty. Searchers would typically learn about a death either from the local sexton who had been asked to dig a grave or from the tolling of a church bell. Anyone who did not report a death to their local church, such as Quakers, Anabaptists, other non-Anglican Christians or Jews, frequently did not get included in the official records. Searchers during times of plague were required to live apart from the community, avoid other people and carry a white stick to warn of their occupation when outdoors, and stay indoors except when performing their duties, to avoid spreading the diseases. Searchers reported to the Parish Clerk, who made a return each week to the Company of Parish Clerks in Brode Lane. Figures were then passed to the Lord Mayor and then to the Minister of State once plague became a matter of national concern. The reported figures were used to compile the Bills of Mortality, which listed total deaths in each parish and whether by the plague. The system of Searchers to report the cause of death continued until 1836.