title: Rainbow lorikeet

text: A syndrome of uncertain etiology affects rainbow lorikeets every year. Every year in southeast Queensland and northeast New South Wales thousands become paralysed, most significantly, unable to fly or eat. Because this problem is highly seasonal - occurring only October-June and most intensively December-February - it is likely this is a form of plant poisoning. This pattern suggests it is due to the fruits of an unknown plant which only blooms from the spring - the autumn (the fall), and most intensively in the summer.


title: Benjamin Guggenheim

text: Benjamin Guggenheim (October 26, 1865 – April 15, 1912) was an American businessman. He died aboard when the ship sank in the North Atlantic Ocean. His body was never recovered.


title: Benjamin Guggenheim

text: Guggenheim was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the fifth of seven sons of the wealthy mining magnate Meyer Guggenheim (1828–1905), and Barbara Myers (1834–1900), both originally from Lengnau, Aargau, Switzerland. The first member of his family to enter an institute of higher learning, he entered Columbia College in 1882, matriculating with the class of 1887. However, he found most of his course boring and dropped out after his second year. He also attended the Peirce School of Business (now Peirce College), then one of the most prominent business schools in the country. Guggenheim was Jewish.


title: Benjamin Guggenheim

text: In 1894, he married Florette Seligman (1870–1937), daughter of James Seligman, a senior partner in the firm J. & W. Seligman & Co. and Rosa Seligman, née Content. Her family originated in Baiersdorf, Franconia, Germany. Together, they had three daughters: Benita Rosalind Guggenheim (1895–1927), Marguerite "Peggy" Guggenheim (1898–1979) and Barbara Hazel Guggenheim (1903–1995).


title: Benjamin Guggenheim

text: Guggenheim inherited a great deal of money from his mother. Due to business concerns, he grew distant from his wife and was frequently away from their New York City home. He maintained an apartment in Paris, France.


title: Benjamin Guggenheim

text: Guggenheim boarded the and was accompanied by his mistress, a French singer named Léontine Aubart (1887–1964); his valet, Victor Giglio (1888–1912); his chauffeur, René Pernot (1872–1912); and Madame Aubart's maid, Emma Sägesser (1887–1964). His ticket was number 17593 and cost £79 4s (other sources give the price as £56 18s 7d). He and Giglio occupied stateroom cabin B84 while Aubart and Sägesser occupied cabin B35. Pernot occupied an unknown cabin in second class.


title: Benjamin Guggenheim

text: Guggenheim and Giglio slept through the "Titanic" encounter with the iceberg only to be awakened just after midnight ship's time by Aubart and Sägesser, who had felt the collision. Sägesser later quoted Giglio as saying, "Never mind, icebergs! What is an iceberg?" Guggenheim was persuaded to awaken and dress, and bedroom steward James Etches helped fit him with a lifebelt and a heavy sweater before sending Guggenheim, Giglio, and the two women up to the boat deck.


title: Benjamin Guggenheim

text: As Aubart and Sägesser reluctantly entered Lifeboat No. 9, Guggenheim spoke to the maid in German, saying, "We will soon see each other again! It's just a repair. Tomorrow the "Titanic" will go on again." Realizing that the situation was much more serious than he had implied and that he was not going to be rescued, he returned to his cabin with Giglio and the two men changed into evening wear. "Titanic" survivor Rose Amelie Icard wrote in a letter, "The millionaire Benjamin Guggenheim after having helped the rescue of women and children, got dressed and put a rose at his buttonhole, to die." He was heard to remark, "We've dressed up in our best and are prepared to go down like gentlemen." Etches, who survived the sinking, recorded Guggenheim's message: "If anything should happen to me, tell my wife in New York that I've done my best in doing my duty." Etches reported that "shortly after the last few boats were lowered and I was ordered by the deck officer to man an oar, I waved good-bye to Mr. Guggenheim, and that was the last I saw of him and [Giglio]." Both men, as well as Guggenheim's chauffeur Pernot, died in the sinking. Their bodies, if recovered, were never identified.


title: Benjamin Guggenheim

text: Guggenheim was among the most prominent American victims of the disaster. As such, he has been portrayed in numerous films, television series and a Broadway show based on the sinking:


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: In mathematical optimization, the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker (KKT) conditions, also known as the Kuhn–Tucker conditions, are first derivative tests (sometimes called first-order necessary conditions) for a solution in nonlinear programming to be optimal, provided that some regularity conditions are satisfied.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Allowing inequality constraints, the KKT approach to nonlinear programming generalizes the method of Lagrange multipliers, which allows only equality constraints. Similar to the Lagrange approach, the constrained maximization (minimization) problem is rewritten as a Lagrange function whose optimal point is a saddle point, i.e. a global maximum (minimum) over the domain of the choice variables and a global minimum (maximum) over the multipliers, which is why the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker theorem is sometimes referred to as the saddle-point theorem.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: The KKT conditions were originally named after Harold W. Kuhn and Albert W. Tucker, who first published the conditions in 1951. Later scholars discovered that the necessary conditions for this problem had been stated by William Karush in his master's thesis in 1939.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: where formula_4 is the optimization variable chosen from a convex subset of formula_5, formula_6 is the objective or utility function, formula_7 are the inequality constraint functions and formula_8 are the equality constraint functions. The numbers of inequalities and equalities are denoted by formula_9 and formula_10 respectively. Corresponding to the constrained optimization problem one can form the Lagrangian function


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Theorem. If formula_14 is a saddle point of formula_15 in formula_4, formula_17, then formula_18 is an optimal vector for the above optimization problem. Suppose that formula_1 and formula_20, formula_21, are convex in formula_22 and that there exists formula_23 such that formula_24. Then with an optimal vector formula_18 for the above optimization problem there is associated a non-negative vector formula_26 such that formula_27 is a saddle point of formula_15.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Since the idea of this approach is to find a supporting hyperplane on the feasible set formula_29, the proof of the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker theorem makes use of the hyperplane separation theorem.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: The system of equations and inequalities corresponding to the KKT conditions is usually not solved directly, except in the few special cases where a closed-form solution can be derived analytically. In general, many optimization algorithms can be interpreted as methods for numerically solving the KKT system of equations and inequalities.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Suppose that the objective function formula_30 and the constraint functions formula_31 and formula_32 have subderivatives at a point formula_33. If formula_34 is a local optimum and the optimization problem satisfies some regularity conditions (see below), then there exist constants formula_35 and formula_36, called KKT multipliers, such that the following four groups of conditions hold:


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: In the particular case formula_46, i.e., when there are no inequality constraints, the KKT conditions turn into the Lagrange conditions, and the KKT multipliers are called Lagrange multipliers.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Note that even if formula_6 is differentiable, its subdifferential does not necessarily need to be formula_48. Indeed, formula_49 if formula_6 is lower-bounded by its linear approximation at formula_51, asformula_52


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: The primal problem can be interpreted as moving a particle in the space of formula_51, and subjecting it to three kinds of force fields:


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Primal stationarity states that the "force" of formula_63 is exactly balanced by a linear sum of forces formula_64 and formula_65.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Dual feasibility additionally states that all the formula_65 forces must be one-sided, pointing inwards into the feasible set for formula_51.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Dual slackness states that if formula_68, then the formula_65 force must be zero, since the particle is not on the boundary, the one-sided constraint force cannot activate.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: The necessary conditions can be written with Jacobian matrices of the constraint functions. Let formula_70 be defined as formula_71 and let formula_72 be defined as formula_73. Let formula_74 and formula_75. Then the necessary conditions can be written as:


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: One can ask whether a minimizer point formula_34 of the original, constrained optimization problem (assuming one exists) has to satisfy the above KKT conditions. This is similar to asking under what conditions the minimizer formula_34 of a function formula_37 in an unconstrained problem has to satisfy the condition formula_87. For the constrained case, the situation is more complicated, and one can state a variety of (increasingly complicated) "regularity" conditions under which a constrained minimizer also satisfies the KKT conditions. Some common examples for conditions that guarantee this are tabulated in the following, with the LICQ the most frequently used one:


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: In practice weaker constraint qualifications are preferred since they apply to a broader selection of problems.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: In some cases, the necessary conditions are also sufficient for optimality. In general, the necessary conditions are not sufficient for optimality and additional information is required, such as the Second Order Sufficient Conditions (SOSC). For smooth functions, SOSC involve the second derivatives, which explains its name.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: The necessary conditions are sufficient for optimality if the objective function formula_6 of a maximization problem is a concave function, the inequality constraints formula_89 are continuously differentiable convex functions and the equality constraints formula_90 are affine functions. Similarly, if the objective function formula_6 of a minimization problem is a convex function, the necessary conditions are also sufficient for optimality.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: It was shown by Martin in 1985 that the broader class of functions in which KKT conditions guarantees global optimality are the so-called Type 1 invex functions.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: For smooth, non-linear optimization problems, a second order sufficient condition is given as follows.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: The solution formula_92 found in the above section is a constrained local minimum if for the Lagrangian,


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: where only those active inequality constraints formula_97 corresponding to strict complementarity (i.e. where formula_98) are applied. The solution is a strict constrained local minimum in the case the inequality is also strict.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: If formula_99, the third order Taylor expansion of the Lagrangian should be used to verify if formula_34 is a local minimum. The minimization of formula_101 is a good counter-example, see also Peano surface.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Often in mathematical economics the KKT approach is used in theoretical models in order to obtain qualitative results. For example, consider a firm that maximizes its sales revenue subject to a minimum profit constraint. Letting formula_102 be the quantity of output produced (to be chosen), formula_103 be sales revenue with a positive first derivative and with a zero value at zero output, formula_104 be production costs with a positive first derivative and with a non-negative value at zero output, and formula_105 be the positive minimal acceptable level of profit, then the problem is a meaningful one if the revenue function levels off so it eventually is less steep than the cost function. The problem expressed in the previously given minimization form is


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Since formula_110 would violate the minimum profit constraint, we have formula_111 and hence the third condition implies that the first condition holds with equality. Solving that equality gives


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Because it was given that formula_113 and formula_114 are strictly positive, this inequality along with the non-negativity condition on formula_115 guarantees that formula_115 is positive and so the revenue-maximizing firm operates at a level of output at which marginal revenue formula_117 is less than marginal cost formula_118 — a result that is of interest because it contrasts with the behavior of a profit maximizing firm, which operates at a level at which they are equal.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: If we reconsider the optimization problem as a maximization problem with constant inequality constraints:


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: Given this definition, each coefficient formula_128 is the rate at which the value function increases as formula_129 increases. Thus if each formula_129 is interpreted as a resource constraint, the coefficients tell you how much increasing a resource will increase the optimum value of our function formula_6. This interpretation is especially important in economics and is used, for instance, in utility maximization problems.


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: With an extra multiplier formula_132, which may be zero (as long as formula_133), in front of formula_134 the KKT stationarity conditions turn into


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: which are called the Fritz John conditions. This optimality conditions holds without constraint qualifications and it is equivalent to the optimality condition "KKT or (not-MFCQ)".


title: Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions

text: The KKT conditions belong to a wider class of the first-order necessary conditions (FONC), which allow for non-smooth functions using subderivatives.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: Rollerball is a 1975 science fiction sports film directed and produced by Norman Jewison. It stars James Caan, John Houseman, Maud Adams, John Beck, Moses Gunn and Ralph Richardson. The screenplay, written by William Harrison, adapted his own short story "Roller Ball Murder", which had first appeared in the September 1973 issue of "Esquire."


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: Although "Rollerball" had a largely American cast, a Canadian director, and was released by the American company United Artists, it was produced in London and Munich.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: In 2018, Jonathan E. is the team captain and veteran star of the Houston Rollerball team. Mr. Bartholomew, chairman of the Energy Corporation and team sponsor, offers Jonathan a lavish retirement package if Jonathan will announce his retirement during an upcoming television special detailing his career. Jonathan refuses, and requests to see his former wife Ella, who had been taken from him some years earlier by a corporate executive who wanted her for himself.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: Jonathan goes to a library, where he finds that all books have been digitized and edited to suit the corporations, and are now stored on supercomputers at large protected corporate locations. Jonathan's friend and former coach Cletus, now an Energy executive, warns him that the Executive Committee is afraid of him, though he cannot find out why.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: Rollerball soon degrades into senseless violence as the rules are changed just to force Jonathan out. The Semi-final match of Houston vs. Tokyo is played with no penalties and limited substitutions in the hope Jonathan will be injured and forced out before the championship game. The brutality of the match kills several players and leaves Jonathan's best friend and teammate Moonpie in a coma.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: In a teleconference, the Executive Committee decides that the next game will be played with no penalties, no substitutions, and no time limit in the hope that Jonathan will be killed during the game. Jonathan's popularity and longevity as a player threaten the underlying agenda of Rollerball: to demonstrate the futility of individualism.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: Jonathan makes his way to Geneva to access the world's repository of all human knowledge, a central supercomputer known as "Zero," only to find its memory corrupted. Afterwards, Jonathan receives a visit from his former wife Ella, who has been sent to convince him to retire and to make it clear that the coming game will be "to the death". Jonathan realizes his wife's visit was set up by the Executives, and erases a long-cherished movie of the two of them, stating, "I just wanted you on my side." Jonathan decides that despite the dangers, he "will" play in the Houston versus New York championship game.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: The final match devolves into a gladiatorial fight. Jonathan is soon the only player left on the track for Houston, while a skater and a biker remain from New York. After a violent struggle in front of Mr. Bartholomew's box, Jonathan kills the skater and takes the ball. The biker charges, and Jonathan knocks him off the bike and pins the biker down. He raises the ball over his head, then pauses. Refusing to kill his fallen opponent, Jonathan gets to his feet and makes his way to the goal, slamming the ball home and scoring the game's only point. After a bloody match which sees all of his teammates killed or injured, Jonathan takes a victory lap as the crowd chants his name, first softly, then louder, and finally as a roar while Mr. Bartholomew hastily exits the stands.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: "Rollerball"s arena sequences were shot at the Rudi-Sedlmayer-Halle in Munich, Germany. This hall was selected because it was the only sports arena in the world with a near-circular profile, which the production could take over and re-dress for shooting.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: The then-new BMW Headquarters and Museum buildings in Munich appear as the headquarters buildings of the Energy Corporation at the Olympiapark, Munich. Scenes were also filmed at Fawley Power Station, near Southampton. The sequence where Jonathan E. visits Geneva to consult with Zero the supercomputer concerning corporate decisions features exterior shots of the Palace of Nations.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: Recognizing their contribution to the film's many crucial action sequences, "Rollerball" was the first major Hollywood production to give screen credit to its stunt performers. The film was shot in 35mm with a 1.85 aspect ratio but was released in some theaters in 70mm with a 2:1 aspect ratio.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: The game of Rollerball was so realistic that the cast, extras, and stunt personnel played it between takes on the set. At the time of the film's release, Howard Cosell interviewed Norman Jewison and James Caan on "ABC's Wide World of Sports", showing clips from the film and with the two of them explaining the rules of the game. Audiences who saw the film so loved the action of the game that Jewison was contacted multiple times by promoters, requesting that the "rights to the game" be sold so that real Rollerball leagues might be formed. Jewison was outraged, as the entire point of the movie was to show the "sickness and insanity of contact sports and their allure."


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: English pro wrestler Mark Rocco was a stuntman for the film. He used the "Rollerball" name as his nickname.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: Bach's Toccata and Fugue in D minor is performed on organ by Simon Preston during the opening title sequence and again at the final scene, bookending the film. Adagio in G minor by Albinoni/Giazotto, and the "Largo" movement from Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5 are also used to establish tone, mood, and atmosphere for certain scenes in the film. The classical music was performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by André Previn, who also wrote the "Executive Party" music for the film and the corporate anthems performed before certain matches.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: All science-fiction can be roughly divided into two types of nightmares. In the first the world has gone through a nuclear holocaust and civilization has reverted to a neo-stone Age. In the second, of which ""Rollerball"" is an elaborate and very silly example, all of mankind's problems have been solved but at the terrible price of individual freedom. ... The only way science-fiction of this sort makes sense is as a comment on the society for which it's intended, and the only way ""Rollerball"" would have made sense is a satire of our national preoccupation with televised professional sports, particularly weekend football. Yet ""Rollerball"" isn't a satire. It's not funny at all and, not being funny, it becomes, instead, frivolous.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film 2 stars out of 4 and called it "a movie in love with itself" and "vapid, pretentious, and arrogant. Not even John Houseman's fine performance as a villainous corporate director is sufficient to make 'Rollerball' tolerable. The only way to enjoy it, I suppose, is to cheer at the rollerball game's mayhem." Arthur D. Murphy of "Variety", wrote that it "packs an emotional and intellectual wallop" and that James Caan gave an "excellent performance". Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" was also positive, calling it "a fresh, unusual and stimulating movie. In its portraying of the vast and essentially stateless multinational corporations, 'Rollerball' plays off developments which have come since Huxley's and Orwell's time." Jonathan Rosenbaum of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" panned "Rollerball" as "A classic demonstration of how several millions of dollars can be unenjoyably wasted ... this glib fable seems to be aiming at a simplified version of "A Clockwork Orange" without any intimations of wit or satire to carry the vague moralistic message."


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: James Monaco wrote that Rollerball "like most paranoid fantasies offers no hope: If James Caan can't beat the system, who can?"


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: "TV Guide" gave the film three out of four stars; it said "the performances of Caan and Richardson are excellent, and the rollerball sequences are fast-paced and interesting." Jay Cocks of "Time" said Caan looked "unconvinced and uncomfortable" as Jonathan E.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 69% based on reviews from 35 critics, with an average rating of 6.2/10. The site's consensus reads: "In "Rollerball", social commentary collides with high-speed action – and the audience is the winner." On Metacritic the film has a score of 56 out of 100 based on reviews from 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: In 1985, IJK Software produced a game called "Rocketball" for the Commodore 64 computer, with the scoring rules based on the game in the movie. In 1989, Microïds published an unofficial successor called "Killerball" for the Atari ST, Amiga, Amstrad CPC, and MS-DOS.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: In 1997, Z-Axis Games was developing an official Rollerball video game adaptation based on the film As part of MGM Interactive video game showcase lineup. The game's promise was to recreate the action of the futuristic game played in the movie, and it was set 10 years after the events of the film in the 2098 Rollerball season, where the player would be in charge of managing their Rollerball teams around the world, made up of Rollerball players with roles such as strikers, enforcers, guard, and other players who compete using jet bikes and magnetic in-line skates. "Rollerball: The Video Game" was slated to be released for PlayStation, PC, and Nintendo 64 on the first quarter of 1998, but was delayed to mid-1998 and then was canceled due to the publisher, MGM Interactive, going bankrupt.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: In 2004, I-play developed and published a "Rollerball" game for mobile phones. It is based on the 1975 film, rather than the 2002 remake of the same name.


title: Rollerball (1975 film)

text: "Speedball" and its sequel "" are said to have been heavily inspired by "Rollerball", though Bitmap Brothers co-founder Mike Montgomery denies this, saying "Speedball"'s similarities to the film are more of a coincidence.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: Gretchen Frances Wilson (born June 26, 1973) is an American country music singer and songwriter. She made her debut in March 2004 with the Grammy Award-winning single "Redneck Woman", a number-one hit on the "Billboard" country charts. The song served as the lead-off single of her debut album, "Here for the Party". Wilson followed this album one year later with "All Jacked Up", the title track of which became the highest-debuting single for a female country artist upon its 2005 release. A third album, "One of the Boys", was released in 2007.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: Overall, Wilson has charted 13 singles on the "Billboard" country charts, of which five have reached top ten: the number one "Redneck Woman", as well as "Here for the Party" (#3, 2004), "When I Think About Cheatin'" (#4, 2004), "Homewrecker" (#2, 2005), and "All Jacked Up" (#8, 2005). The album "Here for the Party" was certified 5× multi-platinum by the RIAA for sales of five million copies, while "All Jacked Up" was certified platinum. She has sold over 8.2 million records worldwide.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: Wilson signed with Epic Records in 2003 and recorded "Here for the Party" within the year. Her first single, "Redneck Woman", was released in early 2004 and reached the top of the Hot Country Songs charts and No. 22 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. This song was also the first number one country hit by a female in two years. The success of "Redneck Woman" prompted an earlier-than-planned release for "Here for the Party", and it debuted at No. 1 on the "Billboard" country chart. It reached No. 2 on the "Billboard" 200 and "Billboard" Internet album sales charts. She performed as a support artist for Brooks & Dunn and Montgomery Gentry.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: She released the title track to her debut album as the second single. It peaked at No. 3 on the "Billboard" country chart. Two other songs were released as singles, and both reached the top 10. Released in markets outside the U.S., the album hit No. 2 on the Australian country charts (behind Kasey Chambers) and the top 50 of the Australian charts. "Here for the Party" was certified 5× multi-platinum by the RIAA.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: On September 27, 2005, Wilson released her second album, "All Jacked Up", which peaked at No. 1 on both the Top 200 and Country album charts and sold 1 million copies. The title track debuted at No. 21 on the Hot Country Songs charts, setting a record for the highest debut ever made by a female artist.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: This record was broken in late 2007 by Carrie Underwood's "So Small". Despite its high debut, however, "All Jacked Up" peaked at No. 8 on Hot Country Songs after only eight chart weeks. It was also used, at one time, by ESPN as the opening theme for its baseball coverage. Three more singles were released from "All Jacked Up": "I Don't Feel Like Loving You Today", "Politically Uncorrect" (a duet with Merle Haggard) and "California Girls", none of which reached Top 20 on the country charts. These latter two singles were issued on Columbia Records, due to the closure of Epic Records's Nashville division.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: Wilson's "I Don't Feel Like Loving You Today" was nominated for two Grammy Awards: Best Female Country Vocal Performance, and Best Country Song. In 2006, Wilson contributed a well-received cover of Kris Kristofferson's "Sunday Mornin' Coming Down" on the tribute CD "The Pilgrim: A Celebration of Kris Kristofferson".


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: On May 15, 2007, Wilson released her third album, "One of the Boys". The album debuted at No. 5 on the Top 200 and at No. 1 on the Country album chart. After 10 weeks, it exited the Billboard Top 200, having sold 178,220 copies at that point. "Come to Bed" (a duet with John Rich) and the title track, the first two singles released, both peaked in the 30s on the country charts, while the third and final single ("You Don't Have to Go Home") failed to reach the Top 40.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: On July 14, 2008, Wilson released a new single, "Don't Do Me No Good". This song was intended to be the lead-off single to a fourth studio album, but it failed to reach the Top 40 and the album was delayed. It was followed in 2009 by two more singles, "The Earrings Song" and "If I Could Do It All Again," neither of which entered the charts. Wilson then issued a press release on July 28, 2009, stating that she would be parting with Sony Music Nashville. Wilson then launched Redneck Records, her own record label. "Work Hard, Play Harder" was released to radio on October 26, 2009 as the first single from the label and her fourth studio album, "I Got Your Country Right Here", was finally released on March 30, 2010. Her former label, Columbia Nashville, released her first "Greatest Hits" album on January 19, 2010, to finish off her recording contract.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: On July 31, 2008, The Black Crowes filed a lawsuit against Wilson for copyright violation, alleging that her song "Work Hard, Play Harder" copied the Crowes song "Jealous Again". Also included in the suit were her label Sony BMG, her publishing company, and the cable network TNT, which had been using the song in commercials. The lawsuit was eventually settled out of court for an undisclosed sum and Black Crowes members Chris and Rich Robinson were given songwriting credits.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: Wilson released an album of original songs titled "Right on Time" on April 2, 2013. It was led by the single "Still Rollin'". A collection of rock covers titled "Under the Covers" was released on June 4, 2013. Wilson released her first Christmas album, "Christmas in My Heart", on October 8, 2013.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: While a country singer first and foremost, Gretchen Wilson has also attracted favorable attention for her rendition of classic rock songs by Heart – a group which she sees as "one of the biggest influences on my musical career".


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: She has appeared several times on the same stage as lead singer Ann Wilson and guitarist Nancy Wilson, once describing the experience as "beyond a dream come true".


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: She has sung "Straight On", "Crazy on You", and – most notably – "Barracuda", which she performed with Alice in Chains and Nancy Wilson on guitar at the 2007 VH1 Rock Honors. She also performed, with Randy Bachman, the classic Who track "Who Are You" on the album "Who Are You – An All Star Tribute to the Who". She performed on Buckcherry's single "The Feeling Never Dies" (from the album "Rock 'n' Roll"), which was released January 29, 2016.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: Gretchen Wilson sang the National Anthem (blended with a voice-over of the Pledge of Allegiance) to a national audience at the Republican National Convention on September 3, 2008, later describing this as a "once-in-a-lifetime" experience at a "historic moment." Wilson and her band also performed during a rally for Republican presidential candidate John McCain and vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin at Lunken Airport in Cincinnati, Ohio, on October 22, 2008, to a crowd of approximately 12,000 supporters. Palin started the rally by exclaiming that she couldn't wait to get Wilson's autograph. Wilson played a version of the Heart song "Barracuda" for Palin.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: Wilson has been active in support for children's charities, adult education, and the fight against obesity. Initiatives to date include:


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: In April 2010, Wilson released a customized version of "Work Hard, Play Harder" in honor of the National Hockey League's Nashville Predators, with reworked lyrics mentioning the team and its fans.


title: Gretchen Wilson

text: On August 21, 2018, Wilson was arrested at Bradley International Airport in Windsor Locks, Connecticut. Connecticut State Police arrived at the airport after reports of a minor disturbance. Police arrested Wilson after she reportedly became belligerent during their on-tarmac interview. Wilson was charged with breach of peace and her bond was set at $1,000.


title: British Guiana

text: British Guiana was a British colony, part of the mainland British West Indies, which resides on the northern coast of South America. Since 1966 it has been known as the independent nation of Guyana.


title: British Guiana

text: The first European to encounter Guiana was Sir Walter Raleigh, an English explorer. The Dutch were the first Europeans to settle there, starting in the early 17th century, when they founded the colonies of Essequibo and Berbice, adding Demerara in the mid-18th century. In 1796, Great Britain took over these three colonies during hostilities with the French, who had occupied the Netherlands. Britain returned control to the Batavian Republic in 1802 but captured the colonies a year later during the Napoleonic Wars. The colonies were officially ceded to the United Kingdom in 1815 and consolidated into a single colony in 1831. The colony's capital was at Georgetown (known as Stabroek prior to 1812).


title: British Guiana

text: The economy has become more diversified since the late 19th century but has relied on resource exploitation. Guyana became independent of the United Kingdom on 26 May 1966.


title: British Guiana

text: The English made at least two unsuccessful attempts in the 17th century to colonise the lands that would later be known as British Guiana, at which time the Dutch had established two colonies in the area: Essequibo, administered by the Dutch West India Company, and Berbice, administered by the Berbice Association. The Dutch West India Company founded a third colony, Demerara, in the mid-18th century. During the French Revolutionary Wars of the late 18th century, when the Netherlands were occupied by the French, and Great Britain and France were at war, Britain took over the colony in 1796. A British expeditionary force was dispatched from its colony of Barbados to seize the colonies from the French-dominated Batavian Republic. The colonies surrendered without a struggle. Initially very little changed, as the British agreed to allow the long-established laws of the colonies to remain in force.


title: British Guiana

text: In 1802 Britain returned the colonies to the Batavian Republic under the terms of the Treaty of Amiens. But, after resuming hostilities with France in the Napoleonic Wars in 1803, Britain seized the colonies again less than a year later. The three colonies were officially ceded to the United Kingdom in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. The UK continued separate administration of the individual colonies until 1822 when the administration of Essequibo and Demerara was combined. In 1831, the administration Essequibo-Demerara and Berbice was combined, and the united colony became known as British Guiana. During World War II the United States Navy established NAF British Guiana and NAF Paramaribo in British Guiana.


title: British Guiana

text: The slave economy flourished between the abolition of the slave trade in 1807 and emancipation in the 1830s. The wealth largely flowed to a group of absentee slave owners living in Britain, especially in Glasgow and Liverpool.


title: British Guiana

text: The economy of British Guiana was completely based on sugarcane production until the 1880s, when falling cane sugar prices stimulated a shift toward rice farming, mining and forestry. However, sugarcane remained a significant part of the economy (in 1959 sugar still accounted for nearly 50% of exports). Under the Dutch, settlement and economic activity was concentrated around sugarcane plantations lying inland from the coast. Under the British, cane planting expanded to richer coastal lands, with greater coastline protection. Until the abolition of slavery in the British Empire, sugar planters depended almost exclusively on slave labour to produce sugar. Georgetown was the site of a significant slave rebellion in 1823.


title: British Guiana

text: In the 1880s gold and diamond deposits were discovered in British Guiana, including what was thought to be the world's largest diamond in 1922 but they did not produce significant revenue. Bauxite deposits proved more promising and would remain an important part of the economy. The colony did not develop any significant manufacturing industry, other than sugar factories, rice mills, sawmills, and certain small-scale industries (including a brewery, a soap factory, a biscuit factory and an oxygen-acetylene plant, among others).


title: British Guiana

text: The London-based Booker Group of companies (Booker Brothers, McConnell & Co., Ltd) dominated the economy of British Guiana. The Bookers had owned sugar plantations in the colony since the early 19th century; by the end of the century they owned a majority of them; and by 1950 owned all but three. With the increasing success and wealth of the Booker Group, they expanded internationally and diversified by investing in rum, pharmaceuticals, publishing, advertising, retail stores, timber, and petroleum, among other industries. The Booker Group became the largest employer in the colony, leading some to refer to it as "Booker's Guiana".


title: British Guiana

text: Indentured workers from India 1850 to 1920 were largely locked in place. Nevertheless a minority achieved mobility. Some secretly fled; others waited until their contracts expired. Indian migration involved three phases: desertion from the plantations; movement settlements and later to urban areas; and intra-regional migration from one Caribbean island to another. The traditional rigid Indian caste system largely collapsed in the colonies.


title: British Guiana

text: Guianese served in all British forces during the Second World War, and enjoyed veterans' benefits afterwards. The colony made a small but important financial contribution to the war effort, and it served as a refuge for displaced Jews.


title: British Guiana

text: British colonists built the first railway system in British Guiana: of , from Georgetown to Rosignol, and of line between Vreeden Hoop and Parika; it opened in 1848. Several narrow-gauge lines were built to serve the sugar industry and others were built to serve the later mines.


title: British Guiana

text: In 1948, when the railway in Bermuda was closed down, the locomotives, rolling stock, track, sleepers and virtually all the associated paraphernalia of a railway were shipped to British Guiana to renovate the aged system.


title: British Guiana

text: The lines ceased to operate in 1972, but the large Central Station is still standing in Georgetown. Some of the inland mines still operate narrow-gauge lines.


title: British Guiana

text: The British long continued the forms of Dutch colonial government in British Guiana. A Court of Policy exercised both legislative and executive functions under the direction of the colonial Governor (which existed from 1831 to 1966). A group known as the Financial Representatives sat with the Court of Policy in a Combined Court to set tax policies. A majority of the members of the Courts was appointed by the Governor; the rest were selected by a College of Kiezers (Electors). The Kiezers were elected, with the restrictive franchise based on property holdings and limited to the larger landowners of the colony. The Courts were dominated in the early centuries by the sugar planters and their representatives.


title: British Guiana

text: In 1891 the College of Kiezers was abolished in favour of direct election of the elective membership of the Courts. Membership of the Court of Policy became half elected and half appointed, and all of the Financial Representatives became elective positions. The executive functions of the Court of Policy were transferred to a new Executive Council under the control of the Governor. Property qualifications were significantly relaxed for voters and for candidates to the Courts.


title: British Guiana

text: In 1928 the British Government abolished the Dutch-influenced constitution and replaced it with a Crown colony constitution. A Legislative Council with an appointed majority was established, and the administrative powers of the Governor were strengthened. These constitutional changes were not popular among the Guyanese, who viewed them as a step backward. The franchise was extended to women.


title: British Guiana

text: In 1938 the West India Royal Commission ("The Moyne Commission") was appointed to investigate the economic and social condition of all the British colonies in the Caribbean region after a number of civil and labour disturbances. Among other changes, the Commission recommended some constitutional reforms. As a result, in 1943 a majority of the Legislative Council seats became elective, the property qualifications for voters and for candidates for the Council were lowered, and the bar on women and clergy serving on the Council was abolished. The Governor retained control of the Executive Council, which had the power to veto or pass laws against the wishes of the Legislative Council.


title: British Guiana

text: legislature, consisting of a lower House of Assembly and an upper State Council, was established. The voting membership of the House of Assembly was entirely elective. The membership of the State Council was appointed by the Governor and the House of Assembly and possessed limited revisionary powers. A Court of Policy became the executive body, consisting of the Governor and other colonial officials. Universal adult suffrage was instituted, and the property qualifications for office abolished.


title: British Guiana

text: The election of 27 April 1953 under the new system provoked a serious constitutional crisis. The People's Progressive Party (PPP) won 18 of the 24 seats in the House of Assembly. This result alarmed the British Government, which was surprised by the strong showing of the PPP. It considered the PPP as too friendly with communist organisations.


title: British Guiana

text: As a result of its fears of communist influence in the colony, the British Government suspended the constitution, declared a state of emergency, and militarily occupied British Guiana on 9 October 1953. Under the direction of the British Colonial Office, the Governor assumed direct rule of the colony under an Interim Government, which continued until 1957. On 12 August 1957, elections were held and the PPP won nine of fourteen elective seats in a new legislature.


title: British Guiana

text: A constitutional convention convened in London in March 1960 reached agreement on another new legislature, to consist of an elected House of Assembly (35 seats) and a nominated Senate (13 seats). In the ensuing election of 21 August 1961, the PPP won 20 seats in the House of Assembly, entitling it as the majority party to appoint eight senators. Upon the 1961 election, British Guiana also became self-governing, except as to defence and external matters. The leader of the majority party became Prime Minister, who then named a Council of Ministers, replacing the former Executive Council.


title: British Guiana

text: From 1962 to 1964, riots, strikes and other disturbances stemming from racial, social and economic conflicts delayed full independence for British Guiana. The leaders of the political parties reported to the British Colonial Secretary that they were unable to reach agreement on the remaining details of forming an independent government. The British Colonial Office intervened by imposing its own independence plan, in part requiring another election under a new proportional representation system. Britain expected that this system would reduce the number of seats won by the PPP and prevent it from obtaining a majority.


title: British Guiana

text: The December 1964 elections for the new legislature gave the PPP 45.8% (24 seats), the People's National Congress (PNC) 40.5% (22 seats) and the United Force (UF) 12.4% (7 seats). The UF agreed to form a coalition government with the PNC, and accordingly, the PNC leader became the new Prime Minister. In November 1965 an independence conference in London quickly reached agreement on an independent constitution; it set the date for independence as 26 May 1966. On that date, at 12 midnight, British Guiana became the new nation of Guyana.


title: British Guiana

text: In 1840, the British Government assigned Robert Hermann Schomburgk to survey and mark out the western boundary of British Guiana with newly independent Venezuela. Venezuela did not accept the Schomburgk Line, which placed the entire Cuyuni River basin within the colony. Venezuela claimed all lands west of the Essequibo River as its territory (see map in this section).


title: British Guiana

text: The dispute continued on and off for half a century, culminating in the Venezuela Crisis of 1895, in which Venezuela sought to use the United States' Monroe Doctrine to win support for its position. US President Grover Cleveland used diplomatic pressure to get the British to agree to arbitration of the issue, ultimately agreeing terms for the arbitration that suited Britain. An arbitration tribunal convened in Paris in 1898, and issued its award in 1899. The tribunal awarded about 94% of the disputed territory to British Guiana. A commission surveyed a new border according to the award, and the parties accepted the boundary in 1905.


title: British Guiana

text: There the matter rested until 1962, when Venezuela renewed its 19th-century claim, alleging that the arbitral award was invalid. After his death, Severo Mallet-Prevost, legal counsel for Venezuela and a named partner in the New York law firm Curtis, Mallet-Prevost, Colt & Mosle published a letter alleging that the judges on the tribunal acted improperly as a result of a back-room deal between Russia and Great Britain. The British Government rejected this claim, asserting the validity of the 1899 award. The British Guiana Government, then under the leadership of the PPP, also strongly rejected this claim. Efforts by all parties to resolve the matter on the eve of Guyana's independence in 1966 failed; as of today, the dispute remains unresolved.


title: British Guiana

text: Robert Schomburgk's 1840 commission also included a survey of the colony's eastern boundary with the Dutch colony of Surinam, now the independent nation of Suriname. The 1899 arbitration award settling the British Guiana–Venezuela border made reference to the border with Suriname as continuing to the source of the Courantyne River, which it named as the Kutari River. The Netherlands raised a diplomatic protest, claiming that the New River, and not the Kutari, was to be regarded as the source of the Courantyne and the boundary. The British government in 1900 replied that the issue was already settled by the longstanding acceptance of the Kutari as the boundary.


title: British Guiana

text: In 1962, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, on behalf of its then-constituent country of Suriname, finally made formal claim to the "New River Triangle", the triangular-shaped region between the New and Kutari rivers that was in dispute. The then Surinamese colonial government and, after 1975, the independent Surinamese government, maintained the Dutch position, while the British Guiana Government, and later the independent Guyanese government, maintained the British position.


title: British Guiana

text: British Guiana is famous among philatelists for its early postage stamps, which were first issued in 1850. These stamps include some of the rarest, most expensive stamps in the world, such as the unique British Guiana 1c magenta from 1856, which was sold in 2014 for US$9.5 million.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: Sydney McLaughlin-Levrone (, born August 7, 1999) is an American hurdler and sprinter who specialises in the 400 meters hurdles. She is the 2020 Tokyo Olympic champion with the Games record, and 2022 World champion with the current world record of 50.68 seconds. McLaughlin holds world records in all three women's age groups. Setting four senior world records during 13 months, she was the first woman to break the 52-second (June 2021) and 51-second (July 2022) barriers in the 400 m hurdles. She won the silver medal at the 2019 World Championships. At all three Games, she also took gold as part of a women's 4 × 400 m relay team.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: As a 15-year-old, McLaughlin was the 2015 World youth champion. In 2016, she was the youngest athlete since 1980 to qualify for the U.S. Olympic track team, having placed third at the U.S. Olympic Trials, with the current world under-18 best of 54.15 seconds, the then also world U20 record. She holds the current world U20 record of 53.60 seconds, having achieved a junior personal best of 52.75 s (not ratified), with both marks set in 2018. Only one other woman also broke the 52-second barrier and McLaughlin-Levrone is the only one who broke the 51-second barrier, leaving her with nearly one second advantage on the world all-time list, the largest current difference between the world record and the next best performer in an individual track event. She holds six out of the seven fastest times on this list. She was the 2019 Diamond League champion.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: Sydney McLaughlin was born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, on August 7, 1999. Her father, Willie McLaughlin, is a member of the Manhattan College Athletic Hall of Fame as a three-time All-American. He was a semi-finalist in the 400 meters at the 1984 Olympic Trials. Her mother, Mary Neumeister McLaughlin, was a 2:12 half-miler at Cardinal O'Hara High School in Tonawanda, New York, where she ran on the boys' team. Her parents met as students at Manhattan College; there was no women's track team when Mary arrived in 1979, so she became the manager of the men's track team.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: Sydney grew up in Dunellen, New Jersey. In addition to being successful academically, she took up running at an early age, following brother Taylor and their older sister Morgan. She is a member of the class of 2017 at Union Catholic Regional High School in Scotch Plains, where she was the first two-time Gatorade Player of the Year in Track & Field. Her older sister, Morgan, ran for St. Peter's University. Her older brother, Taylor, ran for the University of Michigan, and won silver in the 400 meter hurdles at the 2016 IAAF World U20 Championships. He and Sydney both qualified for the 2016 US Olympic team. Her younger brother, Ryan, took after his older siblings as a track stand-out at Union Catholic. He was the fifth member of the family to win a New Jersey county track title.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: "All of our kids are fairly talented," Willie said when Sydney was 14. "But (Sydney's) a little special. We saw it coming. It was just a matter of time."


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: At the national junior championships in 2014, McLaughlin placed a close second behind Shamier Little in the 400-meter hurdles; her time of 55.63 s was a national high school freshman record and a world age-14 best. She would have qualified to represent the United States at the 2014 IAAF World Junior Championships, but was a year too young to be eligible. McLaughlin also set a world age group best of 13.34 s in the 100-meter hurdles over 76.2 cm (2 ft 6 in) hurdles that summer.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: In 2015, she improved her 400-meter hurdles best to 55.28 s at the national youth trials; the time was an age 15 world best, and ranked second on the all-time world youth list behind Leslie Maxie's world youth best (and national high school record) of 55.20 s set in 1984. She qualified for the World Youth Championships in Cali, Colombia, where she won gold in 55.94 s; she finished the year as the world youth and junior leader in the event.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: McLaughlin won the 400-meter hurdles in 54.46 s at the New Balance national outdoor high school championships; the time broke Maxie's prep record and world youth best, as well as Lashinda Demus's American junior record of 54.70 s. In addition, she ran on Union Catholic's team in the Swedish medley relay, running a fast 50.93 s split for 400 meters as the team set a new high school record of 2:07.99. She won the USATF junior championship in 54.54 s the following week; in recognition of her accomplishments, she was named Gatorade National Girls Athlete of the Year.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: McLaughlin placed third in the 400-meter hurdles in 54.15 s at the US Olympic Trials, setting a new world youth best and world junior record and qualifying for the Olympics in Rio de Janeiro before her senior year in high school. She was the youngest athlete to make the American Olympic track and field team since Carol Lewis and Denean Howard qualified for the boycotted Moscow Olympics in 1980. At the Games, she placed fifth in her semi-final heat, failing to advance to the finals.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: She was part of an American record setting quartet that broke the indoor distance medley relay world record with a time of 10:40.31, set at the New Balance Indoor Grand Prix on January 28 at Boston's Reggie Lewis Center. The splits for the four legs were: 3:18.40 (1200 m) by Emma Coburn, 52.32 (400 m) by McLaughlin, 2:01.92 (800 m) by Brenda Martinez, and 4:27.66 (1600 m) by Jenny Simpson. Later that indoor season on March 12, McLaughlin lowered her own national 400-meter record to a 51.61 s at the New Balance Nationals in New York City.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: In April, McLaughlin opened her outdoor season by breaking the 300 m hurdles national high school record at the Arcadia Invitational, running 38.90 s. The record was previously held by Lashinda Demus who achieved 39.98 s in 2001. The record was the first ever attempt over 300 m hurdles for McLaughlin as high school track meets in New Jersey do not contest the 300 m hurdles. Her time was a North American record and number 2 all-time worldwide behind Zuzana Hejnová who ran 38.16 in 2013. Later that month, McLaughlin ran the fastest ever high school girls relay split (400 m) during the Championship of America high school girls 4 x 400 at the 123rd Penn Relays. After taking the baton at the back of an eight-team field, she posted a split of 50.37 s, passing five teams to lead her Union Catholic relay team to a third-place finish in 3:38.92. McLaughlin bettered this mark at the New Balance Nationals Outdoor Meet on June 18. Taking the baton in sixth place on the final handoff, she passed five runners to lead Union Catholic to victory, posting a split of 49.85 seconds.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: McLaughlin was named the Gatorade National Female Athlete of the Year in 2015–16 and 2016–17. She was the first athlete to repeat in the then-15-year history of the award. At the age of 17, she was on the cover of "Sports Illustrated" when she won the award the second time in July 2017 and the magazine said she "ranks as one of the most dominant high school athletes ever."


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: In November 2016, McLaughlin signed a National Letter of Intent to attend the University of Kentucky and compete for their track and field program.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: In March 2018, she set the world junior 400-meter record of 50.36 s at the 2018 NCAA Division I Indoor Track and Field Championships. On May 13, McLaughlin broke the collegiate and NCAA record in the 400 m hurdles, running 52.75 s to win the event in her first SEC championship appearance.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: In June 2018, after one year at Kentucky, she forfeited her eligibility to compete in college to turn professional, and signed a sponsorship deal with New Balance in October of the same year. After a bidding war, she got an estimated $1.5 million in annual base pay from New Balance. Instead of hiring an agent specializing in athletes, McLaughlin contracted with William Morris Endeavor, a firm that typically represents Hollywood stars.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: She is coached by controversial track coach Bob Kersee, whose successes have mainly been with female athletes.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: McLaughlin is married to Andre Levrone Jr. (born March 9, 1995), who graduated from the University of Virginia in 2017 and played parts of three seasons as a wide receiver in the NFL before leaving the league. Levrone and McLaughlin announced their engagement on August 25, 2021, at the Four Seasons Resort, Scottsdale. They married at Early Mountain Vineyards in Madison, Virginia on May 5, 2022.


title: Sydney McLaughlin

text: Her hometown of Dunellen, New Jersey, named the track at the town's Columbia Park for McLaughlin on August 28, 2021.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: Louise of Hesse-Kassel (, ; 7 September 1817 – 29 September 1898) was Queen of Denmark as the wife of King Christian IX from 15 November 1863 until her death in 1898.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: Louise was born as the daughter of Prince William of Hesse-Kassel and Princess Charlotte of Denmark. Her siblings included Princess Marie Luise Charlotte of Hesse-Kassel, Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel and Princess Auguste Sophie Friederike of Hesse-Kassel. Louise of Hesse lived in Denmark from the age of three.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: As a niece of King Christian VIII, who ruled Denmark between 1839 and 1848, Louise was very close to the succession after several individuals of the royal house of Denmark who were elderly and childless. As children, her brother Frederik Wilhelm, her sisters and she were the closest relatives of King Christian VIII who were likely to produce heirs. It was easy to see that the agnatic succession from King Frederick III of Denmark would probably become extinct within a generation. Louise was one of the females descended from Frederick III of Denmark, and she enjoyed the remainder provisions of the succession (according to the Semi-Salic Law) in the event that his male line became extinct. She and her siblings were not agnatic descendants of the House of Oldenburg and the Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein, thus ineligible to inherit the twin duchies, since there existed a number of agnatic lines eligible to inherit those territories.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: Louise was married at the Amalienborg Palace in Copenhagen on 26 May 1842 to her second cousin Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg. He was soon selected as hereditary prince of Denmark and later ascended the throne of Denmark as King Christian IX. The marriage greatly strengthed Christian's efforts to secure the Danish throne, since it joined two competing claimants whose children would have an enhanced connection to the ancient bloodlines of the Danish monarchy. Louise and Christian lived a quiet family life. Louise's mother and siblings renounced their rights to the Danish throne to her. Louise herself in turn renounced her rights to the throne to her spouse Christian. In 1852, this succession order was confirmed by the Nordic countries and foreign powers in London.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: In 1847, Prince Christian was, with the approval of Europe's Great Powers, chosen as successor to the Danish throne by Christian VIII (who did not expect his only surviving son, the future Frederick VII, to father dynastic sons). This choice of heir was made more dynastically palatable by the fact that, thanks to the mass renunciations of the Hesses, Christian's wife Louise became the heiress eventual to the crown, meaning that the couple's children would be heirs to the throne both by right of international treaty and by compliance with the "Lex Regia". This resolved the succession to the Danish crown, but not Denmark's claim on the twin duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. German Holstein's historic law of succession was Salic and could not so easily be reconciled with Christian's claim so long as the Augustenborgs survived and Prussia offered itself as the international champion of German nationalism. The result of this conflict was the Second War of Schleswig.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: On 3 July 1853, King Frederick VII confirmed this succession. By that act, Louise and Christian became Crown Princess and Crown Prince of Denmark. Louise had a tense relationship with King Frederick VII, who contradicted the succession of her spouse, and whose marriage to the non-royal Louise Rasmussen she did not approve of. Therefore, the King and the Crown Prince couple did not see each other very often.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: On 15 November 1863 King Frederick VII died and Christian became King of Denmark. The relationship between Louise and Christian seems to have been at least partially a marriage of love, and is described as happy: she supported him in his struggle to be acknowledged as heir-presumptive to the throne of Denmark, and the couple became strongly attached to each other during the years of succession struggle. Her loyalty is said to have been of great importance to him, and Christian is described as dependent upon her intelligence, judgment and psychological strength, all of which were considered to be superior to his own. Their life style is described as simple and puritan, and as this suited the contemporary view of an exemplary family life, the royal family was regarded as a morally correct role model. Because of this, the pregnancy of her unmarried daughter Thyra in 1870 became a burden; Louise took control of the situation and hid it from public knowledge by sending Thyra to give birth abroad, keeping the whole affair a family secret.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: As queen, Louise lived a life isolated from the people and did not seek a relationship with or recognition from the public. She took no part in state affairs; her political interests focused on the arranged dynastic marriages of her children and were affected by her anti-German views. The high status marriages she arranged for her children secured the newly established Danish dynasty international status, connecting Denmark to Great Britain, Russia, Sweden and Greece. Known as "The Mother-in-law of Europe," her annual family gatherings at Bernstorff and Fredensborg attracted more attention every year and made her a popular symbol of family life. Significant events in her life included her wedding anniversary on 26 May 1867, when she received great public praise; her birthday celebration of 1887; the wedding anniversary of 1892, and her 80th birthday in 1897.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: The great dynastic success of Louise's six children was to a great extent a result of Louise's own ambitions rather than the efforts of her husband Christian IX. Some have compared Louise's dynastic capabilities with those of Queen Victoria.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: She was interested in music and painting. She acted as the patron of artists such as Elisabeth Jerichau Baumann. Some of Louise's own paintings were exhibited and given as gifts to members of other royal dynasties.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: Louise supported 26 different charitable organizations. Among them were Vallø stift; "Kronprinsesse Louises praktiske Tjenestepigeskole" (The Servant Girls' School of Crown Princess Louise) and the "Dronning Louises Børnehospital" (Queen Louise's Children's Hospital). In 1857, she founded the "Louisestiftelsen" (Louise Foundation), an orphanage for girls with the purpose of raising them to a life of domestic servants, which illustrated her deeply conservative ideals. Her most known project, and one which she herself referred to as her most important, was the "Diakonissestiftelsen" (The Deaconess Foundation) in 1863, which introduced the Deaconess profession in Denmark. In 1891, she initiated the "Foreningen til Oprettelse af Friskolebørneasyler i Kbh.s Arbejderkvarter" (Foundation for the Establishment of Charter school's Asylums in the Labour Quarters of Copenhagen). She founded the "Belønnings- og Forsørgelsesforeningen" (The Reward- and Self-supporting Foundation) in 1881, supported domestic servants by providing financial aid to the ill, during unemployment and in retirement. Louise was deeply conservative, and her charitable work has been interpreted as a fear of socialism and the growing workers movement.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: Queen Louise died peacefully at Bernstorff Palace aged 81 on 29 September 1898 and was interred in Roskilde Cathedral near Copenhagen on 15 October 1898. During her last years, she become deaf and infirm, and her needs were taken care of by two deaconesses from the Deaconess institution she founded. Louise was Queen Consort of Denmark for 35 years, longer than any other Danish Queen before her.


title: Louise of Hesse-Kassel

text: Louise had the following six children with Christian. Eventually, they had thirty-nine grandchildren.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: "Nothing Else Matters" is a song by American heavy metal band Metallica. It was released in 1992 as the third single from their self-titled fifth studio album, "Metallica". The song peaked at number 11 on the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, number 6 on the UK Singles Chart, number 1 in Denmark, and reached the top ten on many other European charts. "Nothing Else Matters" was featured as a playable track in the music video game "". Recognized as one of Metallica's best known and most popular songs, the power ballad has become a staple in live performances.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: Lead singer and rhythm guitarist James Hetfield wrote the song (credited to Hetfield/Ulrich) in 1990 while on tour, when Hetfield "was bumming out about being away from home." Initially, the song was not meant to be released, as Hetfield had written it for himself, but after drummer Lars Ulrich heard it, it was considered for the album. Hetfield initially had reservations about presenting the song to the band: "I thought that Metallica could only be the four of us. These are songs about destroying things, head banging, bleeding for the crowd, whatever it is, as long as it wasn't about chicks and fast cars, even though that's what we liked. The song was about a girlfriend at the time. It turned out to be a pretty big song." It was one of four demo songs recorded by the band on August 13, 1990.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: Its intro is an E minor arpeggio (transposed one half-step lower on stage performances) beginning with the open low E followed by the open G, B and high E strings.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: It is one of the few Metallica songs in which Hetfield plays the guitar solo. Guitarist Kirk Hammett does not play on the studio recording, making it one of the few in the whole Metallica repertoire, along with Cliff Burton's "(Anesthesia) Pulling Teeth", in which he does not appear. Hammett stated he did not learn how to play the song until they were well into the tour for the album.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: The orchestral arrangements were written by award-winning composer Michael Kamen, who would later go on to collaborate with the group on "S&M".


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: The music video premiered on MTV on February 26, 1992. It was directed by Adam Dubin and edited by Sean Fullan. The clip consists of parts of the "A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica" documentary, which was shot during the recordings of "Metallica". One of them shows Hetfield playing a Gibson EDS-1275 guitar during the second chorus. MTV will not air the video during daytime hours anymore because it features nudity in the form of pin-up posters and "Playboy" centerfolds that are taped up in the studio. It also has a picture of Winger's Kip Winger which Ulrich is seen throwing darts at. On the band's 2006 music video compilation DVD, the posters are censored, as was done with the nudity featured in the music videos for "Turn the Page" and "Whiskey in the Jar".


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: In August 2021, the music video hit one billion views on YouTube, making it Metallica's first music video to do so.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: The song has now become a staple in Metallica's live performances, and has been dedicated to their fans. When played live nowadays, Hammett does the first part of the intro, and Hetfield joins in for the second, to then sing and play it alone until after the first chorus, when the whole band kicks in. Also, the last verse is left out, ending the song with the heavily distorted guitar solo by Hetfield, and usually fading into "Enter Sandman". A live version in which this can be heard can be found on the CD/DVD "". Other live recordings can be found on "", on "S&M", "Cunning Stunts" DVD, the DVD/Blu-ray "The Big 4 Live from Sofia, Bulgaria" as well as on the soundtrack for the band's feature film "Through the Never", and also featured on 2019 "S&M" follow-up live album, S&M2.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: For its appearance on "S&M", its orchestration was arranged by Michael Kamen conducting the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra. This live version is featured on the album "S&M". It was also released as the single "Nothing Else Matters '99", which included the b-sides "-Human", and the "S&M" version of "For Whom the Bell Tolls", on November 22, 1999. This version was also played with guitars tuned to E♭.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: There is also an acoustic remix of "Nothing Else Matters" that is called "Elevator Version", with no electric guitars (replaced by acoustic guitars, even for the solo), Kamen's orchestrations, and Hetfield's voice only; it appears as the B-side to "Sad but True".


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: An instrumental version of "Nothing Else Matters" appears on the soundtrack of the 2021 film "Jungle Cruise". The band collaborated with the film's composer James Newton Howard to record a new orchestral arrangement of the song for the film.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: "Nothing Else Matters" is a special Europe-only single by British singer-songwriter Lucie Silvas. It was released in exactly the same way as "Don't Look Back", with the same B-sides and artwork.


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: Gregorian is a German band headed by Frank Peterson that performs Gregorian chant-inspired versions of modern pop and rock songs. In 1999, they recovered their version to be included on their album "Masters of Chant".


title: Nothing Else Matters

text: On January 7, 2021, it was announced that Miley Cyrus would be releasing a cover version that would feature Elton John on piano, drummer Chad Smith from Red Hot Chili Peppers, current Metallica bassist Robert Trujillo and cellist Yo-Yo Ma. Cyrus also announced in October 2020 that she plans to release a full album of Metallica covers. Cyrus previously covered "Nothing Else Matters" during her 2019 set at Glastonbury. The cover, produced by Andrew Watt, was released on June 22, 2021, as a promotional single from Metallica's tribute album "The Metallica Blacklist", released on September 10. The video for this version was uploaded the same day on Cyrus' YouTube channel. The cover is also featured on John's album "The Lockdown Sessions", which released on October 22.


title: Macabre

text: In works of art, the adjective macabre ( or ; ) means "having the quality of having a grim or ghastly atmosphere". The macabre works to emphasize the details and symbols of death. The term also refers to works particularly gruesome in nature.


title: Macabre

text: Early traces of macabre can be found in Ancient Greek and Latin writers such as the Roman writer Petronius, author of the "Satyricon" (late 1st century CE), and the Numidian writer Apuleius, author of "The Golden Ass" (late 2nd century CE). During the Middle Ages, outstanding instances of macabre themes in English literature include the works of John Webster, Robert Louis Stevenson, Mervyn Peake, Charles Dickens, Roald Dahl, Thomas Hardy, and Cyril Tourneur. In American literature, authors whose work feature this quality include Edgar Allan Poe, H. P. Lovecraft, and Stephen King. The word has gained its significance from its use in French as "la danse macabre" for the allegorical representation of the ever-present and universal power of death, known in German as "Totentanz" and later in English as the "Dance of the Dead". The typical form which the allegory takes is that of a series of images in which Death appears, either as a dancing skeleton or as a shrunken shrouded corpse, to people representing every age and condition of life, and leads them all in a dance to the grave. Of the numerous examples painted or sculptured on the walls of cloisters or church yards through medieval Europe, few remain except in woodcuts and engravings.


title: Macabre

text: The theme continued to inspire artists and musicians long after the medieval period, Schubert's string quartet "Death and the Maiden" (1824) being one example, and Camille Saint-Saëns' tone poem Danse macabre, op. 40 (1847).


title: Macabre

text: <br>In the 20th century, Ingmar Bergman's 1957 film "The Seventh Seal" has a personified Death, and could thus count as macabre.


title: Macabre

text: The origin of this allegory in painting and sculpture is disputed. It occurs as early as the 14th century, and has often been attributed to the overpowering consciousness of the presence of death due to the Black Death and the miseries of the Hundred Years' War. It has also been attributed to a form of the Morality, a dramatic dialogue between Death and his victims in every station of life, ending in a dance off the stage. The origin of the peculiar form the allegory has taken has also been found in the dancing skeletons on late Roman sarcophagi and mural paintings at Cumae or Pompeii, and a false connection has been traced with the fresco "Trionfo della Morte" ("Triumph of Death"), painted by the Italian Renaissance artist Buonamico Buffalmacco (, disputed), and currently preserved in the Campo Santo of Pisa.


title: Macabre

text: The etymology of the word "macabre" is uncertain. According to Gaston Paris, French scholar of Romance studies, it first occurs in the form "macabree" in a poem, "Respit de la mort" (1376), written by the medieval Burgundian chronicler Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy:


title: Macabre

text: The more usual explanation is based on the Latin name, "Machabaeorum chorea" ("Dance of the Maccabees"). The seven tortured brothers, with their mother and Eleazar (2 Maccabees 6 and 7) are prominent figures in the dramatic dialogues. Other connections have been suggested, as for example with St. Macarius the Great, an Egyptian Coptic monk and hermit who is to be identified with the figure pointing to the decaying corpses in the fresco "Trionfo della Morte" ("Triumph of Death") painted by the Italian Renaissance artist Buonamico Buffalmacco, according to the Italian art historian Giorgio Vasari; or with the Arabic word "maqābir" (مقابر, plural of "maqbara") which means "cemeteries".


title: Jerry Ferrara

text: Jerry Charles Ferrara (born November 25, 1979) is an American actor known for his role as Turtle on the HBO comedy series "Entourage", and starred on the Starz drama series "Power" as Joe Proctor.


title: Jerry Ferrara

text: Ferrara was born in Brooklyn, New York City where he was raised in the Bensonhurst neighborhood. He is of Italian descent.


title: Jerry Ferrara

text: He graduated from New Utrecht High School. Ferrara began studying theater in college, where he was inspired by a teacher to pursue a career in acting. An agent he met at a talent showcase encouraged him to move to Los Angeles, where he quickly landed his first role on "The King of Queens". Other television parts soon followed. Jerry was then cast in the independent feature "Cross Bronx", which premiered at the 2004 Tribeca Film Festival.


title: Jerry Ferrara

text: In an interview about his breakout role on "Entourage", Ferrara revealed that when he told his friends he had landed a major part in a television pilot, they asked, "How about you get a dog who becomes your best friend and you name him Awnold??" Kevin Connolly has said of his "Entourage" co-star that "Jerry's very domesticated. He's probably the most different from his character. He's like 180 degrees in the opposite direction."


title: Jerry Ferrara

text: Ferrara once made an appearance in character as Turtle for a DirecTV commercial. His dialogue was mixed with a clip from an "Entourage" episode for humorous effect.


title: Jerry Ferrara

text: Ferrara is also co-founder of Fat Sal's deli in West Hollywood, California. In 2010, Ferrara dropped weight and lost 60 pounds with a new outlook on health and fitness.


title: Jerry Ferrara

text: Ferrara is a diehard New York Yankees, New York Knicks, and New York Giants fan, a topic referenced in several episodes of "Entourage".


title: Spa

text: A spa is a location where mineral-rich spring water (and sometimes seawater) is used to give medicinal baths. Spa towns or spa resorts (including hot springs resorts) typically offer various health treatments, which are also known as balneotherapy. The belief in the curative powers of mineral waters goes back to prehistoric times. Such practices have been popular worldwide, but are especially widespread in Europe and Japan. Day spas and medspas are also quite popular, and offer various personal care treatments.


title: Spa

text: The term is derived from the name of the town of Spa, Belgium, whose name is known from Roman times, when the location was called "Aquae Spadanae", sometimes incorrectly connected to the Latin word "spargere" meaning to scatter, sprinkle or moisten.


title: Spa

text: Since medieval times, illnesses caused by iron deficiency were treated by drinking chalybeate (iron-bearing) spring water (in 1326, the iron-master Collin le Loup claimed a cure, when the spring was called "Espa", a Walloon word for "fountain").


title: Spa

text: In 16th-century England, the old Roman ideas of medicinal bathing were revived at towns like Bath ("not" the source of the word bath), and in 1596 William Slingsby who had been to the Belgian town (which he called "Spaw") discovered a chalybeate spring in Yorkshire. He built an enclosed well at what became known as Harrogate, the first resort in England for drinking medicinal waters, then in 1596 Dr. Timothy Bright after discovering a second well called the resort "The English Spaw", beginning the use of the word "Spa" as a generic description.


title: Spa

text: It is commonly claimed, in a commercial context, that the word is an acronym of various Latin phrases, such as "salus per aquam" or "sanitas per aquam", meaning "health through water". This is very unlikely: the derivation does not appear before the early 21st century and is probably a backronym as there is no evidence of acronyms passing into the language before the 20th century; nor does it match the known Roman name for the location.


title: Spa

text: Spa therapies have existed since the classical times when taking bath with water was considered as a popular means to treat illnesses. The practice of traveling to hot or cold springs in hopes of effecting a cure of some ailment dates back to prehistoric times. Archaeological investigations near hot springs in France and Czech Republic revealed Bronze Age weapons and offerings. In Great Britain, ancient legend credited early Celtic kings with the discovery of the hot springs in Bath, England.


title: Spa

text: Many people around the world believed that bathing in a particular spring, well, or river resulted in physical and spiritual purification. Forms of ritual purification existed among the Native Americans, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Today, ritual purification through water can be found in the religious ceremonies of Jews, Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus. These ceremonies reflect the ancient belief in the healing and purifying properties of water. Complex bathing rituals were also practiced in ancient Egypt, in prehistoric cities of the Indus Valley, and in Aegean civilizations. Most often these ancient people did little building construction around the water, and what they did construct was very temporary in nature.


title: Spa

text: Some of the earliest descriptions of western bathing practices came from Greece. The Greeks began bathing regimens that formed the foundation for modern spa procedures. These Aegean people utilized small bathtubs, wash basins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest such findings are the baths in the palace complex at Knossos, Crete, and the luxurious alabaster bathtubs excavated in Akrotiri, Santorini; both date from the mid-2nd millennium BC. They established public baths and showers within their gymnasium complexes for relaxation and personal hygiene. Greek mythology specified that certain natural springs or tidal pools were blessed by the gods to cure disease. Around these sacred pools, Greeks established bathing facilities for those desiring healing. Supplicants left offerings to the gods for healing at these sites and bathed themselves in hopes of a cure. The Spartans developed a primitive vapor bath. At Serangeum, an early Greek "balneum" (bathhouse, loosely translated), bathing chambers were cut into the hillside from which the hot springs issued. A series of niches cut into the rock above the chambers held bathers' clothing. One of the bathing chambers had a decorative mosaic floor depicting a driver and chariot pulled by four horses, a woman followed by two dogs, and a dolphin below. Thus, the early Greeks used the natural features, but expanded them and added their own amenities, such as decorations and shelves. During later Greek civilization, bathhouses were often built in conjunction with athletic fields.


title: Spa

text: The Romans emulated many of the Greek bathing practices. Romans surpassed the Greeks in the size and complexity of their baths. This came about by many factors: the larger size and population of Roman cities, the availability of running water following the building of aqueducts, and the invention of cement, which made building large edifices easier, safer, and cheaper. As in Greece, the Roman bath became a focal center for social and recreational activity. As the Roman Empire expanded, the idea of the public bath spread to all parts of the Mediterranean and into regions of Europe and North Africa. With the construction of the aqueducts, the Romans had enough water not only for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses, but also for their leisurely pursuits. The aqueducts provided water that was later heated for use in the baths. Today, the extent of the Roman bath is revealed at ruins and in archaeological excavations in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.


title: Spa

text: The Romans also developed baths in their colonies, taking advantage of the natural hot springs occurring in Europe to construct baths at Aix and Vichy in France, Bath and Buxton in England, Aachen and Wiesbaden in Germany, Baden, Austria, and Aquincum in Hungary, among other locations. These baths became centers for recreational and social activities in Roman communities. Libraries, lecture halls, gymnasiums, and formal gardens became part of some bath complexes. In addition, the Romans used the hot thermal waters to relieve their suffering from rheumatism, arthritis, and overindulgence in food and drink. The decline of the Roman Empire in the west, beginning in AD 337 after the death of Emperor Constantine, resulted in Roman legions abandoning their outlying provinces and leaving the baths to be taken over by the local population or destroyed.


title: Spa

text: Thus, the Romans elevated bathing to a fine art, and their bathhouses physically reflected these advancements. The Roman bath, for instance, included a far more complex ritual than a simple immersion or sweating procedure. The various parts of the bathing ritual — undressing, bathing, sweating, receiving a massage, and resting — required separated rooms which the Romans built to accommodate those functions. The segregation of the sexes and the additions of diversions not directly related to bathing also had direct impacts on the shape and form of bathhouses. The elaborate Roman bathing ritual and its resultant architecture served as precedents for later European and American bathing facilities. Formal garden spaces and opulent architectural arrangement equal to those of the Romans reappeared in Europe by the end of the 18th century. Major American spas followed suit a century later.


title: Spa

text: With the decline of the Roman Empire, the public baths often became places of licentious behavior, and such use was responsible for the spread rather than the cure of diseases. A general belief developed among the European populace was that frequent bathing promoted disease and sickness. Medieval church authorities encouraged this belief and made every effort to close down public baths. Ecclesiastical officials believed that public bathing created an environment open to immorality and disease. Roman Catholic Church officials even banned public bathing in an unsuccessful effort to halt syphilis epidemics from sweeping Europe. Overall, this period represented a time of decline for public bathing.


title: Spa

text: People continued to seek out a few select hot and cold springs, believed to be holy wells, to cure various ailments. In an age of religious fervor, the benefits of the water were attributed to God or one of the saints. In 1326, Collin le Loup, an iron-master from Liège, Belgium, discovered the chalybeate springs of Spa, Belgium. Around these springs, a famous health resort eventually grew and the term "spa" came to refer to any health resort located near natural springs. During this period, individual springs became associated with the specific ailment that they could allegedly benefit.


title: Spa

text: Great bathhouses were built in Byzantine centers such as Constantinople and Antioch, and the popes allocated to the Romans bathing through "diaconia", or private Lateran baths, or even a myriad of monastic bath houses functioning in eighth and ninth centuries. The Popes maintained their baths in their residences, and bath houses including hot baths incorporated into Christian Church buildings or those of monasteries, which known as "charity baths" because they served both the clerics and needy poor people. The Church also built public bathing facilities that were separate for both sexes near monasteries and pilgrimage sites; also, the popes situated baths within church basilicas and monasteries since the early Middle Ages. Catholic religious orders of the Augustinians' and Benedictines' rules contained ritual purification, and inspired by Benedict of Nursia encouragement for the practice of therapeutic bathing; Benedictine monks played a role in the development and promotion of spa. Protestantism also played a prominent role in the development of the British spas.


title: Spa

text: Bathing procedures during this period varied greatly. By the 16th century, physicians at Karlsbad, Bohemia, prescribed that the mineral water be taken internally as well as externally. Patients periodically bathed in warm water for up to 10 or 11 hours while drinking glasses of mineral water. The first bath session occurred in the morning, the second in the afternoon. This treatment lasted several days until skin pustules formed and broke resulting in the draining of "poisons" considered to be the source of the disease. Then followed another series of shorter, hotter baths to wash the infection away and close the eruptions.


title: Spa

text: In the English coastal town of Scarborough in 1626, a Mrs. Elizabeth Farrow discovered a stream of acidic water running from one of the cliffs to the south of the town. This was deemed to have beneficial health properties and gave birth to Scarborough Spa. Dr Wittie's book about the spa waters published in 1660 attracted a flood of visitors to the town. Sea bathing was added to the cure, and Scarborough became Britain's first seaside resort. The first rolling bathing machines for bathers are recorded on the sands in 1735.


title: Spa

text: In the 17th century, most upper-class Europeans washed their clothes with water often and washed only their faces (with linen), feeling that bathing the entire body was a lower-class activity; but the upper-class slowly began changing their attitudes toward bathing as a way to restore health later in that century. The wealthy flocked to health resorts to drink and bathe in the waters. In 1702, Anne, Queen of Great Britain, traveled to Bath, the former Roman development, to bathe. A short time later, Richard (Beau) Nash came to Bath. By the force of his personality, Nash became the arbiter of good taste and manners in England. He along with financier Ralph Allen and architect John Wood transformed Bath from a country spa into the social capital of England. Bath set the tone for other spas in Europe to follow. Ostensibly, the wealthy and famous arrived there on a seasonal basis to bathe in and drink the water; however, they also came to display their opulence. Social activities at Bath included dances, concerts, playing cards, lectures, and promenading down the street.


title: Spa

text: A typical day at Bath might be an early morning communal bath followed by a private breakfast party. Afterwards, one either drank water at the Pump Room (a building constructed over the thermal water source) or attended a fashion show. Physicians encouraged health resort patrons to bathe in and drink the waters with equal vigor. The next several hours of the day could be spent in shopping, visiting the lending library, attending concerts, or stopping at one of the coffeehouses. At 4:00 pm, the rich and famous dressed up in their finery and promenaded down the streets. Next came dinner, more promenading, and an evening of dancing or gambling.


title: Spa

text: Similar activities occurred in health resorts throughout Europe. The spas became stages on which Europeans paraded with great pageantry. These resorts became infamous as places full of gossip and scandals. The various social and economic classes selected specific seasons during the year's course, staying from one to several months, to vacation at each resort. One season aristocrats occupied the resorts; at other times, prosperous farmers or retired military men took the baths. The wealthy and the criminals that preyed on them moved from one spa to the next as the fashionable season for that resort changed.


title: Spa

text: During the 18th century, a revival in the medical uses of spring water was promoted by Enlightened physicians across Europe. This revival changed the way of taking a spa treatment. For example, in Karlsbad the accepted method of drinking the mineral water required sending large barrels to individual boardinghouses where the patients drank physician-prescribed dosages in the solitude of their rooms. Dr. David Beecher in 1777 recommended that the patients come to the fountainhead for the water and that each patient should first do some prescribed exercises. This innovation increased the medicinal benefits obtained and gradually physical activity became part of the European bathing regimen. In 1797, in England, Dr. James Currie published "The Effects of Water, Cold and Warm, as a Remedy in Fever and other Diseases". As shown by M D Eddy, this book, along with numerous local pamphlets on composition of spa water, stimulated additional interest in water cures and advocated the external and internal use of water as part of the curing process.


title: Spa

text: In the 19th century, bathing became a more accepted practice as physicians realized some of the benefits that cleanliness could provide. A cholera epidemic in Liverpool, England in 1842 resulted in a sanitation renaissance, facilitated by the overlapping hydropathy and sanitation movements, and the implementation of a series of statutes known collectively as "The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896". The result was increased facilities for bathing and washed clothes, and more people participating in these activities.


title: Spa

text: In most instances, the formal architectural development of European spas took place in the 18th and 19th centuries. The architecture of Bath, England, developed along Georgian and Neoclassical lines, generally following Palladian structures. The most important architectural form that emerged was the "crescent" — a semi-elliptical street plan used in many areas of England. The spa architecture of Carlsbad, Marienbad, Franzensbad, and Baden-Baden was primarily Neoclassical, but the literature seems to indicate that large bathhouses were not constructed until well into the 19th century. The emphasis on drinking the waters rather than bathing in them led to the development of separate structures known as "Trinkhallen" (drinking halls) where those taking the cure spent hours drinking water from the springs.


title: Spa

text: In the Southeastern Europe, development of the spa resorts took place mostly in the second half of the 19th century. So it was also with the Slatina Spa in the Republic of Srpska, BiH, where the thermal and healing springs were discovered in the Roman times. Development of the spa resort in Slatina began in the 1870s, when the first modern spa facilities were built.


title: Spa

text: By the mid-19th century, the situation had changed dramatically. Visitors to the European spas began to stress bathing in addition to drinking the waters. Besides fountains, pavilions, and Trinkhallen, bathhouses on the scale of the Roman baths were revived. Photographs of a 19th-century spa complex taken in the 1930s, detailing the earlier architecture, show heavy use of mosaic floors, marble walls, classical statuary, arched openings, domed ceilings, segmental arches, triangular pediments, Corinthian columns, and all the other trappings of a Neoclassical revival. The buildings were usually separated by function — with the "Trinkhalle", the bathhouse, the inhalatorium (for inhaling the vapors), and the "Kurhaus" or "Conversationhaus" that was the center of social activity. Baden-Baden featured golf courses and tennis courts, "superb roads to motor over, and drives along quaint lanes where wild deer are as common as cows to us, and almost as unafraid".


title: Spa

text: The European spa, then, started with structures to house the drinking function — from simple fountains to pavilions to elaborate Trinkhallen. The enormous bathhouses came later in the 19th century as a renewed preference for an elaborate bathing ritual to cure ills and improve health came into vogue. European architects looked back to Roman civilizations and carefully studied their fine architectural precedents. The Europeans copied the same formality, symmetry, division of rooms by function, and opulent interior design in their bathhouses. They emulated the fountains and formal garden spaces in their resorts, and they also added new diversions. The tour books always mentioned the roomy, woodsy offerings in the vicinity and the faster-paced evening diversions.


title: Spa

text: By the beginning of the 19th century, the European bathing regimen consisted of numerous accumulated traditions. The bathing routine included soaking in hot water, drinking the water, steaming in a vapor room, and relaxing in a cooling room. In addition, doctors ordered that patients be douched with hot or cold water and given a select diet to promote a cure. Authors began writing guidebooks to the health resorts of Europe explaining the medical benefits and social amenities of each. Rich Europeans and Americans traveled to these resorts to take in cultural activities and the baths.


title: Spa

text: Each European spa began offering similar cures while maintaining a certain amount of individuality. The 19th-century bathing regimen at Karlsbad can serve as a general portrayal of European bathing practices during this century. Visitors arose at 6 am to drink the water and be serenaded by a band. Next came a light breakfast, bath, and lunch. The doctors at Karlsbad usually limited patients to certain foods for each meal. In the afternoon, visitors went sight-seeing or attended concerts. Nightly theatrical performances followed the evening meal. This ended around 9 pm with the patients returning to their boardinghouses to sleep until 6 the next morning. This regimen continued for as long as a month and then the patients returned home until the next year. Other 19th-century European spa regimens followed similar schedules.


title: Spa

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, European spas combined a strict diet and exercise regimen with a complex bathing procedure to achieve benefits for the patients. One example will suffice to illustrate the change in bathing procedures. Patients at Baden-Baden, which specialized in treating rheumatoid arthritis, were directed to see a doctor before taking the baths. Once this occurred, the bathers proceeded to the main bathhouse where they paid for their baths and stored their valuables before being assigned a booth for undressing. The bathhouse supplied bathers with towels, sheets, and slippers.