title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers was born in Boston, Massachusetts, one of four siblings. His father, John K. Eggers (1936–1991), was an attorney, while his mother, Heidi McSweeney Eggers (1940–1992), was a school teacher. His father was Protestant and his mother was Catholic. When Eggers was still a child, the family moved to the suburb of Lake Forest, near Chicago, where he attended public high school and was a classmate of actor Vince Vaughn. Eggers's elder brother, William D. Eggers, is a researcher who has worked for several conservative think tanks, doing research promoting privatization. Eggers's sister, Beth, died by suicide in November 2001. Eggers briefly spoke about his sister's death during a 2002 fan interview for McSweeney's.


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers attended the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, intending to get a degree in journalism. However, his studies were interrupted by the deaths of both of his parents: his father in 1991 from brain and lung cancer, and his mother in January 1992 from stomach cancer. These events were chronicled in his first book, the fictionalized "A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius". At the time, Eggers was age 21, and his youngest sibling, Christopher ("Toph"), was 8 years old. The two elder siblings, William and Beth, were unable to commit to caring for Toph; his oldest sibling, William, had a full-time job and his next-oldest sibling, Beth, was enrolled in law school. As a result, Eggers took responsibility. He left the University of Illinois and moved to Berkeley, California, with his girlfriend Kirsten and his brother. They initially moved in with Eggers' sibling, Beth, and her roommate, but eventually found a place in another part of town, which they paid for with money left to them by their parents. Toph attended a small private school, and Eggers did temp work and freelance graphic design for a local newspaper.


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eventually, with his friend David Moodie, Eggers took over a local free newspaper called "Cups". This gradually evolved into the satirical magazine "Might".


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers began writing as a "Salon.com" editor and founded "Might" magazine in San Francisco in 1994 with David Moodie and Marny Requa, while also writing a comic strip called "Smarter Feller" (originally "Swell") for "SF Weekly".


title: Dave Eggers

text: "Might" evolved out of the small San Francisco-based independent paper "Cups", and gathered a loyal following with its irreverent humor and quirky approach to the issues and personalities of the day. An article purporting to be an obituary of former 1980s child star Adam Rich (originally intended to be "Back to the Future" star Crispin Glover until Glover backed out) garnered some national attention. The magazine regularly included humour pieces, and a number of essays and non-fiction pieces by seminal writers of the 1990s, including "Impediments to Passion", an essay on sex in the AIDS era by David Foster Wallace.


title: Dave Eggers

text: As Eggers later recounted in his memoir, "A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius", the magazine consistently struggled to make a profit, and finally ceased publication in 1997. An anthology of the best of "Might" magazine's brief run, "Shiny Adidas Tracksuits and the Death of Camp' and Other Essays from Might Magazine", was published in late 1998. By this time, Eggers was freelancing for "Esquire" magazine and continuing to work for "Salon".


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers's first book was a memoir with fictional elements, "A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius" (2000), which focused on his struggle to raise his younger brother in the San Francisco Bay Area following the deaths of both of their parents. The book quickly became a bestseller and was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction. The memoir was praised for its originality, idiosyncratic self-referencing, and for several innovative stylistic elements. Early printings of the 2001 trade-paperback edition were published with a lengthy postscript entitled, "Mistakes We Knew We Were Making".


title: Dave Eggers

text: In 2002, Eggers published his first fully fictional novel, "You Shall Know Our Velocity", a story about a frustrating attempt to give away money to deserving people while haphazardly traveling the globe. An expanded and revised version was released as "Sacrament" in 2003. A version without the new material in "Sacrament" was created and retitled "You Shall Know Our Velocity!" for a Vintage imprint distribution. He has since published a collection of short stories, "How We Are Hungry", and three politically themed serials for "Salon.com".


title: Dave Eggers

text: In November 2005, Eggers published "Surviving Justice: America's Wrongfully Convicted and Exonerated", a book of interviews with former prisoners sentenced to death and later exonerated. The book was compiled with Lola Vollen, a specialist in the aftermath of major human rights abuses and a visiting scholar at the University of California, Berkeley's Institute of International Studies.


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers's 2006 novel "" was a finalist for the 2006 National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction. Eggers also edits the "Best American Nonrequired Reading" series, an annual anthology of short stories, essays, journalism, satire, and alternative comics.


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers was one of the original contributors to "ESPN The Magazine" and helped create its section "The Jump". He also acted as the first, anonymous "Answer Guy", a column that continued to run after he stopped working for the publication.


title: Dave Eggers

text: On November 7, 2009, he was presented with the "Courage in Media" Award by the Council on American-Islamic Relations for his book "Zeitoun". "Zeitoun" was optioned by Jonathan Demme, who considered an animated film-rendition of the work. To Demme, it "felt like the first in-depth immersion I'd ever had through literature or film into the Muslim-American family. ... The moral was that they are like people of any other faith, and I hope our film, if we can get it made, will also be like that." Demme, quoted in early 2011, expressed confidence that when the script was finished, he would be able to find financing, perhaps even from a major studio. However, in May 2014, "The Playlist" reported that the film was "percolat[ing] in development". Demme died in April 2017, and the project has not been heard of since.


title: Dave Eggers

text: In the early 2010s, after going six years without publishing substantive literary fiction following "What is the What", Eggers began a three-year streak of back-to-back novels, each broadly concerned with pressing social and political issues facing the United States and the wider world in the twenty-first century. Eggers published his novel of the Great Recession and late 2000s financial crisis, "A Hologram for the King", in July 2012. In October of that year, the novel was announced as a finalist for the National Book Award.


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers followed this with "The Circle", released in October 2013, and depicting the life of a young worker at a fictional San Francisco-based technology company in the near future, as she faces doubts about her vocation, due to the company's seemingly well-intentioned innovations revealing a more sinister underlying agenda. Completing the productive spell, a new novel concerning anxiety with America's place in the world, "Your Fathers, Where Are They? And the Prophets, Do They Live Forever?", was published in June 2014. In November 2015, "Your Fathers, Where Are They ..." was longlisted for the 2016 International Dublin Literary Award, Eggers' fifth nomination for the award following earlier nominations for "The Circle", "A Hologram for the King", "The Wild Things", and "What is the What".


title: Dave Eggers

text: In April 2016, Eggers visited Israel, as part of a project by the "Breaking the Silence" organization, to write an article for a book on the Israeli occupation, to mark the 50th anniversary of the Six-Day War. The book was edited by Michael Chabon and Ayelet Waldman, and was published under the title "Kingdom of Olives and Ash: Writers Confront the Occupation", in June 2017.


title: Dave Eggers

text: In July 2016, Eggers published his sixth novel, "Heroes of the Frontier". Earlier the same year, a film adaptation of Eggers' earlier novel "A Hologram for the King" was released, to mixed reviews and middling commercial performance. "The Circle", a film version of Eggers' book, starring Emma Watson, John Boyega, and Tom Hanks (who had starred in the "Hologram for the King" adaptation), was released in April 2017. Eggers followed "Heroes of the Frontier" with "The Monk of Mokha" (2018), another nonfiction biography in a similar vein to "Zeitoun", billed by the publishers as "the exhilarating true story of a young Yemeni American man, raised in San Francisco, who dreams of resurrecting the ancient art of Yemeni coffee but finds himself trapped in Sana'a by civil war."


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers ended the decade by publishing two very stylistically different novellas, written concurrently with each other. "The Parade", published by Knopf in March 2019, was a spare, minimalist novella reflecting Eggers' long-standing concerns with humanitarian issues, global development, and Western perceptions of the developing world. According to the advance blurb from the publisher, the novel concerns "two men, Western contractors sent to work far from home, tasked with paving a road to the capital in a dangerous and largely lawless country." Reviews were mixed: positive notices included Andrew Motion writing in "The Guardian" that "[Eggers'] novel may be sternly reduced in terms of its cast and language, but this leanness doesn't diminish the strength of its argument", while Ron Charles in "The Washington Post" demurred that "The Parade" "[is] a story that conforms to the West's reductive attitudes about the developing world. Writers and politicians have long generalized about those individual cultures. A novel that lumps them together into a nameless, primitive nation only plays into that tendency." "The Parade" was followed in November 2019 by another short novella, "The Captain and the Glory", billed by Eggers himself as an "allegorical satire" of the Trump administration. In an interview with the publishers Knopf published on the McSweeney's website, Eggers described the novel as "an attempt to understand this era by painting it in the gaudy and garish colors it really deserves... This is part farce, part parable, and I do hope, though the Captain bears more than a passing resemblance to Trump, that the book will be readable when Trump is gone. That's part of the reason I called it 'An entertainment' on the title page. It's a nod to Graham Greene but also the way I hope people will read it. It was cathartic to write and I hope cathartic to read." As with "The Parade", reviews were decidedly mixed, with much criticism noting that Eggers' satire struggled to keep up with or do justice to the events of the Trump era. In a review for the "Financial Times", Carl Wilkinson expressed bemusement about the purpose of the book and its intentions, Hannah Barekat in "The Spectator" was critical for the "heavy handed" nature of the book's satire, while "The Guardian", "The Times Literary Supplement", and "Kirkus Reviews" also found the book wanting.


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers returned to the literary fold in 2021 with two new works of literary fiction. A short novella "The Museum of Rain", is due for publication in June 2021, and according to the McSweeney's website, the "elegiac" short story concerns "an American Army vet in his 70s who is asked to lead a group of young grand-nieces and grand-nephews on a walk through the hills of California's Central Coast. Walking toward a setting sun, their destination is a place called The Museum of Rain, which may or may not still exist, and whose origin and meaning are elusive to all." Eggers' next novel, "The Every", was released in October 2021. The novel is a follow-up to his 2013 novel "The Circle".


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers founded McSweeney's, an independent publishing house, named for his mother's maiden name. The publishing house produces a quarterly literary journal, "Timothy McSweeney's Quarterly Concern", first published in 1998; a monthly journal, "The Believer", which debuted in 2003 and is edited by Eggers's wife, Vendela Vida; and, from 2005 to 2012, a quarterly DVD magazine, "Wholphin". Other works include "The Future Dictionary of America", "Created in Darkness by Troubled Americans", and "Dr. and Mr. Haggis-On-Whey", all children's books of literary nonsense, which Eggers writes with his younger brother and uses as a pseudonym.


title: Dave Eggers

text: Ahead of the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Eggers wrote an essay about the U.S. national team and soccer in the United States for "The Thinking Fan's Guide to the World Cup", which contained essays about each competing team in the tournament and was published with aid from the journal "Granta". According to "The San Francisco Chronicle", Eggers was rumored to be a possible candidate to be the new editor of "The Paris Review" before the Review selected Lorin Stein.


title: Dave Eggers

text: While at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Eggers attended art classes. After the publication of "A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius", he focused mainly on writing, but publicly returned to visual art with a solo gallery show at Electric Works, San Francisco, in 2010, called "It Is Right to Draw Their Fur". The show featured many drawings of animals often paired with phrases, sometimes out of the Bible. In conjunction with that exhibition, McSweeney's published a catalog featuring 25 loose-leaf prints of the work featured in the show. In 2015 Eggers had his first solo museum exhibition at the Nevada Museum of Art called "The Insufferable Throne of God". Eggers is represented by Electric Works a fine art gallery in San Francisco.


title: Dave Eggers

text: In 2002, Eggers and educator Nínive Clements Calegari co-founded 826 Valencia, a nonprofit writing and tutoring center for kids ages 6–18 in San Francisco. It has since grown into six chapters across the United States: Los Angeles, New York City, Chicago, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Washington, D.C., and Boston, all under the auspices of the nonprofit organization 826 National.


title: Dave Eggers

text: In 2006, he appeared at a series of fund-raising events, dubbed the Revenge of the Book–Eaters tour, to support these programs. The Chicago show, at the Park West theatre, featured Death Cab for Cutie front man Ben Gibbard. Other performers on the tour included Sufjan Stevens, Jon Stewart, Davy Rothbart, and David Byrne. In September 2007, the Heinz Family Foundation awarded Eggers a $250,000 Heinz Award (given to recognize "extraordinary achievements by individuals") in the Arts and Humanities. In accordance with Eggers's wishes, the award money was given to 826 National and The Teacher Salary Project.


title: Dave Eggers

text: In April 2010, under the umbrella of 826 National, Eggers launched ScholarMatch, a nonprofit organization that connects donors with students to make college more affordable.


title: Dave Eggers

text: Eggers lives in the San Francisco Bay Area and is married to Vendela Vida, also a writer. The couple have two children. Vida and Eggers had met in 1998 in San Francisco at a wedding and started dating in 1999.


title: Dave Eggers

text: He was one of three 2008 TED Prize recipients. His TED Prize wish was for helping community members to personally engage with local public schools. The same year, he was named one of "50 Visionaries Who Are Changing the World" by "Utne Reader".


title: Dave Eggers

text: "The Haggis-on-Whey World of Unbelievable Brilliance" series (as "Dr. and Mr. Doris Haggis-On-Whey", with Christopher Eggers, picture books):


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a surgical specialty focusing on reconstructive surgery of the face, facial trauma surgery, the oral cavity, head and neck, mouth, and jaws, as well as facial cosmetic surgery/facial plastic surgery including cleft lip and cleft palate surgery.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: An oral and maxillofacial surgeon is a regional specialist surgeon who treats the entire craniomaxillofacial complex: anatomical area of the mouth, jaws, face, and skull, head and neck as well as associated structures. Depending upon the national jurisdiction, oral and maxillofacial surgery may require a degree in medicine, dentistry or both.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In the U.S., oral and maxillofacial surgeons, whether possessing a single or dual degree, may further specialize after residency, undergoing additional one or two year sub-specialty oral and maxillofacial surgery fellowship training in the following areas:


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In countries such as the UK and most of Europe, it is recognised as a specialty of medicine with a degree in medicine and an additional degree in dentistry being compulsory. The scope of practice is mainly head and neck cancer, microvascular reconstruction, craniofacial surgery and cranio-maxillofacial trauma, skin cancer, facial deformity, cleft lip and palate, craniofacial surgery, TMJ surgery and cosmetic facial surgery.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In the UK, Maxillofacial surgery is a specialty of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. Intercollegiate Board Certification is provided through the JCIE, and is the same as Plastic Surgery, ENT, General Surgery, Orthopaedics, Paediatric Surgery, Neurosurgery and Cardiothoracic Surgery.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: The FRCS (Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons) is the specialist exam at the end of surgical training, and is required to work as a Consultant Surgeon in Maxillofacial Surgery.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In Canada, Asia, and Scandinavia (Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Norway) oral and maxillofacial surgery is also recognized as a dental specialty and requires a degree in dentistry prior to surgical residency training. The Canadian model is the same as the model used in the United States of America.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In countries such as India, oral and maxillofacial surgery, popularly known as OMFS is a branch recognized by DCI (Dental Council of India). An initial degree of dentistry for 5 years followed by an additional three years of specialisation post-graduation is mandatory to become a maxillofacial surgeon in India. The scope of oral and maxillofacial Surgery in India includes practice of head and neck cancer, facial cosmetic surgery, microvascular surgery, cranio-maxillofacial trauma and cleft and cranio-maxillofacial surgery.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In Australia and New Zealand Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery is recognised as both a specialty of medicine and dentistry. Degrees in both medicine and dentistry are compulsory prior to being accepted for surgical training. The scope of practice is broad and there is the ability to undertake subspecialty fellowships in areas such as head and neck surgery and microvascular reconstruction.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In other countries, oral and maxillofacial surgery as a specialty exists but under different forms, as the work is sometimes performed by a single or dual qualified specialist depending on each country's regulations and training opportunities available. In several countries oral and maxillofacial surgery is a specialty recognized by a professional association, as is the case with the Dental Council of India, American Dental Association, Royal College of Surgeons of England, Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, Royal College of Dentists of Canada, Royal Australasian College of Surgeons and Brazilian Federal Council of Odontology (CFO).


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Oral and Maxillofacial surgery is an internationally recognized surgical specialty. Oral and maxillofacial surgery is formally designated as either a medical, dental or dual (medical and dental) specialty.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In the United States, oral and maxillofacial surgery is a recognized surgical specialty, formally designated as a dental specialty. A professional dental degree is required, a qualification in medicine may be undertaken optionally during residency training. In this respect, oral and maxillofacial surgery is "sui generis" among surgical specialties. Oral and maxillofacial surgery requires an extensive 4-6 year surgical residency training covering the U.S. specialty's scope of practice: surgery of the oral cavity, dental implant surgery, dentoalveolar surgery, surgery of the temporomandibular joint, general surgery, reconstructive surgery of the face, head and neck, mouth, and jaws, facial cosmetic surgery, facial deformity, craniofacial surgery, facial skin cancer, head and neck cancer, microsurgery free flap reconstruction, facial trauma, facial trauma surgery and, uniquely, the administration of general anesthesia and deep sedation. As is the norm among surgical specialists, oral and maxillofacial surgery residents typically serve as Chief Resident in their final year.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Following residency training, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, whether single or dual degree, have the option of undergoing 1-2 year surgical sub-specialty fellowship for further training in head and neck cancer, microvascular reconstruction, cosmetic facial surgery, craniofacial surgery and cranio-maxillofacial trauma.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Board certification in the U.S. is governed by the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (ABOMS). Oral and maxillofacial surgery is among the fourteen surgical specialties recognized by the American College of Surgeons. Oral and maxillofacial surgeons in the United States, whether single or dual degree, may become Fellows of the American College of Surgeons, "FACS" (Fellow, American College of Surgeons).


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: The American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons (AAOMS) is the chief professional organization representing the roughly 9,000 oral and maxillofacial surgeons in the United States. The American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons publishes the peer reviewed Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: The American College of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons (ACOMS) is a voluntary professional organization of oral and maxillofacial surgeons, including residents. The mission of ACOMS is to enhance surgical excellence through life-long education and to promote fellowship amongst oral and maxillofacial surgeons.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In the U.S., oral and maxillofacial surgeons are required to undergo five months of intensive general anesthesia training. An additional month of pediatric anesthesia training is also required. The American Society of Anesthesiologists published a "Statement on the Anesthesia Care Team" which specifies qualified anesthesia personnel and practitioners as anesthesiologists, anesthesiology fellows, anesthesiology residents, and oral and maxillofacial surgery residents.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Unique among surgical specialists in the U.S., oral and maxillofacial surgeons are trained to administer general anesthesia and deep sedation are licensed to do so in both hospital and office settings.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In the specialty's infancy, dental and oral surgeons were plenary in the introduction of anesthesia to modern medicine and the development of modern surgery. In 1844, at Harvard Medical School's Massachusetts General Hospital, dentist, Dr. Horace Wells was the first to use anesthesia, but with limited success. On 16 October 1846, Boston oral surgeon, Dr. William Thomas Green Morton gave a successful demonstration using diethyl ether to Harvard medical students at the same venue. In one of the most important and well documented events in American medical history, Morton was invited to Massachusetts General Hospital to demonstrate his technique for painless surgery. After Morton had induced anesthesia, Dr. John Collins Warren, a founding member of Massachusetts General Hospital, the hospital's first surgeon, and the first Dean of Harvard Medical School, removed a tumor from the neck of patient, Edward Gilbert Abbott. The demonstration was performed in the surgical amphitheater now called the Ether Dome at Harvard. Massachusetts General Hospital views the demonstration as among the institution's most significant claims to fame. Upon the successful completion of Dr. Morton's demonstration, Dr. Warren famously proclaimed to the crowded, astonished and elated amphitheater, what would become likely the most famous words in modern medicine, "Gentlemen, this is no humbug." Indeed, the event marked the beginning of modern anesthesia and surgical practice.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Immediately following the demonstration, in a congratulatory letter to Dr. William Thomas Green Morton, polymath and later Harvard Medical School Dean, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., father of Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. of the Supreme Court of the United States, proposed naming the state produced "anesthesia", and the procedure an "anesthetic." Holmes wrote to Morton, "Everybody wants to have a hand in a great discovery. All I will do is to give a hint or two as to names—or the name—to be applied to the state produced and the agent. The state should, I think, be called 'Anaesthesia.' This signifies insensibility—more particularly ... to objects of touch." Holmes added poetically that the new term "will be repeated by the "tongues" of every civilized [member] of mankind."


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Dr. Ferdinand Hasbrouck, a New York oral surgeon and an 1870 graduate of the University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine was among the first practitioners to succeed in the regular and commercial use of anesthesia in private surgical practice. In 1893, U.S. President Grover Cleveland was diagnosed with an intraoral tumor. The President chose Dr. Hasbrouck to serve among his team of surgeons and simultaneously as "the" anesthesiologist for the procedure. For political reasons, Cleveland did not want the public to know about his condition. The operation was performed in secret on the yacht "Oneida" in the Long Island Sound, NY. Dr. Hasbrouck, induced President Cleveland with nitrous oxide and extracted teeth from the corpus of the tumor. As Cleveland recovered from nitrous oxide, Dr. Hasbrouck began the administration of ether for the remainder of the procedure as he and the team performed the tumor surgery. The procedure was a milestone for the practice of anesthesia. Ferdinand Hasbrouck's son, James F. Hasbrouck, discussed below, was among the founders of the Columbia University College of Dental and Oral Surgeons in 1916.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In 1945, oral and maxillofacial surgeon, Dr. Niels Jorgensen was first to develop intravenous moderate sedation. His technique, administering pentobarbital, meperidine and scopolamine intravenously, was widely accepted and first taught at Loma Linda University School of Medicine, beginning in 1945.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In the United States, a close educational and professional relationship between oral and maxillofacial surgery and anesthesiology persists to the present day.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Oral and maxillofacial surgery stands as a pillar of the modern practice of plastic surgery and plastic surgery's recognition in 1941 as a surgical specialty in the United States. In the early 1900s, plastic surgery was founded by a professional organization of oral surgeons with elite training and an interest in plastic and reconstructive surgery, the American Association of Oral and Plastic Surgery. Over time, the exclusive organization began to elect a small number of non-oral surgeon members, the first of which was legendary general surgeon Dr. Vilray Blair of Washington University in St. Louis. The organization became the American Association of Plastic Surgeons in 1921. At Harvard University, oral and maxillofacial surgeon, Dr. Varaztad Kazanjian pioneered plastic surgery and is considered to be a founder, if not, "the" founder of the modern practice of plastic surgery. He graduated from Harvard School of Dental Medicine in 1905. Dr. Kazanjian was Professor of Clinical Oral Surgery at Harvard from 1922 to 1941 when he was named Harvard's first Professor of Plastic Surgery. Dr. Kazanjian was instrumental in plastic surgery's formal recognition as an independent surgical specialty in 1941. Dr. Kazanjian joined the First Harvard Unit, serving with the British Forces in WWI, establishing the first dental and maxillofacial clinic in France, handling more than 3,000 cases of severe wounds to the face and jaws. He was honored for his surgical advances by British monarch George V, who invested him Companion to the Order of St Michael and St George. Kazanjian served as an early president of American Association of Plastic Surgeons.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Another founder and god-father of plastic surgery was University of Pennsylvania oral surgeon, Dr. Robert H. Ivy, an 1898 University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine graduate, developed the surgical treatment of cleft lip and cleft palate. The inter-maxillary fixation technique, the "Ivy Loop" is named after him. Ivy is considered a pioneer and father of the modern practice of plastic surgery. Ivy was influenced by Dr. Vilray Blair of Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine. Ivy founded the "Journal of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery", plastic surgery's premier peer reviewed academic journal and the American Association of Oral and Plastic Surgeons and served as its president. In 1919, New York City oral and maxillofacial surgeon, Dr. Armin Wald, an 1896 graduate of New York University College of Dentistry, was among the first in the United States to successfully demonstrate and publish a procedure for alveolectomy and alveoloplasty, the surgical resection and smoothing of the ridge of the mandible and maxilla for cosmetic and prosthetic purposes. Once mastered, the innovative procedure was remarkably simple; to the present, the procedure is commonplace among oral, plastic and ENT surgeons performing alveolar ridge reconstruction and bone grafting. Wald was influenced by his father, Henry Wald, M.D., an 1872 University of Vienna Faculty of Medicine graduate and preceptor in surgery at Columbia College School of Medicine; their nephew, Charles A. Reich, became a law professor at Yale. Wald's partner, New York University oral and maxillofacial surgeon, Dr. James F. Hasbrouck, interested in the development of the surgical specialty in New York, was among the founders of the Columbia University College of Dental and Oral Surgery in 1916. In keeping with the ideals of the American Association of Oral and Plastic Surgeons, the first two years of coursework at the new college were fully unified with Columbia's College of Physicians and Surgeons, of which Hasbrouck was an 1894 graduate. Students devoted their entire second two years to specialization in surgery at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital, which provided extraordinary preparation for the possibility of post-graduate residency training in oral surgery. Hasbrouck was notable in the specialty for having received both a dental and medical degree prior to 1895. His father, oral surgeon, Ferdinand Hasbrouck, discussed above, was a pioneer in anesthesiology. Hasbrouck's and Wald's sons, Theodore F. Hasbrouck and Arthur H. Wald both graduated from Columbia's College of Dental and Oral Surgery in 1937. Arthur Wald made further advances in grafting in oral, plastic and reconstructive surgery with the early use of fibrin foam and thrombin in the resection of large and rare mandibular tumors. He served in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II and owned a cosmetic practice in midtown Manhattan. Globally, the role of oral and maxillofacial surgery was also profound in the founding of plastic surgery: outside the United States, fathers of plastic surgery include London based otolaryngologist Sir Harold Gillies and his French mentor, the renowned oral and maxillofacial surgeon, Dr. Hippolyte Morestin.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Oral and maxillofacial surgery's stature and clout in university hospitals can be traced to its plenary role in the development of modern medicine and surgery.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: While a professional dental degree, "i.e.", D.D.S. or D.M.D. is mandatory in the U.S., oral and maxillofacial surgeons may possess various doctoral degree combinations, "e.g.", D.D.S., D.M.D., D.D.S./M.D., D.M.D./M.D., D.M.D./Ph.D. or D.D.S./Ph.D. Still, it is the completion of an oral and maxillofacial residency training program and corresponding certificate of specialty training that confers surgical specialty status and board eligibility, not the surgeon's professional degree or degree combination. Analogously, it is a certificate of specialty training and board eligibility that satisfies state licensure requirements to administer general anesthesia and deep sedation, not the surgeon's professional degree or degree combination.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: D.D.S. (Doctor of Dental Surgery) and D.M.D. (Doctor of Medicine in Dentistry or Doctor of Dental Medicine) are the same degrees. D.M.D. and D.D.S. represent the same education. The letters used are a function of university discretion, both degrees represent an identical curriculum, set of educational requirements and level of educational attainment.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In the United States and globally, treatments may be performed on the craniomaxillofacial complex: mouth, jaws, face, neck, and skull, and include:


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Oral and maxillofacial surgery is intellectually and physically demanding and is among the most highly compensated surgical specialties in the United States with a 2008 average annual income of $568,968.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: The popularity of oral and maxillofacial surgery as a career for persons whose first degree was medicine, not dentistry, seems to be increasing. At least one program exists that allows highly qualified candidates whose first degree is in medicine, to earn the required dental degree, so as to qualify for entrance into oral and maxillofacial residency training programs and ultimately achieve board eligibility and certification in the surgical specialty.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In the UK, Oral and maxillofacial surgery is one of the ten medical specialties, requiring MRCS and FRCS examinations.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In mainland Europe, its status, including whether or not oral surgery, maxillofacial surgery and stomatology are considered separate specialties, varies by country. The required qualifications (medical degree, dental degree, or both, as well as the required internship and residency programs) also vary.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In the US, Australia and South Africa, Oral and maxillofacial surgery is one of the ten dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association, Royal College of Dentists of Canada, and the Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons. Oral and maxillofacial surgery requires four to six years of further formal university training after dental school ("i.e.", DDS, BDent, DMD or BDS).


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: Residency training programs are either four or six years in duration. In the United States, four-year residency programs grant a certificate of specialty training in oral and maxillofacial surgery. Six year programs granting an optional MD degree emerged in the early 1990s in the United States. Typically, Six-year residency programs grant the specialty certificate and an additional degree such as a medical degree (e.g., MD, MBBS, MBChB) or research degree (e.g., MS, MSc, MPhil, MDS, MSD, MDSc, DClinDent, DSc, DMSc, PhD). Both four– and six–year graduates are designated US "Board Eligible" and those who earn "Board Certification" are Diplomats. Approximately 50% of the training programs in the US and 66% of Canadian training programs are "dual-degree." The typical total length of education and training, post-secondary school is 12 to 14 years. Beyond these years, some sub-specialize, adding an additional 1-2 year fellowship.


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: In addition, single and dual qualified graduates of oral and maxillofacial surgery training programs can pursue post-residency sub-specialty fellowships, typically 1–2 years in length, in the following areas:


title: Oral and maxillofacial surgery

text: A number of notable philanthropic organizations provide humanitarian oral and maxillofacial surgery around the globe. Smile Train was created in 1998 by Charles Wang focusing on childhood facial deformity. Operation Smile focuses on correcting cleft lips and palates in children. AboutFace, created by Paul Stanley, of the rock band KISS, who was born with a facial deformity, focuses on craniofacial disfiguration.


title: Lexus NX

text: The is a compact luxury crossover SUV sold by Lexus, a luxury division of Toyota. Introduced in late 2014, it is positioned between the subcompact UX and the mid-size RX. The NX was proven to be well-received, as it was a sales success. It was the best-selling Lexus model in Europe, and the best-selling luxury car in Russia.


title: Lexus NX

text: The first-generation NX was revealed at the Beijing International Automotive Exhibition on 20 April 2014. The NX shares a small portion of parts with the Toyota RAV4 primarily related to the structure and wheelbase, while the styling, suspension parts, some engines, interior, and level of luxury and craftsmanship are unique to the Lexus. The NX variants sold in the United States feature slightly altered fascias, which facilitate higher departure angles, allowing it to be identified by the US EPA as a "light truck". US sales began in November 2014. Production commenced on 8 August 2014 at Toyota Motor Kyushu's Miyata plant.


title: Lexus NX

text: The first-generation NX is available in three powertrains; which are designated NX 200t/300, NX 300h, and NX 200.


title: Lexus NX

text: The NX 200t/300 is powered by a 2.0-liter "8AR-FTS" turbocharged four-cylinder direct injection engine that can run on both Otto and Atkinson cycles. This engine has Lexus’ Economy with Superior Thermal Efficient Combustion (ESTEC) direct injection 4-stroke with turbo (D-4ST) fuel injection. With separate twin injectors for both direct and port injection, ESTEC D-4ST could perform high-pressure direct injection into the cylinder and conventional intake port injection, or direct cylinder injection only, according to engine speed. Mated to a 6-speed automatic transmission, this engine produces at 4,800–5,600 rpm and at 1,650–4,000 rpm.


title: Lexus NX

text: The NX 300h is powered by a 2.5-liter "2AR-FXE" engine mated to an electric motor and CVT that puts out a combined power output of .


title: Lexus NX

text: In addition, the NX 200 with a 2.0-liter "3ZR-FAE" naturally-aspirated four-cylinder engine producing is available in the Russian market.


title: Lexus NX

text: The second-generation NX was revealed on 11 June 2021, which is built on the GA-K platform. Six trims were introduced, consisting of three gasoline trims and three hybrid trims – the NX 200, NX 250 (NX 260 in China), NX 350, NX 350h, NX 400h+, and NX 450h+. Most of the powertrains are shared with the XA50 series Toyota RAV4. The 2.4-liter "T24A-FTS" turbocharged four-cylinder engine was introduced for the NX 350, producing and of torque. The NX 450h+ was also introduced as the first plug-in hybrid vehicle in Lexus' lineup and shares the same powertrain as the RAV4 PHV.


title: Lexus NX

text: In its first full year of sales the NX sold over 43,000 units in the US. It was also successful in Europe where it sold over 28,000 in its first full year of sales, of which more than 17,000 were hybrids. This made it Lexus's best selling model in Europe. Its success was also strong in Russia, where in its first full year of sales it was the best selling luxury vehicle.


title: Biathlon

text: The biathlon is a winter sport that combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting. It is treated as a race, with contestants skiing through a cross-country trail whose distance is divided into shooting rounds. The shooting rounds are not timed per se, but depending on the competition, missed shots result in extra distance or time being added to the contestant's total.


title: Biathlon

text: According to "Encyclopædia Britannica", the biathlon "is rooted in the skiing traditions of Scandinavia, where early inhabitants revered the Norse god Ullr as both the ski god and the hunting god." In modern times, the activity that developed into this sport was an exercise for Norwegians as alternative training for the military. Norwegian skiing regiments organized military skiing contests in the 18th century, divided into four classes: shooting at mark while skiing at top speed, downhill race among trees, downhill race on big hills without falling, and a long race on flat ground while carrying a rifle and military pack. In modern terminology, these military contests included downhill, slalom, biathlon, and cross-country skiing. One of the world's first known ski clubs, "Trysil Skytte- og Skiløberforening" (the Trysil Rifle and Ski Club), was formed in Norway in 1861 to promote national defense at the local level. 20th century variants include (the military contest), a 17 km cross-country race with shooting, and the military cross-country race at 30 km including marksmanship.


title: Biathlon

text: The modern biathlon is a civilian variant of the old military combined exercise. In Norway, the biathlon was until 1984 a branch of , an organization set up by the government to promote civilian marksmanship in support of national defence. In Norwegian, the biathlon is called (literally "ski shooting"). In Norway, there are still separate contests in , a cross-country race at 12 km with large-caliber rifle shooting at various targets with unknown range.


title: Biathlon

text: Called military patrol, the combination of skiing and shooting was contested at the Winter Olympic Games in 1924 and then demonstrated in 1928, 1936, and 1948, during which time Norway and Finland were strong competitors. In 1948, the sport was reorganized under the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne et Biathlon and became re-accepted as an Olympic sport in 1955, with widespread popularity within the Soviet and Swedish winter sport circuits.


title: Biathlon

text: The first Biathlon World Championship was held in 1958 in Austria, and in 1960 the sport was finally included in the Olympic Games. At Albertville in 1992, women were first allowed in the Olympic biathlon. The pursuit format was added for the 2002 Salt Lake City Winter Olympics, and the IBU added mixed relay as a format for the 2006 Olympics.


title: Biathlon

text: The competitions from 1958 to 1965 used high-power centrefire cartridges, such as the .30-06 Springfield and the 7.62×51mm NATO, before the .22 Long Rifle rimfire cartridge was standardized in 1978. The ammunition was carried in a belt worn around the competitor's waist. The sole event was the men's 20 km individual, encompassing four separate ranges and firing distances of 100 m, 150 m, 200 m, and 250 m. The target distance was reduced to 150 m with the addition of the relay in 1966. The shooting range was further reduced to 50 m in 1978 with the mechanical self-indicating targets making their debut at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid. For the 2018–2019 season, fully electronic targets were approved as an alternative to paper or mechanical steel targets for IBU events.


title: Biathlon

text: In 1948, the International Modern Pentathlon Union (UIPM) was founded to standardize the rules for the modern pentathlon and from 1953 also biathlon. In July 1993, the biathlon branch of the UIPMB created the International Biathlon Union (IBU), which officially separated from the UIPMB in 1998.


title: Biathlon

text: The following articles list major international biathlon events and medalists. Contrary to the Olympics and World Championships (BWCH), the World Cup (BWC) is an entire winter season of (mostly) weekly races, where the medalists are those with the highest sums of World Cup points at the end of the season.


title: Biathlon

text: A biathlon competition consists of a race in which contestants ski through a cross-country trail system whose total distance is divided into either two or four shooting rounds, half in the prone position, the other half standing. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total skiing distance/time. The contestant with the shortest total time wins.


title: Biathlon

text: For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets or receive a penalty for each missed target, which varies according to the competition rules as follows:


title: Biathlon

text: In order to keep track of the contestants' progress and relative standing throughout a race, split times (intermediate times) are taken at several points along the skiing track and upon finishing each shooting round. The large display screens commonly set up at biathlon arenas, as well as the information graphics shown as part of the TV picture, will typically list the split time of the fastest contestant at each intermediate point and the times and time differences to the closest runners-up.


title: Biathlon

text: In the Olympics, all cross-country skiing techniques are permitted in the biathlon, allowing the use of skate skiing, which is overwhelmingly the choice of competitors. The minimum ski length is the height of the skier minus 4 cm. The rifle has to be carried by the skier during the race at all times.


title: Biathlon

text: The biathlete carries a small-bore rifle, which must weigh at least , excluding ammunition and magazines. The rifles use .22 LR ammunition and are bolt action or Fortner (straight-pull bolt) action. Each rifle holds 4 magazines with 5 rounds each. Additional rounds can be kept on the stock of the rifle for a relay race.


title: Biathlon

text: The target range shooting distance is . There are five circular shooting targets to be hit in each shooting round. When shooting in the prone position, the target diameter is ; when shooting in the standing position, the target diameter is . This translates to angular target sizes of 0.9 and 2.3 mrad respectively. On all modern biathlon ranges, the targets are self-indicating, in that they flip from black to white when hit, giving the biathlete, as well as the spectators, instant visual feedback for each shot fired.


title: Biathlon

text: Ear protection is not required during biathlon shooting as the ammunition used is usually subsonic. An eyecup (blinder) is an optional feature of biathlon rifles.


title: Biathlon

text: The individual race [ for women] is the oldest biathlon event; the distance is skied over five laps. The biathlete shoots four times at any shooting lane (lanes 1–15 are in prone, while lanes 16–30 are for standing), in the order of prone, standing, prone, standing, totaling 20 targets. For each missed target, a fixed penalty time, usually one minute, is added to the skiing time of the biathlete. Competitors' starts are staggered, normally by 30 seconds.


title: Biathlon

text: A variation of the standard individual race, called short individual, was introduced during the 2018–19 Biathlon IBU Cup. The races are 15 km for men and 12.5 km for women, and for each missed target, 45 seconds will be added to the skiing time.


title: Biathlon

text: The sprint is for men & for women; the distance is skied over three laps. The biathlete shoots twice at any shooting lane, once prone (usually lanes 1–15) and once standing (lanes 16–30), for a total of 10 shots. For each miss, a penalty loop of 150 m must be skied before continuing the race. As in the individual competition, the biathletes start in intervals.


title: Biathlon

text: Introduced at the 2017–18 Biathlon IBU Cup, the Super Sprint is a shorter version of the sprint race. Unlike the traditional sprint race, the Super Sprint is divided into two segments – qualification and final. The qualification is done like the traditional sprint, but on a 1.5 km lap with a total length of 4.5 km. Only the top 30 competitors qualify for the final, in which all competitors start simultaneously and do five laps on the same course (like in mass start) with a total race length of 4 km. During the final, the competitors have three spare rounds should they miss a target (like in relay race). However, if not all targets are cleared during shooting instead of going on the penalty loop, the biathlete is disqualified from the race.


title: Biathlon

text: Changes were made for the following season with the course now being 1 km (0.2 km increase) meaning that the qualification race length will become 3 km, while the final race becomes 5 km in length. Also the number of spare rounds was decreased from three to one.


title: Biathlon

text: In a pursuit, biathletes' starts are separated by their time differences from a previous race, most commonly a sprint. The contestant crossing the finish line first is the winner. The distance is 12.5 km for men and 10 km for women, skied over five laps; there are four shooting bouts (two prone, two standing, in that order) and each miss means a penalty loop of 150 m. To prevent awkward or dangerous crowding of the skiing loops and overcapacity at the shooting range, World Cup Pursuits are held with only the 60 top-ranking biathletes after the preceding race. The biathletes shoot on a first-come, first-served basis at the lane corresponding to the position they arrived for all shooting bouts. If the pursuit follows an individual biathlon race, the lag behind the winner is halved.


title: Biathlon

text: In the mass start, all biathletes start at the same time, and the first across the finish line wins. In this 15 km for men or 12.5 km for women competition, the distance is skied over five laps; there are four bouts of shooting (two prone, two standing, in that order), with the first shooting bout being at the lane corresponding to the competitor's bib number (bib #10 shoots at lane #10 regardless of position in race), with the rest of the shooting bouts being on a first-come, first-served basis (if a competitor arrives at the lane in fifth place, they shoot at lane 5). As in sprint and pursuit, competitors must ski one 150 m penalty loop for each miss. Here again, to avoid unwanted congestion, World Cup Mass starts are held with only the 30 top ranking athletes on the start line (half that of the Pursuit as here all contestants start simultaneously).


title: Biathlon

text: Starting in the 2018/2019 season, the Mass Start 60 became part of the International Biathlon Union (IBU) competition formats. The Mass Start with 60 starters does not replace the current Mass Start with 30 starters.


title: Biathlon

text: Everyone skis the first lap together, but only the first 30 stop to shoot, and the second 30 keep skiing. At the end of the second lap, the second 30 stop to shoot, and the first 30 continue to ski. After the first two shoots are over (everyone's first prone), the race continues like a typical race, and all competitors shoot remaining prone, and two stands together. Or more simply:


title: Biathlon

text: The relay teams consist of four biathletes, who each ski 7.5 km (men) or 6 km (women), each leg skied over three laps, with two shooting rounds; one prone, one standing. For every round of five targets, there are eight bullets available. However, the last three can only be single-loaded manually one at a time from spare round holders or bullets deposited by the competitor into trays or onto the mat at the firing line. If there are still standing targets after eight bullets, one 150 m (490 ft) penalty loop must be taken for each missed target remaining. The first-leg participants all start simultaneously, and as in cross-country skiing relays, every athlete of a team must touch the team's next-leg participant to perform a valid changeover. On the first shooting stage of the first leg, the participant must shoot in the lane corresponding to their bib number (bib #10 shoots at lane #10 regardless of their position in the race), then for the remainder of the relay, the relay team shoots on a first-come, first-served basis (arrive at the range in fifth place, shoot at lane 5).


title: Biathlon

text: The mixed relay is similar to the ordinary relay, but the teams are composed of two women and two men. From its first instance at the world championships in 2005 until the end of the 2017 season, the first two legs were always run by the women, followed by the men on legs 3 and 4. Since the 2018 season however, the race can be started by either the men or women . Additionally, throughout most the event's history, the women's legs have been and the men's legs as in ordinary relay competitions. However, since the 2019 season the event has all four legs being either or .


title: Biathlon

text: In 2015, the single mixed relay was introduced to the Biathlon World Cup by the IBU. The event is run on a track with a penalty loop, and each team consists of a female and a male runner. The race is divided into four legs, with the first three being or 2 laps and the final leg being or 3 laps, totalling . After each leg, the runners exchange so that each runner completes two legs. Specific to this format, the exchange happens immediately after the last shooting of each leg without skiing an additional lap (as is usually the case). The race can be started by either the female or male member of the relay, with the finishing member performing an extra lap. This event was added to the world championships in 2019.


title: Biathlon

text: A team consists of four biathletes, but unlike the relay competition, all team members start at the same time. Two athletes must shoot in the prone shooting round, the other two in the standing round. In case of a miss, the two non-shooting biathletes must ski a penalty loop of 150 m (490 ft). The skiers must enter the shooting area together and must also finish within 15 seconds of each other; otherwise, a time penalty of one minute is added to the total time. Since 2004, this race format has been obsolete at the World Cup level.


title: Biathlon

text: Biathlon events are broadcast most regularly where the sport enjoys its greatest popularity, namely Germany (ARD, ZDF), Austria (ORF), Norway (NRK), France (L'Équipe 21), Finland (YLE), Estonia (ETV), Latvia (LTV), Lithuania (LRT), Croatia (HRT), Poland (Polsat), Ukraine (), Sweden (SVT), Russia (Match TV, Channel One), Belarus (TVR), Slovenia (RTV), Bosnia and Herzegovina (BHRT), Bulgaria (BNT), and South Korea (KBS); it is broadcast on European-wide Eurosport, which also broadcasts to the Asia-Pacific region. World Cup races are streamed via the IBU website.


title: Biathlon

text: The broadcast distribution being one indicator, the constellation of a sport's main sponsors usually gives a similar, and correlated, indication of popularity: for biathlon, these are the Germany-based companies BMW (cars), Erdinger (beer), Viessmann (boilers and other heating systems) and DKB (banking).


title: Biathlon

text: The IBU maintains biathlon records, rules, news, videos, and statistics for many years back, all of which are available at its web site.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: To run the gauntlet means to take part in a form of corporal punishment in which the party judged guilty is forced to run between two rows of soldiers, who strike out and attack them with sticks or other weapons.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: Metaphorically, this expression is also used to express the idea of a public trial that one must overcome.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: The word originates from , from 'lane' and 'course, running'. It was borrowed into English in the 17th century, probably from English and Swedish soldiers fighting in the Protestant armies during the Thirty Years' War. The punishment itself was rarely used in the Swedish Army during the reign of the monarch Gustav III in the 1770s and was abolished in the Swedish Army in 1851 The word in English was originally spelled "gantelope" or "gantlope", but soon its pronunciation was influenced by the unrelated word "gauntlet", meaning an armored glove, derived from the . The spelling changed with the pronunciation. Both senses of "gauntlet" had the variant spelling "gantlet". For the punishment, the spelling "gantlet" is preferred in American English usage guides by Bryan Garner and Robert Hartwell Fiske and is listed as a variant spelling of "gauntlet" by American dictionaries"." British dictionaries label "gantlet" as American.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: A similar practice involving cudgeling (clubbing) was used in the Ancient Greek and Roman militaries as a form of execution or severe military punishment. It was known as in Ancient Greece and Fustuarium (a Latin abstraction from the Latin , a branch or rod) in the Roman military.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In the Roman army, it could also be applied to every tenth man of a whole unit as a mode of decimation.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: A very similar military punishment found in later armies was known as "running the gauntlet". The condemned soldier was stripped to the waist and had to pass between a double row (hence also known as , 'the alley') of cudgeling or switching comrades. A subaltern walked in front of him with a blade to prevent him from running. The condemned might sometimes also be dragged through by a rope around the hands or prodded along by a pursuer.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: Various rules might apply, such as banning edged weapons, requiring the group to keep one foot in place, or allowing the soldier to attempt to protect his head with his hands. The punishment was not necessarily continued until death. If so, he might be finished off when unable to walk or if he managed to reach the end of rows. Running the gauntlet was considered far less of a dishonor than a beating (with exposure to ridicule) on the pillory or stocks, since one could "take it like a man" upright and among soldiers.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In some traditions, if the condemned was able to finish the run and exit the gauntlet at the far end, his faults would be deemed paid, and he would rejoin his comrades with a clean slate. Elsewhere, he was sent back through the gauntlet until death.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: A naval version of the gauntlet was historically used in the Royal Navy as a punishment for minor offences such as leaving the crew berths in an unsanitary state, or failing to return on time from leave. The condemned was ordered to make a prescribed number of circuits around the ship's deck, while his shipmates struck him with improvised versions of the cat o' nine tails. Runs of the gauntlet could also be preceded by a dozen lashes from the boatswain's cat o' nine tails, so that any subsequent blows from the crew would aggravate the lacerations on his back. The effectiveness of the punishment would somewhat depend on the popularity of the sailor being punished, and the seriousness of the offence. In 1760 Francis Lanyon, a seaman aboard the guardship , was sentenced to three runs of the gauntlet, for failing to return from leave. The crew clearly disagreed with the punishment, as the ship's lieutenant later recorded that Lanyon received no substantive injury from the process. The naval punishment of running the gauntlet was abolished by Admiralty Order in 1806.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In the early records of the Dutch colonial settlement of New Amsterdam appears a detailed description of running the "Gantlope/Gantloppe" as a punishment for the "Court Martial of Melchior Claes" (a soldier). It states "... The Court Marshall doe adjudge that hee shall run the Gantlope once the length of the fort, where according to the Custome of that punishment the souldyers shall have switches delivered to them with which they shall strike him as he passes through them stript to the wast, and at the fort gate the Marshall is to receive him and there to kick him out of the Garrison as a cashiered person where hee is no more to returne ..."


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In Sweden, running the gauntlet was also a civilian punishment for certain crimes until the 18th century. The practice also persisted in parts of Germany (mainly Prussia) and Austria as the "", or "pike-run", and also in Russia, until the 19th century.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: A notable description of the process appears in Tolstoy's short story "After the Ball"; it is also depicted in Stanley Kubrick's film "Barry Lyndon". In Ernest Hemingway's "For Whom the Bell Tolls", the aristocrats of the town are subjected to a form of the gauntlet wherein they are led to and run off a cliff by villagers.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: An example of the Royal Navy's variation of the gauntlet can be seen in the "Hornblower" film "The Examination for Lieutenant", wherein Acting Lieutenant Hornblower and Matthews take the role of Master-at-Arms and Corporal and lead a sailor through the Gauntlet. The sailor in question was carefully guided through by swordpoint – one sword ahead of him (Hornblower's) to ensure that he did not rush through the Gauntlet, and one sword at his back (Matthews') to ensure he did not run away and was also moved through the Gauntlet. The film shows the lacerations caused by the knittles were effective, with blood running freely down the condemned man's back by the time a halt to the process was called for by Captain Sir Edward Pellew.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In "Outlander" season four, Ian Murray and Roger Wakefield both run the gauntlet for the Mohawk to determine if they are adopted into the tribe, or must remain prisoners.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: The ABBA song "Head over Heels" features the phrase in its metaphorical sense: "Running the gauntlet in a whirl of lace".


title: Running the gauntlet

text: "The Gauntlet" is a 1977 American action thriller film directed by Clint Eastwood, who plays a down-and-out cop who falls in love with a prostitute whom he is assigned to escort from Las Vegas to Phoenix in order for her to testify against the mob. The climax of the film is a modern-day running of the gauntlet: Eastwood drives a partially-armored motorcoach through downtown Phoenix to City Hall, the streets and buildings lined with hundreds of police officers shooting at the motorcoach with pistols, semi-automatic rifles, and shotguns.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: A number of Native American tribes of the Eastern Woodlands culture area forced prisoners to run the gauntlet (see Captives in American Indian Wars). The Jesuit Isaac Jogues was subject to this treatment while a prisoner of the Iroquois in 1641. He described the ordeal in a letter that appears in the book "The Jesuit Martyrs of North America": "Before arriving (at the Iroquois Village) we met the young men of the country, in a line armed with sticks...", and he and his fellow Frenchmen were made to walk slowly past them "for the sake of giving time to anyone who struck us."


title: Running the gauntlet

text: Many years before he became a hero of the American Revolution at the Battle of Bennington, John Stark was captured by natives and forced to run a gauntlet. Knowing what was about to happen Stark stunned them by grabbing the weapon away from the first person about to strike him and proceeded to attack the warrior with it. The warriors and the chief were so surprised by this that they stopped the gauntlet and adopted him into their tribe. He was later ransomed along with Amos Eastman for $163 and returned home.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: The original meanings of the phrase notwithstanding, the expression "(to run) the gauntlet" has been applied to various less severe punishments or tests, often consisting of consecutive blows or tasks endured sequentially and delivered collectively, especially by colleagues such as roommates or fraternity brothers. As these do not usually cause serious injuries, only bearable pain, the rituals are sometimes eagerly anticipated by the initiate as a sign of acceptance into a more prestigious group. Because of this, Running the Gauntlet is considered a hazing ritual.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: The phrase "running the gauntlet" has also been used, informally, to express the idea of a public but painless, ritual humiliation such as the walk of shame or perp walk, or to indicate a series of difficult trials that one must overcome.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: During the days of the People's Republic of Poland, the Communist authorities forced political dissidents, criminals, protestors, and prisoners through a gauntlet-like process, which they called the (literally 'health path', but idiomatically used to mean early fitness trails).


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In "KOR, A History of the Worker's Defense Committee in Poland, 1976–1981", Jan Józef Lipski documents the experience of one such criminal during the June 1976 protests:


title: Running the gauntlet

text: Similar practices are used in other initiations and rites of passage, as on pollywogs (those passing the equator for the first time; includes a paddling version) or in aviation when a new pilot gets their first license. It has also been used to "tack on" a recently promoted enlisted person's rank insignia.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In one Tailhook Association convention for Navy and Marine Corps pilots, female participants were allegedly forced to run the gauntlet in a hotel hallway as male participants fondled them.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In certain team sports, such as lacrosse and ice hockey, the gauntlet is a common name for a type of drill whereby players are blocked or checked by the entire team in sequence.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, when a student is promoted to their next coloured belt, they are sometimes required to run between two rows of their fellow students, who strike them with their own belts.


title: Running the gauntlet

text: In University of Padua, where "goliardia" is still an important part of college life, graduation is often celebrated (among other things) by running the gauntlet as friends and colleagues slap and kick the (graduate or bachelor).


title: Atari Jaguar

text: The Atari Jaguar is a home video game console developed by Atari Corporation and released in North America in November 1993. Part of the fifth generation of video game consoles, it competed with the 16-bit Sega Genesis, the Super NES and the 32-bit 3DO Interactive Multiplayer that launched the same year. Powered by two custom 32-bit Tom and in addition to a Motorola 68000, Atari marketed it as the world's first 64-bit game system, emphasizing its 64-bit bus used by the blitter. The Jaguar launched with "Cybermorph" as the pack-in game, which received divisive reviews. The system's library ultimately comprised only 50 licensed games.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: Development of the Atari Jaguar started in the early 1990s by Flare Technology, which focused on the system after cancellation of the Atari Panther console. The multi-chip architecture, hardware bugs, and poor tools made writing games for the Jaguar difficult. Underwhelming sales further eroded the console's third-party support.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: Atari attempted to extend the lifespan of the system with the Atari Jaguar CD add-on, with an additional 13 games, and emphasizing the Jaguar's price of over less than its competitors. With the release of the Sega Saturn and Sony PlayStation in 1995, sales of the Jaguar continued to fall. It sold no more than 150,000 units before it was discontinued in 1996. The commercial failure of the Jaguar prompted Atari to leave the console market.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: After Hasbro Interactive acquired all Atari Corporation properties, the patents of the Jaguar were released into the public domain, with the console declared an open platform. Since its discontinuation, hobbyists have produced games for the system.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: The Jaguar was developed by the members of Flare Technology, a company formed by Martin Brennan and John Mathieson. The team had claimed that they could not only make a console superior to the Genesis or the Super NES, but they could also be cost-effective. Impressed by their work on the Konix Multisystem, Atari persuaded them to close Flare and form a new company called Flare II, with Atari providing the funding. Flare II initially set to work designing two consoles for Atari. One was a 32-bit architecture (codenamed Panther), and the other was a 64-bit system (codenamed Jaguar). Work on the Jaguar design progressed faster than expected, so Atari canceled the Panther project to focus on the more promising Jaguar.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: The Jaguar was unveiled in August 1993 at the Chicago Consumer Entertainment Show. To prepare for its launch, the Atari ST computer line was discontinued, and support for earlier systems such as the Atari 2600 and Atari 8-bit family, had already been dropped on January 1, 1992. All 20,000 Jaguar units shipped during its test launch in 1993 were sold.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: The Jaguar was launched on November 23, 1993, at a price of $249.99, under a $500 million manufacturing deal with IBM. The system was initially available only in the test markets of New York City and San Francisco, with the slogan "Do the Math", claiming superiority over competing 16-bit and 32-bit systems. During this test launch Atari sold all 20,000 units hoping it would rally support for the system. A nationwide release followed six months later, in early 1994. The Jaguar struggled to attain a substantial user base. Atari reported that it had shipped 17,000 units as part of the system's initial test market in 1993. By the end of 1994, it reported that it had sold approximately 100,000 units.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: "Computer Gaming World" wrote in January 1994 that the Jaguar was "a great machine in search of a developer/customer base", as Atari had to "overcome the stigma of its name (lack of marketing and customer support, as well as poor developer relations in the past)". Atari had "ventured late into third party software support" for the Jaguar while competing console 3DO's "18 month public relations blitz" would result in "an avalanche of software support", the magazine reported. The small size and poor quality of the Jaguar's game library became the most commonly cited reason for the Jaguar's tepid adoption, as early releases like "Trevor McFur in the Crescent Galaxy", "Raiden", and "" also received poor reviews, the latter two for failing to take full advantage of the Jaguar's hardware. Jaguar did eventually earn praise with games such as "Tempest 2000", "Doom", and "Wolfenstein 3D". The most successful title during the Jaguar's first year was "Alien vs. Predator". However, these occasional successes were seen as insufficient while the Jaguar's competitors were receiving a continual stream of critically acclaimed software; "GamePro" concluded their rave review of "Alien vs. Predator" by remarking "If Atari can turn out a dozen more games like AvP, Jaguar owners could truly rest easy and enjoy their purchase." "Next Generation" commented that "thus far, Atari has spectacularly failed to deliver on the software side, leaving many to question the actual quality and capability of the hardware. With only one or two exceptions – "Tempest 2000" is cited most frequently – there have just been no truly great games for the Jaguar up to now." They further noted that while Atari is well known by older gamers, the company had much less overall brand recognition than Sega, Sony, Nintendo, or even The 3DO Company. However, they argued that with its low price point, the Jaguar might still compete if Atari could improve the software situation.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: Atari tried to downplay competing consoles by proclaiming the Jaguar was the only "64-bit" system. This claim is questioned by some, because the Motorola 68000 CPU and the Tom and Jerry coprocessors execute 32-bit instruction sets. Atari's reasoning that the 32-bit Tom and Jerry chips work in tandem to add up to a 64-bit system was ridiculed in a mini-editorial by "Electronic Gaming Monthly", which commented that "If Sega did the math for the Sega Saturn the way Atari did the math for their 64-bit Jaguar system, the Sega Saturn would be a 112-bit monster of a machine." "Next Generation", while giving a mostly negative review of the Jaguar, maintained that it is a true 64-bit system, since the data path from the DRAM to the CPU and Tom and Jerry chips is 64 bits wide.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: In early 1995, Atari announced that they had dropped the price of the Jaguar to $149.99, in order to be more competitive. Atari ran infomercials with enthusiastic salesmen touting the game system. These aired for most of 1995, but did not sell the remaining stock of Jaguar systems.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: In a 1995 interview with "Next Generation", then-CEO Sam Tramiel declared that the Jaguar was as powerful, if not more powerful, than the newly launched Sega Saturn, and slightly weaker than the upcoming PlayStation. "Next Generation" received a deluge of letters in response to Tramiel's comments, particularly his threat to bring Sony to court for price dumping if the PlayStation entered the U.S. market at a retail price below $300. Many readers found this threat hollow and hypocritical, since Tramiel noted in the same interview that Atari was selling the Jaguar at a loss. The editor responded that price dumping does not have to do with a product being priced below cost, but its being priced much lower in one country than anotherwhich, as Tramiel said, is illegal. Tramiel and "Next Generation" agreed that the PlayStation's Japanese price converts to approximately $500. His remark that the small number of third party Jaguar games was good for Atari's profitability, angered Jaguar owners who were already frustrated at how few games were coming out for the system.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: In Atari's 1995 annual report, it noted: In addition, Atari had severely limited financial resources, and so could not create the level of marketing which has historically backed successful gaming consoles.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: By November 1995, mass layoffs and insider statements were fueling journalistic speculation that Atari had ceased both development and manufacturing for the Jaguar and was simply trying to sell off existing stock before exiting the video game industry. Although Atari continued to deny these theories going into 1996, core Jaguar developers such as High Voltage Software and Beyond Games stated that they were no longer receiving communications from Atari regarding future Jaguar projects.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: In its 10-K405 SEC Filing, filed April 12, 1996, Atari informed stockholders that its revenues had declined by more than half, from $38.7 million in 1994 to $14.6 million in 1995, then gave them the news on the truly dire nature of the Jaguar:


title: Atari Jaguar

text: The filing confirmed that Atari had abandoned the Jaguar in November 1995 and in the subsequent months were concerned chiefly with liquidating its inventory of Jaguar products. On April 8, 1996, Atari Corporation agreed to merge with JTS, Inc. in a reverse takeover, thus forming JTS Corporation. The merger was finalized on July 30.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: After the merger, the bulk of Jaguar inventory remained unsold and would be finally moved out to Tiger Software, a private liquidator, on December 23, 1996. On March 13, 1998, JTS sold the Atari name and all of the Atari properties to Hasbro Interactive.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: Design specs for the console allude to the GPU or DSP being capable of acting as a CPU, leaving the Motorola 68000 to read controller inputs. Atari's Leonard Tramiel also specifically suggested that the 68000 not be used by developers. In practice, however, many developers use the Motorola 68000 to drive gameplay logic due to the greater developer familiarity of the 68000 and the adequacy of the 68000 for certain types of games. Most critically, a flaw in the memory controller means that certain obscure conventions must be followed for the RISC chips to be able to execute code from RAM.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: Atari Games licensed the Atari Jaguar's chipset for use in its arcade games. The system, named COJAG (for "Coin-Op Jaguar"), replaced the 68000 with a 68020 or MIPS R3000-based CPU (depending on the board version), added more RAM, a full 64-bit wide ROM bus (Jaguar ROM bus being 32-bit), and optionally a hard drive (some games such as "Freeze" are ROM only). It runs the lightgun games "Area 51" and "Maximum Force", which were released by Atari as dedicated cabinets or as the "Area 51" and "Maximum Force" combo machine. Other games were developed but never released: "3 On 3 Basketball", "Fishin' Frenzy", "Freeze", and "Vicious Circle".


title: Atari Jaguar

text: Prior to the launch of the console in November 1993, Atari had announced a variety of peripherals to be released over the console's lifespan. This includes a CD-ROM-based console, a dial-up Internet link with support for online gaming, a virtual reality headset, and an MPEG-2 video card. However, due to the poor sales and eventual commercial failure of the Jaguar, most of the peripherals in development were canceled. The only peripherals and add-ons released by Atari for the Jaguar are a redesigned controller, an adapter for four players, a CD console add-on, and a link cable for local area network (LAN) gaming.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: The redesigned second controller, the ProController by Atari, added three more face buttons and two triggers. It was created in response to the criticism of the original controller, said to lack enough buttons for fighting games in particular. Sold independently, however, it was never bundled with the system. The Team Tap multitap adds 4-controller support, compatible only with the optionally bundled "White Men Can't Jump" and "NBA Jam Tournament Edition". Eight player gameplay with two Team Taps is possible but unsupported by those games. For LAN multiplayer support, the Jaglink Interface links two Jaguar consoles through a modular extension and a UTP phone cable. It is compatible with three games: "AirCars", "BattleSphere", and "Doom".


title: Atari Jaguar

text: In 1994 at the CES, Atari announced that it had partnered with Phylon, Inc. to create the Jaguar Voice/Data Communicator. The unit was delayed and an estimated 100 units were produced, but eventually in 1995 mass production was canceled. The Jaguar Voice Modem or JVM utilizes a 19.9 kbit/s dial up modem to answer incoming phone calls and store up to 18 phone numbers. Players directly dial each other for online play, only compatible with "Ultra Vortek" which initializes the modem by entering 911 on the key pad at startup.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: The Jaguar CD is a CD-ROM peripheral for games. It was released in September 1995, two years after the Jaguar's launch. Twelve CD games were released during its manufacturing lifetime, with more being made later by homebrew developers. Each Jaguar CD unit has a Virtual Light Machine, which displays light patterns corresponding to music, if the user inserts an audio CD into the console. It was developed by Jeff Minter, after experimenting with graphics during the development of "Tempest 2000". The program was deemed a spiritual successor to the Atari Video Music, a visualizer released in 1976.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: The Memory Track is a cartridge accessory for the Jaguar CD, providing Jaguar CD games with 128 K EEPROM for persistent storage of data such as preferences and saved games. The Atari Jaguar Duo (codenamed Jaguar III) was a proposal to integrate the Jaguar CD to make a new console, a concept similar to the TurboDuo and Genesis CDX. A prototype, described by journalists as resembling a bathroom scale, was unveiled at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show, but the console was canceled before production.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: A virtual reality headset compatible with the console, tentatively titled the Jaguar VR, was unveiled by Atari at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show. The development of the peripheral was a response to Nintendo's virtual reality console, the Virtual Boy, which had been announced the previous year. The headset was developed in cooperation with Virtuality, which had previously created many virtual reality arcade systems, and was already developing a similar headset for practical purposes, named Project Elysium, for IBM. The peripheral was targeted for a commercial release before Christmas 1995. However, the deal with Virtuality was abandoned in October 1995. After Atari's merger with JTS in 1996, all prototypes of the headset were allegedly destroyed. However, two working units, one low-resolution prototype with red and grey-colored graphics and one high-resolution prototype with blue and grey-colored graphics, have since been recovered, and are regularly showcased at retrogaming-themed conventions and festivals. Only one game was developed for the Jaguar VR prototype: a 3D-rendered version of the 1980 arcade game "Missile Command", titled "Missile Command 3D", and a demo of Virtuality's "Zone Hunter" was created.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: An unofficial expansion peripheral for the Atari Jaguar dubbed the "Catbox" was released by the Rockford, Illinois company ICD. It was originally slated to be released early in the Jaguar's life, in the second quarter of 1994, but was not actually released until mid-1995. The ICD CatBox plugs directly into the AV/DSP connectors located in the rear of the Jaguar console and provides three main functions. These are audio, video, and communications. It features six output formats, three for audio (line level stereo, RGB monitor, headphone jack with volume control) and three for video (composite, S-Video, and RGB analog component video) making the Jaguar compatible with multiple high quality monitor systems and multiple monitors at the same time. It is capable of communications methods known as CatNet and RS-232 as well as DSP pass through, allowing the user to connect two or more Jaguars together for multiplayer games either directly or with modems. The ICD CatBox features a polished stainless steel casing and red LEDs in the jaguar's eyes on the logo that indicate communications activity. An IBM AT-type null modem cable may be used to connect two Jaguars together. The CatBox is also compatible with Atari's Jaglink Interface peripheral.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: An adaptor for the Jaguar that allows for WebTV access was revealed in 1998; one prototype is known to exist.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: Reviewing the Jaguar just a few weeks prior to its launch, "GamePro" gave it a "thumbs sideways". They praised the power of the hardware but criticized the controller, and were dubious of how the software lineup would turn out, commenting that Atari's failure to secure support from key third party publishers such as Capcom was a bad sign. They concluded that "Like the 3DO, the Jaguar is a risky investment – just not quite as expensive."


title: Atari Jaguar

text: The small size and poor quality of the Jaguar's game library became the most commonly cited reason for its failure in the marketplace. The pack-in game "Cybermorph" was one of the first polygon-based games for consoles, but was criticized for design flaws and a weak color palette, and compared unfavorably with the SNES's "Star Fox". Other early releases like "Trevor McFur in the Crescent Galaxy", "Raiden", and "" also received poor reviews, the latter two for failing to take full advantage of the Jaguar's hardware. Jaguar did eventually earn praise with games such as "Tempest 2000", "Doom", and "Wolfenstein 3D". The most successful title during the Jaguar's first year was "Alien vs. Predator". However, these occasional successes were seen as insufficient while the Jaguar's competitors were receiving a continual stream of critically acclaimed software; "GamePro" concluded their rave review of "Alien vs. Predator" by remarking "If Atari can turn out a dozen more games like AvP, Jaguar owners could truly rest easy and enjoy their purchase." In late 1995 reviews of the Jaguar, "Game Players" remarked, "The Jaguar suffers from several problems, most importantly the lack of good software." and "Next Generation" likewise commented that "thus far, Atari has spectacularly failed to deliver on the software side, leaving many to question the actual quality and capability of the hardware. With only one or two exceptions – "Tempest 2000" is cited most frequently – there have just been no truly great games for the Jaguar up to now." They further noted that while Atari is well known by older gamers, the company had much less overall brand recognition than Sega, Sony, Nintendo, or even The 3DO Company. However, they argued that with its low price point, the Jaguar might still compete if Atari could improve the software situation. They gave the system two out of five stars. "Game Players" also stated the despite being 64-bit, the Jaguar is much less powerful than the 3DO, Saturn, and PlayStation, even when supplemented with the Jaguar CD. With such a small library of games to challenge the incumbent 16-bit game consoles, Jaguar's appeal never grew beyond a small gaming audience. Digital Spy commented: "Like many failed hardware ventures, it still maintains something of a cult following but can only be considered a misstep for Atari."


title: Atari Jaguar

text: In 2006 IGN editor Craig Harris rated the standard Jaguar controller as the worst game controller ever, criticizing the unwarranted recycling of the 1980s "phone keypad" format and the small number of action buttons, which he found particularly unwise given that Atari was actively trying to court fighting game fans to the system. Ed Semrad of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" commented that many Jaguar games gratuitously used all of the controller's phone keypad buttons, making the controls much more difficult than they needed to be. "GamePro"s The Watch Dog remarked, "The controller usually doesn't use the keypad, and for games that use the keypad extensively ("Alien vs. Predator", "Doom"), a keypad overlay is used to minimize confusion. But yes, it is a lot of buttons for nuttin'." Atari added more action buttons for its Pro Controller, to improve performance in fighting games in particular.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: Telegames continued to publish games for the Jaguar after it was discontinued, and for a time was the only company to do so. On May 14, 1999, Hasbro Interactive announced that it had released all patents to the Jaguar, declaring it an open platform; this opened the doors for extensive homebrew development. Following the announcement, Songbird Productions joined Telegames in releasing unfinished Jaguar games alongside new games to satisfy the cult following. Hasbro Interactive, along with all the Atari properties, was sold to Infogrames on January 29, 2001.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: In the United Kingdom in 2001, Telegames and retailer Game made a deal to bring the Jaguar to Game's retail outlets. It was initially sold for £29.99 new and software ranged between £9.99 for more common games such as "Doom" and "Ruiner Pinball" and £39.99 for rarer releases such as "Defender 2000" and "Checkered Flag". The machine had a presence in the stores until 2007, when remaining consoles were sold off for £9.99 and games were sold for as low as 97p.


title: Atari Jaguar

text: In 1997, Imagin Systems, a manufacturer of dental imaging equipment, purchased the Jaguar cartridge and console molds from JTS. The console molds could, with minor modification, fit their HotRod camera, and the cartridge molds were reused to create an optional memory expansion card. In December 2014, the molds were purchased from Imagin Systems by Mike Kennedy, owner of the Kickstarter funded "Retro Videogame Magazine", to propose a new crowdfunded video game console, the Retro VGS, later rebranded the Coleco Chameleon after entering a licensing agreement with Coleco. The purchase of the molds was far cheaper than designing and manufacturing entirely new molds, and Kennedy described their acquisition as "the entire reason [the Retro VGS] is possible". However, the project was terminated in March 2016 following criticism of Kennedy and doubts regarding demand for the proposed console. Two "prototypes" were discovered to be fakes and Coleco withdrew from the project. After the project's termination, the molds were sold to Albert Yarusso, the founder of the AtariAge website.


title: Straight ally

text: An ally is a person who is associated with another as a helper; a person or group that provides assistance and support in an ongoing effort, activity or struggle. In recent years, the term has been adopted specifically to a person supporting one or more marginalized groups. A straight ally or heterosexual ally (often simply called an ally) is a heterosexual and cisgender person who supports equal civil rights, gender equality, and LGBTQ+ social movements. Individuals may meet this designation through their actions without actively identifying as an ally.


title: Straight ally

text: In February 2012, American writer David M. Hall wrote an article for CNN, about the television show Glee, in which he expressed the following opinion:


title: Straight ally

text: A straight ally aims to use their position of privilege as cisgender or heterosexual people in a society biased towards heteronormativity to bring down the inequalities of transphobia, biphobia, and homophobia. "Without straight allies, the queer rights movement would not be where it is today, and we can be thankful not just to queer activists but straight allies who actively used their position in society not to speak on behalf of but rather to amplify marginalized voices and perspectives" (Queer in the World, 2021).


title: Straight ally

text: Most LGBTQ+ organizations have straight or cisgender members involved, while others actively encourage straight and cisgender participation. A good example of the change straight allies can help achieve is the gay-straight alliance (GSA) which has been becoming more popular in schools all around the world. A gay–straight alliance (also known as a gender-sexuality alliance) is a student-run club that brings together LGBTQ+ and straight students to create a platform for activism to fight homophobia and transphobia. The goal of most gay-straight alliances is to make their school community safe, facilitate activism on campus, and create a welcoming environment for LGBTQ+ students.


title: Straight ally

text: The first gay-straight alliance was formed in November 1988 at Concord Academy in Concord, Massachusetts, when Kevin Jennings, a history teacher at the school who had just come out as gay, was approached by Meredith Sterling, a straight student at the school who was upset by the treatment of gay students and others. Jennings recruited some other teachers at the school, thus forming the first gay-straight alliance. (Springate, 2019). Jennings credits students for both the establishment of the club, as well as for setting the agenda of struggling against homophobia, and for changes to CA's nondiscrimination policy (Lane, 2018). Jennings would go on to co-found the Gay, Lesbian & Straight Education Network (GLSEN) in Boston in 1990 (Koelz, 2018).


title: Straight ally

text: The GSA Network is an LGBT rights organization founded in 1998 by Carolyn Laub to empower youth activists to start GSA clubs in their respective schools to motivate and inspire fellow students to fight against homophobia and transphobia. Laub initially started working with this movement in 40 GSA clubs in the San Francisco Bay area during 1988–99 and then gradually expanded to other cities and states; by 2005, it began operating programs nationally.


title: Straight ally

text: Most of what has been written, academically, about LGBTQ+ youth has focused on non-normative development or risk outcomes. This focus has overshadowed the ways in which young LGBTQ+ people and their allies are actively engaged in creating positive change for themselves and their peers; for many young people, this active engagement is achieved through involvement and leadership in high school Gay-Straight Alliances (Fields and Russell 2005). Adolescence is an important developmental period for individual engagement in community and social concerns; empowerment suggests that young people discover their capacity to become agents of change in issues and causes they care about. Sexuality activism has emerged as an important arena for youth activism (Fields and Russell 2005) and offers a unique context in which to study youth empowerment.


title: Straight ally

text: Those most impacted by gay-straight alliances are LGBTQ+ students; however, gay and straight members alike are benefitted from the sense of community and empowerment that gay-straight alliances provide. In 1994, Anderson categorized gay youth as an "at risk" population. He believes that school-based support groups can help to counter the negative statistics in the lives of gay youth (homelessness, high school dropouts, drug and alcohol abuse, victims of physical violence, and suicide). Participants in this study experienced some of the hopelessness and despair common to gay youth, but they also became empowered young people through their association with the GSA. Being a part of the GSA helped them to move beyond the depressing statistics and gain stronger identities. Their new identities were expressed in their educational lives as well as their personal and social lives. They became empowered by working toward a collective goal: challenging the system in which they previously believed they could not have an impact" (Lee, 2002).


title: Straight ally

text: According to many studies, involvement in high school gay-straight alliances leads to more civically active young adults. "The current study demonstrated significant associations between GSA involvement level and forms of civic engagement, including efforts to counter discrimination and raise others' awareness of LGBTQ issues. Our findings highlight the promising role that GSAs could play in building civic engagement capacity among their members. Ultimately, as active and engaged citizens, LGBTQ youth and their allies could play a major role in challenging oppressive systems and promoting social justice for LGBTQ individuals in society" (Poteat, Calzo, & Yoshikawa, 2018).


title: Straight ally

text: Parents, Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG), an international nonprofit organization, works to support LGBTQ+ people and their loved ones. Stemming from parents' desire to be involved in their gay and lesbian children's struggle for equality, PFLAG has been a resource for countless families since 1973. Founded by Jeanne Manford, who is considered the mother of the ally movement, PFLAG unites LGBTQ+ people with parents, families, and allies to gain full civil and legal equality for people in the LGBTQ+ community. In 2007, the organization launched a new project, Straight for Equality to help more allies become engaged with the movement in the workplace, healthcare, and now in faith communities.


title: Straight ally

text: "Despite the exclusion of "bisexual" and "transgender" from the organization's name, PFLAG works for the rights of these sexual minorities as well, providing education on gender identification along with sexual orientation. PFLAG's policy statements on such issues as legislation, equality in the workplace, hate crimes, same-gender marriage, religious affiliation, and comprehensive sex education all reflect its deep commitment to ensuring the rights of all glbtq people" (Theophano, 2015).


title: Straight ally

text: GLAAD was established by a group of reporters after an article talked down on HIV/AIDS, being officially founded in 1985. GLAAD put pressure on media organizations to end what it saw as homophobic reporting. Over the years, GLAAD has expanded its resources to provide change for LGBTQ+ members and allies. "As a dynamic media force, GLAAD ensures fair, accurate, and inclusive representation that rewrites the script for LGBTQ acceptance. GLAAD tackles tough issues to shape the narrative and provoke dialogue that leads to cultural change. GLAAD protects all that has been accomplished and envisions a world with 100% LGBTQ acceptance. GLAAD works through entertainment, news, and digital media to share stories from the LGBTQ community that accelerate acceptance".


title: Straight ally

text: The Stonewall Uprising, or the Stonewall Riots of 1969 (in New York City), is known to be the starting point of the Gay Liberation Front. Protests, advocacy organizations, HIV/AIDS relief groups, etc. collectively have characterized the movement from the start. The Stonewall Uprising, a series of events between police and LGBTQ+ protesters that stretched over six days, became well known due to the media coverage and the subsequent annual Pride traditions. "Stonewall veterans have explicitly stated that they prefer the term Stonewall uprising or rebellion. The reference to these events as riots was initially used by police to justify their use of force. Early publications show that the LGBTQIA+ community largely did not use the term riot until years after the fact" (Library of Congress, 2022).