title: Crisis of the Late Middle Ages

text: Scholars such as David Herlihy and Michael Postan use the term Malthusian limit to explain some calamities as results of overpopulation. In his 1798 "Essay on the Principle of Population", Thomas Malthus asserted that exponential population growth will invariably exceed available resources, making mass death inevitable. In his book "The Black Death and the Transformation of the West", David Herlihy explores whether the plague was an inevitable crisis of population and resources. In "The Black Death; A Turning Point in History?" (ed. William M. Bowsky), he "implies that the Black Death's pivotal role in late medieval society ... was now being challenged. Arguing on the basis of a neo-Malthusian economics, revisionist historians recast the Black Death as a necessary and long overdue corrective to an overpopulated Europe."


title: Crisis of the Late Middle Ages

text: Herlihy also examined the arguments against the Malthusian crisis, stating "if the Black Death was a response to excessive human numbers it should have arrived several decades earlier" in consequence of the population growth before the Black Death. Herlihy also brings up other, biological factors that argue against the plague as a "reckoning" by arguing "the role of famines in affecting population movements is also problematic. The many famines preceding the Black Death, even the 'great hunger' of 1315 to 1317, did not result in any appreciable reduction in population levels". Herlihy concludes the matter stating, "the medieval experience shows us not a Malthusian crisis but a stalemate, in the sense that the community was maintaining at stable levels very large numbers over a lengthy period" and states that the phenomenon should be referred to as more of a deadlock, rather than a crisis, to describe Europe before the epidemics.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The University of Melbourne is a public research university located in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 1853, it is Australia's second oldest university and the oldest in Victoria. Its main campus is located in Parkville, an inner suburb north of Melbourne's central business district, with several other campuses located across Victoria.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Incorporated in the 19th century by the colony of Victoria, the University of Melbourne is one of Australia's six sandstone universities and a member of the Group of Eight, Universitas 21, Washington University's McDonnell International Scholars Academy, and the Association of Pacific Rim Universities. Since 1872, many residential colleges have become affiliated with the university, providing accommodation for students and faculty, and academic, sporting and cultural programs. There are ten colleges located on the main campus and in nearby suburbs.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The university comprises ten separate academic units and is associated with numerous institutes and research centres, including the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, the Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research and the Grattan Institute. The university has fifteen graduate schools, including the Melbourne Business School, the Melbourne Law School and the Melbourne Medical School.


title: University of Melbourne

text: "Times Higher Education" ranked the University of Melbourne first in Australia and 34th globally in 2023, while the Academic Ranking of World Universities places it 35th in the world. In the "QS World University Rankings 2022", the university ranks 8th for graduate employability and 2nd in Australia, behind the University of Sydney. Four Australian prime ministers and five governors-general have graduated from the University of Melbourne. Eight Nobel Laureates have taught, studied and researched at the University of Melbourne, the most of any Australian university.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The university's coat of arms is a blue shield on which a depiction of "Victory" in white colour holds her laurel wreath over the stars of the Southern Cross. The motto, "Postera crescam laude" ("Later I shall grow by praise" or, more freely, "We shall grow in the esteem of future generations"), is written on a scroll beneath the shield. The Latin is from a line in Horace's "Odes": "ego postera crescam laude recens".


title: University of Melbourne

text: The University of Melbourne was established following a proposal by Hugh Childers, the Auditor-General and Finance Minister, in his first Budget Speech on 4November 1852, who set aside a sum of £10,000 for the establishment of a university. The university was established by Act of Incorporation on 22 January 1853, with power to confer degrees in arts, medicine, laws and music. The act provided for an annual endowment of £9,000, while a special grant of £20,000 was made for buildings that year. The foundation stone was laid on 3July 1854, and on the same day the foundation stone for the State Library Classes commenced in 1855 with three professors and sixteen students; of this body of students only four graduated. The original buildings were officially opened by the Lieutenant Governor of the Colony of Victoria, Sir Charles Hotham, on 3October 1855.


title: University of Melbourne

text: A law school was established in 1857 at the Parkville campus, following which a Faculty of Engineering and School of Medicine were established in 1861 and 1862 respectively. The university's residential colleges were first opened on the northern aspect of the campus in 1872, divided between the four main Christian denominations.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The first chancellor, Redmond Barry (later Sir Redmond), held the position until his death in 1880. The inauguration of the university was made possible by the wealth resulting from Victoria's gold rush. The institution was designed to be a "civilising influence" at a time of rapid settlement and commercial growth. In 1881, the admission of women was a seen as victory over the more conservative ruling council. Julia 'Bella' Guerin graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1883, and became the first woman to graduate from an Australian University.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Early in the 1900s, the university expanded its offerings to more utilitarian courses. In 1901 the number of students enrolled at the University of Melbourne exceeded 500 students for the first time. The university established the Diploma of Education in 1903, following negotiations with the Victorian Education Department.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Despite the economic depression of the 1890s and the discovery of a significant fraud by a university registrar in 1901, the university continued to expand during this period. This growth included the construction of several buildings between 1900 and 1906. Such growth was facilitated largely through an increased government funding allocation, and the coinciding university led funding campaign. To accompany the training dentists received by the Melbourne Dental Hospital, a School of Dentistry was established to teach the scientific basis of dentistry at the university. Agriculture was established in 1911 following the appointment of the State Director of Agriculture as the first professor. During this period the university became a notable site for research, emerging as a leader in Australia. Following World War II the demand for higher education increased rapidly, and as a result became a transformative period for the university.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In 1940, the first issue of "Historical Studies: Australia and New Zealand", now "Australian Historical Studies", was published by the Department of History.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Expansion of the university increased significantly during the 1980s and 1990s, as the university amalgamated with a number of tertiary colleges. In 1988 the Melbourne Teachers' College was brought into the Faculty of Education, and the amalgamation lead to the formation of a distinctly new Faculty of Education. The College of Advanced Education was incorporated into the university in 1989. During this period, more students than ever had before attended the university. The university had expanded its student population to beyond 35,000 students. Such amalgamations continued into the 1990s, with the Victorian College of the Arts affiliation with the University of Melbourne in 1992. This grew the number of campuses for the University of Melbourne, which would now include a new St Kilda Road location.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In 2001, the Melbourne School of Population Health was established, the first of its kind in Australia, and continued the growth of the university. Work at the centre involved contributions from many disciplines, ranging from the social sciences to epidemiology. Health fields such as Indigenous, women's, mental, sexual, and rural health have all been researched at the centre.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In 2008, Vice Chancellor Glyn Davis introduced a major restructure of the university's curriculum. The new structure, named the Melbourne Model, replaced traditional undergraduate specialist degrees with a two-degree undergraduate/graduate structure. Over 100 undergraduate degrees were replaced with six generalist degrees, with students taking a general bachelor's degree before specialising in either a professional or research graduate course. The introduction of the model, influenced by North American academia and the Bologna process, was controversial among students and staff. Various groups, including trade and student unions,


title: University of Melbourne

text: Between 2013 and 2015 Davis introduced a wide-reaching restructure of the university's administration, labelled the Business Improvement Program, which led to the sacking of 500 administrative staff and some administrative responsibilities being transferred to academic staff. At the same time in the ten years to 2018 the university embarked on a large capital works program, spending $2 billion on new buildings across the university's campuses. The Melbourne School of Land and Environment was disestablished on 1January 2015. Its agriculture and food systems department moved alongside veterinary science to form the Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, while other areas of study, including horticulture, forestry, geography and resource management, moved to the Faculty of Science in two new departments. In 2019, allegations of a toxic workplace culture within the Faculty of Arts were aired, with a number of senior staff leaving their positions. At the same time, there was controversy over the high salaries earned by the Vice Chancellor, with Davis earning $1.5 million in 2019, the most of any university head in Australia.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Like other Australian Universities, an extraordinary growth in international students took place at the University of Melbourne and meant the university became increasingly reliant on revenue from its overseas student cohort.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In 2020, on-campus teaching was limited to selected clinical placements as a result of social distancing restrictions required by the Victorian State Government in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The majority of teaching was moved to online delivery during the first semester. Like many other institutions and workplaces, university faculty members elected to use Zoom Video Communications to conduct live tutorials online.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In 2020 the university announced it was axing 450 staff in the institution's largest ever layoff of academic staff, despite a planned expenditure of $4.2 billion for capital works over the decade from 2020. Similarly, in semester two of 2021, the majority of teaching was once again moved to online delivery due to the outbreak of the Delta variant of COVID-19 and ensuing lockdowns in Victoria. In response the university announced further job losses, despite the university running an $8m surplus in 2020. Eleven subjects were cut as part of the savings measures including a number of specialist scientific subjects, a move criticised by Nobel Laureate Peter Doherty and others. The halting of international student arrivals as part of the Australian pandemic response was projected to cause a major loss in revenue for the university.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In 2019 and 2020 the University was also involved in wage theft and underpayment controversies towards its large teaching workforce of casual staff, and began repaying casual tutors for unpaid marking. The university was accused of owing Faculty of Arts teaching staff an estimated $6 million. In 2021 the Vice-Chancellor issued an apology for systematically underpaying staff, saying there was “a systemic failure of respect from this institution" towards casual staff that resulted in underpaying 1,000 staff members and requiring the university to pay back $9.5 million. The university came under sustained criticism over the poor employment and financial conditions of its highly casualised academic workforce. Over the 2010s the university increasingly casualised its workforce, with reports that between 47 and 72 per cent of its 11,000 employees were on casual contracts by 2020.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In 2021 the State Government granted planning approval for a new campus for the university at the urban renewal precinct Fisherman's Bend. The $2 billion campus, set to open in 2025, will focus on engineering and forms part of a large capital works program by the university, which includes the demolition of Union House and the construction of a new student precinct on the south-east corner of the Parkville campus.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In June 2021, a new speech policy was implemented to protect and safeguard transgender individuals within the university.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The university has three other campuses in metropolitan Melbourne at Burnley, Southbank, and Werribee. The Burnley campus is where horticultural courses are taught. Performing arts, visual arts, film and television, and music courses are taught at the Southbank campus. Veterinary science is taught at the Werribee campus.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In regional Victoria, the Creswick and Dookie campuses are used for forestry and agriculture courses respectively. They previously housed several hundred residential students, but are now largely used for short courses and research. The Shepparton campus is home to the Rural Health Academic Centre for the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The university is a part-owner of the Melbourne Business School, based at Parkville campus, which ranked 46th in the 2012 "Financial Times" global rankings.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Parkville campus is the primary campus of the university. Originally established in a large area north of Grattan Street in Parkville, the campus has expanded well beyond its boundaries, with many of its newly acquired buildings located in the nearby suburb of Carlton. The university is undertaking an "ambitious infrastructure program" to reshape campuses. The campus was founded in 1853, and is located just north of Melbourne's central business district. Parkville campus has cafes, gyms, 12 libraries, specialty stores, a small supermarket, and a seasonal farmers market. The campus is located within a broader renowned knowledge precinct, which encompasses eight hospitals, and many other leading research institutes.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Several of the earliest campus buildings, such as the Old Quadrangle and Baldwin Spencer buildings, feature period architecture. The old quad underwent extensive restoration in 2019 to return to original design, including a dedicated temporary exhibition space in the Treasury Gallery. The new Wilson Hall replaced the original building which was destroyed by fire.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Recipients of the University of Melbourne Award (see below) are acknowledged by bronze commemorative plaques along Professors Walk on this campus.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Parkville campus was used extensively to shoot interior and exterior scenes in the MIFF-funded "The Death and Life of Otto Bloom" starring "" actor Xavier Samuel and Golden Globe nominee Rachel Ward.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Southbank campus is home to the Victorian College of the Arts and the Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, and is situated within Melbourne's creative arts precinct. Theatre and dance stages, film and television studios, visual arts studios, and concert halls are all located at the university's purpose-built creative arts home.


title: University of Melbourne

text: A$200 million major capital works project at the campus was completed in 2019. The project includes the construction of a new state-of-the-art conservatorium for music and the conversion of historically important buildings for use as education and research facilities.


title: University of Melbourne

text: In 2011, the Victorian State Government allocated $24 million to support arts education at the VCA. This was due in part to it coming together with the Conservatorium to form the then Faculty of the Victorian College of the Arts and the Melbourne Conservatorium of Music.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Burnley Campus is located within the suburb of Burnley in Melbourne, around 5 km east of the Melbourne CBD. The campus is dedicated to both ornamental and environmental horticulture, and is surrounded by nine hectares of heritage-listed gardens. The campus began operating as a learning precinct in horticultural education in 1891. At the campus, students are offered short courses, associate degrees, post-graduate studies, and research. Specifically, training for urban landscape management, landscape design and production, park management, turf management, nursery and cut flower production, and arboriculture are all specialisations of the campus.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Creswick campus is located within the township of Creswick, 120 km north-west of Melbourne. It is situated on 15 hectares of land, in is also connected native and plantation forests. Accommodation is available at the campus to members of the University of Melbourne's student cohorts and teaching staff when engaged at Creswick. Creswick campus has been offering forest science education since 1910, and is Australia's only dedicated forest ecosystem science campus, which focuses on forest industry, conservation, and molecular biology research. Scientists based at the campus include hydrologists, soil scientists, plant geneticists, geomorphologists, fire scientists, ecologists, engineers, and mathematicians.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Dookie campus has been the university's rural home to agriculture and agricultural teaching and learning since its inception in 1886. It is based between Shepparton and Benalla, about 220 km north east of Melbourne. Dookie campus is situated on 2440 hectares of land that houses student and staff accommodation, an orchard, winery, merino sheep, robotic dairy, and a natural bush reserve. Agriculture students are able to access the city campus in addition to a semester at the Dookie campus. Subjects in agriculture, science, commerce, and environments are available at the campus.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Shepparton Medical Centre campus is located in Shepparton, nearly 200 km north of Melbourne. The campus is part of the Melbourne Medical School, and the Shepparton base is home to the Shepparton Rural Clinical School. It provides fully furnished, subsidized, self-catered student on site at the Clinical School. The University of Melbourne Shepparton Medical Centre was the first purpose built teaching clinic in Australia, and services Shepparton and surrounds with comprehensive primary healthcare.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Werribee campus is located about 30 km south west of the city, and is home to research and teaching for the Melbourne Veterinary School. Recently the campus undertook an AU$63 million redevelopment to enhance facilities for pet treatment and the training of future veterinarians at the University of Melbourne. Victoria's only accredited veterinary course is based at The University of Melbourne, at both the Werribee and Parkville campuses. Kendall Hall offers self-catered accommodation for 76 residents in single bedrooms with shared facilities at the University of Melbourne Werribee campus.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The university had a number of former campuses, including Glenormiston (now Glenormiston College), Longerenong (now Longerenong College), McMillan (based in Leongatha and Warragul) and the Werribee-based Gilbert Chandler Campus.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Governance of the university is grounded in an act of parliament, the University of Melbourne Act 2009. The peak governing body is the "Council" the key responsibilities of which include appointing the vice-chancellor and principal, approving the strategic direction and annual budget, establishing operational policies and procedures and overseeing academic and commercial activities as well as risk management. The chair of the council is the "chancellor". The "academic board" oversees learning, teaching and research activities and provides advice to the council on these matters. The "committee of convocation" represents graduates and its members are elected in proportion to the number of graduates in each faculty.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The University of Melbourne's operations are governed through a hierarchy of delegations framework. A 13-member council is the university's governing body. It establishes the university's council, determines its core functions, and allows the university to enact subordinate legislation through statutes and regulations. Under legislative elements associated with the council, university policies exist as a formal statement of principle to regulate university operations. Under university policies, university processes exist to support workplace agreements, policy, and relevant legislation by noting day-to-day operation tasks and activities to be performed by staff.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The academic board is held responsible to the council for quality assurance in activities such as the maintenance of high standards in teaching, research and learning. The University of Melbourne Executive is the university's principal management committee. The university consists of academic and administrative structures. University leadership encompasses the chancellor, vice-chancellor and senior executives, who are responsible for the strategic vision of the university.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The University of Melbourne has an endowment of approximately $1.335 billion, the largest of any Australian tertiary institution.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The university's endowments recovered after hardship following the 2008 Great Recession, which shrank its investments by 22%. This required restructuring of the university, including cutting 220 full-time positions. A further round of cuts, driven by lingering concerns about finances and declining Federal contributions to the tertiary sector, took place under the 'Business Improvement Program' from 2014 to 2016 and resulted in the cutting of 500 jobs.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Under former vice-chancellor Glyn Davis, the university publicly launched a fundraising campaign titled "Believe" in 2013. The campaign raised $500 million by 2016 and sought to raise a further $1 billion by 2021.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The University of Melbourne is divided into 10 faculties, which encompass all major departments of both research and teaching.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The university has 11 academic units, some of which incorporate a graduate school. The overall attrition and retention rates at the university are the lowest and highest respectively in Australia. The university has one of the highest admission requirements in the country, with the median ATAR of its undergraduates being 94.05 (2009). 50% of the Premier's VCE Top All-Round High Achievers enrolled at the University of Melbourne.


title: University of Melbourne

text: For domestic applications, an Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR) is generally required for bachelor's degrees. For undergraduate degrees in 2019, guaranteed entry scores into degrees were: Agriculture 70, Arts 85, Biomedicine 96, Commerce 94, Design 85, Science 85, Oral Health 85 (indicative only), Fine Arts and Music were not applicable.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Domestic applicants who have a disadvantaged financial background, are from rural or isolated areas, are from underrepresented schools, experienced difficult circumstances, have a disability or medical condition, are from a non-English speaking background, identify as an Indigenous Australian, or are applying through a non-school leaver entry pathway may be eligible for the Access Melbourne program. The program offered guaranteed entry in 2023 for students with ATARs of: Agriculture 72, Arts 88, Biomedicine 95, Commerce 93, Design 88, and Science 88. Minimum International Baccalaureate Diploma scores for undergraduate guaranteed entry in 2019 were: Agriculture 25, Arts 31, Biomedicine 38, Commerce 36, design 31, Science 31, Oral Health 31 (indicative only), Fine arts and Music were not applicable.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The University of Melbourne differs from other Australian universities in its course structure, as it offers nine generalised three-year degrees instead of more traditional specialised undergraduate degrees. This system, described as the "Melbourne Model", was implemented in 2008 Vice-Chancellor Glyn Davis in 2008. change from the former curriculum, which offered many single and joint degrees, was described by the university as the "Melbourne Model". The university also offers postgraduate courses (including professional-entry master's degrees) that follow undergraduate courses with greater specialization.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Several professional degrees are available only for graduate entry. These degrees are at a masters level according to the Australian Qualification Framework, but are named "masters" or "doctorate" following the practice in North America. The university's faculties often have a corresponding graduate school to offer these degrees.


title: University of Melbourne

text: "Times Higher Education" ranked Melbourne 33rd globally (1st nationally) in the 2021-2022 iteration of its annual "World University Rankings". In the "QS World University Rankings 2023", the University of Melbourne was ranked 33rd globally (2nd in Australia). In 2022, it ranked 33rd among the universities around the world by "SCImago Institutions Rankings". In the most recent "CWTS Leiden Ranking", Melbourne was ranked 29th in the world (1st nationally). The university was ranked 33rd globally (1st in Australia) in the 2021 publication of the "Academic Ranking of World Universities" (ARWU) league table. According to QS World University Subject Rankings 2020, the University of Melbourne is ranked 10th in law, 12th in education, 16th in accounting and finance, 17th in social policy and administration, 19th in sociology, 22nd in environmental studies and 23rd in linguistics.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Although the University of Melbourne ranks highly in academic rankings, the university ranks poorly in student satisfaction ratings; in 2021, the University of Melbourne had the lowest student satisfaction out of all Australian universities, with an overall satisfaction rating of 63.1, which was lower than the national average of 73.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Melbourne University claims that its research expenditure is second only to that of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The university is a leading Australian research university, with the largest cohort of research students in Australia.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities is released by National Taiwan University (NTU Ranking), and placed the University of Melbourne as the 29th highest internationally and 1st domestically in 2018. It evaluates the performance of scientific papers, and the indicators used are designed to compare both the quantity and quality of published scientific works by each university.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Similarly, the Center for World University Rankings (CWUR) ranks universities on variables, including both research output and citations. For 2018/19 it ranked the University of Melbourne at number 57 in the world, and number1 within Australia.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The university is connected to more than 100 research centres and institutes. In 2010 the university spent $813 million on research. In the same year the university had the highest numbers of federal government Australian Postgraduate Awards (APA) and International Postgraduate Research Scholarships (IPRS), as well as the largest totals of Research Higher Degree (RHD) student load (3,222 students) and RHD completions (715).


title: University of Melbourne

text: The university has an entrepreneurship arm, named the Melbourne Entrepreneurial Centre (MEC). The university also has an accelerator program for start-ups, which has produced a number of small companies. The university also has an entrepreneurial training centre called the Wade Institute of Entrepreneurship based at Ormond College, one of the university's residential colleges.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The University of Melbourne's libraries have over three million visitors performing 42 million loan transactions every year. The general collection comprises over 3.5 million items including books, DVDs, photographic slides, music scores and periodicals as well as rare maps, prints and other published materials. The library also holds over 32,000 e-books, hundreds of databases and 63,000 general and specialist journals in digital form.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Grainger Museum is located at the university's Parkville campus, and is the only purpose built autobiographical museum in Australia. It is home to a diverse collection of over 100,000 items including photographs, costumes, art, music scores and instruments. The items were collected by Percy Grainger and span his life and career. Grainger was an eccentric and famous composer, arranger and pianist whose career played a prominent role in the revival of interest in British folk music in the early years of the 20th century.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Harry Brookes Allen Museum of Anatomy and Pathology, located at the Parkville campus, is one of Australia's largest collections of both historical anatomical models and real human tissue specimens. It provides students at The University of Melbourne educational resources for the medical and related anatomical disciplines. The museum is not normally open to the public, though tours of the museum are available for medical students and health professionals.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Henry Forman Atkinson Dental Museum is located at the Melbourne Dental School on the Parkville campus. It is the oldest dental collection in Australia, with over 3500 objects, photographs, documents, and catalogues.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Ian Potter Museum of Art is located at the university's Parkville campus, and is the university's main art museum. Since being founded in 1972, the museum has hosted more than 500 exhibitions. The Potter's collection exceeds 16,000 objects, with works ranging from antiquity to contemporary art.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Margaret Lawrence Gallery is located at the university's Southbank campus in the heart of Melbourne's Arts Precinct. It provides a space for members of the Victorian College of the Arts community to showcase new work, playing an educational role for the institution. The gallery was opened in 2001 to link the Victorian College of the Arts with the University of Melbourne, and to the wider communities of Victorian and national arts. The space facilitates and encourages connections between professional artists, academics, students, and the wider public.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Medical History Museum is located within the Brownless Biomedical Library at the university's Parkville campus. Exhibitions and educational programs are offered by the museum.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Noel Shaw Gallery is located within the Baillieu Library at the university's Parkville campus. It opened in 2014, following a bequest by university alumna, Noel Shaw. Each year two exhibitions are presented in the Noel Shaw Gallery, which focus on the opportunities for curriculum engagement.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Ed Muirhead Physics Museum is located at the university's Parkville campus in the School of Physics building. The museum is named in honour of Ed Muirhead, who was the Chairman of the School of Physics from 1980 to 1986, and initiated the museum during that time. The collection comprises items that are of historical and scientific interest, predominantly scientific apparatus constructed by former professors and staff for research purposes.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Dax Centre is located at the university's Parkville campus in the Kenneth Myer Building. The centre is named after Eric Cunningham Dax, who pioneered the use of art to promote clinical insights and mental health improvements. Exhibitions and educational programs hosted by the centre seek to promote mental health. The Dax Centre consists of educational programs and a gallery space and also houses the Cunningham Dax Collection.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Tiegs Museum is located at the university's Parkville campus in the BioSciences building. The museum hosts a collection of zoological specimens accumulated over 120 years, and is named after a former professor and faculty dean, Oscar Tiegs. Specimens included in the collection range from small invertebrates to the whole mounts and skeletons of vertebrates including an African Lion, and a moa (an extinct emu-like bird from New Zealand).


title: University of Melbourne

text: Buxton Contemporary is an art museum located at the university's Southbank campus, in Melbourne's Arts precinct. The museum was opened in 2018 and comprises four public exhibition galleries, teaching facilities and an outdoor screen for moving image art. The museum was the result of a gift to the university by the art collector and property developer Michael Buxton.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Science Gallery Melbourne opened in 2021 at the university's Parkville campus. The 3,500 square metre gallery is in the university's new Melbourne Connect building and presents exhibitions that seek to combine art and science. The gallery forms part of the Global Science Gallery Network, based on the Science Gallery at Trinity College, Dublin.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The University of Melbourne Herbarium is a teaching and research herbarium within the School of Biosciences.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Melbourne University currently has 10 residential colleges in total, seven of which are located in an arc around the cricket oval at the northern edge of the campus, known as College Crescent. The other three are located outside of university grounds.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Most of the university's residential colleges also admit students from RMIT University and Monash University, Parkville campus, with selected colleges also accepting students from the Australian Catholic University and Victoria University.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Graduate House (1972-) is a residential college for graduates located in Parkville's graduate precinct, which began its affiliation with the university in 1972. Whitley College (1965-2017) was a former college of the university, though it was sold to a redeveloper in 2016. Ridley College (1965-2005) was an affiliated residential college of the University of Melbourne and was the first college of the university to be co-residential for men and women.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Clubs and societies offered by the university range from cultural, course-related, political, language exchange, spiritual and community focuses. There are currently over 200 clubs affiliated to the University of Melbourne Student Union, with the total membership exceeding 25,000. There are currently more than 100 groups affiliated with the Graduate Student Association (GSA), with the total membership of the GSA exceeding 36,000 students. Specific faculty-based clubs and societies are also offered at the university.


title: University of Melbourne

text: There are two student organisations within the University of Melbourne, the University of Melbourne Student Union, and the Graduate Student Association. The University of Melbourne Student Union, formerly known as the Student Union was founded in 1884. Originally, it was formed to promote common interests of students, to assist social interactions between members, and provide resources for pursuing public life. The union's mission is to create a quality experience on campus by establishing a community for students, staff and visitors from a range of backgrounds and experiences. The Graduate Student Association (GSA) is an independent association that automatically provides all enrolled graduate students at the university with support, representation, events, and training. Some features of the GSA include welcoming students to the graduate school with orientation events, hosting an Annual Art Prize, and a formal Graduate Ball.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Sport at The University of Melbourne is overseen by Melbourne University Sport (MU Sport), which is a department of the university. The department provides the management of all sports, fitness and recreation facilities, programmes and activities of the university. MU Sport also manages the university's designated entry scheme for elite athletes. Membership to the Melbourne University Sport Fitness Centre is open to University of Melbourne students, staff, alumni, and the greater community at large for those above the age of 17.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Melbourne University Sport offers access to a range of sporting clubs: aikido, athletics, badminton, baseball, basketball, cheerleading, cricket, cycling, dancesport, dragon boat, fencing, men's football, women's football, futsal, gridiron, hockey, inline, karate, kendo, lacrosse, mountaineering, netball, quidditch, rowing, rugby union, skiing, snowboarding, soccer, softball, squash, surf riding, swimming, table tennis, taekwondo-rhee, taekwondo-wtf, tai chi and wushu, tennis, touch football, underwater (SCUBA), ultimate frisbee, volleyball, water polo, waterski and wakeboard, and weightlifting and powerlifting.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The Melbourne University Football Club was established in 1859 and is the world's second oldest Australian rules football club and the second oldest football club in Australia. It achieved prominence by being admitted to what is now the Australian Football League competition in 1908, and in 1914 becoming the first in the league's history to depart the competition, due to the club's strict stance on amateurism. The Melbourne University Lacrosse Club (MULC) was established in 1883 and is the oldest continually operational lacrosse club in the world. The Melbourne University Cycling Club (MUCyc) is associated with Cycling Australia and competes regularly at local and national races. In 2008 MUCyc won its seventh consecutive AUG championship (2002–2008). The Melbourne University Tennis Club was one of the original five clubs established for the students and staff of the university, with various tennis competitions and social tennis events held on campus as early as 1882.


title: University of Melbourne

text: The facilities that The University of Melbourne offers include a gym, fitness programs, group fitness classes, cardio theatre, strength zone, group cycling studio, MindBody studio, Cardio Box studio, two multipurpose stadiums, indoor heated 25m lap pool, personal training studio, group fitness room, squash courts, and change rooms.


title: University of Melbourne

text: Many Nobel laureates have taught, studied and researched at the University of Melbourne. Graduates include:


title: University of Melbourne

text: The University of Melbourne has produced many notable alumni, with graduates having been Governor-General of Australia, Governor of Victoria, Prime Minister of Australia, justices of the High, Federal, Family and Victorian Supreme courts, Premiers of Victoria and elected leaders of other states and territories, Nobel laureates, a First Lady of East Timor, ministers of foreign countries, Lord mayors, academics, architects, historians, poets, philosophers, politicians, scientists, physicists, authors, industry leaders, defence force personnel, corporate leaders, community leaders, as well as numerous artists. Frances Dorothy Gray became Australia's first female Bachelor of Dental Science graduate, when she graduated from the Australian College of Dentistry at the University of Melbourne in 1907.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: Sailor Moon Crystal, known in Japan as , is a 2014 original net animation adaptation of the "shōjo" manga series "Sailor Moon" written and illustrated by Naoko Takeuchi, produced in commemoration of the original series' 20th anniversary. Produced by Toei Animation and directed by Munehisa Sakai (Seasons 1 and 2) and Chiaki Kon (Season 3), the series was streamed worldwide on Niconico from July 5, 2014, to July 18, 2015. Season 1 and 2's episodes were released twice a month. Instead of remaking the 1990s anime series preceding it, Toei Animation produced "Crystal" as a reboot of "Sailor Moon" and as a more faithful adaptation of the original manga by omitting much of the original material from the first series. The story focuses on Usagi Tsukino, who is a young girl that obtains the power to become the titular character. Other Sailor Guardians join her in the search for Princess Serenity and the Silver Crystal.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: The first episode had an advanced screening on June 30, 2014. In May 2014, Viz Media licensed "Crystal" for an English-language release in North America, simulcasting the series on Neon Alley and Hulu to coincide with the worldwide streaming. Crunchyroll also simulcast the series in a separate contract with Toei Animation. Viz premiered the first episode as part of their "Sailor Moon Day" celebration at the Anime Expo Convention in Los Angeles.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: A third season, based on the "Infinity" arc of the manga, premiered on April 4, 2016, and concluded on June 27, 2016.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: A sequel two-part film, "Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie", based on the "Dream" arc of the manga, was released in 2021, with the first film released on January 8 and the second on February 11, followed by another sequel two-part film, "Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Cosmos The Movie", based on "Stars" arc of the manga, which will be released in Summer 2023.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: Usagi Tsukino, a fourteen-year-old middle school student, meets Luna, a talking black cat that tells her that she is Sailor Moon, a Sailor Guardian destined to fight a group of villains called the Dark Kingdom. Luna also instructs Sailor Moon to find her four fellow Sailor Guardians, the long-lost Princess of an ancestral kingdom on the Moon, and a legendary artifact of supreme power known as the Silver Crystal. On her journey, Sailor Moon meets her fellow Guardians Sailor Mercury (Ami Mizuno), Sailor Mars (Rei Hino), Sailor Jupiter (Makoto Kino), Sailor Venus (Minako Aino), and a mysterious masked man called Tuxedo Mask (Mamoru Chiba), to whom Usagi is attracted. Later, Usagi and the Sailor Guardians discover that in their previous lives they were members of an ancient Moon Kingdom in a period of time called the Silver Millennium. The Dark Kingdom waged war against them, resulting in the destruction of the Moon Kingdom. It turns out that Sailor Moon herself is Princess Serenity, the Princess of the Moon Kingdom, and that she alone has the power to make the Silver Crystal appear and to use its incredible mystical power. Meanwhile, Tuxedo Mask is revealed to be Prince Endymion, the first crown prince of the Earth and Serenity's lover in his previous life. After defeating the Four Kings of Heaven (who turn out to have been Prince Endymion's loyal knights in the past) and killing their leader Queen Beryl, the Sailor Guardians confront a brainwashed Endymion and the ruler of the Dark Kingdom — Queen Metaria. To prevent Queen Metaria from spreading darkness all over the Earth, the Guardians sacrifice their lives. Using the power of the Silver Crystal, Sailor Moon destroys Queen Metaria and resurrects her friends.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: After Sailor Moon restores the Earth to normal and prepares to live a normal life again with Mamoru and her friends, a little girl falls from the sky, claiming to have the same name as Usagi, but nicknamed as "Chibiusa" by Usagi and the others. A group of villains called the Black Moon Clan, led by Prince Demande, initiate a series of operations which lead to the abductions of Sailor's Mars, Mercury, and Jupiter while looking for Chibiusa and the Silver Crystal. Chibiusa is revealed to be Sailor Moon's and Tuxedo Mask's daughter from a distant future that has been decimated by the Clan, and is searching for Sailor Moon and the Silver Crystal in order to save her mother. Sailor Moon and her friends accompany Chibiusa to the future, and they meet the Guardian of Time and Chibiusa's friend, Sailor Pluto. After being captured herself Sailor Moon then rescues Mars, Mercury, and Jupiter and together they manage to escape from the Black Moon Clan's headquarters, the planet Nemesis but Chibiusa is manipulated by Demande's advisor and the true mastermind of the Clan, Death Phantom, and transforms into Black Lady who also later brainwashes Tuxedo Mask as well. During an intense battle Demande manages to obtain the Silver Crystals of the past and the future and is about to bring them together when Sailor Pluto stops time to prevent the universe from being destroyed by this act, leading to her own death. Black Lady is shocked to see her friend die and reverts to her true self, transforming into Sailor Chibi Moon. While Demande dies protecting Sailor Moon from Death Phantom, the latter is destroyed by the combined powers of Sailor Moon and the awakened Sailor Chibi Moon. Neo Queen Serenity who had also awakened then gives Sailor Guardians new Planet Powers and gives Sailor Moon a new brooch as well (as her old one was destroyed defeating Death Phantom), Sailor Moon and her friends say goodbye to their future selves and return to the past and everything returns to normal. Chibiusa also returns to the future afterwards but returns shortly afterwards to stay in the past and train as a Sailor Guardian.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: After students from the prestigious Mugen Academy become victims of a group of villains called the Death Busters, who transform them into Daimons, Usagi and their friends meet two Mugen Academy students: tomboyish car racer Haruka Tenoh and violinist prodigy Michiru Kaioh. Haruka and Michiru are the civilian identities of two new Sailor Guardians: Sailor Uranus and Sailor Neptune, who are initially reluctant to work with Sailor Moon and the others. Chibiusa befriends a mysterious girl named Hotaru Tomoe, daughter of Mugen Academy founder Professor Tomoe, who is later revealed to be a key figure of the Death Busters. Sailor Pluto is reincarnated as university student Setsuna Meioh, and she joins Sailors Uranus and Neptune. Using the power of all the Sailor Guardians, Usagi gains a new transformation: Super Sailor Moon. The Sailor Guardians learn that Hotaru's body is host to Mistress 9, partner of the leader of the Death Busters, Master Pharaoh 90. At the same time, Hotaru is also the reincarnation of the Guardian of Silence, Sailor Saturn, who has the power to destroy the whole world. For this reason, Sailors Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto fear Saturn's awakening. In the climactic battle, Pharaoh 90 begins to merge himself with the planet, but the newly awakened Sailor Saturn uses her power to send him back to his dimension, the Tau Star System, sacrificing herself in the process. As Neo-Queen Serenity, Usagi restores the city and resurrects everyone that was killed in the battle, including Hotaru, who is reborn as an infant alongside Saturn's spirit within her once again. Haruka, Michiru, and Setsuna vow to be Hotaru's family and leave the city, with the promise to rejoin Usagi and her friends someday.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: On July 6, 2012, Kodansha and Toei Animation announced that it would commence production of a new anime adaptation for a simultaneous worldwide release in 2013 as part of the series' 20th anniversary celebrations. The idol group Momoiro Clover Z would perform the opening and closing theme songs, "Moon Pride" and "Gekkō" respectively. In April 2013, it was announced the new anime had been delayed. On August 4, 2013, it was confirmed the new anime will be streamed late in the year.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: On January 9, 2014, it was announced the anime would premiere in July, and on the same day, executive producer, Atsutoshi Umezawa announced that the new anime is not a remake of the previous anime, but a reboot by adapting Naoko Takeuchi's original manga from scratch. On March 13, 2014, the new anime's official website was updated to show a countdown beginning on March 14 for an announcement due to occur on March 21. That day, Toei's website showed an image displaying the key visual art, synopsis, and staff for the new anime. It also revealed the anime would be called . The series was directed by Munehisa Sakai at Toei Animation, Yūji Kobayashi handled the series' scripts, Yukie Sakō handled the character designs, and Yasuharu Takanashi composed the music.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: The cast and premiere date were announced at the 20th Anniversary Project Special Stage on April 27, 2014. The anime would premiere on July 5, 2014. Episodes would premiere on the first and third Saturdays of each month. The new cast were announced, along with Kotono Mitsuishi reprising her role as Usagi Tsukino. On April 30, 2014, Toei confirmed the series would run for 26 episodes and streamed worldwide on the video sharing Niconico website with subtitles in 12 languages on the first and third Saturdays of each month. It debuted on July 5, 2014, and ended on January 17, 2015.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: On November 8, 2014, it was announced that the latter half of the 26 episode-run will be the second season, covering the "Black Moon" arc of the manga. During a special screening of the "Dark Kingdom" finale on December 27, 2014, the new cast for the second season were announced. The second season debuted on February 7, 2015, and ended on July 18, 2015. The Blu-ray updated version of the first and second season aired on Japanese television in April 2015.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: On September 28, 2015, the day in which the final episode of the second season was aired on Japanese television, it was announced that production for the third season of "Sailor Moon Crystal" was given the green light. The third season covered the "Infinity" arc of the manga (known as "Death Busters" arc in Japan). The name for the season was announced as . Chiaki Kon replaced Munehisa Sakai as the series director, and Akira Takahashi took over Yukie Sakō's position as a character designer. The latter returning staff and new cast for the third season were announced in a live webcast on January 27, 2016. The first episode of the third season was previewed at a special event held at Animate Ikebukuro store in Tokyo on March 6, 2016. The third season began its regular airing on Japanese television on April 4, 2016, and ended on June 27, 2016, total of 13 episodes.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: On January 25, 2017, it was announced on the "Sailor Moon" 25th anniversary website that "Sailor Moon Crystal" would receive a sequel, revealed as the fourth season covering the "Dream" arc of the manga, but being produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project opposed to an television season. Chiaki Kon returned as a main director, while Kazuko Tadano handled the character designs, who took over Akira Takahashi's position from the third season. Kazuyuki Fudeyasu, replacing Yūji Kobayashi, wrote the scripts, original creator & mangaka Naoko Takeuchi was credited as a chief supervisor, Yasuharu Takanashi returned to compose the music, and Studio Deen co-animated and produced the films with Toei Animation. The name for the two-part film was announced as Sailor Moon Eternal. The first film was slated to released on September 11, 2020, but was postponed and released on January 8, 2021, due to COVID-19 pandemic. The second film was released on February 11, 2021.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: The fifth and final season, based on "Stars" arc of the manga, was also produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project. Majority of the key staff members returned from "Eternal" two-part film, while Tomoya Takahashi replaced Chiaki Kon as a director. The title of the two-part film was announced as Sailor Moon Cosmos. Both films will be released in Summer 2023.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: In May 2014, Viz Media licensed the anime for an English-language release in North America as "Sailor Moon Crystal". The series began streaming on Hulu and Neon Alley simultaneously on July 5, 2014. Crunchyroll also began streaming the series on its website during the simulcast. At the 2014 Anime Expo convention in Los Angeles, Viz Media announced that the cast used for the "Sailor Moon" re-dub would also reprise their roles in "Crystal". On November 28, 2014, Madman Entertainment announced that they have the rights for "Sailor Moon Crystal" for Australia and New Zealand, who later broadcast the series on ABC Me, and made the series available for streaming on AnimeLab. On November 20, 2015, Viz Media started streaming the "Sailor Moon Crystal" English dub on Neon Alley and Hulu. In Italy, the series was broadcast on Rai Gulp, making "Crystal" the first series in the franchise that was broadcasting on a Rai or other channels in Italy other than Mediaset, which broadcast the classic series.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: In June 2021, Netflix announced that "Sailor Moon Crystal" will be streamed on its platform on July 1, 2021.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: The first two seasons of "Sailor Moon Crystal" were released in Japan in thirteen Blu-ray box sets. Each volume contained two episodes. A limited edition Blu-ray was released first. A regular DVD and Blu-ray were released a month later on the exact date of the next limited edition Blu-ray. The first limited edition Blu-ray was released on October 15, 2014.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: The third season of "Sailor Moon Crystal" was released in Japan in three Blu-ray box sets, with each volume containing four episodes each (five episodes on the last volume). The first limited edition Blu-ray was released on June 29, 2016.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: Yasuharu Takanashi composed the score for "Sailor Moon Crystal". The series uses two pieces of theme music for the first two seasons. The opening theme song is "Moon Pride" and the ending theme song is ; both themes were performed by Momoiro Clover Z. The ending theme's music was written by Naoko Takeuchi (under the name of "Sumire Shirobara"), and composed by Akiko Kosaka, who has written several songs for the "Sailor Moon" series. The character song album, titled "Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal Character Song Collection: Crystal Collection", was released on April 29, 2015. For the third season, four pieces of theme music are used: one opening theme and three ending themes. The opening theme song, has three different versions. The first version is performed by Etsuko Yakushimaru for the first four episodes and reprised for the final episode, the second version performed by Mitsuko Horie for acts 31 to 34, and the third performed by Momoiro Clover Z for acts 35 to 38. The first ending theme song is "Eternal Eternity" performed by Junko Minagawa and Sayaka Ohara, who voice Sailors Uranus and Neptune, respectively, used for acts 27 to 30 and reprised for act 39, mirroring the first version of the opening theme. The second ending theme song is performed by Misato Fukuen, who is Chibiusa's voice actress, used for acts 31 to 34, mirroring the second version of the opening theme. The third and final ending theme song is performed by Kenji Nojima, who is Mamoru Chiba's voice actor, used for acts 35 to 38, mirroring the third version of the opening theme.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: The first episode of "Sailor Moon Crystal" earned a viewership of over one million on Niconico during the first two days of streaming it.


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: The first two seasons of "Sailor Moon Crystal" were criticized for its overly fast pacing and its animation, which had noticeable errors. Victoria McNally of "The Mary Sue" wrote: "I can overlook poor quality animation when it's not too distracting. The problem with" Sailor Moon Crystal" is that it "is" getting distracting, because the series also has issues with the pacing and quality of its storytelling—which gives you a lot of downtime to criticize all of its visual flaws."


title: Sailor Moon Crystal

text: The third season however, was praised for its improved animation and better characterization. Michael S. Mammano of "Den of Geek", who reviewed the first episode of the third season, wrote "This feels like a whole new show, and I mean that in the best way", and rated the episode 4 out of 5 stars.


title: Serial port

text: In computing, a serial port is a serial communication interface through which information transfers in or out sequentially one bit at a time. This is in contrast to a parallel port, which communicates multiple bits simultaneously in parallel. Throughout most of the history of personal computers, data has been transferred through serial ports to devices such as modems, terminals, various peripherals, and directly between computers.


title: Serial port

text: While interfaces such as Ethernet, FireWire, and USB also send data as a serial stream, the term "serial port" usually denotes hardware compliant with RS-232 or a related standard, such as RS-485 or RS-422.


title: Serial port

text: Modern consumer personal computers (PCs) have largely replaced serial ports with higher-speed standards, primarily USB. However, serial ports are still frequently used in applications demanding simple, low-speed interfaces, such as industrial automation systems, scientific instruments, point of sale systems and some industrial and consumer products.


title: Serial port

text: Server computers may use a serial port as a control console for diagnostics, while networking hardware (such as routers and switches) commonly use serial console ports for configuration, diagnostics, and emergency maintenance access. To interface with these and other devices, USB-to-serial converters can quickly and easily add a serial port to a modern PC.


title: Serial port

text: Modern devices use an integrated circuit called a UART to implement a serial port. This IC converts characters to and from asynchronous serial form, implementing the timing and framing of data specified by the serial protocol in hardware. The IBM PC implements its serial ports, when present, with one or more UARTs.


title: Serial port

text: Very low-cost systems, such as some early home computers, would instead use the CPU to send the data through an output pin, using the bit banging technique. These early home computers often had proprietary serial ports with pinouts and voltage levels incompatible with RS-232.


title: Serial port

text: Before large-scale integration (LSI) made UARTs common, serial ports were commonly used in mainframes and minicomputers, which would have multiple small-scale integrated circuits to implement shift registers, logic gates, counters, and all the other logic needed. As PCs evolved serial ports were included in the Super I/O chip and then in the chipset.


title: Serial port

text: The individual signals on a serial port are unidirectional and when connecting two devices, the outputs of one device must be connected to the inputs of the other. Devices are divided into two categories: "data terminal equipment" (DTE) and "data circuit-terminating equipment" (DCE). A line that is an output on a DTE device is an input on a DCE device and vice versa, so a DCE device can be connected to a DTE device with a straight wired cable, in which each pin on one end goes to the same numbered pin on the other end.


title: Serial port

text: Conventionally, computers and terminals are DTE, while peripherals such as modems are DCE. If it is necessary to connect two DTE (or DCE) devices together, a cable with reversed TX and RX lines, known as a cross-over, roll-over or null modem cable must be used.


title: Serial port

text: Generally, serial port connectors are gendered, only allowing connectors to mate with a connector of the opposite gender. With D-subminiature connectors, the male connectors have protruding pins, and female connectors have corresponding round sockets. Either type of connector can be mounted on equipment or a panel; or terminate a cable.


title: Serial port

text: Connectors mounted on DTE are likely to be male, and those mounted on DCE are likely to be female (with the cable connectors being the opposite). However, this is far from universal; for instance, most serial printers have a female DB25 connector, but they are DTEs. In this circumstance, the appropriately gendered connectors on the cable or a gender changer can be used to correct the mismatch.


title: Serial port

text: The only connector specified in the original RS-232 standard was the 25-pin D-subminiature, however, many other connectors have been used to save money or save on physical space, among other reasons. In particular, since many devices do not use all of the 20 signals that are defined by the standard, connectors with fewer pins are often used. While specific examples follow, countless other connectors have been used for RS-232 connections.


title: Serial port

text: The 9-pin DE-9 connector has been used by most IBM-compatible PCs since the Serial/Parallel Adapter option for the PC-AT, where the 9-pin connector allowed a serial and parallel port to fit on the same card. This connector has been standardized for RS-232 as TIA-574.


title: Serial port

text: Some miniaturized electronics, particularly graphing calculators and hand-held amateur and two-way radio equipment, have serial ports using a phone connector, usually the smaller 2.5 or 3.5 mm connectors and the most basic 3-wire interface—transmit, receive and ground.


title: Serial port

text: 8P8C connectors are also used in many devices. The EIA/TIA-561 standard defines a pinout using this connector, while the rollover cable (or Yost standard) is commonly used on Unix computers and network devices, such as equipment from Cisco Systems.


title: Serial port

text: Many models of Macintosh favor the related RS-422 standard, mostly using circular mini-DIN connectors. The Macintosh included a standard set of two ports for connection to a printer and a modem, but some PowerBook laptops had only one combined port to save space.


title: Serial port

text: Another common connector is a pin header common on motherboards and add-in cards which is usually converted via a ribbon cable to the more standard 9-pin DE-9 connector (and frequently mounted on a free slot plate or other part of the housing).


title: Serial port

text: Operating systems usually create symbolic names for the serial ports of a computer, rather than requiring programs to refer to them by hardware address.


title: Serial port

text: Unix-like operating systems usually label the serial port devices . "TTY" is a common trademark-free abbreviation for "teletype", a device commonly attached to early computers' serial ports, and represents a string identifying the specific port; the syntax of that string depends on the operating system and the device. On Linux, 8250/16550 UART hardware serial ports are named , USB adapters appear as and various types of virtual serial ports do not necessarily have names starting with .


title: Serial port

text: This list includes some of the more common devices that are connected to the serial port on a PC. Some of these such as modems and serial mice are falling into disuse while others are readily available. Serial ports are very common on most types of microcontroller, where they can be used to communicate with a PC or other serial devices.


title: Serial port

text: Since the control signals for a serial port can be driven by any digital signal, some applications used the control lines of a serial port to monitor external devices, without exchanging serial data. A common commercial application of this principle was for some models of uninterruptible power supply which used the control lines to signal loss of power, low battery, and other status information. At least some Morse code training software used a code key connected to the serial port to simulate actual code use; the status bits of the serial port could be sampled very rapidly and at predictable times, making it possible for the software to decipher Morse code.


title: Serial port

text: Serial standards provide for many different operating speeds as well as adjustments to the protocol to account for different operating conditions. The most well-known options are speed, number of data bits per character, parity, and number of stop bits per character.


title: Serial port

text: In modern serial ports using a UART integrated circuit, all these settings can be software-controlled. Hardware from the 1980s and earlier may require setting switches or jumpers on a circuit board.


title: Serial port

text: The configuration for serial ports designed to be connected to a PC has become a de facto standard, usually stated as 9600/8-N-1.


title: Serial port

text: Serial ports use two-level (binary) signaling, so the data rate in bits per second is equal to the symbol rate in baud. The total speed includes bits for framing (stop bits, parity, etc.) and so the effective data rate is lower than the bit transmission rate. For example, with 8-N-1 character framing, only 80% of the bits are available for data; for every eight bits of data, two more framing bits are sent.


title: Serial port

text: A standard series of rates is based on multiples of the rates for electromechanical teleprinters; some serial ports allow many arbitrary rates to be selected, but the speeds on both sides of the connection must match for data to be received correctly. Bit rates commonly supported include 75, 110, 300, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, 38400, 57600 and 115200 bit/s. Many of these standard modem baud rates are multiples of either 0.9 kbps (e.g., 19200, 38400, 76800) or 1.2 kbps (e.g., 57600, 115200). Crystal oscillators with a frequency of 1.843200 MHz are sold specifically for this purpose. This is 16 times the fastest bit rate, and the serial port circuit can easily divide this down to lower frequencies as required.


title: Serial port

text: The capability to set a bit rate does not imply that a working connection will result. Not all bit rates are possible with all serial ports. Some special-purpose protocols such as MIDI for musical instrument control, use serial data rates other than the teleprinter standards. Some serial port implementations can automatically choose a bit rate by observing what a connected device is sending and synchronizing to it.


title: Serial port

text: The number of data bits in each character can be 5 (for Baudot code), 6 (rarely used), 7 (for true ASCII), 8 (for most kinds of data, as this size matches the size of a byte), or 9 (rarely used). 8 data bits are almost universally used in newer applications. 5 or 7 bits generally only make sense with older equipment such as teleprinters.


title: Serial port

text: Most serial communications designs send the data bits within each byte least significant bit first. Also possible, but rarely used, is most significant bit first; this was used, for example, by the IBM 2741 printing terminal. The order of bits is not usually configurable within the serial port interface but is defined by the host system. To communicate with systems that require a different bit ordering than the local default, local software can re-order the bits within each byte just before sending and just after receiving.


title: Serial port

text: "Parity" is a method of detecting errors in transmission. When parity is used with a serial port, an extra data bit is sent with each data character, arranged so that the number of 1 bits in each character, including the parity bit, is always odd or always even. If a byte is received with the wrong number of 1s, then it must have been corrupted. Correct parity does not necessarily indicate absence of corruption as a corrupted transmission with an even number of errors will pass the parity check. A single parity bit does not allow implementation of error correction on each character, and communication protocols working over serial data links will typically have higher-level mechanisms to ensure data validity and request retransmission of data that has been incorrectly received.


title: Serial port

text: Aside from uncommon applications that use the last bit (usually the 9th) for some form of addressing or special signaling, mark or space parity is uncommon, as it adds no error detection information.


title: Serial port

text: Odd parity is more useful than even parity since it ensures that at least one state transition occurs in each character, which makes it more reliable at detecting errors like those that could be caused by serial port speed mismatches. The most common parity setting, however, is "none", with error detection handled by a communication protocol.


title: Serial port

text: To allow detection of messages damaged by line noise, electromechanical teleprinters were arranged to print a special character when received data contained a parity error.


title: Serial port

text: Stop bits sent at the end of every character allow the receiving signal hardware to detect the end of a character and to resynchronize with the character stream. Electronic devices usually use one stop bit. If slow electromechanical teleprinters are used, one-and-one half or two stop bits may be required.


title: Serial port

text: The data/parity/stop (D/P/S) conventional notation specifies the framing of a serial connection. The most common usage on microcomputers is 8/N/1 (8N1). This specifies 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit. In this notation, the parity bit is not included in the data bits. 7/E/1 (7E1) means that an even parity bit is added to the 7 data bits for a total of 8 bits between the start and stop bits.


title: Serial port

text: Flow control is used in circumstances where a transmitter might be able to send data faster than the receiver is able to process it. To cope with this, serial lines often incorporate a handshaking method. There are "hardware" and "software" handshaking methods.


title: Serial port

text: Hardware handshaking is done with extra signals, often the RS-232 RTS/CTS or DTR/DSR signal circuits. RTS and CTS are used to control data flow, signaling, for instance, when a buffer is almost full. Per the RS-232 standard and its successors, DTR and DSR are used to signal that equipment is present and powered up so are usually asserted at all times. However, non-standard implementations exist, for example, printers that use DTR as flow control.


title: Serial port

text: Software handshaking is done for example with ASCII control characters XON/XOFF to control the flow of data. The XON and XOFF characters are sent by the receiver to the sender to control when the sender will send data, that is, these characters go in the opposite direction to the data being sent. The system starts in the "sending allowed" state. When the receiver's buffers approach capacity, the receiver sends the XOFF character to tell the sender to stop sending data. Later, after the receiver has emptied its buffers, it sends an XON character to tell the sender to resume transmission. It is an example of in-band signaling, where control information is sent over the same channel as its data.


title: Serial port

text: The advantage of hardware handshaking is that it can be extremely fast, it works independently of imposed meaning such as ASCII on the transferred data and it is stateless. Its disadvantage is that it requires more hardware and cabling, and both ends of the connection must support the hardware handshaking protocol used.


title: Serial port

text: The advantage of software handshaking is that it can be done with absent or incompatible hardware handshaking circuits and cabling. The disadvantage, common to all in-band control signaling, is that it introduces complexities in ensuring that control messages get through even when data messages are blocked, and data can never be mistaken for control signals. The former is normally dealt with by the operating system or device driver; the latter normally by ensuring that control codes are escaped (such as in the Kermit protocol) or omitted by design (such as in ANSI terminal control).


title: Serial port

text: If no handshaking is employed, an overrun receiver might simply fail to receive data from the transmitter. Approaches for preventing this include reducing the speed of the connection so that the receiver can always keep up, increasing the size of buffers so it can keep up averaged over a longer time, using delays after time-consuming operations (e.g. in termcap) or employing a mechanism to resend data which has not been received correctly (e.g. TCP).


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Diosdado Pangan Macapagal Sr. (; September 28, 1910 – April 21, 1997) was a Filipino lawyer, poet and politician who served as the ninth president of the Philippines, serving from 1961 to 1965, and the sixth vice president, serving from 1957 to 1961. He also served as a member of the House of Representatives, and headed the Constitutional Convention of 1970. He was the father of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, who followed his path as president of the Philippines from 2001 to 2010.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: A native of Lubao, Pampanga, Macapagal graduated from the University of the Philippines and University of Santo Tomas, both in Manila, after which he worked as a lawyer for the government. He first won election in 1949 to the House of Representatives, representing the 1st district in his home province of Pampanga. In 1957, he became vice president under the rule of President Carlos P. Garcia, whom he later defeated in the 1961 election.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: As president, Macapagal worked to suppress graft and corruption and to stimulate the Philippine economy. He introduced the country's first land reform law, placed the peso on the free currency exchange market, and liberalized foreign exchange and import controls. Many of his reforms, however, were crippled by a Congress dominated by the rival Nacionalista Party. He is also known for shifting the country's observance of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12, commemorating the day President Emilio Aguinaldo unilaterally declared the independence of the First Philippine Republic from the Spanish Empire in 1898. He stood for re-election in 1965, and was defeated by Ferdinand Marcos.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Under Marcos, Macapagal was elected president of the 1970 constitutional convention that would later draft what became the 1973 Constitution, though the manner in which the charter was ratified and modified led him to later question its legitimacy. He died of heart failure, pneumonia, and renal complications, in 1997, at the age of 86.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Macapagal was also a reputed poet in the Spanish language, though his poetic oeuvre was eclipsed by his political biography.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Diosdado Macapagal was born on September 28, 1910, in Lubao, Pampanga, the third of five children in a poor family. His father was Urbano Macapagal y Romero (c. 1887 – 1946), a poet who wrote in the local Pampangan language, and his mother was Romana Pangan Macapagal, daughter of Atanacio Miguel Pangan (a former "cabeza de barangay" of Gutad, Floridablanca, Pampanga) and Lorenza Suing Antiveros. Urbano's mother, Escolástica Romero Macapagal, was a midwife and schoolteacher who taught catechism.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Diosdado is a distant descendant of Don Juan Macapagal, a prince of Tondo, who was a great-grandson of the last reigning "lakan" of Tondo, Lakan Dula. He is also related to well-to-do Licad family through his mother Romana, who was a second cousin of María Vitug Licad, grandmother of renowned pianist, Cecile Licad. Romana's own grandmother, Genoveva Miguel Pangan, and María's grandmother, Celestina Miguel Macaspac, were sisters. Their mother, María Concepción Lingad Miguel, was the daughter of José Pingul Lingad and Gregoria Malit Bartolo.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Diosdado's family earned extra income by raising pigs and accommodating boarders in their home. Due to his roots in poverty, Macapagal would later become affectionately known as the "Poor Boy from Lubao". Diosdado was also a reputed poet in the Spanish language although his poetic work was eclipsed by his political career.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Macapagal excelled in his studies at local public schools, graduating valedictorian from Lubao Elementary School, and salutatorian at Pampanga High School. He finished his pre-law course at the University of the Philippines, then enrolled at Philippine Law School in 1932, studying on a scholarship and supporting himself with a part-time job as an accountant. While in law school, he gained prominence as an orator and debater. However, he was forced to quit schooling after two years due to poor health and a lack of money.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Returning to Pampanga, he joined boyhood friend Rogelio de la Rosa in producing and starring in Tagalog operettas patterned after classic Spanish zarzuelas. It was during this period that he married his friend's sister, Purita de la Rosa, in 1938. He had two children with de la Rosa, Cielo and Arturo.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Macapagal raised enough money to continue his studies at the University of Santo Tomas. He also gained the assistance of philanthropist Don Honorio Ventura, the secretary of the interior at the time, who financed his education. He also received financial support from his mother's relatives, notably from the Macaspacs, who owned large tracts of land in barrio Sta. Maria, Lubao, Pampanga. After receiving his Bachelor of Laws degree in 1936, he was admitted to the bar, topping the 1936 bar examination with a score of 89.95%. He later returned to his alma mater to take up graduate studies and earn a Master of Laws degree in 1941, a Doctor of Civil Law degree in 1947, and a PhD in economics in 1957. His dissertation had "Imperatives of Economic Development in the Philippines" as its title.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: After passing the bar examination, Macapagal was invited to join an American law firm as a practicing attorney, a particular honor for a Filipino at the time. He was assigned as a legal assistant to President Manuel L. Quezon in Malacañang Palace. During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in World War II, Macapagal continued working in Malacañang Palace as an assistant to President José P. Laurel, while secretly aiding the anti-Japanese resistance during the Allied liberation country from the Japanese.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: After the war, Macapagal worked as an assistant attorney with one of the largest law firms in the country, "Ross, Lawrence, Selph and Carrascoso". With the establishment of the independent Third Republic of the Philippines in 1946, he rejoined government service when President Manuel Roxas appointed him to the Department of Foreign Affairs as the head of its legal division. In 1948, President Elpidio Quirino appointed Macapagal as chief negotiator in the successful transfer of the Turtle Islands in the Sulu Sea from the United Kingdom to the Philippines. That same year, he was assigned as second secretary to the Philippine Embassy in Washington, D.C. In 1949, he was elevated to the position of counselor on legal affairs and treaties, at the time the fourth-highest post in the Philippine Foreign Office.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: In 1938, Macapagal married Purita de la Rosa. They had two children, Cielo Macapagal-Salgado (who would later become vice governor of Pampanga) and Arturo Macapagal. Purita died in 1943.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: On May 5, 1946, Macapagal married Dr. Evangelina Macaraeg, with whom he had two children, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (who would later become president of the Philippines) and Diosdado Macapagal, Jr.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: On the urging of local political leaders of Pampanga province, President Quirino recalled Macapagal from his position in Washington to run for a seat in the House of Representatives representing the 1st district of Pampanga. The district's incumbent, Representative Amado Yuzon, was a friend of Macapagal, but was opposed by the administration due to his support by communist groups. After a campaign that Macapagal described as cordial and free of personal attacks, he won a landslide victory in the 1949 election. He won re-election in the 1953 election, and served as a representative in the 2nd and 3rd Congress.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: At the start of legislative sessions in 1950, the members of the House of Representatives elected Macapagal as chair of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, and he was given several important foreign assignments. He was a Philippine delegate to the United Nations General Assembly multiple times, notably distinguishing himself in debates over communist aggression with Andrei Vishinsky and Jacob Malik of the Soviet Union. He took part in negotiations for the U.S.-R.P. Mutual Defense Treaty, the Laurel–Langley Agreement, and the Japanese Peace Treaty. He also authored the Foreign Service Act, which reorganized and strengthened the Philippine foreign service.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: As a representative, Macapagal authored and sponsored several laws of socio-economic importance, particularly aimed at benefiting the rural areas and the poor. Among the pieces of legislation that Macapagal promoted were the Minimum Wage Law, Rural Health Law, Rural Bank Law, the Law on Barrio Councils, the Barrio Industrialization Law, and a law nationalizing the rice and corn industries. He was consistently selected by the Congressional Press Club as one of the Ten Outstanding Congressmen during his tenure. In his second term, he was named Most Outstanding lawmaker of the 3rd Congress .


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: In the May 1957 general elections, the Liberal Party drafted Congressman Macapagal to run for vice president as the running-mate of José Y. Yulo, a former speaker of the House of Representatives. Macapagal's nomination was particularly boosted by Liberal Party president Eugenio Pérez, who insisted that the party's vice presidential nominee have a clean record of integrity and honesty. While Yulo was defeated by Carlos P. Garcia of the Nacionalista Party, Macapagal was elected vice president in an upset victory, defeating the Nacionalista candidate, José B. Laurel, Jr., by over eight percentage points. A month after the election, he was chosen as the president of the Liberal Party.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: As the first ever Philippine vice president to be elected from a rival party of the president, Macapagal served out his four-year vice presidential term as a leader of the opposition. The ruling party refused to give him a Cabinet position in the Garcia administration, which was a break from tradition. He was offered a position in the Cabinet only on the condition that he switch allegiance to the ruling Nationalista Party, but he declined the offer and instead played the role of critic to the administration's policies and performance. This allowed him to capitalize on the increasing unpopularity of the Garcia administration. Assigned to performing only ceremonial duties as vice president, he spent his time making frequent trips to the countryside to acquaint himself with voters and to promote the image of the Liberal Party.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: As president, Macapagal worked to suppress graft and corruption and to stimulate the Philippine economy.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: In the 1961 presidential election, Macapagal ran against Garcia's re-election bid, promising an end to corruption and appealing to the electorate as a common man from humble beginnings. He defeated the incumbent president with a 55% to 45% margin. His inauguration as the president of the Philippines took place on December 30, 1961.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: In his inaugural address, Macapagal promised a socio-economic program anchored on "a return to free and private enterprise", placing economic development in the hands of private entrepreneurs with minimal interference.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Twenty days after the inauguration, exchange controls were lifted and the Philippine peso was allowed to float on the free currency exchange market. The currency controls were initially adopted by the administration of Elpidio Quirino as a temporary measure, but continued to be adopted by succeeding administrations. The peso devalued from P2.64 to the U.S. dollar, and stabilized at P3.80 to the dollar, supported by a $300 million stabilization fund from the International Monetary Fund.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: To achieve the national goal of economic and social progress with prosperity reaching down to the masses, there existed a choice of methods. First, there was the choice between the democratic and dictatorial systems, the latter prevailing in communist countries. On this, the choice was easy as Filipinos had long been committed to the democratic method. With the democratic mechanism, however, the next choice was between free enterprise and the continuing of the controls system. Macapagal stated the essence of free enterprise in layman parlance in declaring before Congress on January 22, 1962, that "the task of economic development belongs principally to private enterprise and not to the government.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Before independence there was free enterprise in the Philippines under Presidents Manuel Quezon, Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas. In 1950 President Elpidio Quirino deviated from free enterprise launching as a temporary emergency measure the system of exchange and import controls. The controls system was carried on by President Magsaysay and Garcia.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: The first fundamental decision Macapagal had to make was whether to continue the system of exchange controls of Quirino, Magsaysay and Garcia or to return to the free enterprise of Quezon, Osmena and Roxas. It had been his view since he was a congressman for eight years that the suitable economic system for Filipinos was free enterprise. So on January 21, 1962, after working for 20 straight hours he signed a Central Bank decree abolishing exchange controls and returning the country to free enterprise.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: During the 20 days available to make a decision on choice between controls and free enterprise, between his inauguration as president and before the opening of Congress, Macapagal's main adviser was Andres Castillo, governor of the Central Bank.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Further reform efforts by Macapagal were blocked by the Nacionalistas, who dominated the House of Representatives and the Senate at that time. Nonetheless, Macapagal was able to achieve steady economic progress, and annual GDP growth averaged at 5.53% for 1962–65.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: The removal of controls and the restoration of free enterprise was intended to provide only the fundamental setting in which Macapagal could work out economic and social progress. A specific and periodic program for the guidance of both the private sector and the government was an essential instrument to attain the economic and social development that constituted the goal of his labors.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Such a program for his administration was formulated under his authority and direction by a group of able and reputable economic and business leaders the most active and effective of which was Sixto Roxas III. From an examination of the planned targets and requirements of the Five-Year program – formally known as the Five-Year Socio-Economic Integrated Development Program – it could be seen that it aimed at the following objectives.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Free enterprise was restored with decontrol. The Five-Year Economic Program had been prescribed. Land reform abolishing tenancy had been launched. These were essential foundations for economic and social progress for the greatest number.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: The essential foundations having been laid, attention must then be turned to the equally difficult task of building the main edifice by implementing the economic program. Although the success of Macapagal's Socio-Economic Program in free enterprise inherently depended on the private sector, it would be helpful and necessary for the government to render active assistance in its implementation by the citizens.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Such role of the government in free enterprise, in the view of Macapagal, required it (1) to provide the social overhead like roads, airfields and ports that directly or proximately promote economic growth, (2) to adopt fiscal and monetary policies salutary to investments, and most importantly (3) to serve as an entrepreneur or promote of basic and key private industries, particularly those that require capital too large for businessmen to put up by themselves. Among the enterprises he selected for active government promotion were integrated steel, fertilizer, pulp, meat canning and tourism.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Like Ramon Magsaysay, President Diosdado Macapagal came from the masses. He savored calling himself the "Poor boy from Lubao". Ironically, he had little popularity among the masses. This could be attributed to an absence any charismatic appeal owing to his stiff personality. But despite this, Macapagal had certain achievements. Foremost of these was the Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963 (Republic Act No. 3844) which provided for the purchase of private farmlands with the intention of distributing them in small lots to the landless tenants on easy term of payment. It is a major development in history of land reform in the Philippines,


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: In comparison with the previous agrarian legislation, the law lowered the retention limit to 75 hectares, whether owned by individuals or corporations. It removed the term "contiguous" and established the leasehold system. The share-tenancy or the "kasama" system was prohibited. It formulated a bill of rights that assured agricultural workers the right to self-organization and to a minimum wage. It also created an office that acquired and distributed farmlands and a financing institution for this purpose. The major flaw of this law was, however, that it had several exemptions, such as ort (big capital plantations established during the Spanish and American periods); fishponds, saltbeds, and lands primarily planted to citrus, coconuts, cacao, coffee, durian, and other similar permanent trees; landholdings converted to residential, commercial, industrial, or other similar non-agricultural purposes.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: It was viewed that the 75-hectare retention limit was just too high for the growing population density. Moreover, this law merely allowed the transfer of the landlordism from one area to another. This was because landlords were paid in bonds, which he could use to purchase agricultural lands. Likewise, the farmer was free to choose to be excluded from the leasehold arrangements if he volunteered to give up the landholdings to the landlord.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Within two years after the law was implemented, no land was being purchased under its term and conditions caused by the peasants' inability to purchase the land. Besides, the government seemed lacking of strong political will, as shown by the Congress' allotment of only one million Philippine pesos for the implementation of this code. At least Php 200 million was needed within a year from the enactment and implementation of the code, and Php 300 million in the next three years for the program to be successful. However, by 1972, the code had benefited only 4,500 peasants covering 68 estates, at the cost of Php 57 million to the government. Consequently, by the 1970s, the farmers ended up tilling less land, with their share in the farm also being less. They incurred more debts, depending on the landlord, creditors, and palay buyers. Indeed, during the administration of Macapagal, the productivity of the farmers further declined.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: One of Macapagal's major campaign pledges had been to clean out the government corruption that had proliferated under former President Garcia. The administration also openly feuded with Filipino businessmen Fernando Lopez and Eugenio Lopez, brothers who had controlling interests in several large businesses. The administration alluded to the brothers as "Filipino Stonehills who build and maintain business empires through political power, including the corruption of politicians and other officials". In the 1965 election, the Lopezes threw their support behind Macapagal's rival, Ferdinand Marcos, with Fernando Lopez serving Marcos' running mate.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: The Administration's campaign against corruption was tested by Harry Stonehill, an American expatriate with a $50-million business empire in the Philippines. Macapagal's secretary of justice, Jose W. Diokno investigated Stonehill on charges of tax evasion, smuggling, misdeclaration of imports, and corruption of public officials. Diokno's investigation revealed Stonehill's ties to corruption within the government. Macapagal, however, prevented Diokno from prosecuting Stonehill by deporting the American instead, then dismissing Diokno from the cabinet. Diokno questioned Macapagal's actions, saying, "How can the government now prosecute the corrupted when it has allowed the corrupter to go?" Diokno later served as a senator.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: Macapagal appealed to nationalist sentiments by shifting the commemoration of Philippine independence day. On May 12, 1962, he signed a proclamation which declared Tuesday, June 12, 1962, as a special public holiday in commemoration of the declaration of independence from Spain on that date in 1898. The change became permanent in 1964 with the signing of Republic Act No. 4166. For having issued his 1962 proclamation, Macapagal is generally credited with having moved the celebration date of the Independence Day holiday. Years later, Macapagal told journalist Stanley Karnow the real reason for the change: "When I was in the diplomatic corps, I noticed that nobody came to our receptions on the Fourth of July, but went to the American Embassy instead. So, to compete, I decided we needed a different holiday."


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: On September 12, 1962, during President Diosdado Macapagal's administration, the territory of eastern North Borneo (now Sabah), and the full sovereignty, title and dominion over the territory were ceded by heirs of the Sultanate of Sulu, Sultan Muhammad Esmail E. Kiram I, to the Republic of the Philippines. The cession effectively gave the Philippine government the full authority to pursue their claim in international courts. The Philippines broke diplomatic relations with Malaysia after the federation had included Sabah in 1963. It was revoked in 1989 because succeeding Philippine administrations have placed the claim in the back burner in the interest of pursuing cordial economic and security relations with Kuala Lumpur. To date, Malaysia continues to consistently reject Philippine calls to resolve the matter of Sabah's jurisdiction to the International Court of Justice. Sabah sees the claim made by the Philippines' Moro leader Nur Misuari to take Sabah to International Court of Justice (ICJ) as a non-issue and thus dismissed the claim.


title: Diosdado Macapagal

text: In July 1963, President Diosdado Macapagal convened a summit meeting in Manila in which a nonpolitical confederation for Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia, Maphilindo, was proposed as a realization of José Rizal's dream of bringing together the Malay peoples, seen as artificially divided by colonial frontiers.