title: George F. Kennan

text: In February 1966, Kennan testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee at the request of the committee's chairman, Senator J. William Fulbright, where he stated that the "preoccupation" with Vietnam was undermining U.S. global leadership. He accused the administration of Lyndon Johnson of distorting his policies into a purely military approach. President Johnson was so annoyed by the hearings called by his friend-turned-foe Fulbright that he tried to upstage them by holding a sudden and unannounced summit in Honolulu starting on 5 February 1966 with Chief of State Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ of South Vietnam, where he declared that the United States was making excellent progress in Vietnam and was committed to social and economic reforms.


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan testified that were the United States not already fighting in Vietnam that: "I would know of no reason why we should wish to become so involved, and I could think of several reasons why we should wish not to". He was opposed to an immediate pull-out from Vietnam, saying "A precipitate and disorderly withdrawal could represent in present circumstances a disservice to our own interests, and even to world peace", but added that he felt "there is more respect to be won in the opinion of this world by a resolute and courageous liquidation of unsound positions than by the most stubborn pursuit of extravagant and unpromising objectives." In his testimony, Kennan argued that Ho Chi Minh was "not Hitler" and everything he had read about him suggested that Ho was a Communist, but also a Vietnamese nationalist who did not want his country to be subservient to either the Soviet Union or China. He further testified that to defeat North Vietnam would mean a cost in human life "for which I would not like to see this country be responsible for". Kennan compared the Johnson administration's policy towards Vietnam as being like that of "an elephant frightened by a mouse".


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan ended his testimony by quoting a remark made by John Quincy Adams: "America goes not abroad in search of monsters to destroy. She is the well-wisher to the freedom and independence of all. She is the champion and vindicator only of her own." Kennan then stated: "Now, gentlemen, I don't know exactly what John Quincy Adams had in mind when he spoke those words. But I think that, without knowing it, he spoke very directly and very pertinently to us here today." The hearings were aired live on television (at the time a rare occurrence), and Kennan's reputation as the "Father of Containment" ensured that his testimony attracted much media attention, all the more so as the Johnson administration professed to be carrying out in Vietnam "containment" policies. Thus Johnson pressured the main television networks not to air Kennan's testimony, and as a result, the CBS network aired reruns of "I Love Lucy" while Kennan was before the Senate, provoking the CBS director of television programming, Fred Friendly, to resign in protest . By contrast, the NBC network resisted the presidential pressure and did air the proceedings of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. To counter Kennan's testimony, Johnson sent Secretary of State Dean Rusk before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee where he testified that the war in Vietnam was a morally just struggle to stop "...the steady extension of Communist power through force and threat."


title: George F. Kennan

text: Despite expectations, Kennan's testimony before the Senate attracted high ratings on television. Kennan himself recalled that in the month afterward he received a flood of letters, which led him to write about the public response: "It was perfectly tremendous. I haven't expected anything remotely like this." The columnist Art Buchwald described being stunned to see that his wife and her friends had spent the day watching Kennan testify instead of the standard soap operas, saying that he did not realize that American housewives were interested in such matters. Fulbright's biographer wrote that testimony of Kennan together with General James Gavin was important because they were not "irresponsible students or a wild-eyed radicals," which made it possible for "respectable people" to oppose the Vietnam War. Kennan's testimony in February 1966 was the most successful of his various bids to influence public opinion after leaving the State Department. Before he appeared before the Senate, 63% of the American public approved of Johnson's handling of the Vietnam War; after his testimony, 49% did.


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan's opposition to the Vietnam War did not mean any sympathy for the student protests against the Vietnam War. In his 1968 book "Democracy and the Student Left", Kennan attacked the left-wing university students demonstrating against the Vietnam War as violent and intolerant. Kennan compared the "New Left" students of the 1960s with the "Narodnik" student radicals of 19th century Russia, accusing both of being an arrogant group of elitists whose ideas were fundamentally undemocratic and dangerous. Kennan wrote that most of the demands of the student radicals were "gobbledygook" and he charged that their political style was marked by a complete lack of humor, extremist tendencies and mindless destructive urges. Kennan conceded that the student radicals were right to oppose the Vietnam War, but he complained that they were confusing policy with institutions as he argued that just because an institution executed a misguided policy did not make it evil and worthy of destruction.


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan blamed the student radicalism of the late 1960s on what he called the "sickly secularism" of American life, which he charged was too materialistic and shallow to allow understanding of the "slow powerful process of organic growth" which had made America great. Kennan wrote that what he regarded as the spiritual malaise of America had created a generation of young Americans with an "extreme disbalance in emotional and intellectual growth." Kennan ended his book with a lament that the America of his youth no longer existed as he complained that most Americans were seduced by advertising into a consumerist lifestyle that left them indifferent to the environmental degradation all around them and to the gross corruption of their politicians. Kennan argued that he was the real radical as: "They haven't seen anything yet. Not only do my apprehensions outclass theirs, but my ideas of what would have to be done to put things right are far more radical than theirs."


title: George F. Kennan

text: In a speech delivered in Williamsburg on 1 June 1968, Kennan criticized the authorities for an "excess of tolerance" in dealing with student protests and rioting by Afro-Americans. Kennan called for the suppression of the New Left and Black Power movements in a way that would be "answerable to the voters only at the next election, but not to the press or even the courts". Kennan argued for "special political courts" be created to try New Left and Black Power activists as he stated that this was the only way to save the United States from chaos. At the same time, Kennan stated that based upon his visits to South Africa: "I have a soft spot in my mind for "apartheid", not as practiced in South Africa, but as a concept." Through Kennan disliked the petty, humiliating aspects of "apartheid", he had much praise for the "deep religious sincerity" of the Afrikaners whose Calvinist faith he shared while he dismissed the capacity of South African blacks to run their country. Kennan argued in 1968 that a system similar to "apartheid" was needed for the United States as he doubted the ability of average black American male to operate "in a system he neither understands nor respects," leading him to advocate the Bantustans of South Africa to be used as a model with areas of the United States to be set aside for Afro-Americans. Kennan did not approve of the social changes of the 1960s. During a visit to Denmark in 1970, he came across a youth festival, which he described with disgust as "swarming with hippies—motorbikes, girl-friends, drugs, pornography, drunkenness, noise. I looked at this mob and thought how one company of robust Russian infantry would drive it out of town.”


title: George F. Kennan

text: Always a student of Russian affairs Kennan, together with Wilson Center Director James Billington and historian S. Frederick Starr, initiated the establishment of the Kennan Institute at the academic institution named for Woodrow Wilson. The Institute is named to honour the American George Kennan (explorer) of the Russian Empire, a relation of the subject of this article. Scholars at the Institute are meant to study Russia, Ukraine and the Eurasian region.


title: George F. Kennan

text: Containment, when he published the first volume of his memoirs in 1967, involved something other than the use of military "counterforce". He was never pleased that the policy he influenced was associated with the arms build-up of the Cold War. In his memoirs, Kennan argued that containment did not demand a militarized U.S. foreign policy. "Counterforce" implied the political and economic defense of Western Europe against the disruptive effect of the war on European society. According to him, the Soviet Union exhausted by war posed no serious military threat to the US or its allies at the beginning of the Cold War but was rather an ideological and political rival.


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan believed that the USSR, Britain, Germany, Japan, and North America remained the areas of vital U.S. interests. During the 1970s and 1980s as détente was ended particularly under President Reagan, he was a major critic of the renewed arms race.


title: George F. Kennan

text: In 1989 President George H. W. Bush awarded Kennan the Medal of Freedom, the nation's greatest civilian honor. Yet he remained a realist critic of recent U.S. presidents, urging in a 1999 interview with the "New York Review of Books" the U.S. government to "withdraw from its public advocacy of democracy and human rights," saying that the "tendency to see ourselves as the center of political enlightenment and as teachers to a great part of the rest of the world strikes me as unthought-through, vainglorious and undesirable". These ideas were particularly applicable to U.S. relations with China and Russia.


title: George F. Kennan

text: A key inspiration for American containment policies during the Cold War, Kennan would later describe NATO's enlargement as a "strategic blunder of potentially epic proportions".


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan opposed the Clinton administration's war in Kosovo and its expansion of NATO (the establishment of which he had also opposed half a century earlier), expressing fears that both policies would worsen relations with Russia.


title: George F. Kennan

text: During a 1998 interview with "The New York Times" after the U.S. Senate had just ratified NATO's first round of expansion, he said "there was no reason for this whatsoever". He was concerned that it would “inflame the nationalistic, anti-Western and militaristic" opinions in Russia. "The Russians will gradually react quite adversely and it will affect their policies," he said. Kennan was also bothered by talks that Russia was "dying to attack Western Europe", explaining that, on the contrary, the Russian people had revolted to "remove that Soviet regime" and that their "democracy was as far advanced" as the other countries that had just signed up for NATO then.


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan remained vigorous and alert during the last years of his life, although arthritis had him using a wheelchair. During his later years, Kennan concluded that "the general effect of Cold War extremism was to delay rather than hasten the great change that overtook the Soviet Union". At age 98 he warned of the unforeseen consequences of waging war against Iraq. He warned that attacking Iraq would amount to waging a second war that "bears no relation to the first war against terrorism" and declared efforts by the Bush administration to associate Al-Qaeda with Saddam Hussein "pathetically unsupportive and unreliable". Kennan went on to warn:


title: George F. Kennan

text: Anyone who has ever studied the history of American diplomacy, especially military diplomacy, knows that you might start in a war with certain things on your mind as a purpose of what you are doing, but in the end, you found yourself fighting for entirely different things that you had never thought of before  ... In other words, war has a momentum of its own and it carries you away from all thoughtful intentions when you get into it. Today, if we went into Iraq, like the president would like us to do, you know where you begin. You never know where you are going to end.


title: George F. Kennan

text: In his final years, Kennan embraced the ideals of the Second Vermont Republic, a secessionist movement incorporated in 2003. Noting the large-scale Mexican immigration to the Southwestern United States, Kennan said in 2002 there were "unmistakable evidences of a growing differentiation between the cultures, respectively, of large southern and southwestern regions of this country, on the one hand", and those of "some northern regions". In the former, "the very culture of the bulk of the population of these regions will tend to be primarily Latin American in nature rather than what is inherited from earlier American traditions ... Could it really be that there was so little of merit [in America] that it deserves to be recklessly trashed in favor of a polyglot mix-mash?" It's argued that Kennan represented throughout his career the "tradition of militant nativism" that resembled or even exceeded the Know Nothings of the 1850s. Kennan also believed American women had too much power.


title: George F. Kennan

text: In February 2004 scholars, diplomats, and Princeton alumni gathered at the university's campus to celebrate Kennan's 100th birthday. Among those in attendance were Secretary of State Colin Powell, international relations theorist John Mearsheimer, journalist Chris Hedges, former ambassador and career Foreign Service officer Jack F. Matlock, Jr., and Kennan's biographer, John Lewis Gaddis.


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan died on March 17, 2005, at his home in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 101. He was survived by his Norwegian wife Annelise, whom he married in 1931, and his four children, eight grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. Annelise died in 2008 at the age of 98.


title: George F. Kennan

text: In an obituary in "The New York Times", Kennan was described as "the American diplomat who did more than any other envoy of his generation to shape United States policy during the cold war" to whom "the White House and the Pentagon turned when they sought to understand the Soviet Union after World War II". Of Kennan, historian Wilson D. Miscamble remarked "[o]ne can only hope that present and future makers of foreign policy might share something of his integrity and intelligence". "Foreign Policy" described Kennan as "the most influential diplomat of the 20th century". Henry Kissinger said that Kennan "came as close to authoring the diplomatic doctrine of his era as any diplomat in our history", while Colin Powell called Kennan "our best tutor" in dealing with the foreign policy issues of the 21st century.


title: George F. Kennan

text: During his career at the IAS, Kennan wrote seventeen books and scores of articles on international relations. He won the Pulitzer Prize for History, the National Book Award for Nonfiction, the Bancroft Prize, and the Francis Parkman Prize for "Russia Leaves the War", published in 1956. He again won a Pulitzer and a National Book Award in 1968 for "Memoirs, 1925–1950". A second volume, taking his reminiscences up to 1963 was published in 1972. Among his other works were "American Diplomacy 1900–1950", "Sketches from a Life", published in 1989, and "Around the Cragged Hill" in 1993.


title: George F. Kennan

text: His properly historical works amount to a six-volume account of the relations between Russia and the West from 1875 to his own time; the period from 1894 to 1914 was planned but not completed. He was chiefly concerned with:


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan had a low opinion of President Roosevelt, arguing in 1975: "For all his charm, political skill, and able wartime leadership, when it came to foreign policy Roosevelt was a superficial, ignorant dilettante, a man with a severely limited intellectual horizon."


title: George F. Kennan

text: During his career, Kennan received a number of awards and honors. As a scholar and writer, Kennan was a two-time recipient of both the Pulitzer Prizes and the National Book Award, and had also received the Francis Parkman Prize, the Ambassador Book Award and the Bancroft Prize.


title: George F. Kennan

text: Among Kennan's numerous other awards and distinctions were the Testimonial of Loyal and Meritorious Service from the Department of State (1953), Princeton's Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Achievement in the Nation's Service (1976), the Order of the Pour le Mérite (1976), the Albert Einstein Peace Prize (1981), the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade (1982), the American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal (1984), the American Whig-Cliosophic Society's James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service(1985), the Franklin D. Roosevelt Foundation Freedom from Fear Medal (1987), the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1989), the Distinguished Service Award from the Department of State (1994), and the Library of Congress Living Legend (2000).


title: George F. Kennan

text: Kennan had also received 29 honorary degrees and was honored in his name with the George F. Kennan Chair in National Security Strategy at the National War College and the George F. Kennan Professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study.


title: George F. Kennan

text: In June 2022, a memorial plaque honoring Kenan was unveiled in Belgrade, Serbia at the site of the former U.S. embassy. Kenan had served in the country when it was part of Yugoslavia, from 1961 to 1963.


title: George F. Kennan

text: Russell argues that a school of thought known as political realism formed the basis of Kennan's work as a diplomat and historian and remains relevant to the debate over American foreign policy, which since the 19th century has been characterized by a shift from the Founding Fathers' realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations. According to the realist tradition, security is based on the principle of a balance of power, whereas Wilsonianism (considered impractical by realists) relies on morality as the sole determining factor in statecraft. According to the Wilsonians the spread of democracy abroad as a foreign policy is important and morals are valid universally. During the Presidency of Bill Clinton, American diplomacy represented the Wilsonian school to such a degree that those instead in favor of realism likened President Clinton's policies to social work. According to Kennan, whose concept of American diplomacy was based on the realist approach, such moralism without regard to the realities of power and the national interest is self-defeating and will result in the decrease of American power.


title: George F. Kennan

text: In his historical writings and memoirs, Kennan laments in great detail the failings of democratic foreign policy makers and those of the United States in particular. According to Kennan, when American policymakers suddenly confronted the Cold War, they had inherited little more than rationale and rhetoric "utopian in expectations, legalistic in concept, moralistic in [the] demand it seemed to place on others, and self-righteous in the degree of high-mindedness and rectitude  ... to ourselves". The source of the problem is the force of public opinion, a force that is inevitably unstable, unserious, subjective, emotional, and simplistic. Kennan has insisted that the U.S. public can only be united behind a foreign policy goal on the "primitive level of slogans and jingoistic ideological inspiration".


title: George F. Kennan

text: Miscamble argues that Kennan played a critical role in developing the foreign policies of the Truman administration. He also states that Kennan did not hold a vision for either global or strongpoint containment; he simply wanted to restore the balance of power between the United States and the Soviets. Like historian John Lewis Gaddis, Miscamble concedes that although Kennan personally preferred political containment, his recommendations ultimately resulted in a policy directed more toward strongpoint than to global containment.


title: Air Canada fleet

text: , Air Canada operates the following aircraft, from Airbus and Boeing. For regional flying, see Air Canada Express and its sole operator Jazz Aviation. For Rouge aircraft, see Air Canada Rouge.


title: Air Canada fleet

text: British Aerospace 146-200 and Fokker F28 jet aircraft were operated by regional airline affiliates of Air Canada via code sharing agreements.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Agent Phillip J. Coulson ( ) is a fictional character portrayed and voiced by Clark Gregg in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) media franchise. Coulson is depicted as a high-ranking member of the espionage agency S.H.I.E.L.D. and longtime partner of Nick Fury.


title: Phil Coulson

text: After being killed by Loki and the Avengers form to avenge him, Fury has Coulson resurrected with Kree blood to continue serving S.H.I.E.L.D., putting together a small team of agents supervised by Melinda May and coming to view one agent, Daisy Johnson, as a surrogate daughter. After rebuilding S.H.I.E.L.D. following its infiltration and destruction by Hydra, saving the planet, and making a deal with a demon to briefly become Ghost Rider, stripping him of the blood keeping him alive, Coulson retires to Tahiti with May, where he dies once again.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Following the destruction of Sarge, a biological duplicate of Coulson created by a monolith and inhabited by the Aztec god Pachakutiq, a Life Model Decoy (L.M.D.) of Coulson is made from a copy of his consciousness saved to a virtual reality, and Sarge's and May's genetic memories, resurrecting him again. After preventing an alternate timeline from being conquered by Chronicoms, Coulson decides to travel the world in his flying car, Lola.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Coulson was a central figure in the "Infinity Saga", appearing in five films, two television series, one digital series, and two Marvel One-Shots, most notably in "The Avengers" (2012) and "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." (2013–2020). Several versions of Coulson from within the MCU multiverse also appear, notably in the live-action series "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." and the animated series "What If...?" (2021), with Gregg reprising the role.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Coulson has additionally appeared in several forms of non-MCU media, being integrated into the mainstream Marvel Universe, initially modelled after Gregg and depicted as a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent and supporting character of Deadpool, before being redeveloped as a supervillain servant of the demon Mephisto and commander of the Squadron Supreme of America following his death and resurrection, and the main antagonist of "Heroes Reborn".


title: Phil Coulson

text: "Captain Marvel", which is set in the 1990s, depicts Coulson as a rookie agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. who works closely with fellow agent Nick Fury.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Agent Coulson was introduced in the film "Iron Man", in which he attempts to debrief Tony Stark on his captivity in Afghanistan. He is also one of several agents who accompany Pepper Potts in an attempt to arrest Obadiah Stane once his criminal activities are revealed. In "Iron Man 2", Coulson is assigned to supervise Stark for a time before being reassigned to investigate a crisis in New Mexico.


title: Phil Coulson

text: In both "Iron Man 2"s post-credits scene and "Thor", Coulson's assignment is revealed to revolve around the discovery of Thor's hammer in the New Mexico desert. Coulson is able to form an alliance between S.H.I.E.L.D. and Thor, who mistakenly addresses Coulson as "Son of Coul."


title: Phil Coulson

text: In "The Avengers", Coulson is fatally wounded by Loki, which now-S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Nick Fury uses to motivate the Avengers.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Coulson appears throughout the MCU tie-in comics in supporting roles, acting in the S.H.I.E.L.D. agent capacity that he does in the films.


title: Phil Coulson

text: The Marvel One-Shot "The Consultant", which takes place after "The Incredible Hulk", sees Coulson and fellow agent Jasper Sitwell preventing Emil Blonsky from being added to the Avengers roster. "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer" depicts Coulson getting into a scuffle on his way from Stark's lab in "Iron Man 2" to Thor's hammer in "Thor".


title: Phil Coulson

text: In "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", Fury brought Coulson back to life using the T.A.H.I.T.I. project, which was meant to bring a dead Avenger back to life using GH-325, a drug derived from an ancient Kree corpse that S.H.I.E.L.D. had recovered in the past. However, test patients developed psychosis and hypergraphia, so Coulson had the project shut down and Fury had Coulson's memories replaced so he could live a healthy life. Following his resurrection, Coulson puts together a team of agents to travel the world and deal with strange new cases. During this time, Hydra is revealed to have infiltrated S.H.I.E.L.D., leading to the latter's demise. Fury makes Coulson the new director of S.H.I.E.L.D. and tasks him with rebuilding the agency "the right way".


title: Phil Coulson

text: Coulson's involvement with alien materials leads to a faction of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents led by Robert Gonzalez, who distrust secrets and superhumans attempting to take over the fledgling organization, but Coulson convinces them to let him stay on as director after helping . Together, they defeat a faction of Inhumans, though Coulson loses a hand in the process.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Coulson later becomes romantically involved with Rosalind Price, the leader of an anti-Inhuman government task-force called the Advanced Threat Containment Unit (ATCU), until her death at the hands of Grant Ward, a Hydra agent who formerly worked with Coulson. Coulson gets revenge by crushing Ward's chest with his prosthetic hand.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Following the Sokovia Accords, S.H.I.E.L.D. is re-legitimized, with the still officially dead Coulson replaced as director by Jeffrey Mace, though he is eventually able to retake command of operations while Mace serves as the public face of S.H.I.E.L.D. After the artificial intelligence attempts to take over the world, Coulson allows himself to briefly become a Ghost Rider to defeat her.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Coulson and his teammates are later abducted and sent to the future, to prevent the extinction of humanity. After their return, his team discover the Ghost Rider burned through the GH-325 that kept Coulson alive, causing him to slowly die ever since. Despite the team's best efforts to save him, Coulson ultimately chooses to leave S.H.I.E.L.D. and live the remainder of his life in Tahiti with Melinda May, with whom he developed a romantic relationship.


title: Phil Coulson

text: As the team, especially May and new Director Mack, mourn Coulson, they are perturbed by the arrival of the cold-blooded Sarge, an alien who is physically and genetically identical to Coulson. They later learn Sarge's body was created in an accident involving three reality-altering Monoliths, and was inhabited by the entity Pachakutiq thousands of years ago, losing both its and Coulson's memories before becoming Sarge. Mack and Daisy kill Pachakutiq to avert the end of the world, but the team is forced to escape an attack by the cybernetic alien Chronicoms. To combat them, S.H.I.E.L.D. scientists Leo Fitz and Jemma Simmons make an enhanced Life Model Decoy of Coulson to guide them in a journey through S.H.I.E.L.D.'s past, beginning in the 1930s.


title: Phil Coulson

text: The L.M.D. Coulson helps the team stop the Chronicoms from changing history while coping with his existence as a non-human entity. A year after the Chronicoms' defeat, Coulson takes a sabbatical to travel the world in a reconstruction of his red 1962 Chevrolet Corvette, Lola.


title: Phil Coulson

text: After being corrupted by the power of the "Darkhold", Holden Radcliffe and Aida builds a Life Model Decoys of Coulson and other S.H.I.E.L.D. agents programmed to impersonate him while his human self is imprisoned in the Framework, in order to allow them to steal the Darkhold for themselves. After being betrayed by the L.M.D. May, Radcliffe's Coulson L.M.D. is destroyed when the L.M.D. May blows up the empty S.H.I.E.L.D. base to allow its remaining human agents to escape.


title: Phil Coulson

text: After revealed to be trapped in the "Darkhold"-infused Framework virtual reality at the end of "Self Control", Coulson experiences a parallel lifetime in which he never joined S.H.I.E.L.D. and became a history teacher and conspiracy theorist who believes Hydra is using mind control soap to enslave the population of Earth. After being made aware of his alternate life as a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent by Daisy Johnson, Coulson assists her ensuring his escape from the Framework; upon awakening in the real world, the real Coulson is surprised that he remembers the life of his Framework self.


title: Phil Coulson

text: In an alternate 2018, after failing to stop a gravitonium-infused Glenn Talbot from accidentally destroying the Earth, Coulson and his team rescue a fraction of the Earth's population aboard their Lighthouse base, built to withstand the Earth's destruction, before eventually dying as a result of his deal with Ghost Rider.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Alternate versions of Coulson appears in the animated series "What If...?", with Gregg reprising his role.


title: Phil Coulson

text: In an alternate 2011, Coulson witnesses the murders of five candidates of the Avengers Initiative, and investigates the mastermind behind their deaths with Nick Fury. In another alternate 2011, Coulson assists Maria Hill, acting director of S.H.I.E.L.D., in attempting to stop an out-of-control party hosted by Thor.


title: Phil Coulson

text: After stepping down as director of S.H.I.E.L.D. following "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." season three, Coulson appears in "Slingshot" to offer advice to S.H.I.E.L.D. asset Elena "Yo-Yo" Rodriguez.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Phil Coulson first appeared in the mainstream Marvel Universe in Christopher Yost, Matt Fraction and Cullen Bunn's "Battle Scars" #6 (April 2012) as Nick Fury Jr.’s Ranger teammate nicknamed "Cheese". He is later revealed to be Coulson after he follows Fury in joining S.H.I.E.L.D. Coulson has gone on to appear in other comics set in the mainstream MU, including in the 2013 "Secret Avengers" series by Nick Spencer and Luke Ross, and in "" in 2014.


title: Phil Coulson

text: In July 2014 at San Diego Comic-Con International, Marvel Comics announced an ongoing series titled "S.H.I.E.L.D.", to be set in the mainstream Marvel Universe, and written by Mark Waid, beginning December 2014. The series is led by Coulson, and sees the canonical introduction of characters that originated from "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D", to which Waid said, "This is our chance to introduce a lot of the other characters into the Marvel Universe, and give them the Marvel Universe spin." Waid described the series as "done-in-one. Coulson and his team have a mission, and if we need someone for a mission, everyone in the Marvel Universe is available as a potential Agent." In this series, Coulson is the Supreme Commander of Special Operations for S.H.I.E.L.D. under Director Maria Hill.


title: Phil Coulson

text: He has appeared in "Deadpool", assisting S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Preston and paying Deadpool for his earlier services to S.H.I.E.L.D. During the "Secret Empire" event, Coulson learns that Steve Rogers was involved in attracting the Chitauri to invade Earth, and is subsequently shot from the sky and killed by Deadpool, under the order of Rogers.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Phil Coulson later turned up alive and appears as a member of the Power Elite where he meets with Thunderbolt Ross to talk about the Avengers going global. Coulson states to Ross that he has put together the Squadron Supreme of America to be the sanctioned superheroes of the United States, now expressing an intense hatred for "heroes" such as Captain America and Deadpool.


title: Phil Coulson

text: The Squadron Supreme of America are revealed to be simulacrums created by Mephisto and programmed by the Power Elite so that Phil Coulson can have them be a United States-sponsored superhero team, Coulson having gone to Hell after his death for unspecified war crimes, and made a deal with Mephisto to be restored to life. During the "War of the Realms" storyline, Coulson summons the Squadron Supreme of America to fight the invading Frost Giants. After the Squadron Supreme of America caused the Frost Giants to retreat, Phil Coulson sends them to Ohio which has become a battleground.


title: Phil Coulson

text: At The Pentagon, Phil Coulson is briefed about an intruder on Sublevel 7 by a Nick Fury L.M.D. when it turns out to be Black Panther. After noting that the Squadron Supreme herded the Frost Giants into Canada, Black Panther asks Coulson if the Squadron Supreme of America knows that he is a murderer, Coulson quotes "Why don't you ask them yourself?" The Squadron Supreme are summoned to confront Black Panther. Hyperion states that the Squadron Supreme are the United States' sanctioned superhero team in light of the Avengers becoming an anti-American team. As Nighthawk states to Blur that Black Panther will not run as he is under arrest, Black Panther states to them that he does not know how they got their powers and that they are not the Squadron Supreme, as he even asked if they trust Phil Coulson. Before they can grab him, Black Panther contacts Broo to teleport him away. As he disappears, the Black Panther states that Phil Coulson will not answer their questions and that the Avengers are not their enemies unless they force them to be.


title: Phil Coulson

text: In "Heroes Reborn", Coulson uses the Pandemonium Cube to rewrite reality in Mephisto's name, erasing the Avengers from existence and making himself the President of the United States, watching the fight between Hyperion and Doctor Juggernaut. After his role in the reality change is discovered, Coulson faces Captain America in hand-to-hand combat, deriding his influence on American politics. After being defeated, and reality restored, Coulson is imprisoned in the Pandemonium Cube by Mephisto as punishment and brought before the Council of Red, a collection of Mephisto's counterparts from 615 other universes.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Agent Phil Coulson was created by Mark Fergus, Hawk Ostby, Art Marcum and Matt Holloway for "Iron Man", the first feature film in the MCU. Coulson was the first S.H.I.E.L.D. agent introduced in the MCU, and was portrayed by Clark Gregg, who was offered a three-picture deal. Gregg initially balked at this due to the character initially only being known as "Agent" and having few lines, but recognized Marvel's plan for an interconnected universe; the character was ultimately given the surname "Coulson" after Danny Coulson, whose book "No Heroes: Inside the FBI's Secret Counter-Terror Force" was used as a dialogue reference for "Iron Man". Gregg went on to play the character in "Iron Man 2", "Thor", and "The Avengers", the latter film in which he was provided the first name "Phil".


title: Phil Coulson

text: Throughout the films, Coulson is generally depicted as a supporting character of the protagonists and used to represent S.H.I.E.L.D.'s presence, to the point that Gregg has described Coulson as ""the" S.H.I.E.L.D. agent". However, for the Marvel One-Shot short films "The Consultant" and "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer", Coulson is given "a chance to stand in his own spotlight for once". This was a "natural" move for co-producer Brad Winderbaum, who wanted to "paint a picture of S.H.I.E.L.D. pulling the strings and being responsible for some of the events we've seen in the films. What better character to represent this idea than Agent Coulson, the first S.H.I.E.L.D. agent we were introduced to?"


title: Phil Coulson

text: At the 2012 New York Comic Con, Joss Whedon and Kevin Feige announced that Gregg would be starring as Coulson in "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", despite the character dying in "The Avengers", with Whedon saying "He's headlining the S.H.I.E.L.D. show and always was." Gregg said of Whedon's explanation for Coulson's resurrection, "I found it so fascinating and so true to the world of the comics and mythology in general as I understand them that I was immediately in." Regarding the amount of creative input he has over the character in the series, Gregg said, "I have meetings with [the showrunners] once or twice a year and talk about what the big ideas are ... They're really responsive to the fact that I've been involved with this person four, five years longer than them, but ... I have no complaints with what they're doing."


title: Phil Coulson

text: "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." costume designer Ann Foley described Coulson as a "company man", wearing suits in "the S.H.I.E.L.D. palette—grey, black and navy with a distinct but subtle pattern." Foley did note "subtle changes" in Coulson's costuming in the series from the films, such as streamlined suits and "more slick" ties, "now that [he] is back after being 'killed' by Loki". After Coulson's hand is cut off in the second-season finale, which was realized by having a mechanical axe cut through a "faux arm made of tripe wrapped around a chicken thigh", Gregg described it as "heavy ... one of those things where you’re having the practical difficulty your character does. People were handing me stuff, like files, and I couldn’t really open them without using my nose." This practicality issue continued with the prosthetic hand Coulson subsequently has to use, with Gregg saying "the reality informs the thing. It’s really hard to figure out how to use this prosthetic, and that’s what Phil Coulson’s going through ... I’m hoping it evolves at some point." Gregg also noted that in the third season Coulson would be wearing more casual clothes, partly because "he can’t even seem to tie a tie" with his new hand. The prosthetic hand evolves throughout the season, with a later iteration projecting an energy shield, inspired by a similar one used in the comics by Captain America. The energy shield was created by Cosa, one of the series' visual effects vendors.


title: Phil Coulson

text: There had been considerations for Coulson to return in "Iron Man 3" and "", but the character was not slated to appear in any more films. Whedon asserts, "As far as the fiction of the movies, Coulson is dead", elaborating that "generally [he feels] like the "S.H.I.E.L.D." audience and "The Avengers" audiences are not actually the same group, necessarily," and so the films would have to explain Coulson's resurrection again for the film-only audience if he were to be reintroduced. Gregg reprises the role once again in "Captain Marvel" (2019), as the film is set in the 1990s. Gregg is digitally de-aged by 25 years, along with co-star Samuel L. Jackson, the first time Marvel has done this for an entire film. In regards to the character's resurrection within the MCU canon, however, "Loki" head writer Michael Waldron suggested that, as that show's series premiere "Glorious Purpose" implies, Coulson actually died in "The Avengers" and the events of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." take place in a parallel timeline.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Gregg has stated, "I think of Agent Coulson, after all these years, as a guy with a full life. I think every day he's somewhere doing something for S.H.I.E.L.D., and yet I don't always know what that is... There's always a different twist. In this one he gets to show more of his wisecracking wit, and in this one he's a little bit more of a badass." Despite Coulson being called "the most recognizable face in the Marvel Comics movie universe", he is depicted as an "everyman" in a universe full of superheroes—"the glue that binds" the characters together. Gregg explained his portrayal of the character as "just a guy grumbling about his job ... he's tasked with handling these kind of diva superheroes, you know? 'Oh, really, Asgard? Dude, just get in the car.'"


title: Phil Coulson

text: On whether the resurrected Coulson would be the same as before he died, Gregg said "I don’t know how you could not change going through what he went through. I think if he hadn’t gone through some kind of change, it wouldn’t be any good. That said, I don’t know if he understands how much he’s changed." Later exploring some of those changes, Gregg stated "In some ways, he kinda finds himself not nearly as cold or ruthless as he would like to be, or as he has been. And at the same time, putting together this team, he feels driven by motives inside of himself that he can't quite always make sense of and that feels very new to him."


title: Phil Coulson

text: After Coulson was promoted to Director of S.H.I.E.L.D., Gregg said "He kind of got his dream job that I don’t even think he would have ever dreamed he would be given ... he’s got a little bit more of an idealistic, big hearted side of him [than Nick Fury does], some of which is going to be extinguished by the hard decisions he has to make." Speaking about the evolving nature of Coulson's relationship with his team, Gregg said "There’s a way he can afford an intimacy with all of them when they’re part of a small, elite squad on the Bus. It’s different than what’s possible for him as Director of S.H.I.E.L.D." Discussing Coulson's character progression through three seasons in relation to him killing Ward on the alien planet, executive producer Jeffrey Bell said, "First season Coulson would have beat Ward up and then thrown him over his shoulder and brought him back to Earth and locked him away. Season two Coulson would have defeated him and left him there on the other planet to fend for himself," while season three Coulson paused while the portal to Earth was already closing to take the time to kill Ward.


title: Phil Coulson

text: For the fourth season, Coulson is demoted back to field agent status. Gregg said that the reasoning for this "makes sense given that S.H.I.E.L.D. is coming out of the shadows. There are people that will want their person in charge." He felt that Coulson would actually prefer this, saying, "I always felt like Coulson was happiest in the field. Neither I nor Coulson loved playing and listening while his agents went into dangerous situations. And there are more dramatic possibilities when you have a boss that you have to deal with."


title: Phil Coulson

text: Sarge (portrayed by Clark Gregg) is an alien who occupies a clone body of Coulson which was created by the powers of the Di'Allas and sent hundred years into the past on his and Izel's home planet.


title: Phil Coulson

text: Following the deaths of Izel and Sarge, Enoch and the Chronicoms on his side create a Life Model Decoy of Phil Coulson (portrayed by Clark Gregg) with all of Coulson's memories and modified with Chronicom technology.


title: Phil Coulson

text: In his review for "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D."s first season, Evan Valentine at Collider named Clark Gregg as one of the high points of the series, noting that the actor was "one positive I consistently point out in each and every episode". Valentine stated that "What made us fall in love with the character from the first "Iron Man" to his death in "The Avengers" is still alive and kicking. Coulson was able to throw out quips like none other, while also turning on a dime, and expressing serious rage in moments ... Gregg raises the S.H.I.E.L.D. banner high". Reviewing the episode "The Writing on the Wall", which concluded the majority of Coulson's storyline in the series up to that point, Kevin Fitzpatrick of Screen Crush praised how Coulson had become "unglued" throughout the series, which had "pushed the newly-minted director into some dark places". Eric Goldman, reviewing for IGN, was also positive of the "unhinged version of Coulson", as well as the more serious leadership role the character took on for the second season, with Goldman finding Coulson's decision in "Making Friends and Influencing People" that Donnie Gill "either went with them or had to be taken out" to be especially notable.


title: Phil Coulson

text: The comic book continuation of "" animated television series is told from the perspective of Coulson, despite not appearing as a character in the original show.


title: Phil Coulson

text: In 2014, the "Ultimate" version of Phil Coulson debuted in the "Ultimate FF" series as an ex-Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. turned Director of the Future Foundation.


title: Phil Coulson

text: In November 2015, a 17th-century version of Coulson appeared in the series "1602: Witch Hunter Angela".


title: Trichinosis

text: Trichinosis, also known as trichinellosis, is a parasitic disease caused by roundworms of the "Trichinella" type. During the initial infection, invasion of the intestines can result in diarrhea, abdominal pain, and vomiting. Migration of larvae to muscle, which occurs about a week after being infected, can cause swelling of the face, inflammation of the whites of the eyes, fever, muscle pains, and a rash. Minor infection may be without symptoms. Complications may include inflammation of heart muscle, central nervous system involvement, and inflammation of the lungs.


title: Trichinosis

text: Trichinosis is mainly spread when undercooked meat containing "Trichinella" cysts is eaten. In North America this is most often bear, but infection can also occur from pork, boar, and dog meat. Several species of "Trichinella" can cause disease, with "T. spiralis" being the most common. After the infected meat has been eaten, the larvae are released from their cysts in the stomach. They then invade the wall of the small intestine, where they develop into adult worms. After one week, the females release new larvae that migrate to voluntarily controlled muscles, where they form cysts. The diagnosis is usually based on symptoms and confirmed by finding specific antibodies in the blood, or larvae on tissue biopsy.


title: Trichinosis

text: The best way to prevent trichinosis is to fully cook meat. A food thermometer can verify that the temperature inside the meat is high enough. Infection is typically treated with antiparasitic medication such as albendazole or mebendazole. Rapid treatment may kill adult worms and thereby stop further worsening of symptoms. Both medications are considered safe, but have been associated with side effects such as bone marrow suppression. Their use during pregnancy or in children under the age of 2 years is poorly studied, but appears to be safe. Treatment with steroids is sometimes also required in severe cases. Without treatment, symptoms typically resolve within three months.


title: Trichinosis

text: Worldwide, about 10,000 infections occur a year. At least 55 countries including the United States, China, Argentina, and Russia have had recently documented cases. While the disease occurs in the tropics, it is less common there. Rates of trichinosis in the United States have decreased from about 400 cases per year in the 1940s to 20 or fewer per year in the 2000s. The risk of death from infection is low.


title: Trichinosis

text: The great majority of trichinosis infections have either minor or no symptoms and no complications. The two main phases for the infection are enteral (affecting the intestines) and parenteral (outside the intestines). The symptoms vary depending on the phase, species of "Trichinella", quantity of encysted larvae ingested, age, sex, and host immunity.


title: Trichinosis

text: A large burden of adult worms in the intestines promotes symptoms such as nausea, heartburn, dyspepsia, and diarrhea from two to seven days after infection, while small worm burdens generally are asymptomatic. Eosinophilia presents early and increases rapidly.


title: Trichinosis

text: The severity of symptoms caused by larval migration from the intestines depends on the number of larvae produced. As the larvae migrate through tissue and vessels, the body's inflammatory response results in edema, muscle pain, fever, and weakness. A classic sign of trichinosis is periorbital edema, swelling around the eyes, which may be caused by vasculitis. Splinter hemorrhage in the nails is also a common symptom.


title: Trichinosis

text: They may very rarely cause enough damage to produce serious neurological deficits (such as ataxia or respiratory paralysis) from worms entering the central nervous system (CNS), which is compromised by trichinosis in 10–24% of reported cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, a very rare form of stroke (three or four cases per million annual incidence in adults). Trichinosis can be fatal depending on the severity of the infection; death can occur 4–6 weeks after the infection, and is usually caused by myocarditis, encephalitis, or pneumonia.


title: Trichinosis

text: The classical agent is "T. spiralis" (found worldwide in many carnivorous and omnivorous animals, both domestic and sylvatic (wild), but seven primarily sylvatic species of "Trichinella" also are now recognized:


title: Trichinosis

text: The typical lifecycle for "T. spiralis" involves humans, pigs, and rodents. A pig becomes infected when it eats infectious cysts in raw meat, often porcine carrion or a rat (sylvatic cycle). A human becomes infected by consuming raw or undercooked infected pork (domestic cycle). In the stomach, the cysts from infected undercooked meat are acted on by pepsin and hydrochloric acid, which help release the larvae from the cysts into the stomach. The larvae then migrate to the small intestine, and burrow into the intestinal mucosa, where they molt four times before becoming adults.


title: Trichinosis

text: Thirty to 34 hours after the cysts were originally ingested, the adults mate, and within five days produce larvae. Adult worms can only reproduce for a limited time, because the immune system eventually expels them from the small intestine. The larvae then use their piercing mouthpart, called the "stylet", to pass through the intestinal mucosa and enter the lymphatic vessels, and then enter the bloodstream.


title: Trichinosis

text: The larvae travel by capillaries to various organs, such as the retina, myocardium, or lymph nodes; however, only larvae that migrate to skeletal muscle cells survive and encyst. The larval host cell becomes a nurse cell, in which the larva will be encapsulated, potentially for the life of the host, waiting for the host to be eaten. The development of a capillary network around the nurse cell completes encystation of the larva. Trichinosis is not soil-transmitted, as the parasite does not lay eggs, nor can it survive long outside a host.


title: Trichinosis

text: Diagnosis of trichinosis is confirmed by a combination of exposure history, clinical diagnosis, and laboratory testing.


title: Trichinosis

text: An epidemiological investigation can be done to determine a patient's exposure to raw infected meat. Often, an infection arises from home-preparation of contaminated meat, in which case microscopy of the meat may be used to determine the infection. Exposure determination does not have to be directly from a laboratory-confirmed infected animal. Indirect exposure criteria include the consumption of products from a laboratory-confirmed infected animal, or sharing of a common exposure with a laboratory-confirmed infected human.


title: Trichinosis

text: Clinical presentation of the common trichinosis symptoms may also suggest infection. These symptoms include eye puffiness, splinter hemorrhage, nonspecific gastroenteritis, and muscle pain. The case definition for trichinosis at the European Center for Disease Control states, "at least three of the following six: fever, muscle soreness and pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, facial edema, eosinophilia, and subconjunctival, subungual, and retinal hemorrhages."


title: Trichinosis

text: Blood tests and microscopy can be used to aid in the diagnosis of trichinosis. Blood tests include a complete blood count for eosinophilia, creatine phosphokinase activity, and various immunoassays such as ELISA for larval antigens.


title: Trichinosis

text: Laws and rules for food producers may improve food safety for consumers, such as the rules established by the European Commission for inspections, rodent control, and improved hygiene. A similar protocol exists in the United States, in the USDA guidelines for farms and slaughterhouse responsibilities in inspecting pork.


title: Trichinosis

text: Public education about the dangers of consuming raw and undercooked meat, especially pork, may reduce infection rates. Hunters are also an at-risk population due to their contact and consumption of wild game, including bear. As such, many states, such as New York, require the completion of a course in such matters before a hunting license can be obtained.


title: Trichinosis

text: Testing methods are available for both individual carcasses and monitoring of the herds. Artificial digestion method is usually used for the testing of individual carcasses, while the testing for specific antibodies is usually used for herd monitoring.


title: Trichinosis

text: Larvae may be killed by the heating or irradiation of raw meat. Freezing is normally only effective for "T. spiralis", since other species, such as "T. nativa", are freeze-resistant and can survive long-term freezing.


title: Trichinosis

text: Pork can be safely cooked to a slightly lower temperature, provided that the internal meat temperature is at least as hot for at least as long as listed in the USDA table below. Nonetheless, allowing a margin of error for variation in internal temperature within a particular cut of pork, which may have bones that affect temperature uniformity, is prudent. In addition, kitchen thermometers have measurement error that must be considered. Pork may be cooked for significantly longer and at a higher uniform internal temperature than listed below to be safe.


title: Trichinosis

text: Unsafe and unreliable methods of cooking meat include the use of microwave ovens, curing, drying, and smoking, as these methods are difficult to standardize and control.


title: Trichinosis

text: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention make the following recommendation: "Curing (salting), drying, smoking, or microwaving meat does not consistently kill infective worms."


title: Trichinosis

text: However, under controlled commercial food processing conditions, some of these methods are considered effective by the USDA.


title: Trichinosis

text: The USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is responsible for the regulations concerning the importation of swine from foreign countries. The Foreign Origin Meat and Meat Products, Swine section covers swine meat (cooked, cured and dried, and fresh). APHIS developed the National Trichinae Certification Program; this is a voluntary "preharvest" program for U.S. swine producers "that will provide documentation of swine management practices" to reduce the incidence of "Trichinella" in swine. The CDC reports 0.013% of U.S. swine are infected with "Trichinella".


title: Trichinosis

text: As with most diseases, early treatment is better and decreases the risk of developing disease. If larvae do encyst in skeletal muscle cells, they can remain infectious for months to years.


title: Trichinosis

text: Early administration of anthelmintics, such as mebendazole or albendazole, decreases the likelihood of larval encystation, particularly if given within three days of infection. However, most cases are diagnosed after this time. In humans, mebendazole (200–400 mg three times a day for three days) or albendazole (400 mg twice a day for 8–14 days) is given to treat trichinosis. These drugs prevent newly hatched larvae from developing, but should not be given to pregnant women or children under two years of age.


title: Trichinosis

text: Medical references from the 1940s described no specific treatment for trichinosis at the time, but intravenous injection of calcium salts was found to be useful in managing symptoms related to severe toxemia from the infection..


title: Trichinosis

text: After infection, steroids, such as prednisone, may be used to relieve muscle pain associated with larval migration.


title: Trichinosis

text: Researchers trying to develop a vaccine for "Trichinella" have tried using either "larval extracts, excretory–secretory antigen, DNA, or recombinant antigen protein." Currently, no marketable vaccine is available for trichinosis, but experimental mouse studies have suggested possibilities.


title: Trichinosis

text: About 11 million humans are infected with "Trichinella"; "T. spiralis" is the species responsible for most of these infections. Infection was once very common, but this disease is now rare in the developed world, but two known outbreaks occurred in 2015. In the first outbreak, around 40 people were infected in Liguria, Italy, during a New Year's Eve celebration. The second outbreak in France was associated with pork sausages from Corsica, which were eaten raw, affecting 14 people in total.


title: Trichinosis

text: The incidence of trichinosis in the U.S. has decreased dramatically in the past century from an average of 400 cases per year mid-20th century down to an annual average of 20 cases per year (2008–10). The number of cases has decreased because of legislation prohibiting the feeding of raw meat garbage to hogs, increased commercial and home freezing of pork, and the public awareness of the danger of eating raw or undercooked pork products.


title: Trichinosis

text: China reports around 10,000 cases every year, so is the country with the highest number of cases. In China, between 1964 and 1998, over 20,000 people became infected with trichinosis, and more than 200 people died.


title: Trichinosis

text: Trichinosis is common in developing countries where meat fed to pigs is raw or undercooked, but infections also arise in developed countries in Europe where raw or undercooked pork, wild boar and horse meat may be consumed as delicacies.


title: Trichinosis

text: In the developing world, most infections are associated with undercooked pork. For example, in Thailand, between 200 and 600 cases are reported annually around the Thai New Year. This is mostly attributable to a particular delicacy, "larb", which calls for undercooked pork as part of the recipe.


title: Trichinosis

text: In parts of Eastern Europe, the World Health Organization reports, some swine herds have trichinosis infection rates above 50%, with correspondingly large numbers of human infections.


title: Trichinosis

text: Historically, pork products were thought to have the most risk of infecting humans with "T. spiralis". However, a trichinosis surveillance conducted between 1997 and 2001 showed a higher percentage of cases caused by consumption of wild game (the sylvatic transmission cycle). This is thought to be due to the Federal Swine Health Protection Act (Public Law 96-468) that was passed by Congress in 1980. Prior to this act, swine were fed garbage that could potentially be infected by" T. spiralis". This act was put in place to prevent trichinella-contaminated food from being given to swine. Additionally, other requirements were put in place, such as rodent control, limiting commercial swine contact with wildlife, maintaining good hygiene, and removing dead pigs from pens immediately.


title: Trichinosis

text: Between 2002 and 2007, 11 trichinosis cases were reported to the CDC each year on average in the United States, and 2008–10 averaged 20 cases per year; these were mostly the result of consuming undercooked game (sylvatic transmission) or home-reared pigs (domestic transmission).


title: Trichinosis

text: The kashrut and halal dietary laws of Judaism and Islam prohibit eating pork. In the 19th century, when the association between trichinosis and undercooked pork was first established, this association was suggested to be the reason for the prohibition, reminiscent of the earlier opinion of medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides that food forbidden by Jewish law was "unwholesome". This theory was controversial, and eventually fell out of favor.


title: Trichinosis

text: The disappearance of the pathogen from domestic pigs has led to a relaxation of legislation and control efforts by veterinary public health systems. Trichinosis has lately been thought of as a re-emerging zoonosis, supplemented by the increased distribution of meat products, political changes, a changing climate, and increasing sylvatic transmission.


title: Trichinosis

text: Major sociopolitical changes can produce conditions that favor the resurgence of "Trichinella" infections in swine and, consequently, in humans. For instance, "the overthrow of the social and political structures in the 1990s" in Romania led to an increase in the incidence rate of trichinosis.


title: Trichinosis

text: As early as 1835, trichinosis was known to have been caused by a parasite, but the mechanism of infection was unclear at the time. A decade later, American scientist Joseph Leidy pinpointed undercooked meat as the primary vector for the parasite, and two decades afterwards, this hypothesis was fully accepted by the scientific community.


title: Trichinosis

text: The circumstances surrounding the first observation and identification of "T. spiralis" are controversial, due to a lack of records. In 1835, James Paget, a first-year medical student, first observed the larval form of "T. spiralis", while witnessing an autopsy at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in London. Paget took special interest in the presentation of muscle with white flecks, described as a "sandy diaphragm". Although Paget is most likely the first person to have noticed and recorded these findings, the parasite was named and published in a report by his professor, Richard Owen, who is now credited for the discovery of the "T. spiralis" larval form.


title: Trichinosis

text: A series of experiments conducted between 1850 and 1870 by the German researchers Rudolf Virchow, Rudolf Leuckart, and Friedrich Albert von Zenker, which involved feeding infected meat to a dog and performing the subsequent necropsy, led to the discovery of the lifecycle of "Trichinella". Through these experiments, Virchow was able to describe the development and infectivity of "T. spiralis".


title: Trichinosis

text: The International Commission on Trichinellosis (ICT) was formed in Budapest in 1958. Its mission is to exchange information on the epidemiology, biology, pathophysiology, immunology, and clinical aspects of trichinosis in humans and animals. Prevention is a primary goal. Since the creation of the ICT, its members (more than 110 from 46 countries) have regularly gathered and worked together during meetings held every four years: the International Conference on Trichinellosis.


title: Ostracism

text: Ostracism (, "ostrakismos") was an Athenian democratic procedure in which any citizen could be expelled from the city-state of Athens for ten years. While some instances clearly expressed popular anger at the citizen, ostracism was often used preemptively. It was used as a way of neutralizing someone thought to be a threat to the state or potential tyrant, though in many cases popular opinion often informed the choice regardless. The word


title: Ostracism

text: The name is derived from the pottery shards that were used as voting tokens, called "ostraka" (singular "ostrakon", ) in Greek. Broken pottery, abundant and virtually free, served as a kind of scrap paper (in contrast to papyrus, which was imported from Egypt as a high-quality writing surface, and was thus too costly to be disposable).


title: Ostracism

text: Each year the Athenians were asked in the assembly whether they wished to hold an ostracism. The question was put in the sixth of the ten months used for state business under the democracy (January or February in the modern Gregorian Calendar). If they voted "yes", then an ostracism would be held two months later. In a section of the agora set off and suitably barriered, citizens gave the name of those they wished to be ostracised to a scribe, as many of them were illiterate, and they then scratched the name on pottery shards. The shards where piled up facing down, so the votes would remain anonymous. Nine "Archontes" and the council of the five hundred supervised the process while the "Archontes" counted the "ostraka" submitted and sorted the names into separate piles. The person whose pile contained the most "ostraka" would be banished, provided that a quorum was met. According to Plutarch, the ostracism was considered valid if the total number of votes cast was at least 6000; according to a fragment of Philochorus, at least 6000 votes had to be cast against the person who was to be banished. Plutarch's evidence for a quorum of 6000 agrees with the number required for grants of citizenship in the following century and is generally preferred.


title: Ostracism

text: The person nominated had ten days to leave the city. If he attempted to return, the penalty was death. The property of the man banished was not confiscated and there was no loss of status. After the ten years, he was allowed to return without stigma. It was possible for the assembly to recall an ostracised person ahead of time; before the Persian invasion of 479 BC, an amnesty was declared under which at least two ostracised leaders—Pericles' father, Xanthippus, and Aristides 'the Just'—are known to have returned. Similarly, Cimon, ostracised in 461 BC, was recalled during an emergency.


title: Ostracism

text: Ostracism was crucially different from Athenian law at the time; there was no charge, and no defence could be mounted by the person expelled. The two stages of the procedure ran in the reverse order from that used under almost any trial system—here it is as if a jury are first asked ""Do you want to find someone guilty?"", and subsequently asked ""Whom do you wish to accuse?"". Equally out of place in a judicial framework is perhaps the institution's most peculiar feature: that it can take place at most once a year, and only for one person. In this it resembles the Greek "pharmakos" or scapegoat—though in contrast, "pharmakos" generally ejected a lowly member of the community.


title: Ostracism

text: A further distinction between these two modes (and one not obvious from a modern perspective) is that ostracism was an automatic procedure that required no initiative from any individual, with the vote simply occurring on the wish of the electorate—a diffuse exercise of power. By contrast, an Athenian trial needed the initiative of a particular citizen-prosecutor. While prosecution often led to a counterattack (or was a counterattack itself), no such response was possible in the case of ostracism as responsibility lay with the polity as a whole. In contrast to a trial, ostracism generally reduced political tension rather than increased it.


title: Ostracism

text: Although ten years of exile would have been difficult for an Athenian to face, it was relatively mild in comparison to the kind of sentences inflicted by courts. When dealing with politicians held to be acting against the interests of the people, Athenian juries could inflict very severe penalties such as death, unpayably large fines, confiscation of property, permanent exile, or loss of citizens' rights through "atimia"."" Further, the elite Athenians who suffered ostracism were rich or noble men who had connections or "xenoi" in the wider Greek world and who, unlike genuine exiles, were able to access their income in Attica from abroad. In Plutarch, following as he does the anti-democratic line common in elite sources, the fact that people might be recalled early appears to be another example of the inconsistency of majoritarianism that was characteristic of Athenian democracy. However, ten years of exile usually resolved whatever had prompted the expulsion. Ostracism was simply a pragmatic measure; the concept of serving out the full sentence did not apply as it was a preventative measure, not a punitive one.


title: Ostracism

text: One curious window on the practicalities of ostracism comes from the cache of 190 ostraka discovered dumped in a well next to the acropolis. From the handwriting, they appear to have been written by fourteen individuals and bear the name of Themistocles, ostracised before 471 BC and were evidently meant for distribution to voters. This was not necessarily evidence of electoral fraud (being no worse than modern voting instruction cards), but their being dumped in the well may suggest that their creators wished to hide them. If so, these ostraka provide an example of organized groups attempting to influence the outcome of ostracisms. The two-month gap between the first and second phases would have easily allowed for such a campaign.


title: Ostracism

text: There is another interpretation, however, according to which these ostraka were prepared beforehand by enterprising businessmen who offered them for sale to citizens who could not easily inscribe the desired names for themselves or who simply wished to save time.


title: Ostracism

text: The two-month gap is a key feature in the institution, much as in elections under modern liberal democracies. It first prevented the candidate for expulsion being chosen out of immediate anger, although an Athenian general such as Cimon would have not wanted to lose a battle the week before such a second vote. Secondly, it opened up a period for discussion (or perhaps agitation), whether informally in daily talk or public speeches before the Athenian assembly or Athenian courts. In this process a consensus, or rival consensuses, might emerge.The process of democratized influence over elite members of Athenian society might have emboldened the popular citizenry into civic action, while prominent citizens might have felt pressure to please those below their social standing. Further, in that time of waiting, ordinary Athenian citizens must have felt a certain power over the greatest members of their city; conversely, the most prominent citizens had an incentive to worry how their social inferiors regarded them.


title: Ostracism

text: Ostracism was not in use throughout the whole period of Athenian democracy (circa 506–322 BC), but only occurred in the fifth century BC. The standard account, found in Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians 22.3, attributes the establishment to Cleisthenes, a pivotal reformer in the creation of the democracy. In that case, ostracism would have been in place from around 506 BC. The first victim of the practice, however, was not expelled until 487 BC—nearly 20 years later. Over the course of the next 60 years some 12 or more individuals followed him. The list may not be complete, but there is good reason to believe the Athenians did not feel the need to eject someone in this way every year. The list of known ostracisms runs as follows:


title: Ostracism

text: Around 12,000 political ostraka have been excavated in the Athenian agora and in the Kerameikos. The second victim, Cleisthenes' nephew Megacles, is named by 4647 of these, but for a second undated ostracism not listed above. The known ostracisms seem to fall into three distinct phases: the 480s BC, mid-century 461–443 BC and finally the years 417–415: this matches fairly well with the clustering of known expulsions, although Themistocles before 471 may count as an exception. This suggests that ostracism fell in and out of fashion.


title: Ostracism

text: The last known ostracism was that of Hyperbolus in circa 417 BC. There is no sign of its use after the Peloponnesian War, when democracy was restored after the oligarchic coup of the Thirty had collapsed in 403 BC. However, while ostracism was not an active feature of the fourth-century version of democracy, it remained; the question was put to the assembly each year, but they did not wish to hold one.


title: Ostracism

text: Because ostracism was carried out by thousands of people over many decades of an evolving political situation and culture, it did not serve a single monolithic purpose. Observations can be made about the outcomes, as well as the initial purpose for which it was created.


title: Ostracism

text: The first instance of people ostracised in the decade after the defeat of the first Persian invasion at Marathon in 490 BC were all related or connected to the tyrant Peisistratos, who had controlled Athens for 36 years up to 527 BC. After his son Hippias was deposed with Spartan help in 510 BC, the family sought refuge with the Persians, and nearly twenty years later Hippias landed with their invasion force at Marathon. Tyranny and Persian aggression were paired threats facing the new democratic regime at Athens, and ostracism was used against both.


title: Ostracism

text: Tyranny and democracy had arisen at Athens out of clashes between regional and factional groups organised around politicians, including Cleisthenes. As a reaction, in many of its features the democracy strove to reduce the role of factions as the focus of citizen loyalties. Ostracism, too, may have been intended to work in the same direction: by temporarily decapitating a faction, it could help to defuse confrontations that threatened the order of the State.


title: Ostracism

text: In later decades when the threat of tyranny was remote, ostracism seems to have been used as a way to decide between radically opposed policies. For instance, in 443 BC Thucydides, son of Melesias (not to be confused with the historian of the same name) was ostracised. He led an aristocratic opposition to Athenian imperialism and in particular to Pericles' building program on the acropolis, which was funded by taxes created for the wars against the Achaemenid Empire. By expelling Thucydides the Athenian people sent a clear message about the direction of Athenian policy. Similar but similarly controversial claims have been made about the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC.


title: Ostracism

text: The motives of individual voting citizens cannot be known. Many of the surviving ostraka name people otherwise unattested. They may well be just someone the submitter disliked, and voted for in moment of private spite. Some ostraka even bear the word "Limos" (hunger) instead of a human name. As such, it may be seen as a secular, civic variant of Athenian curse tablets, studied in scholarly literature under the Latin name "defixiones", where small dolls were wrapped in lead sheets written with curses and then buried, sometimes stuck through with nails for good measure.


title: Ostracism

text: In one anecdote about Aristides, known as "the Just", who was ostracised in 482, an illiterate citizen, not recognising him, came up to ask him to write the name Aristides on his ostrakon. When Aristides asked why, the man replied it was because he was sick of hearing him being called "the Just". Perhaps merely the sense that someone had become too arrogant or prominent was enough to get someone's name onto an ostrakon. Ostracism rituals could have also been an attempt to dissuade people from covertly committing murder or assassination of intolerable or emerging individuals of power so as to create an open arena or outlet for those harbouring primal frustrations and urges or political motivations. The solution for murder, in Gregory H. Padowitz's theory, would then be "ostracism" which would ultimately be beneficial for all parties—the unfortunate individual would live and get a second chance and society would be spared the ugliness of feuds, civil war, political jams and murder.


title: Ostracism

text: The last ostracism, that of Hyperbolos in or near 417 BC, is elaborately narrated by Plutarch in three separate "lives": Hyperbolos is pictured urging the people to expel one of his rivals, but they, Nicias and Alcibiades, laying aside their own hostility for a moment, use their combined influence to have him ostracised instead. According to Plutarch, the people then become disgusted with ostracism and abandoned the procedure forever.


title: Ostracism

text: In part ostracism lapsed as a procedure at the end of the fifth century because it was replaced by the "graphe paranomon", a regular court action under which a much larger number of politicians might be targeted, instead of just one a year as with ostracism, and with greater severity. But it may already have come to seem like an anachronism as factional alliances organised around important men became increasingly less significant in the later period, and power was more specifically located in the interaction of the individual speaker with the power of the assembly and the courts. The threat to the democratic system in the late fifth century came not from tyranny but from oligarchic coups, threats of which became prominent after two brief seizures of power, in 411 BC by "the Four Hundred" and in 404 BC by "the Thirty", which were not dependent on single powerful individuals. Ostracism was not an effective defence against the oligarchic threat and it was not so used.


title: Ostracism

text: Other cities are known to have set up forms of ostracism on the Athenian model, namely Megara, Miletos, Argos and Syracuse, Sicily. In the last of these it was referred to as "petalismos", because the names were written on olive leaves. Little is known about these institutions. Furthermore, pottery shards identified as "ostraka" have been found in Chersonesos Taurica, leading historians to the conclusion that a similar institution existed there as well, in spite of the silence of the ancient records on that count.


title: Ostracism

text: A similar modern practice is the recall election, in which the electoral body removes its representation from an elected officer.


title: Ostracism

text: Unlike under modern voting procedures, the Athenians did not have to adhere to a strict format for the inscribing of "ostraka". Many extant "ostraka" show that it was possible to write expletives, short epigrams or cryptic injunctions beside the name of the candidate without invalidating the vote. For example:


title: Ostracism

text: Ostracism is evident in several animal species, as well as in modern human interactions. The social psychologist Kipling Williams defines ostracism as "any act or acts of ignoring and excluding of an individual or groups by an individual or a group" without necessarily involving "acts of verbal or physical abuse".


title: Ostracism

text: Williams suggests that the most common form of ostracism is silent treatment, wherein refusing to communicate with a person effectively ignores and excludes them.


title: Ostracism

text: Ostracism in the context of computer networks (such as the Internet) is termed "cyberostracism". In email communication, in particular, it is relatively easy to engage in silent treatment, in the form of "unanswered emails" or "ignored emails". Being ostracised on social media is seen to be threatening to the fundamental human needs of belonging, self-esteem, control and meaningful existence. Cyber-rejection (receiving "dislikes") caused more threat to the need of belonging and self-esteem, and lead to social withdrawal. Cyber-ostracism (being ignored or receiving fewer "likes") conversely lead to more prosocial behavior. Ostracism is thought to be associated with social media disorder.


title: Ostracism

text: Williams and his colleagues have charted responses to ostracism in some five thousand cases, and found two distinctive patterns of response. The first is increased group-conformity, in a quest for re-admittance; the second is to become more provocative and hostile to the group, seeking attention rather than acceptance.


title: Ostracism

text: Older adults report experiencing ostracism less frequently, with a particular dip being around the age of retirement. Regardless of age, ostracism is strongly associated with negative emotions, reduced life satisfaction and dysfunctional social behaviour.


title: Ostracism

text: Research suggests that ostracism is a common retaliatory strategy used by organizations in response to whistleblowing. Kipling Williams, in a survey on US whistleblowers, found that all respondents reported post-whistleblowing ostracism. Alexander Brown similarly found that post-whistleblowing ostracism is a common response, and indeed describes ostracism as form of "covert" reprisal, as it is normally so difficult to identify and investigate.


title: Ostracism

text: Qahr and ashti is a culture-specific Iranian form of personal shunning, most frequently of another family member in Iran. While modern Western concepts of ostracism are based upon enforcing conformity within a societally-recognized group, qahr is a private (batin), family-orientated affair of conflict or display of anger that is never disclosed to the public at large, as to do so would be a breach of social etiquette.


title: Ostracism

text: "Qahr" is avoidance of a lower-ranking family member who has committed a perceived insult. It is one of several ritualised social customs of Iranian culture.


title: Ostracism

text: "Gozasht" means 'tolerance, understanding and a desire or willingness to forgive' and is an essential component of Qahr and Ashti for both psychological needs of closure and cognition, as well as a culturally accepted source for practicing necessary religious requirements of "tawbah" "(repentance, see Koran 2:222)" and "du'a" (supplication).


title: Kodi Lee

text: Kodi Taehyun Lee (born July 7, 1996) is a Korean American singer-songwriter and pianist. He rose to fame after participating in, and ultimately winning, the 14th season of "America's Got Talent".


title: Kodi Lee

text: In 2019, Lee auditioned for "AGT", and within weeks his performance had over 50 million views on the internet. At the end of the season, he was declared the winner.


title: Kodi Lee

text: Kodi Lee was born with optic nerve hypoplasia, causing him to become legally blind. He was also diagnosed with autism at an early age, and has Addison's disease. Lee is a prodigious musical savant, a person who manifests musical abilities that would be considered extraordinary, even in a person who is not autistic.


title: Kodi Lee

text: On May 28, 2019, Lee auditioned for "America's Got Talent" during the season 14. He performed Leon Russell's song, "A Song for You". Judges Howie Mandel, Gabrielle Union, Julianne Hough and Simon Cowell and the audience gave him a standing ovation at the end of the performance. Union pressed the Golden Buzzer for him, sending him straight through to the live shows. At the quarterfinals, Lee performed Simon and Garfunkel's "Bridge over Troubled Water" (again to a standing ovation), and advanced to the semifinals. In the semifinals, Lee performed "You Are the Reason" by Calum Scott. During the results, he was announced as one of the ten finalists for the season. In the finals, he performed "Lost Without You" by Freya Ridings. In the finale that aired on September 18, 2019, he performed "You Are the Reason" again, with special guest Leona Lewis. At the end of the program, Lee was announced the winner of season 14, having received the most votes. He is the first autistic, and developmentally disabled person, to win the show.


title: Kodi Lee

text: In July 2022, Cowell ranked his favorite Top 15 Golden Buzzer moments in "AGT" history during season 17, on which Lee placed 3rd.


title: Kodi Lee

text: In August 2022, Kodi performed a duet of "Don't Stop Believin'" with Teddy Swims along with guitarist Neal Schon, the founder of the band Journey, during the "AGT" Qualifiers 3 Results episode.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The Beechcraft 1900 is a 19-passenger, pressurized twin-engine turboprop regional airliner manufactured by Beechcraft. It is also used as a freight aircraft and corporate transport, and by several governmental and military organizations. With customers favoring larger regional jets, Raytheon ended production in October 2002.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: Developed from the Beechcraft Super King Air, the aircraft was designed to carry passengers in all weather conditions from airports with relatively short runways. It is capable of flying in excess of , although few operators use its full-fuel range. In terms of the number of aircraft built and its continued use by many passenger airlines and other users, it is one of the most popular 19-passenger airliners in history.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The 1900 is Beechcraft's third regional airliner after the Beechcraft Model 18 and Beechcraft Model 99 Airliner.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The Beechcraft 1900's design lineage began in 1949 with the Beechcraft Model 50 Twin Bonanza, a 5-passenger, reciprocating engine utility aircraft designed for the U.S. Army. A larger passenger cabin was added to the Twin Bonanza's airframe, and called the Model 65 Queen Air. This aircraft was, in turn, further modified by adding turboprop engines and cabin pressurization, and named the Model 90 King Air. A stretched version of the King Air was later developed and designated the Model 200 Super King Air. Beechcraft developed the 1900 directly from the Super King Air, in order to provide a pressurized commuterliner to compete with the Swearingen Metro and the British Aerospace Jetstream.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The 1900 first flew on September 3, 1982, with Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification awarded on November 22, 1983, under Special Federal Aviation Regulation (SFAR) 41C airworthiness standards. Like the 1900, the 1900C was certified under SFAR 41C, but the later 1900D version was certified to FAR Part 23 "Commuter Category" standards.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The 1900 entered service in February 1984, with the first ExecLiner corporate version delivered in 1985. A total of 695 Beechcraft 1900 aircraft were built, making the airliner the best-selling 19-passenger airliner in history. In 1991, the price of a 1900D Airliner was $3.95 million. With market trends favoring larger 50- to 90-seat regional jets, Raytheon ended production of the Beechcraft 1900 in October 2002. Many airlines continue to fly the 1900.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: Since the 1900 is derived from the King Air, all 1900s share certain characteristics with that aircraft. Cockpit controls and operations are similar to those of the King Air. While Federal Aviation Regulations require two pilots for passenger airline operations, the 1900 is designed and certificated for single-pilot operation in corporate or cargo settings, as is the King Air.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The 1900 is powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A turboprop engines. The 1900 and 1900C use two PT6A-65B engines, each flat-rated at . The 1900D uses two PT6A-67D engines, each rated at .


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The propellers are manufactured by Hartzell, with four blades on each propeller. The blades are made from composite materials.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The airplane is certified to fly up to an altitude of above mean sea level with its pressurized cabin. It is designed to operate in most weather conditions, including icing conditions, and it is usually equipped with weather radar to help pilots avoid severe weather. The aircraft can be fitted with a lavatory, using space otherwise available for passenger seating and cargo storage.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The original design is known simply as the Beechcraft 1900. It features two airstair passenger boarding doors: one near the tail of the aircraft much like the smaller King Airs, and a second at the front just behind the cockpit. It has a small cargo door near the tail for access to the baggage compartment, which is behind the passenger compartment. Only three airframes were built, with "UA" serial numbers of UA-1, UA-2, and UA-3. UA-1 and UA-2 are stored at a Beechcraft facility in Wichita, Kansas. UA-3, registered FAB-043, served in Bolivia until it crashed in November 2011.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: It quickly became clear that having two airstair doors on an aircraft holding only 19 passengers was excessive. In creating the 1900C, Beechcraft kept the front airstair, but eliminated the aft airstair door, installing an enlarged cargo door in its place. Other than the redesigned door layout, the early 1900Cs were substantially similar to the original 1900s. These were assigned serial numbers starting with the letters UB. A total of 74 UB version were built, many of which remain in service.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: Aircraft in the UA and UB series employ a bladder-type fuel tank system in the wings. Later 1900Cs use a wet wing fuel system: entire sections of the wing are sealed off for use as fuel tanks. This design change allowed more fuel to be stored, substantially increasing the 1900C's range. The wet wing 1900Cs were assigned serial numbers beginning with "UC." These aircraft are also referred to as 1900C-1s. The wet wings proved popular, and the UC is the most common version of the low-ceiling 1900, with 174 UC airframes built.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: Raytheon manufactured six 1900C aircraft for use by the U.S. military. These were assigned "UD" serial numbers, UD-1 through UD-6.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: While the 1900C had become a popular regional airliner, Beechcraft undertook a substantial redesign of the aircraft, and in 1991 introduced a new version called the 1900D.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The 1900 and 1900C, like most 19-passenger airliners and small business jets, have fairly small passenger cabins, with ceilings so low that passengers (of typical male heights) cannot walk through the interior without bending forward. The 1900D was designed to remedy this by providing a "stand-up cabin", which would allow most passengers to walk upright. It is one of only two 19-seat airliners with this feature, the other being the British Aerospace Jetstream 31/32.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: Because the taller passenger cabin adds both weight and drag to the airplane, other elements of the 1900D were also changed. More powerful engines and modified propellers were installed, winglets were added to reduce drag and increase the wings' efficiency, and the tail was made larger in response to the more powerful engines. The cockpit was updated with an Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS). The 1900D was certified under the then-new FAR Part 23 "Commuter Category" standards, which had replaced the earlier SFAR 41C. Since the UD serial numbers were already in use by the military 1900s, the 1900D airplanes have serial numbers beginning with UE. The 1900D is the most popular version of the airliner, with 439 of the 1900D built.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: A supplemental type certificate has been awarded to Alpine Air Express to convert 1900D into cargo aircraft. The STC involved adding a second emergency exit to the cockpit and converting the interior to a cargo configuration. The 1900D can carry 900 cubic feet of cargo, 30% more than a 1900C. Powered by PT6-67D, the super freighter has a max takeoff weight of 17,120 lbs and is certified under the commuter category. Due to its standup cabin, the 1900D has a large internal volume. The large volume lends the aircraft well to the cargo industry where many packages are bulky and low in density. The 1900D is able to carry nearly as much volume as an EMB-120 and is certified for single pilot cargo operations. The single pilot crew and surplus of airframes allows for reduced operator costs.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: The U.S. military designation for the Beechcraft 1900C is C-12J. This is a variant of the C-12 Huron, which is the most common designation for military King Airs. The C-12J includes the six Beechcraft 1900s with 'UD' serial number prefixes built for the U.S. military, as well as other 1900Cs in U.S. military service.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: Examples of C-12J aircraft in military service include one used for GPS jamming tests at the 586th Flight Test Squadron, Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, and three based at the 459th Airlift Squadron, Yokota Air Base, Japan. The U.S. Army operates both C-12J and 1900D aircraft along with other C-12 (King Air) aircraft.


title: Beechcraft 1900

text: In July 2018, a total of 114 1900Cs and 192 1900Ds were in airline service: 207 in the Americas, 63 in Africa, 25 in Europe and 11 in the Asia Pacific and Middle East. Airline operators with nine or more aircraft were:


title: Stone Town

text: Stonetown of Zanzibar (), also known as Mji Mkongwe (Swahili for "old town"), is the old part of Zanzibar City, the main city of Zanzibar, in Tanzania. The newer portion of the city is known as Ng'ambo, Swahili for 'the other side'. Stone Town is located on the western coast of Unguja, the main island of the Zanzibar Archipelago. Former capital of the Zanzibar Sultanate, and flourishing centre of the spice trade as well as the slave trade in the 19th century, it retained its importance as the main city of Zanzibar during the period of the British protectorate. When Tanganyika and Zanzibar joined each other to form the United Republic of Tanzania, Zanzibar kept a semi-autonomous status, with Stone Town as its local government seat.


title: Stone Town

text: Stone Town is a city of prominent historical and artistic importance in East Africa. Its architecture, mostly dating back to the 19th century, reflects the diverse influences underlying the Swahili culture, giving a unique mixture of Arab, Persian, Indian and European elements. For this reason, the town was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000.


title: Stone Town

text: Due to its heritage, Stone Town is also a major visitor attraction in Tanzania, and a large part of its economy depends on tourism-related activities.


title: Stone Town

text: The heart of Stone Town mostly consists of a maze of narrow alleys lined by houses, shops, bazaars and mosques. Since most streets are too narrow for cars, the town is crowded with bicycles and motorbikes. The seafront has wider streets and larger, more regularly placed buildings.


title: Stone Town

text: Stone Town's architecture has a number of distinctive features, as a result of Arab, Persian, Indian, European, and African traditions mixing together. The name "Stone Town" comes from the ubiquitous use of coral stone as the main construction material; this stone gives the town a characteristic, reddish warm colour. Traditional buildings have a "baraza", a long stone bench along the outside walls; this is used as an elevated sidewalk if heavy rains make the streets impracticable, or otherwise as benches to sit down, rest, socialize. Another key feature of most buildings is large verandas protected by carved wooden balustrades. The best-known feature of Zanzibari houses are the finely decorated wooden doors, with rich carvings and bas-reliefs, sometimes with big brass studs of Indian tradition. Two main types of doors can be distinguished: those of Indian style have rounded tops, while those in the Omani Arab style are rectangular. Carvings are often Islamic in content (for example, many consist of verses of the Qur'an), but other symbolism is occasionally used, e.g., Indian lotus flowers as emblems of prosperity.


title: Stone Town

text: Stone Town is punctuated with major historical buildings, several of which are found on the seafront; these include former palaces of the sultans, fortifications, churches, mosques, and other institutional buildings.


title: Stone Town

text: While Stone Town was included in UNESCO's World Heritage Sites in 2000, this designation does not provide complete protection for the town's heritage. Despite the establishment of a Conservation Authority, about 80% of the 1,709 buildings of Stone Town are in a deteriorating condition. As coral stone is very friable, frequent maintenance is needed for most of these buildings. Some major restoration projects (especially on the seafront) have been done in recent times by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC).


title: Stone Town

text: A Greco-Roman text between the 1st and 3rd centuries, the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", mentioned the island of "Menuthias" (), which is probably Unguja. Zanzibar, like the nearby coast, was settled by Bantu-speakers at the outset of the first millennium. Archaeological finds at Fukuchani, on the north-west coast of Zanzibar, indicate a settled agricultural and fishing community from the 6th century CE at the latest. The considerable amount of daub found indicates timber buildings, and shell beads, bead grinders, and iron slag have been found at the site. There is evidence for limited engagement in long-distance trade: a small amount of imported pottery has been found, less than 1% of total pottery finds, mostly from the Gulf and dated to the 5th to 8th century. The similarity to contemporary sites such as Mkokotoni and Dar es Salaam indicate a unified group of communities that developed into the first center of coastal maritime culture. The coastal towns, including those on Zanzibar, appear to have been engaged in Indian Ocean trade at this early period. Trade rapidly increased in importance and quantity beginning in the mid-8th century and by the close of the 10th century Zanzibar was one of the central Swahili trading towns.


title: Stone Town

text: Shangani, the original fishing town that developed into Stone Town, was a small, largely unimportant Swahili site founded in the 11th century. Bigger towns at Unguja Ukuu, Kizimkazi, and Tumbatu were the island's powers from the 8th to the 16th century. The Portuguese built a church at Shangani in the early 16th century, and the Queen of northern Unguja had a house built there in the mid-17th century. When the Portuguese were ousted by Zanzibaris and Pembans in the 17th century, local patricians invited the Sultan of Oman to wield political power in exchange for defense against Portuguese reprisals. Part of the Portuguese church was built into the Omani fort, which housed roughly fifty soldiers. The Sultan also appointed a local governor, but political authority was still largely vested in the Mwinyi Mkuu, at this time Queen Fatima.