title: Cyberwarfare

text: According to CrowdStrike from 2014 to 2016, the Russian APT Fancy Bear used Android malware to target the Ukrainian Army's Rocket Forces and Artillery. They distributed an infected version of an Android app whose original purpose was to control targeting data for the D-30 Howitzer artillery. The app, used by Ukrainian officers, was loaded with the X-Agent spyware and posted online on military forums. The attack was claimed by Crowd-Strike to be successful, with more than 80% of Ukrainian D-30 Howitzers destroyed, the highest percentage loss of any artillery pieces in the army (a percentage that had never been previously reported and would mean the loss of nearly the entire arsenal of the biggest artillery piece of the Ukrainian Armed Forces). According to the Ukrainian army this number is incorrect and that losses in artillery weapons "were way below those reported" and that these losses "have nothing to do with the stated cause".


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In 2014, the Russians were suspected to use a cyber weapon called "Snake", or "Ouroboros," to conduct a cyber attack on Ukraine during a period of political turmoil. The Snake tool kit began spreading into Ukrainian computer systems in 2010. It performed Computer Network Exploitation (CNE), as well as highly sophisticated Computer Network Attacks (CNA).


title: Cyberwarfare

text: On 23 December 2015 the Black-Energy malware was used in a cyberattack on Ukraine's power-grid that left more than 200,000 people temporarily without power. A mining company and a large railway operator were also victims of the attack.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Ukraine saw a massive surge in cyber attacks during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Several websites belonging to Ukrainian banks and government departments became inaccessible.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: MI6 reportedly infiltrated an Al Qaeda website and replaced the instructions for making a pipe bomb with the recipe for making cupcakes.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In October 2010, Iain Lobban, the director of the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), said the UK faces a "real and credible" threat from cyber attacks by hostile states and criminals and government systems are targeted 1,000 times each month, such attacks threatened the UK's economic future, and some countries were already using cyber assaults to put pressure on other nations.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: On 12 November 2013, financial organizations in London conducted cyber war games dubbed "Waking Shark 2" to simulate massive internet-based attacks against bank and other financial organizations. The Waking Shark 2 cyber war games followed a similar exercise in Wall Street.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Iran has been both victim and perpetrator of several cyberwarfare operations. Iran is considered an emerging military power in the field.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In September 2010, Iran was attacked by the Stuxnet worm, thought to specifically target its Natanz nuclear enrichment facility. It was a 500-kilobyte computer worm that infected at least 14 industrial sites in Iran, including the Natanz uranium-enrichment plant. Although the official authors of Stuxnet haven't been officially identified, Stuxnet is believed to be developed and deployed by the United States and Israel. The worm is said to be the most advanced piece of malware ever discovered and significantly increases the profile of cyberwarfare.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Iranian Cyber Police department, FATA, was dismissed one year after its creation in 2011 because of the arrest and death of Sattar Behesti, a blogger, in the custody of FATA. Since then, the main responsible institution for the cyberwarfare in Iran is the "Cyber Defense Command" operating under the Joint Staff of Iranian Armed Forces.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In the 2006 war against Hezbollah, Israel alleges that cyber-warfare was part of the conflict, where the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) intelligence estimates several countries in the Middle East used Russian hackers and scientists to operate on their behalf. As a result, Israel attached growing importance to cyber-tactics, and became, along with the U.S., France and a couple of other nations, involved in cyber-war planning. Many international high-tech companies are now locating research and development operations in Israel, where local hires are often veterans of the IDF's elite computer units. Richard A. Clarke adds that "our Israeli friends have learned a thing or two from the programs we have been working on for more than two decades."


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In September 2007, Israel carried out an airstrike on a suspected nuclear reactor in Syria dubbed Operation Orchard. U.S. industry and military sources speculated that the Israelis may have used cyberwarfare to allow their planes to pass undetected by radar into Syria.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Following US President Donald Trump's decision to pull out of the Iran nuclear deal in May 2018, cyber warfare units in the United States and Israel monitoring internet traffic out of Iran noted a surge in retaliatory cyber attacks from Iran. Security firms warned that Iranian hackers were sending emails containing malware to diplomats who work in the foreign affairs offices of US allies and employees at telecommunications companies, trying to infiltrate their computer systems.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: On 15 August 2012 at 11:08 am local time, the Shamoon virus began destroying over 35,000 computer systems, rendering them inoperable. The virus used to target the Saudi government by causing destruction to the state owned national oil company Saudi Aramco. The attackers posted a pastie on PasteBin.com hours prior to the wiper logic bomb occurring, citing oppression and the Al-Saud regime as a reason behind the attack. The attack was well staged according to Chris Kubecka, a former security advisor to Saudi Aramco after the attack and group leader of security for Aramco Overseas. It was an unnamed Saudi Aramco employee on the Information Technology team which opened a malicious phishing email, allowing initial entry into the computer network around mid-2012.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Kubecka also detailed in her Black Hat USA talk Saudi Aramco placed the majority of their security budget on the ICS control network, leaving the business network at risk for a major incident. "When you realize most of your security budget was spent on ICS & IT gets Pwnd". The virus has been noted to have behavior differing from other malware attacks, due to the destructive nature and the cost of the attack and recovery. US Defense Secretary Leon Panetta called the attack a "Cyber Pearl Harbor". Known years later as the "Biggest hack in history" and intended for cyber warfare. Shamoon can spread from an infected machine to other computers on the network. Once a system is infected, the virus continues to compile a list of files from specific locations on the system, upload them to the attacker, and erase them. Finally the virus overwrites the master boot record of the infected computer, making it unusable.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Saudi Aramco announced the attack on their Facebook page and went offline again until a company statement was issued on 25 August 2012. The statement falsely reported normal business was resumed on 25 August 2012. However a Middle Eastern journalist leaked photographs taken on 1 September 2012 showing kilometers of petrol trucks unable to be loaded due to backed business systems still inoperable.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: On 29 August 2012 the same attackers behind Shamoon posted another pastie on PasteBin.com, taunting Saudi Aramco with proof they still retained access to the company network. The post contained the username and password on security and network equipment and the new password for the CEO Khalid Al- Falih The attackers also referenced a portion of the Shamoon malware as further proof in the pastie.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: According to Kubecka, in order to restore operations. Saudi Aramco used its large private fleet of aircraft and available funds to purchase much of the world's hard drives, driving the price up. New hard drives were required as quickly as possible so oil prices were not affected by speculation. By 1 September 2012 gasoline resources were dwindling for the public of Saudi Arabia 17 days after the 15 August attack. RasGas was also affected by a different variant, crippling them in a similar manner.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In March 2018 American Republican fundraiser Elliott Broidy filed a lawsuit against Qatar, alleging that Qatar's government stole and leaked his emails in order to discredit him because he was viewed "as an impediment to their plan to improve the country's standing in Washington." In May 2018, the lawsuit named Mohammed bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, brother of the Emir of Qatar, and his associate Ahmed Al-Rumaihi, as allegedly orchestrating Qatar's cyber warfare campaign against Broidy. Further litigation revealed that the same cybercriminals who targeted Broidy had targeted as many as 1,200 other individuals, some of whom are also "well-known enemies of Qatar" such as senior officials of the U.A.E., Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain. While these hackers almost always obscured their location, some of their activity was traced to a telecommunication network in Qatar.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: The United Arab Emirates has launched several cyber-attacks in the past targeting dissidents. Ahmed Mansoor, an Emirati citizen, was jailed for sharing his thoughts on Facebook and Twitter. He was given the code name Egret under the state-led covert project called Raven, which spied on top political opponents, dissidents, and journalists. Project Raven deployed a secret hacking tool called Karma, to spy without requiring the target to engage with any web links.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In September 2021, three of the former American intelligence officers, Marc Baier, Ryan Adams, and Daniel Gericke, admitted to assisting the UAE in hacking crimes by providing them with advanced technology and violating US laws. Under a three-year deferred prosecution agreement with the Justice Department, the three defendants also agreed to pay nearly $1.7 million in fines to evade prison sentences. The court documents revealed that the Emirates hacked into the computers and mobile phones of dissidents, activists, and journalists. They also attempted to break into the systems of the US and rest of the world.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Cyberwarfare in the United States is a part of the American military strategy of proactive cyber defence and the use of cyberwarfare as a platform for attack. The new United States military strategy makes explicit that a cyberattack is "casus belli" just as a traditional act of war.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: U.S. government security expert Richard A. Clarke, in his book "Cyber War" (May 2010), had defined "cyberwarfare" as "actions by a nation-state to penetrate another nation's computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption." "The Economist" describes cyberspace as "the fifth domain of warfare," and William J. Lynn, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense, states that "as a doctrinal matter, the Pentagon has formally recognized cyberspace as a new domain in warfare . . . [which] has become just as critical to military operations as land, sea, air, and space."


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In 2009, president Barack Obama declared America's digital infrastructure to be a "strategic national asset," and in May 2010 the Pentagon set up its new U.S. Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM), headed by General Keith B. Alexander, director of the National Security Agency (NSA), to defend American military networks and attack other countries' systems. The EU has set up ENISA (European Union Agency for Network and Information Security) which is headed by Prof. Udo Helmbrecht and there are now further plans to significantly expand ENISA's capabilities. The United Kingdom has also set up a cyber-security and "operations centre" based in Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the British equivalent of the NSA. In the U.S. however, Cyber Command is only set up to protect the military, whereas the government and corporate infrastructures are primarily the responsibility respectively of the Department of Homeland Security and private companies.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In February 2010, top American lawmakers warned that the "threat of a crippling attack on telecommunications and computer networks was sharply on the rise." According to The Lipman Report, numerous key sectors of the U.S. economy along with that of other nations, are currently at risk, including cyber threats to public and private facilities, banking and finance, transportation, manufacturing, medical, education and government, all of which are now dependent on computers for daily operations. In 2009, president Obama stated that "cyber intruders have probed our electrical grids."<br>


title: Cyberwarfare

text: On 19 June 2010, United States Senator Joe Lieberman (I-CT) introduced a bill called "Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act of 2010", which he co-wrote with Senator Susan Collins (R-ME) and Senator Thomas Carper (D-DE). If signed into law, this controversial bill, which the American media dubbed the ""Kill switch bill"", would grant the president emergency powers over parts of the Internet. However, all three co-authors of the bill issued a statement that instead, the bill "[narrowed] existing broad presidential authority to take over telecommunications networks".


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In June 2012 "the New York Times" reported that president Obama had ordered the cyber attack on Iranian nuclear enrichment facilities.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In July 2010, "The Economist" wrote that China had plans of "winning informationised wars by the mid-21st century", that other countries were likewise organizing for cyberwar, among them Russia, Israel and North Korea, and that Iran boasted of having the world's second-largest cyber-army. James Gosler, a government cybersecurity specialist, worried that the U.S. has a severe shortage of computer security specialists, estimating that there are only about 1,000 qualified people in the country today, but needs a force of 20,000 to 30,000 skilled experts. At the July 2010 Black Hat computer security conference, Michael Hayden, former deputy director of national intelligence, challenged thousands of attendees to help devise ways to "reshape the Internet's security architecture", explaining, "You guys made the cyberworld look like the north German plain."


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In August 2010, the U.S. for the first time warned publicly about the Chinese military's use of civilian computer experts in clandestine cyber attacks aimed at American companies and government agencies. The Pentagon also pointed to an alleged China-based computer spying network dubbed GhostNet which was revealed in a 2009 research report. The Pentagon stated:


title: Cyberwarfare

text: The People's Liberation Army is using "information warfare units" to develop viruses to attack enemy computer systems and networks, and those units include civilian computer professionals. Commander Bob Mehal, will monitor the PLA's buildup of its cyberwarfare capabilities and will continue to develop capabilities to counter any potential threat.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: The United States Department of Defense sees the use of computers and the Internet to conduct warfare in cyberspace as a threat to national security. The United States Joint Forces Command describes some of its attributes:


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Cyberspace technology is emerging as an "instrument of power" in societies, and is becoming more available to a country's opponents, who may use it to attack, degrade, and disrupt communications and the flow of information. With low barriers to entry, coupled with the anonymous nature of activities in cyberspace, the list of potential adversaries is broad. Furthermore, the globe-spanning range of cyberspace and its disregard for national borders will challenge legal systems and complicate a nation's ability to deter threats and respond to contingencies.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In February 2010, the United States Joint Forces Command released a study which included a summary of the threats posed by the internet:


title: Cyberwarfare

text: With very little investment, and cloaked in a veil of anonymity, our adversaries will inevitably attempt to harm our national interests. Cyberspace will become a main front in both irregular and traditional conflicts. Enemies in cyberspace will include both states and non-states and will range from the unsophisticated amateur to highly trained professional hackers. Through cyberspace, enemies will target industry, academia, government, as well as the military in the air, land, maritime, and space domains. In much the same way that airpower transformed the battlefield of World War II, cyberspace has fractured the physical barriers that shield a nation from attacks on its commerce and communication. Indeed, adversaries have already taken advantage of computer networks and the power of information technology not only to plan and execute savage acts of terrorism, but also to influence directly the perceptions and will of the U.S. Government and the American population.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: On 6 October 2011, it was announced that Creech AFB's drone and Predator fleet's command and control data stream had been keylogged, resisting all attempts to reverse the exploit, for the past two weeks. The Air Force issued a statement that the virus had "posed no threat to our operational mission".


title: Cyberwarfare

text: On 21 November 2011, it was widely reported in the U.S. media that a hacker had destroyed a water pump at the Curran-Gardner Township Public Water District in Illinois. However, it later turned out that this information was not only false, but had been inappropriately leaked from the Illinois Statewide Terrorism and Intelligence Center.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: According to a 2013 "Foreign Policy" magazine article, NSA's Tailored Access Operations (TAO) unit "has successfully penetrated Chinese computer and telecommunications systems for almost 15 years, generating some of the best and most reliable intelligence information about what is going on inside the People's Republic of China."


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In 2013 cyberwarfare was, for the first time, considered a larger threat than Al Qaeda or terrorism, by many U.S. intelligence officials. In 2017, Representative Mike Rogers, chairman of the U.S. House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, for instance, said that


title: Cyberwarfare

text: "We are in a cyber war in this country, and most Americans don't know it. And we are not necessarily winning. We have got huge challenges when it comes to cybersecurity."


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In 2014, Barack Obama ordered an intensification of cyberwarfare against North Korea's missile program for sabotaging test launches in their opening seconds.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: On 24 November 2014, Sony Pictures Entertainment hack was a release of confidential data belonging to Sony Pictures Entertainment (SPE).


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In June 2015, the United States Office of Personnel Management (OPM) announced that it had been the target of a data breach targeting the records of as many as four million people. Later, FBI Director James Comey put the number at 18 million. The "Washington Post" has reported that the attack originated in China, citing unnamed government officials.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In October 2016, Jeh Johnson the United States Secretary of Homeland Security and James Clapper the U.S. Director of National Intelligence issued a joint statement accusing Russia of interfering with the 2016 United States presidential election. The New York Times reported the Obama administration formally accused Russia of stealing and disclosing Democratic National Committee emails. Under U.S. law (50 U.S.C.Title 50 – War and National Defense, Chapter 15 – National Security, Subchapter III Accountability for Intelligence Activities) there must be a formal "Presidential finding" prior to authorizing a covert attack. Then U.S. vice president Joe Biden said on the American news interview program "Meet The Press" that the United States will respond. The New York Times noted that Biden's comment "seems to suggest that Mr. Obama is prepared to order – or has already ordered – some kind of covert action".


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In 2016 President Barack Obama authorized the planting of cyber weapons in Russian infrastructure in the final weeks of his presidency in response to Moscow's interference in the 2016 presidential election. On 29 December 2016 United States imposed the most extensive sanctions against Russia since the Cold War, expelling 35 Russian diplomats from the United States.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Economic sanctions are the most frequently used the foreign policy instruments by the United States today Thus, it is not surprising to see that economic sanctions are also used as counter policies against cyberattacks. According to Onder (2021), economic sanctions are also information gathering mechanisms for the sanctioning states about the capabilities of the sanctioned states.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In March 2017, WikiLeaks published more than 8,000 documents on the CIA. The confidential documents, codenamed Vault 7 and dated from 2013 to 2016, include details on CIA's software capabilities, such as the ability to compromise cars, smart TVs, web browsers (including Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and Opera Software ASA), and the operating systems of most smartphones (including Apple's iOS and Google's Android), as well as other operating systems such as Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: For a global perspective of countries and other actors engaged in cyber warfare, see the George Washington University-based National Security Archive's CyberWar map.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: The rise of cyber as a warfighting domain has led to efforts to determine how cyberspace can be used to foster peace. For example, the German civil rights panel runs a campaign for cyberpeace − for the control of cyberweapons and surveillance technology and against the militarization of cyberspace and the development and stockpiling of offensive exploits and malware. Measures for cyberpeace include policymakers developing new rules and norms for warfare, individuals and organizations building new tools and secure infrastructures, promoting open source, the establishment of cyber security centers, auditing of critical infrastructure cybersecurity, obligations to disclose vulnerabilities, disarmament, defensive security strategies, decentralization, education and widely applying relevant tools and infrastructures, encryption and other cyberdefenses.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: The topics of cyber peacekeeping and cyber peacemaking have also been studied by researchers, as a way to restore and strengthen peace in the aftermath of both cyber and traditional warfare.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: Cyber counter-intelligence are measures to identify, penetrate, or neutralize foreign operations that use cyber means as the primary tradecraft methodology, as well as foreign intelligence service collection efforts that use traditional methods to gauge cyber capabilities and intentions.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: One of the hardest issues in cyber counterintelligence is the problem of attribution. Unlike conventional warfare, figuring out who is behind an attack can be very difficult. However Defense Secretary Leon Panetta has claimed that the United States has the capability to trace attacks back to their sources and hold the attackers "accountable".


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In October 2011 the "Journal of Strategic Studies", a leading journal in that field, published an article by Thomas Rid, "Cyber War Will Not Take Place" which argued that all politically motivated cyber attacks are merely sophisticated versions of sabotage, espionage, or subversion – and that it is unlikely that cyber war will occur in the future.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: The Tallinn Manual, published in 2013, is an academic, non-binding study on how international law, in particular the jus ad bellum and international humanitarian law, apply to cyber conflicts and cyber warfare. It was written at the invitation of the Tallinn-based NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence by an international group of approximately twenty experts between 2009 and 2012.


title: Cyberwarfare

text: The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (members of which include China and Russia) defines cyberwar to include dissemination of information "harmful to the spiritual, moral and cultural spheres of other states". In September 2011, these countries proposed to the UN Secretary General a document called "International code of conduct for information security".


title: Cyberwarfare

text: In contrast, the United approach focuses on physical and economic damage and injury, putting political concerns under freedom of speech. This difference of opinion has led to reluctance in the West to pursue global cyber arms control agreements.However, American General Keith B. Alexander did endorse talks with Russia over a proposal to limit military attacks in cyberspace. In June 2013, Barack Obama and Vladimir Putin agreed to install a secure "Cyberwar-Hotline" providing "a direct secure voice communications line between the US cybersecurity coordinator and the Russian deputy secretary of the security council, should there be a need to directly manage a crisis situation arising from an ICT security incident" (White House quote).


title: Cyberwarfare

text: A Ukrainian international law scholar, Alexander Merezhko, has developed a project called the International Convention on Prohibition of Cyberwar in Internet. According to this project, cyberwar is defined as the use of Internet and related technological means by one state against the political, economic, technological and information sovereignty and independence of another state. Professor Merezhko's project suggests that the Internet ought to remain free from warfare tactics and be treated as an international landmark. He states that the Internet (cyberspace) is a "common heritage of mankind".


title: Cyberwarfare

text: On the February 2017 RSA Conference Microsoft president Brad Smith suggested global rules – a "Digital Geneva Convention" – for cyber attacks that "ban the nation-state hacking of all the civilian aspects of our economic and political infrastructures". He also stated that an independent organization could investigate and publicly disclose evidence that attributes nation-state attacks to specific countries. Furthermore, he said that the technology sector should collectively and neutrally work together to protect Internet users and pledge to remain neutral in conflict and not aid governments in offensive activity and to adopt a coordinated disclosure process for software and hardware vulnerabilities. A fact-binding body has also been proposed to regulate cyber operations.


title: Chupa Chups

text: Chupa Chups () is a Spanish brand of lollipop and other confectionery sold in over 150 countries around the world. The brand was founded in 1958 by Enric Bernat, and is currently owned by the Italian-Dutch company Perfetti Van Melle. The name of the brand comes from the Spanish verb "chupar", meaning "to suck".


title: Chupa Chups

text: In the early 1950s, Enric Bernat worked for an apple jam factory called ""Granja Asturias"". After he broached the idea of making lollipops, the investors left. Bernat took over the company in 1958 and renamed it "Chupa Chups". He built the production machines and sold a striped bonbon on a wooden stick for one peseta each.


title: Chupa Chups

text: Bernat got the idea of his lollipops from him getting sticky hands from melting sweets. Bernat felt that at that time, sweets were not designed for children. Shopkeepers were instructed to place Chupa Chups near the cash register within reach of children's hands, instead of the usual placement behind the counter.


title: Chupa Chups

text: The Chupa Chups company was a success. Within five years, Bernat's sweets were being sold at 300,000 outlets. When the candy was first created, the lolly sticks were made of wood but they switched to plastic sticks. After the end of Francoist Spain (1939–75), the self-funded private company went international. In the 1970s the lollipops appeared in Japan and Southeast Asian countries such as Indonesia, Singapore, the Philippines and Malaysia, as well as India and Australia. In the 1980s, it expanded to the European and North American markets, and in the 1990s to most Asian countries, including South Korea. In China, they were manufactured by Tatagum in Panyu, near Guangzhou. , 4 billion lollipops a year are sold to 150 countries. , the company has 2,000 employees, makes 90 percent of its sales abroad, and has a turnover of €500,000,000.


title: Chupa Chups

text: In 1991, Bernat passed formal control of the company to his son Xavier. The Smint subsidiary brand/company was founded in 1994.


title: Chupa Chups

text: The Chupa Chups logo was designed in 1969 by the surrealist artist Salvador Dalí. Its first marketing campaign was the logo with the slogan ""Es redondo y dura mucho, Chupa Chups"", which translates from Spanish as ""It's round and long-lasting"". Later, celebrities like Madonna were hired to advertise the product.


title: Chupa Chups

text: In the 1980s, falling birth rates reduced the number of juvenile consumers, an anti-smoking slogan "Smoke Chupa Chups" was tried to attract adult consumers. The company's current anti-smoking slogan is "Stop smoking, start sucking", with their packages parodying cigarette pack designs. Some packages parody the mandatory black and white warning labels of the European Union with the notice "Sucking does not kill."


title: Chupa Chups

text: Chupa Chups sponsored the 1992 video game "Zool". Their logo was featured prominently in the first level, "Sweet World".


title: Chupa Chups

text: In 1997, Chupa Chups launched a Spice Girls lollipop range with different packages each featuring a collectible Spice Girl sticker, toy microphones, and bubblegum packets that came with collectible Spice Girls temporary tattoos, as well as "Push Pops" and "Crazy Dips".


title: Chupa Chups

text: Between 2000 and 2003, Chupa Chups was the main shirt sponsor of English football team Sheffield Wednesday.


title: Chupa Chups

text: Since 2010, Chupa Chups was the signature of the Marriott brand hotel Springhill Suites. Chupa Chups were available at the front desk of any Springhill Suites property for free to any guest, child or adult. As of August 2021, Marriott has begun stepping away from Chupa Chups as a signature item for Springhill Suites.


title: Chupa Chups

text: Chupa Chups has more than 100 flavours available worldwide, including sugar-free varieties. They are individually heat-sealed in the factory, and are best opened by twisting the base of the wrapper.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: Choti Sarrdaarni () is an Indian Hindi language romantic drama television series produced by Cockcrow and Shaika Entertainment. It premiered on 1 July 2019 on Colors TV and ended on 10 June 2022 completing 810 episodes. It starred Nimrit Ahluwalia, Avinesh Rekhi, Mahir Pandhi, Amandeep Sidhu and Gaurav S Bajaj.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: Meher Kaur Dhillon is the bubbly and carefree daughter of village Sarpanch Kulwant Kaur. without her family knowing, Meher has a affair with Manav Sharma, who works as a Dhaba, she gets pregnant with his child, upon knowing that Kulwant stabs and throws him in river. Then to become MLA, she forces Meher to marry Sarabjit Singh Gill, the widowed president of Amritsar ruling party who has a 5 year old son Paramjit. To save her unborn child from Kulwant, Meher agrees and marries Sarab.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: Meher reveals her pregnancy to Sarab, who initially gets enraged but later accepts her child. Eventually, they begin falling in love, and Meher delivers a son, Karanjeet. Sarab's half-sister, Aditi, enters for revenge due to her toxic past. Alive but having lost memory, Manav comes back and falls in love with and marries Aditi. Upon regaining his memory, he learns about Karan being his son but later hands over him to Sarab, and moves on with Aditi. Meher is jailed, for the allegation of murdering her brother Jagga. Sarab fails to save her.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: Meher has been bailed and now resides in Kashmir with her daughter, Seher. Sarab, Karan and Param who were in abroad return to India. It turns out the Gills' accountant, Tarkash killed Jagga and gets jailed. Sarab reconciles with Meher, and accepts Seher. He also unites Meher with her alive father, Trilochan Singh Dhillon. However sadly later, Sarab and Meher die in an accident.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: Param, Karan and Seher grow up. Seher befriends Rajveer Singh Babbar, who falls in love with her at first sight but gets heartbroken when she introduces her boyfriend Kunal Malhotra to him and then Seher gets engaged to Kunal. However Rajveer's sister Harshdeep, who is Punjab's CM blackmails and kills Kunal. Finally later, Seher and Rajveer marry and soon fall in love. She then gets pregnant but miscarries. Rajveer leaves Harshdeep upon knowing she killed Kunal, and moves to Gill mansion. It is revealed that Seher's cousin, Khushi Bajwa was in love with Rajveer 4 years ago, but also has a child Prince whose real father is her friend Avinash Gupta. After Khushi leaves, Seher and Rajveer adopt Prince.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: Kulwant reveals Seher about her illegitimate granddaughter, Mannat Kaur who was left by her due to social fear. Grown up, she now lives in Dalhousie with her mother Harnoor, who later dies after revealing to Mannat about Dhillons. Seher decides to get Mannat back. Mannat comes across Dolly's grandson, Zorawar Singh Randhawa in Dalhousie, and then arrives in Attari to live with Gills and Dhillons, hiding her identity. Later, Kulwant finds Mannat's truth and reunites with her. Eventually, Seher and others too find that Mannat is Bittu and Harnoor's daughter.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: Later, Zorawar and Mannat falls in love with each other. However, Kulwant decides to get Mannat married to Nirvair and Dolly decides to get Zorawar married to Scarlet. However, Kulwant later gives in to Mannat's demands and gets her married to Zorawar. The family comes together and clicks a family photo alongside the portrait of Sarab and Meher while Choti Sarrdaarni comes to an end.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: Based in Amritsar, Punjab, the series is mainly filmed in Mumbai. In November 2019, the honeymoon sequence was filmed in Serbia.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: On 12 September 2019, the filming was held for three hours due to the fight by the workers’ union and Allied Mazdoor Union with producers owing to due in payments.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: In February 2021, the show took a 5 years leap and female child artist Kevina Tak, who played as Param, roped to play as Meher and Sarab's daughter, Seher. Child artists Aekam Binjwe, Gaurika Sharma and Dhan Tejas entered to play as Param, Karan and Yuvi after leap.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: In July 2021, it was announced that the show would take a leap of 16 years and Nimrit Kaur Ahluwalia will play the role of her daughter Seher. It was officially confirmed with the release of the promo showing the 16 year leap with new characters Mahir Pandhi and Varun Toorkey, whereas the exit of Avinesh Rekhi, Anita Raj and other supporting actors. Actors Shehzada Dhami and Adhik Mehta roped to play as adult Param and Karan. However, Anita Raj and Mansi Sharma returned as Kulwant Kaur and Harleen Gill in late 2021 and then few more supporting actors came back in January/February 2022.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: In December 2021, Shehzada Dhami quit the show and Vineet Raina replaces him. In February 2022, Raina too quit and was replaced by Hitanshu Jinsi.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: In March 2022, it was announced that Nimrit Ahluwalia is leaving the show due to her health issues and Mahir Pandhi is leaving too. Amandeep Sidhu announced to play the role of Mannat Kaur and Dishank Arora, Salman Shaikh was approached to play Zoravar Singh, new male lead of the show, but Gaurav S Bajaj replaced them. In late March 2022, it was announced that Hitanshu Jinsi is quitting the show.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: The production and airing of the show was halted indefinitely in late March 2020 due to the coronavirus outbreak. The filming resumed after three months and the show started airing again on 13 July 2020. During the break, the main actors Rekhi, Ahluwalia and Tak shot a few episodes from their homes during the nationwide lockdown which streamed under "Lockdown Special Episodes" on Colors TV's official digital platform Voot.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: The production was halted for few days from 1 September 2020 after Krishna Soni tested positive for coronavirus.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: In early May 2022, it was announced that Choti Sarrdaarni will telecast its last episode on 27 May 2022 but it didn't. Then on 10 June 2022, it telecasted its last episode.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: The initial promo based on Gurudwara background of the series created disappointment between the Sikhs and a complaint protesting it was written to the channel by All India Sikh Students Federation as they considered some portrayal hurting their sentiments.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: In week 41 of 2020, it became the fourth most watched Hindi GEC in urban with 5.281 million impressions.


title: Choti Sarrdaarni

text: In December 2019, "Choti Sarrdaarni" and "Vidya" had a crossover while Salman Khan, Sonakshi Sinha and Sai Manjrekar appeared to promote their upcoming film "Dabangg 3".


Choti Sarrdaarni


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: World Wonder Ring Stardom (スターダム 女子プロレス), often referred to simply as Stardom (stylized as ST★RDOM), is a Japanese "joshi puroresu" or women's professional wrestling promotion based in Tokyo, Japan. Stardom was founded in September 2010 by former All Japan Women co-producer Rossy Ogawa, retired professional wrestler and mixed martial artist Fuka Kakimoto, and All Japan Women veteran professional wrestler Nanae Takahashi. Stardom is currently owned by Japanese card game company Bushiroad, making it the sister promotion of New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW).


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Stardom quickly became one of the top "joshi puroresu" promotions, largely thanks to gravure idol Yuzuki Aikawa becoming the promotion's public face. Much like JDStar, Stardom also places heavy emphasis on the physical attractiveness of its workers, and publishes several modeling photobooks and calendars of its workers per year. Stardom's in-ring style takes influence from mixed martial arts with many workers relying on kicks as the main part of their offense.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Stardom frequently holds shows in Tokyo while also often traveling to Osaka for daytime and nighttime events within the same day. In 2020 "We Are Stardom!!" would start to be aired on BS Nittele and Tokyo MX and that marked the first time that Joshi Puroresu promotion has had a weekly national television program after All Japan Women's Pro Wrestling (AJW) left Fuji TV in 2002.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: After retiring from professional wrestling on March 29, 2010, Fuka began training Yuzuki Aikawa, a notable gravure idol signed to Platinum Production, the same modeling agency as her, for a career in professional wrestling. In April 2010, Fuka was approached by Rossy Ogawa, about starting a new promotion with Aikawa as the top star. During the summer of 2010, Fuka continued training Aikawa for her upcoming debut planned for October, while also training newcomers such as Mayu Iwatani, Arisa Hoshiki, Yoshiko, Yoko Bito, and Eri Susa. These plans came together by September when Ogawa held a press conference with the newly formed roster of Fuka's trainees and Aikawa in attendance to announce a new promotion named World Wonder Ring Stardom. Fuka was appointed general manager of the promotion, as well as the role of ring announcer. Veteran All Japan Women (AJW) wrestler Nanae Takahashi was appointed the playing manager. In addition to Fuka's trainees, Aikawa, and Takahashi, Takahashi's longtime associate and fellow AJW wrestler Natsuki☆Taiyo and mixed martial artist Mika Nagano, who had some experience in professional wrestling with the Ice Ribbon promotion, joined the promotion.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Stardom held its first event, Birth of Nova, on January 23, 2011, in Tokyo's Shin-Kiba 1st Ring, the venue that would frequently host events for the promotion in the following years and was also the location of Stardom's earliest training dojo. Originally, Stardom named and promoted events in the format of "seasons," with one season lasting, on average, two months. The opening match involved seasoned Takahashi and Taiyo, as well as Aikawa. The main event of the debut show saw Yoko Bito, who had an extensive Karate background before her wrestling training against 17-year-old Yoshiko. The two were considered the top trainees on the new roster.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Stardom continued holding shows at Shin-Kiba 1st Ring each month before eventually holding their first-ever show at Korakuen Hall on July 24. At the event, 9-year-old Haruka, who had debuted on the first show, faced DDT Pro-Wrestling star Kenny Omega in a match that became a viral hit on YouTube, reaching over 1 million views. Several champions were crowned at the event as well. Aikawa defeated Yoshiko to become the first-ever Wonder of Stardom Champion and Natsuki Taiyo defeated JWP wrestler Leon to win the High Speed Championship. The inaugural World of Stardom Champion was crowned in a four-person tournament, with Takahashi defeating Bito in the final. Another notable development in Stardom's Korakuen Hall debut was freelancer Io Shirai, who had been appearing in various other Joshi Puroresu promotions alongside her sister, Mio Shirai, and Kana as the stable Triple Tails. Shirai made a surprise appearance at the end of Stardom X Stardom, requesting to join the company.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: The crowning of the first-ever Goddess of Stardom Championship began on October 10 with the Goddesses of Stardom Tag League, a round-robin tournament that has been held annually since. The team of Yuzuki Aikawa and Yoko Bito, collectively known as BY Hou, defeated Yoshiko and Natsuki Taiyo (Kawasaki Katsushika Saikyou Densetsu) in the finals on November 27.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: On November 12, the first Rookie of Stardom award was given, in which rookie wrestlers that had debuted within the year faced off. The final saw Yoshiko defeating Arisa Hoshiki to become the first recipient.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: In May 2012, Io Shirai had gone to Mexico for a tour and was involved in an incident when returning to Japan. Upon her return to Japan, Shirai and then-boyfriend Nosawa Rongai (a freelance Japanese professional wrestler) were arrested at the Narita International Airport in Narita, Chiba on suspicion of trying to smuggle 75 grams of marijuana hidden inside paintings of the two into the country. Both Shirai and Nosawa denied the charges, claiming that the paintings were gifts from fans. Shirai was released from a detention center on June 12. On June 21, Shirai held a press conference, publicly apologizing to her fans, employers and co-workers, while again denying the charges. On June 28, Japan's public prosecutor's office decided not to prosecute Shirai over the incident. On July 9, Mexico-based Japanese wrestler Takuya Sugi held a press conference and confessed to planting the drugs on Shirai and Nosawa. According to Sugi, Masahiro Hayashi, who worked as a liaison between Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide and Japan and who apparently had a personal grudge with Nosawa, had promised him a contract extension with AAA in exchange for the deed.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: The first 5★Star Grand Prix, a two-block round-robin tournament, commenced on August 19 at Shin-Kiba 1st Ring, and ran until September 30, becoming their biggest annual tournament every year. The finals saw Yuzuki Aikawa defeating Kyoko Kimura on September 30.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: At Stardom Year-End Climax in December, the creation of the promotion's trios championship, the Artist of Stardom Championship, was announced.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Stardom's next Korakuen Hall show on March 17, Stardom the Highest, would mark a World of Stardom title change for the first time when German wrestler Alpha Female, now aligned with Kyoko Kimura's Kimura Monster-gun unit, defeated Nanae Takahashi for the World of Stardom Championship. On April 29, Yuzuki Aikawa had the first of what would become a tradition for many departing Stardom wrestlers in the form of a gauntlet match, where they face the entire roster in one-minute singles matches.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Stardom Ryōgoku Cinderella Champions Fiesta 2013 was the biggest event in the history of Stardom in its two-year history to that point, taking place April 29 at the historic Ryōgoku Kokugikan venue in Tokyo. It was the first joshi puroresu event held in the venue in six years. The card featured four of Stardom's five titles on the line, various participants from other wrestling promotions, including male wrestlers, and was headlined by the retirement match of Yuzuki Aikawa. The event was attended by 5,500 fans, making it Stardom's largest crowd to date in their two-year history. A special movie edition of the event, featuring backstage material, was premiered at a theater in Ichikawa, Chiba and released on DVD on September 28.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: In 2014, a new monthly television program began airing on Samurai TV during this time called "Stardom Cafe". The program was hosted by Yuzuki Aikawa and took place in a cafe. Aikawa interviewed various wrestlers on the roster as well as showed highlights of recent matches and activities outside the ring. "Stardom Cafe" ran each month until December 2015.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Starting in 2015, Stardom began holding Korakuen Hall shows every month, making them the first Joshi Puroresu promotion since Gaea Japan to do so.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: At Stardom's next Korakuen Hall show on February 22, 2015, Stardom Queen's Shout, the main event of Yoshiko defending her World of Stardom Championship against Act Yasukawa ended in controversy when the match had to be ended prematurely. Yoshiko and Yasukawa began shooting on each other, a boundary in professional wrestling that is rarely crossed. Yoshiko gained the advantage in the situation and severely injured Yasukawa's face, to the point where veteran referee Kyohei Wada had to stop the match. Following the match, Yasukawa was rushed to a Tokyo hospital, where she was diagnosed with fractured cheek, nasal and orbital bones and required surgery. Yasukawa had, just two months earlier, returned from a long injury break brought on by thyroid issues, during which she had also underwent cataract surgery. In addition to the outcome, leading up to the show, Yoshiko had refused to sign the contract for the match, as she felt Yasukawa was unfit to challenge for her title after their previous title match had been cancelled due to Yasukawa's Graves' disease flare. Yoshiko eventually signed the contract in the ring just before their match after Yasukawa and her new Oedo Tai teammates attacked her. Stardom's president Rossy Ogawa publicly apologized for the incident and called an emergency meeting for February 23 with general manager Fuka Kakimoto and top senpais for the roster to discuss the situation. On February 25, Stardom held a press conference where Yoshiko publicly apologized for her actions, was stripped of the World of Stardom Championship and was suspended indefinitely. Ogawa, Kakimoto and Takahashi also announced they were taking a 30% pay cut for the next three months. Stardom also banned face punches from the promotion. Violations resulted in a disqualification for the first offense. A ringside doctor is now assigned to all future events and Kairi Hojo was subsequently named intermediary between the wrestlers and management in order to bring the two sides closer. The incident received mainstream attention in Japan and became known as . This would end up being Yoshiko's final appearance for Stardom.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: April 23 saw the beginning of a new annual event, the Cinderella Tournament, a one-day single-elimination tournament, with the winner being presented a dress by Yuzuki Aikawa and is granted a wish of their choice. The methods of winning consist of pinfall, submission, over-the-top-rope elimination, ten-minute time limit (except for the final), with time limit draws resulting in a double elimination. Mayu Iwatani won the first tournament by defeating Koguma in the final.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Also in 2015, Stardom held shows in Los Angeles County, California. This was the first time that Stardom held shows outside of Japan. Stardom's first United States show took place on October 16 in Covina, California, main evented by Io Shirai successfully defending her Wonder of Stardom Championship against Mia Yim. The second show took place two days later in Baldwin Park, California, headlined by Thunder Rock retaining their Goddess of Stardom Championship against the team of Hiroyo Matsumoto & Kellie Skater.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: In November, Stardom began an interpromotional feud with Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling during the latter's Korakuen Hall show. The event saw Meiko Satomura, Dash Chisako, Sendai Sachiko, Cassandra Miyagi, Mika Iwata, and Chihiro Hashimoto against Io Shirai, Mayu Iwatani, Kairi Hojo, Momo Watanabe, Hiromi Mimura, and Kris Wolf, in a series of singles matches with gauntlet rules. Three days later, at Stardom's Korakuen Hall show, Mayu Iwatani was defeated by Meiko Satomura in her challenge for the World of Stardom Championship and Io Shirai successfully defended her Wonder of Stardom Championship against challenger Sendai Sachiko; the two had gone to a time limit draw three days earlier.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: On February 28, 2016, Stardom launched Stardom World, a worldwide paid video service through YouTube. The service was later moved to its own website. In April, Io Shirai, Kairi Hojo and Mayu Iwatani represented Stardom in the United States, taking part in events for Lucha Underground and a match at the Cauliflower Alley Club.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: In May, Threedom (Shirai, Iwatani, and Hojo) traveled to Europe, taking part in shows in Spain, France, and England. A new championship was introduced on the show in Spain, the Stardom World Association (SWA) World Championship. Io Shirai defeated Toni Storm in a tournament final to determine the first champion. The qualifications of defending the SWA title were that the opponent must be a different nationality to the champion.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: On February 18, 2018, Stardom announced the creation of the promotion's seventh active title, the Future of Stardom Championship, the title is meant for wrestlers with less than two years of experience in professional wrestling or under the age of 20.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Stardom also introduced a new collaboration with Fire Pro Wrestling World, a video game developed by Spike Chunsoft. This would be Stardom's first involvement with a video game and was released on August 22, 2019. Kagetsu, Hazuki, Andras Miyagi, Utami Hayashishita, Momo Watanabe, Mayu Iwatani, Arisa Hoshiki, Starlight Kid, Jungle Kyona, and Hana Kimura would be the Stardom wrestlers that were created for the release and all appeared in the ring during the announcement.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: On October 17, a press conference was held in which the purchase of Stardom by entertainment company, Bushiroad, was announced. Bushiroad is also the owner of New Japan Pro-Wrestling, making Stardom their sister promotion. Stardom president Rossy Ogawa would remain as Stardom's head producer.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: At New Japan Pro-Wrestling's Wrestle Kingdom 14 on January 4, 2020, Mayu Iwatani and Arisa Hoshiki faced Hana Kimura and Giulia in a tag team dark match, marking the first women's match to take place at a Wrestle Kingdom event.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: On March 5, the second Fire Pro Wrestling World collaboration was released, with Giulia, Death Yama-san, Konami, Saya Iida, Tam Nakano, Saki Kashima, Bea Priestley, AZM, Natsuko Tora, Sumire Natsu, and Saya Kamitani added to the game.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: Apart from the March 8 Korakuen Hall show, Stardom canceled all remaining March shows due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. No People Gate was presented from an empty Korakuen Hall on March 8, and was aired live on their YouTube channel. The next Stardom show would be the Cinderella Tournament on March 24, and was held at Korakuen Hall with a limited number of tickets sold at the door. Fans and venue staff went through temperature checks and face masks were mandatory. Additional events were canceled throughout April and May, meaning Stardom's Ota Ward Gym show and the unit-produced shows held during Golden Week in early May would no longer be taking place. In the meantime, Stardom wrestlers began doing live streams on the Stardom YouTube channel and social media to interact with fans.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: On 23 May 2020, Hana Kimura committed suicide in a case investigated as cyberbullying after an incident traced to her appearance on the Fuji TV reality show "Terrace House". On 16 December 2020, Osaka police announced a case is pending in the legal system with a gentleman from the area the suspect.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: On August 15, 2020, Stardom canceled a Saturday show in Osaka, putting a halt to the 5-star Grand Prix, after a performer tested positive for COVID-19.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: On December 20, 2020, the experience level required for the Future of Stardom Title was changed from two years to less than three years of wrestling experience.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: On November 20, 2022, Stardom held a co-promoted event with sister promotion New Japan Pro-Wrestling named Historic X-Over. On July 29, Stardom and NJPW announced the IWGP Women's Championship, a title for Stardom that would be defended at NJPW events both in Japan and the United States with the inaugural champion being crowned at Historic X-Over. At the event, Kairi defeated Iwatani to become the inaugural champion.


title: World Wonder Ring Stardom

text: In Stardom, the Grand Slam consists of all the available titles promoted by the company except the Future of Stardom Championship. They are the World of Stardom Championship, the Wonder of Stardom Championship, the Goddess of Stardom Championship, the Artist of Stardom Championship, the High Speed Championship and the SWA World Championship. The notion of "grand slam" has officially started being mentioned on May 5, 2022, when Mayu Iwatani became the second wrestler in the company to achieve the feature after Io Shirai.


title: Alex Hassell

text: Alexander Stephen Hassell (born 7 September 1980) is an English actor. He is co-founder of The Factory Theatre Company.


title: Alex Hassell

text: Hassell was born in Southend, England, the youngest of four, to a vicar. He trained at the Central School of Speech and Drama after completing GCSE and A-Level courses at Moulsham High School, in Chelmsford, Essex.


title: Alex Hassell

text: He has appeared in a number of stage roles, most recently as Hal in Henry IV Parts I and II, and Henry in Henry V, for the Royal Shakespeare Company.


title: Alex Hassell

text: His first Hollywood role was in George Clooney's "Suburbicon" (2017), and later that year he appeared in his first major television role in the BBC adaptation of Jessie Burton's "The Miniaturist", which first aired on Boxing Day. He also appeared as Translucent in the first season of "The Boys" (2019) on Amazon Prime Video, and played Vicious in Netflix's "Cowboy Bebop" in 2021.


title: Galvanization

text: Galvanization or galvanizing (also spelled galvanisation or galvanising) is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method is hot-dip galvanizing, in which the parts are submerged in a bath of hot, molten zinc.


title: Galvanization

text: The zinc coating, when intact, prevents corrosive substances from reaching the underlying iron. Additional electroplating such as a chromate conversion coating may be applied to provide further surface passivation to the substrate material.


title: Galvanization

text: The earliest known example of galvanized iron was encountered by Europeans on 17th-century Indian armour in the Royal Armouries Museum collection.


title: Galvanization

text: The term "galvanized" continues to be used metaphorically of any stimulus which results in activity by a person or group of people.


title: Galvanization

text: In modern usage, the term "galvanizing" has largely come to be associated with zinc coatings, to the exclusion of other metals. Galvanic paint, a precursor to hot-dip galvanizing, was patented by Stanislas Sorel, of Paris, on June 10, 1837, as an adoption of a term from a highly fashionable field of contemporary science, despite having no evident relation to it.


title: Galvanization

text: Hot-dip galvanizing deposits a thick, robust layer of zinc iron alloys on the surface of a steel item. In the case of automobile bodies, where additional decorative coatings of paint will be applied, a thinner form of galvanizing is applied by electrogalvanizing. The hot-dip process generally does not reduce strength to a measurable degree, with the exception of high-strength steels where hydrogen embrittlement can become a problem.


title: Galvanization

text: Thermal diffusion galvanizing, or Sherardizing, provides a zinc diffusion coating on iron- or copper-based materials.


title: Galvanization

text: Galvanized steel can last for many decades if other supplementary measures are maintained, such as paint coatings and additional sacrificial anodes. The rate of corrosion in non-salty environments is caused mainly by levels of sulfur dioxide in the air.


title: Galvanization

text: This is the most common use for galvanized metal, and hundreds of thousands of tons of steel products are galvanized annually worldwide. In developed countries most larger cities have several galvanizing factories, and many items of steel manufacture are galvanized for protection. Typically these include: street furniture, building frameworks, balconies, verandahs, staircases, ladders, walkways, and more. Hot dip galvanized steel is also used for making steel frames as a basic construction material for steel frame buildings.


title: Galvanization

text: In the early 20th century, galvanized piping replaced previously-used cast iron and lead in cold-water plumbing. Typically, galvanized piping rusts from the inside out, building up layers of plaque on the inside of the piping, causing both water pressure problems and eventual pipe failure. These plaques can flake off, leading to visible impurities in water and a slight metallic taste. The life expectancy of galvanized piping is about 40–50 years, but it may vary on how well the pipes were built and installed. Pipe longevity also depends on the thickness of zinc in the original galvanizing, which ranges on a scale from G01 to G360.


title: Scat singing

text: In vocal jazz, scat singing is vocal improvisation with wordless vocables, nonsense syllables or without words at all. In scat singing, the singer improvises melodies and rhythms using the voice as an instrument rather than a speaking medium. This is different from vocalese, which uses recognizable lyrics that are sung to pre-existing instrumental solos.


title: Scat singing

text: Though scat singing is improvised, the melodic lines are often variations on scale and arpeggio fragments, stock patterns and riffs, as is the case with instrumental improvisers. As well, scatting usually incorporates musical structure. All of Ella Fitzgerald's scat performances of "How High the Moon", for instance, use the same tempo, begin with a chorus of a straight reading of the lyric, move to a "specialty chorus" introducing the scat chorus, and then the scat itself. Will Friedwald has compared Ella Fitzgerald to Chuck Jones directing his Roadrunner cartoon—each uses predetermined formulas in innovative ways.


title: Scat singing

text: The deliberate choice of scat syllables is also a key element in vocal jazz improvisation. Syllable choice influences the pitch articulation, coloration, and resonance of the performance. Syllable choice also differentiated jazz singers' personal styles: Betty Carter was inclined to use sounds like "louie-ooie-la-la-la" (soft-tongued sounds or liquids) while Sarah Vaughan would prefer "shoo-doo-shoo-bee-ooo-bee" (fricatives, plosives, and open vowels). The choice of scat syllables can also be used to reflect the sounds of different instruments. The comparison of the scatting styles of Ella Fitzgerald and Sarah Vaughan reveals that Fitzgerald's improvisation mimics the sounds of swing-era big bands with which she performed, while Vaughan's mimics that of her accompanying bop-era small combos.


title: Scat singing

text: Humor is another important element of scat singing. Bandleader Cab Calloway exemplified the use of humorous scatting. Other examples of humorous scatting include Slim Gaillard, Leo Watson, and Bam Brown's 1945 song "Avocado Seed Soup Symphony," in which the singers scat variations on the word "avocado" for much of the recording.


title: Scat singing

text: In addition to such nonsensical uses of language, humor is communicated in scat singing through the use of musical quotation. Leo Watson, who performed before the canon of American popular music, frequently drew on nursery rhymes in his scatting. This is called using a compression. Similarly, Ella Fitzgerald's scatting, for example, drew extensively on popular music. In her 1960 recording of "How High the Moon" live in Berlin, she quotes over a dozen songs, including "The Peanut Vendor," "Heat Wave," "A-Tisket, A-Tasket," and "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes."


title: Scat singing

text: Improvisational singing of nonsense syllables occurs in many cultures, such as diddling or lilting in Ireland, German yodeling, Sámi joik, and speaking in tongues in various religious traditions.


title: Scat singing

text: Although Louis Armstrong's 1926 recording of "Heebie Jeebies" is often cited as the first modern song to employ scatting, there are many earlier examples. One early master of ragtime scat singing was Gene Greene who recorded scat choruses in his song "King of the Bungaloos" and several others between 1911 and 1917. Entertainer Al Jolson scatted through a few bars in the middle of his 1911 recording of "That Haunting Melody." Gene Greene's 1917 "From Here to Shanghai," which featured faux-Chinese scatting, and Gene Rodemich's 1924 "Scissor Grinder Joe" and "Some of These Days" also pre-date Armstrong. Cliff "Ukulele Ike" Edwards scatted an interlude on his 1923 "Old Fashioned Love" in lieu of using an instrumental soloist. One of the early female singers to use scat was Aileen Stanley, who included it at the end of a duet with Billy Murray in their hit 1924 recording of "It Had To Be You" (Victor 19373).


title: Scat singing

text: Jazz pianist Jelly Roll Morton credited Joe Sims of Vicksburg, Mississippi, as the creator of scat around the turn of the 20th century. In a conversation between Alan Lomax and Jelly Roll Morton, Morton recounted the history of scat:


title: Scat singing

text: Morton: "Oh, I'll sing you some scat songs. That was way before Louis Armstrong's time. By the way, scat is something that a lot of people don't understand, and they begin to believe that the first scat numbers was ever done, was done by one of my hometown boys, Louis Armstrong. But I must take the credit away, since I know better. The first man that ever did a scat number in history of this country was a man from Vicksburg, Mississippi, by the name of Joe Sims, an old comedian. And from that, Tony Jackson and myself, and several more grabbed it in New Orleans. And found it was pretty good for an introduction of a song."


title: Scat singing

text: Morton also once boasted, "Tony Jackson and myself were using scat for novelty back in 1906 and 1907 when Louis Armstrong was still in the orphan's home." Don Redman and Fletcher Henderson also featured scat vocals in their 1925 recording of "My Papa Doesn't Two-Time No Time" five months prior to Armstrong's 1926 recording of "Heebie Jeebies."


title: Scat singing

text: It was Armstrong's February 1926 performance of "Heebie Jeebies," however, that is considered the turning point for the medium. From the 1926 recording of "Heebie Jeebies" arose the techniques that would form the foundation of modern scat. In a possibly apocryphal story, Armstrong claimed that, when he was recording "Heebie Jeebies" with his band The Hot Five, his sheet music fell off the stand and onto the ground. Not knowing the lyrics to the song, he invented a gibberish melody to fill time, expecting the cut to be thrown out in the end, but that take of the song was the one released:


title: Scat singing

text: Armstrong's "Heebie Jeebies" became a national bestseller and, consequently, the practice of scatting "became closely associated with Armstrong." The song would serve as a model for Cab Calloway, whose 1930s scat solos inspired George Gershwin's use of the medium in his 1935 opera "Porgy and Bess".


title: Scat singing

text: Following the success of Armstrong's "Heebie Jeebies," a number of popular songs featured scat singing. In June 1927, Harry Barris and Bing Crosby of bandleader Paul Whiteman's "The Rhythm Boys" scatted on several songs including "Mississippi Mud," which Barris had composed.


title: Scat singing

text: On October 26, 1927, Duke Ellington's Orchestra recorded "Creole Love Call" featuring Adelaide Hall singing wordlessly. Hall's wordless vocals and "evocative growls" were hailed as serving as "another instrument." Although creativity must be shared between Ellington and Hall as he knew the style of performance he wanted, Hall was the one who was able to produce the sound. A year later, in October 1928, Ellington repeated the experiment in one of his versions of "The Mooche," with Getrude "Baby" Cox singing scat after a muted similar trombone solo by Joe "Tricky Sam" Nanton.


title: Scat singing

text: During the Great Depression, acts such as The Boswell Sisters regularly employed scatting on their records, including the high complexity of scatting at the same time, in harmony. An example is their version of "It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)." The Boswell Sisters' "inventive use of scat singing was a source for Ella Fitzgerald." As a young girl, Fitzgerald often practiced imitating Connee Boswell's scatting for hours.


title: Scat singing

text: Fitzgerald herself would become a talented scat singer and later claimed to be the "best vocal improviser jazz has ever had," and critics since then have been in almost universal agreement with her. During this 1930s era, other famous scat singers included Scatman Crothers—who would go on to movie and television fame—and British dance band trumpeter and vocalist Nat Gonella whose scat-singing recordings were banned in Nazi Germany.


title: Scat singing

text: Over the years, as jazz music developed and grew in complexity, scat singing did as well. During the bop era of the 1940s, more highly developed vocal improvisation surged in popularity. Annie Ross, a bop singer, expressed a common sentiment among vocalists at the time: "The [scat] music was so exciting, everyone wanted to do it." And many did: Eddie Jefferson, Betty Carter, Anita O'Day, Joe Carroll, Sarah Vaughan, Carmen McRae, Jon Hendricks, Babs Gonzales, and Dizzy Gillespie were all singers in the idiom.


title: Scat singing

text: Free jazz and the influence of world musicians on the medium pushed jazz singing nearer to avant-garde art music. In the 1960s Ward Swingle was the product of an unusually liberal musical education. He took the scat singing idea and applied it to the works of Bach, creating The Swingle Singers. Scat singing was also used by Louis Prima and others in the song "I Wan'na Be Like You" in Disney's "The Jungle Book" (1967).


title: Scat singing

text: The bop revival of the 1970s renewed interest in bop scat singing, and young scat singers viewed themselves as a continuation of the classic bop tradition. The medium continues to evolve, and vocal improvisation now often develops independently of changes in instrumental jazz.


title: Scat singing

text: During the mid-1990s, jazz artist John Paul Larkin (better known as Scatman John) renewed interest in the genre briefly when he began fusing jazz singing with pop music and electronica, scoring a world-wide hit with the song "Scatman (Ski Ba Bop Ba Dop Bop)" in 1994. Vocal improviser Bobby McFerrin's performances have shown that "wordless singing has traveled far from the concepts demonstrated by Louis Armstrong, Gladys Bentley, Cab Calloway, Anita O'Day, and Leo Watson."


title: Scat singing

text: Vocal bass is a form of scat singing that is intended to vocally simulate instrumental basslines that are typically performed by bass players. A technique most commonly used by bass singers in a cappella groups is to simulate an instrumental rhythm section, often alongside a vocal percussionist or beatboxer. Some notable vocal bass artists are Tim Foust, Adam Chance, Bobby McFerrin, Al Jarreau, Reggie Watts, Alvin Chea, Joe Santoni, Avi Kaplan, and Geoff Castellucci.


title: Scat singing

text: Many hip hop artists and rappers use scat singing to come up with the rhythms of their raps. Tajai of the group Souls of Mischief states the following in the book "How to Rap": "Sometimes my rhythms come from scatting. I usually make a scat kind of skeleton and then fill in the words. I make a skeleton of the flow first, and then I put words into it." The group Lifesavas describe a similar process. Rapper Tech N9ne has been recorded demonstrating exactly how this method works, and gangsta rapper Eazy-E used it extensively in his song "Eazy Street."


title: Scat singing

text: Some writers have proposed that scat has its roots in African musical traditions. In much African music, "human voice and instruments assume a kind of musical parity" and are "at times so close in timbre and so inextricably interwoven within the music's fabric as to be nearly indistinguishable." Dick Higgins likewise attributes scat singing to traditions of sound poetry in African-American music. In West African music, it is typical to convert drum rhythms into vocal melodies; common rhythmic patterns are assigned specific syllabic translations. However, this theory fails to account for the existence—even in the earliest recorded examples of scatting—of free improvisation by the vocalist. It is therefore more likely that scat singing evolved independently in the United States.


title: Scat singing

text: Others have proposed that scat singing arose from jazz musicians' practice of formulating riffs vocally before performing them instrumentally. (The adage "If you can't sing it, you can't play it" was common in the early New Orleans jazz scene.) In this manner, soloists like Louis Armstrong became able to double as vocalists, switching effortlessly between instrumental solos and scatting.


title: Scat singing

text: Scat singing also resembles the Irish/Scottish practice of lilting or diddling, a type of vocal music that involves using nonsensical syllables to sing non-vocal dance tunes.


title: Scat singing

text: Scat singing can allow jazz singers to have the same improvisational opportunities as jazz instrumentalists: scatting can be rhythmically and harmonically improvisational without concern about destroying the lyric. Especially when bebop was developing, singers found scat to be the best way to adequately engage in the performance of jazz.


title: Scat singing

text: Scatting may be desirable because it does not "taint the music with the impurity of denotation." Instead of conveying linguistic content and pointing to something outside itself, scat music—like instrumental music—is self-referential and "d[oes] what it mean[s]." Through this wordlessness, commentators have written, scat singing can describe matters beyond words. Music critic Will Friedwald has written that Louis Armstrong's scatting, for example, "has tapped into his own core of emotion," releasing emotions "so deep, so real" that they are unspeakable; his words "bypass our ears and our brains and go directly for our hearts and souls."


title: Scat singing

text: Scat singing has never been universally accepted, even by jazz enthusiasts. Writer and critic Leonard Feather offers an extreme view; he once said that "scat singing—with only a couple exceptions—should be banned." He also wrote the lyrics to the jazz song "Whisper Not," which Ella Fitzgerald then recorded on her 1966 Verve release of the same name. Many jazz singers, including Bessie Smith, Billie Holiday, Jimmy Rushing, and Dinah Washington, have avoided scat entirely.


title: Sam C. S.

text: Sam C. S. is an Indian film music composer, producer, lyricist, and singer who predominantly works in Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam films. He debuted in Tamil with the horror film "Orr Eravuu" before working on the scientific thriller "Ambuli".


title: Sam C. S.

text: His most notable films include Kaithi (2019 film), "Puriyatha Puthir", "Vikram Vedha", "Odiyan", " Adanga Maru", , Iravukku Aayiram Kangal, and "NOTA", "Enemy (2021 film)"


title: Sam C. S.

text: Sam was born in Munnar, Kerala, India. He lives in Cumbum, Theni, Tamil Nadu. He went to school at St. Aloysius Higher Secondary School in Royappan Patti, Theni. He later earned a degree in MCA and MBA from St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli. He worked for a software company after his graduation.


title: Sam C. S.

text: Sam's passion and drive to make music led him to quit his job and work for other music composers on background scores and programming for movies. His talent was soon discovered by movie houses, following which he got an opportunity to compose music for a musical thriller named "Mellisai", later renamed "Puriyatha Puthir".


title: Sam C. S.

text: During this time, he composed music for a lot of jingles, which led him to meet the director duo Pushkar-Gayathri, who offered him the opportunity to score music for "Vikram Vedha". The film's album and OST's went onto become chart busters, earning him a solid name in the Tamil cinema industry.


title: Sam C. S.

text: Sam got his next big break in 2018 when director V. A. Shrikumar Menon offered him the background score of the then much-awaited Mohanlal-starrer "Odiyan".


title: Zine

text: A zine ( ; short for "magazine" or "fanzine") is a small-circulation self-published work of original or appropriated texts and images, usually reproduced via a copy machine. Zines are the product of either a single person or of a very small group, and are popularly photocopied into physical prints for circulation. A fanzine (blend of "fan" and "magazine") is a non-professional and non-official publication produced by enthusiasts of a particular cultural phenomenon (such as a literary or musical genre) for the pleasure of others who share their interest. The term was coined in an October 1940 science fiction fanzine by Russ Chauvenet and popularized within science fiction fandom, entering the Oxford English Dictionary in 1949.


title: Zine

text: Popularly defined within a circulation of 1,000 or fewer copies, in practice many zines are produced in editions of fewer than 100. Among the various intentions for creation and publication are developing one's identity, sharing a niche skill or art, or developing a story, as opposed to seeking profit. Zines have served as a significant medium of communication in various subcultures, and frequently draw inspiration from a "do-it-yourself" philosophy that disregards the traditional conventions of professional design and publishing houses, proposing an alternative, confident, and "self-aware" contribution. Handwritten zines, or carbon zines, are individually made, emphasizing a personal connection between creator and reader, turning imagined communities into embodied ones.


title: Zine

text: Historically, zines have provided community for socially isolated individuals or groups through the ability to express and pursue common ideas and subjects. For this reason, zines have cultural and academic value as tangible traces of marginal communities, many of which are otherwise little-documented. Zines present groups that have been dismissed with an opportunity to voice their opinion, both with other members of their own communities or with a larger audience. This has been reflected in the creation of zine archives and related programming in such mainstream institutions as the Tate museum and the British Library.


title: Zine

text: Written in a variety of formats from desktop-published text to comics, collages and stories, zines cover broad topics including fanfiction, politics, poetry, art & design, ephemera, personal journals, social theory, intersectional feminism, single-topic obsession, or sexual content far outside the mainstream enough to be prohibitive of inclusion in more traditional media. (An example of the latter is Boyd McDonald's "Straight to Hell", which reached a circulation of 20,000.) Although there are a few eras associated with zine-making, this "wave" narrative proposes a limited view of the vast range of topics, styles and environments zines occupied.


title: Zine

text: Dissidents, under-represented, and marginalized groups have published their own opinions in leaflet and pamphlet form for as long as such technology has been available. The concept of zines can be traced to the amateur press movement of the late 19th and early 20th century, which would in turn intersect with Black literary magazines during the Harlem Renaissance, and the subculture of science fiction fandom in the 1930s. The popular graphic-style associated with zines is influenced artistically and politically by the subcultures of Dada, Fluxus, Surrealism, and Situationism.


title: Zine

text: Many trace zines' lineage from as far back as Thomas Paine's exceptionally popular 1775 pamphlet "Common Sense", Benjamin Franklin's literary magazine for psychiatric patients at a Pennsylvania hospital and "The Dial" (1840–44) by Margaret Fuller and Ralph Waldo Emerson.


title: Zine

text: Zines were given a pop culture revival in March 2021 with the release of the Amy Poehler-directed film Moxie, released by Netflix, about a 16-year old high school student who starts a feminist zine to empower the young women at her school.


title: Zine

text: In the 1920s, a group of Black creatives in Harlem began a literary magazine "the better to express ourselves freely and independently – without interference from old heads, white or Negro." This led to the creation of a "little magazine" entitled "Fire!!." Only one issue of "Fire!!" was released, but this inspired the creation of other "little magazines" by Black authors. Contributions by Black writers, artists, and activists to the zine movement are often overlooked, in part "because they had such short runs and were spearheaded by a single or small group of individuals."


title: Zine

text: During and after the Great Depression, editors of "pulp" science fiction magazines became increasingly frustrated with letters detailing the impossibilities of their science fiction stories. Over time they began to publish these overly-scrutinizing letters, complete with their return addresses. Hugo Gernsback published the first science fiction magazine, "Amazing Stories" in 1926, and allowed for a large letter column which printed reader's addresses. By 1927 readers, often young adults, would write to each other, bypassing the magazine. Now complete with a mailing list for their own science fiction fanzines, fans began writing to each other not only about science fiction but about fandom itself. This also led to perzines, zines about themselves. Science fiction fanzines vary in content, from short stories to convention reports to fanfiction were one of the earliest incarnations of the zine and influenced subsequent publications. "Zinesters" like Lisa Ben and Jim Kepner honed their talents in the science fiction fandom before tackling gay rights, creating zines such as "Vice Versa" and "ONE" that drew networking and distribution ideas from their science fiction roots. A number of leading science fiction and fantasy authors rose through the ranks of fandom, creating "pro-zines" such as Frederik Pohl and Isaac Asimov. The first science fiction fanzine, "The Comet", was published in 1930 by the Science Correspondence Club in Chicago and edited by Raymond A. Palmer and Walter Dennis. The first version of Superman (a bald-headed villain) appeared in the third issue of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's 1933 fanzine "Science Fiction".


title: Zine

text: The first media fanzine was a "Star Trek" fan publication called "Spockanalia", published in September 1967 by members of the Lunarians. Some of the earliest examples of academic fandom were written on "Star Trek" zines, specifically K/S (Kirk/Spock) slash zines, which featured a gay relationship between the two. Author Joanna Russ wrote in her 1985 analysis of K/S zines that slash fandom at the time consisted of around 500 core fans and was 100% female.


title: Zine

text: "K/S not only speaks to my condition. It is written in Female. I don't mean that literally, of course. What I mean is that I can read it without translating it from the consensual, public world, which is sexist, and unconcerned with women per se, and managing to make it make sense to me and my condition."


title: Zine

text: Russ observed that while science fiction fans looked down on "Star Trek" fans, "Star Trek" fans looked down on K/S writers. Kirk/Spock zines contained fanfiction, artwork, and poetry created by fans. Zines were then sent to fans on a mailing list or sold at conventions. Many had high production values and some were sold at convention auctions for hundreds of dollars.


title: Zine

text: "Janus", later called "Aurora", was a science fiction feminist zine created by Janice Bogstad and Jeanne Gomoll in 1975. It contained short stories, essays, and film reviews. Among its contributors were authors such as Octavia Butler, Joanna Russ, Samuel R. Delany, and Suzette Hayden Elgin. "Janus/Aurora" was nominated for the Hugo Award for "Best Fanzine" in 1978, 1979, and 1980. "Janus/Aurora" was the most prominent science fiction feminist zine during its run, as well as one of the only zines that dealt with such content.


title: Zine

text: Comics were mentioned and discussed as early as the late 1930s in the fanzines of science fiction fandom. They often included fan artwork based on existing characters as well as discussion of the history of comics. Through the 1960s, and 1970s, comic fanzines followed general formats, such as the industry news and information magazine ("The Comic Reader" was one example), interview, history and review-based fanzines, and the fanzines which basically represented independent comic book-format exercises.


title: Zine

text: Malcolm Willits and Jim Bradley started "The Comic Collector's News" in October 1947. In 1953, Bhob Stewart published "The EC Fan Bulletin", which launched EC fandom of imitative Entertaining Comic fanzines. Among the wave of EC fanzines that followed, the best-known was Ron Parker's "Hoo-Hah!" In 1960, Richard and Pat Lupoff launched their science fiction and comics fanzine Xero and in 1961, Jerry Bails' Alter Ego, devoted to costumed heroes, became a focal point for superhero comics fandom.


title: Zine

text: Calvin T. Beck's "Journal of Frankenstein" (later "Castle of Frankenstein") and Gary Svehla's "Gore Creatures" were the first horror fanzines created as more serious alternatives to the popular Forrest J Ackerman 1958 magazine "Famous Monsters of Filmland." "Garden Ghouls Gazette" – a 1960s horror title under the editorship of Dave Keil, then Gary Collins—was later headed by Frederick S. Clarke and in 1967 became the respected journal "Cinefantastique." It later became a prozine under journalist-screenwriter Mark A. Altman and has continued as a webzine. Richard Klemensen's "Little Shoppe of Horrors", having a particular focus on "Hammer Horrors," began in 1972 and is still publishing as of 2017. The Baltimore-based "Black Oracle" (1969–1978) from writer-turned-John Waters repertory member George Stover was a diminutive zine that evolved into the larger-format "Cinemacabre." Stover's "Black Oracle" partner Bill George published his own short-lived zine "The Late Show" (1974–1976; with co-editor Martin Falck), and later became editor of the "Cinefantastique" prozine spinoff "Femme Fatales." In the mid-1970s, North Carolina teenager Sam Irvin published the horror/science-fiction fanzine "Bizarre" which included his original interviews with UK actors and filmmakers; Irvin would later become a producer-director in his own right. "Japanese Fantasy Film Journal" (JFFJ) (1968–1983) from Greg Shoemaker covered Toho's "Godzilla" and his Asian brethren. Japanese Giants (JG) appeared in 1974 and was published for 30 years. In 1993, "G-FAN" was published, and reached its 100th regularly published issue in Fall 2012. "FXRH" (Special effects by Ray Harryhausen) (1971–1976) was a specialized zine co-created by future Hollywood FX artist Ernest D. Farino.


title: Zine

text: Several fans active in science fiction and comics fandom recognized a shared interest in rock music, and the rock fanzine was born. Paul Williams and Greg Shaw were two such science fiction fans turned rock zine editors. Williams' "Crawdaddy!" (1966) and Shaw's two California-based zines, "Mojo Navigator" "Rock and Roll News" (1966) and "Who Put the Bomp" (1970), are among the most popular early rock fanzines.


title: Zine

text: "Crawdaddy!" (1966) quickly moved from its fanzine roots to become one of the first rock music "prozines" with paid advertisers and newsstand distribution. "Bomp" remained a fanzine, featuring many writers who would later become prominent music journalists, including Lester Bangs, Greil Marcus, Ken Barnes, Ed Ward, Dave Marsh, Mike Saunders and R. Meltzer as well as cover art by Jay Kinney and Bill Rotsler (both veterans of science fiction and Comics fandom). Other rock fanzines of this period include "denim delinquent" (1971) edited by Jymn Parrett, "Flash" (1972) edited by Mark Shipper, "Eurock Magazine" (1973–1993) edited by Archie Patterson and "Bam Balam" written and published by Brian Hogg in East Lothian, Scotland, (1974).


title: Zine

text: In the 1980s, with the rise of stadium superstars, many home-grown rock fanzines emerged. At the peak of Bruce Springsteen's megastardom following the "Born in the U.S.A." album and Born in the U.S.A. Tour in the mid-1980s, there were no less than five Springsteen fanzines circulating at the same time in the UK alone, and many others elsewhere. Gary Desmond's "Candy's Room", coming from Liverpool, was the first in 1980. This was quickly followed by Dan French's "Point Blank", Dave Percival's "The Fever", Jeff Matthews' "Rendezvous", and Paul Limbrick's "Jackson Cage". In the US, "Backstreets Magazine" started in Seattle in 1980 and still continues today as a glossy publication, now in communication with Springsteen's management and official website. "Crème Brûlée" documented post-rock genre and experimental music (1990s).


title: Zine

text: Punk zines emerged as part of the punk subculture in the late 1970s, along with the increasing accessibility to copy machines, publishing software, and home printing technologies. Punk became a genre for the working class because of the economic necessity to use creative DIY methods, which were echoed in both zine and Punk music creation. Zines became vital to the popularization and spread of punk spreading to countries outside the UK and America, such as Ireland, Indonesia, and more by 1977. Amateur, fan-created zines played an important role in spreading information about different scenes (city or regional-based subcultures) and bands (e.g. British fanzines like Mark Perry's "Sniffin Glue" and Shane MacGowan's "Bondage") in the pre-Internet era. They typically included reviews of shows and records, interviews with bands, letters, and ads for records and labels.


title: Zine

text: The punk subculture in the United Kingdom spearheaded a surge of interest in fanzines as a countercultural alternative to established print media. The first and still best known UK 'punk zine' was "Sniffin' Glue", produced by Deptford punk fan Mark Perry which ran for 12 photocopied issues; the first issue produced by Perry immediately following (and in response to) the London debut of The Ramones on 4 July 1976. Other UK fanzines included "Blam!", "Bombsite", "Burnt Offering", "Chainsaw", "New Crimes", "Vague", "Jamming", Artcore Fanzine, "Love and Molotov Cocktails", "To Hell With Poverty", "New Youth", "Peroxide", "ENZK", "Juniper beri-beri", "No Cure","Communication Blur", "Rox", "Grim Humour", "Spuno", "Cool Notes" and "Fumes". By 1990, "Maximum Rocknroll" "had become the de facto bible of the scene, presenting a "passionate yet dogmatic view" of what hardcore was supposed to be." "HeartattaCk" and "Profane Existence" took the DIY lifestyle to a religious level for emo and post-hardcore and crust punk culture. "Slug and Lettuce" started at the state college of PA and became an international 10,000 copy production – all for free. In Canada, the zine "Standard Issue" chronicles the Ottawa hardcore scene. The Bay Area zine "Cometbus" was first created at Berkeley by the zinester and musician Aaron Cometbus. "Gearhead Nation" was a monthly punk freesheet that lasted from the early 1990s to 1997 in Dublin, Ireland. Some hardcore punk zines became available online such as the e-zine chronicling the Australian hardcore scene, "RestAssured." In Italy, "Mazquerade" ran from 1979 to 1981 and Raw Art Fanzine ran from 1995 to 2000.


title: Zine

text: In the US, "Flipside" (created by Al Kowalewski, Pooch (Patrick DiPuccio), Larry Lash (Steven Shoemaker), Tory, X-8 (Sam Diaz)) and "Slash" (created by Steve Samioff and Claude Bessy) were important punk zines for the Los Angeles scene, both debuting in 1977. In 1977 in Australia, Bruce Milne and Clinton Walker fused their respective punk zines "Plastered Press" and "Suicide Alley" to launch "Pulp"; Milne later went on to invent the cassette zine with "Fast Forward", in 1980. In the American Midwest, a zine called Touch and Go described the area's hardcore scene from 1979 to 1983. We Got Power described the LA scene from 1981 to 1984, and included show reviews and band interviews with groups including DOA, the Misfits, Black Flag, Suicidal Tendencies, and the Circle Jerks. My Rules was a photo zine that included photos of hardcore shows from across the US an in Effect, launched in 1988 described the New York City punk scene. Among later titles, "Maximum RocknRoll" is a major punk zine, with over 300 issues published. As a result, in part, of the popular and commercial resurgence of punk in the late 1980s, and after, with the growing popularity of such bands as Sonic Youth, Nirvana, Fugazi, Bikini Kill, Green Day and The Offspring, a number of other punk zines have appeared, such as "Dagger", "Profane Existence", "Punk Planet", "Razorcake", "Slug and Lettuce", "Sobriquet" and "Tail Spins". The early American punk zine "Search and Destroy" eventually became the influential fringe-cultural magazine "Re/Search".


title: Zine

text: "In the post-punk era several well-written fanzines emerged that cast an almost academic look at earlier, neglected musical forms, including Mike Stax' "Ugly Things", Billy Miller and Miriam Linna's "Kicks", Jake Austen's "Roctober", Kim Cooper's "Scram", P. Edwin Letcher's "Garage & Beat", and the UK's Shindig! and Italy's "Misty Lane"." Mark Wilkins, the promotion director for 1982 onwards US punk/thrash label Mystic Records, had over 450 US fanzines and 150 foreign fanzines he promoted to regularly. He and Mystic Records owner Doug Moody edited "The Mystic News Newsletter" which was published quarterly and went into every promo package to fanzines. Wilkins also published the highly successful Los Angeles punk humor zine "Wild Times" and when he ran out of funding for the zine syndicated some of the humorous material to over 100 US fanzines under the name of Mystic Mark.


title: Zine

text: During the 1980s and onwards, "Factsheet Five" (the name came from a short story by John Brunner), originally published by Mike Gunderloy and now defunct, catalogued and reviewed any zine or small press creation sent to it, along with their mailing addresses. In doing so, it formed a networking point for zine creators and readers (usually the same people). The concept of "zine" as an art form distinct from "fanzine", and of the "zinesters" as member of their own subculture, had emerged. Zines of this era ranged from perzines of all varieties to those that covered an assortment of different and obscure topics. Genres reviewed by Factsheet Five included quirky, medley, fringe, music, punk, grrrlz, personal, science fiction, food, humour, spirituality, politics, queer, arts & letters, comix.


title: Zine

text: The riot grrrl movement emerged from the DIY Punk subculture in tandem with the American era of third-wave feminism, and used the consciousness-raising method of organizing and communication. As feminist documents, they follow a longer legacy of feminist and women's self-publication that includes scrapbooking, periodicals and health publications, allowing women to circulate ideas that would not otherwise be published. The American publication "Bikini Kill" (1990) introduced the Riot Grrrl Manifesto in their second issue as a way of establishing space. Zinesters Erika Reinstein and May Summer founded the Riot Grrrl Press to serve as a zine distribution network that would allow riot grrrls to "express themselves and reach large audiences without having to rely on the mainstream press".


title: Zine

text: Girls use this grassroots medium to discuss their personal lived experiences, and themes including body image, sexuality, gender norms, and violence to express anger, and reclaim/refigure femininity. Scholar and zinester Mimi Thi Nguyen notes that these norms unequally burdened riot grrrls of color with allowing white riot grrrls access to their personal experiences, an act which in itself was supposed to address systemic racism.


title: Zine

text: BUST - "The voice of the new world order" was created by Debbie Stoller, Laurie Hanzel and Marcelle Karp in 1993 to propose an alternate to the popular mainstream magazines Cosmopolitan and Glamour. Additional zines following this path are Shocking Pink (1981–82, 1987–92), Jigsaw (1988– ), Not Your Bitch 1989-1992 (Gypsy X, ed.) Bikini Kill (1990), Girl Germs (1990), Bamboo Girl (1995– ), BITCH Magazine (1996– ), Hip Mama (1997– ), Kitten Scratches (1999) and ROCKRGRL (1995–2005).


title: Zine

text: In the mid-1990s, zines were also published on the Internet as e-zines. Websites such as Gurl.com and ChickClick were created out of dissatisfaction of media available to women and parodied content found in mainstream teen and women's magazines. Both Gurl.com and ChickClick had a message board and free web hosting services, where users could also create and contribute their own content, which in turn created a reciprocal relationship where women could also be seen as creators rather than consumers.


title: Zine

text: Starting in this decade, multinational companies started appropriating and commodifying zines and DIY culture. Their faux zines created a commercialized "hipster" lifestyle. By late in the decade, independent zinesters were accused of "selling out" to make a profit.


title: Zine

text: Zines are sold, traded or given as gifts at symposiums, publishing fairs, record and book stores and concerts, via independent media outlets, zine 'distros', mail order or through direct correspondence with the author. They are also sold online on distro websites, Etsy shops, blogs, or social networking profiles and are available for download. While zines are generally self-published, there are a few independent publishers who specialize in art zines such as Nieves Books in Zurich, founded by Benjamin Sommerhalder, and Café Royal Books founded by Craig Atkinson in 2005. In recent years a number of photocopied zines have risen to prominence or professional status and have found wide bookstore and online distribution. Notable among these are "Giant Robot", "Dazed & Confused", "Bust", "Bitch", "Cometbus", "Doris", "Brainscan", The Miscreant, and "Maximum RocknRoll".


title: Zine

text: There are many catalogued and online based mail-order distros for zines. The longest running distribution operation is Microcosm Publishing in Portland, Oregon. Some other longstanding operations include Great Worm Express Distribution in Toronto, CornDog Publishing in Ipswich in the UK, Café Royal Books in Southport in the UK, AK Press in Oakland, California, Missing Link Records in Melbourne. and Wasted Ink Zine Distro in Phoenix, AZ.


title: Zine

text: A number of major public and academic libraries and museums carry zines and other small press publications, often with a specific focus (e.g. women's studies) or those that are relevant to a local region.