title: Justice of the peace

text: Texas does not require a JP to be an attorney in good standing. However, JPs are required to be "well versed in the law" and take mandatory classes to retain their office. New JPs are required to take 80 hours of legal, state-mandated classes the first year, and 20 hours each year thereafter during their tenure in office.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Sections 18 and 19 of Article V of the Texas Constitution, as well as Chapters 27 and 28 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of these Courts and their officers.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Under Section 18, the number of JPs (and associated constables) is dependent on the size of the county:


title: Justice of the peace

text: JP cases are appealed to the county court level; the appeal results in a trial de novo. In criminal cases, cases beginning in justice court cannot be appealed beyond the county level court unless the fine is more than $100 or a constitutional matter is asserted.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In smaller counties without a coroner, the JP has the duty to perform inquests. The JP is also called out for any unattended deaths in the county.


title: Justice of the peace

text: A JP in a large precinct in a large county will work 5 days a week, 8 or more hours daily. Their duties will include, but are not necessarily limited to the following: trials of civil matters, both to a 6-person jury and to the bench, with an amount in controversy not exceeding $20,000.00. Trials of criminal matters involving traffic violations and class C misdemeanors punishable by fine only. Pre-trial motion dockets and show-cause hearings are held, and all discovery must be approved by the Judge in advance in civil cases. All criminal matters are controlled by the rules of criminal procedure and evidence. A much more restricted and smaller set of rules apply in civil matters unless, in the Judge’s discretion, it is believed to be in the best interests of justice to apply the standard rules of evidence and procedure. The court has the exclusive jurisdiction of evictions. A Texas JP Judge will also magistrate prisoners and set bail. The Judge will hear juvenile violations such as truancy, underage drinking and smoking. Warrants of Arrest, Alias, Search and Capias Profine are issued. Protective Orders can be issued and result in jail time if violated. Several administrative matters are heard including the finding of a Dangerous Dog, Occupational Drivers License and tow hearings. Many writs are issued such as writs of re-entry to apartments, possession of realty and to reinstate utilities a landlord may have turned off. A JP has contempt power of $100 and up to 3 days in jail per occurrence. A JP is also authorized to perform marriage ceremonies.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Justices in Vermont are elected county officials, serving two-year terms. They are elected from each town or city within a county, and the number of justices elected from each municipality varies based on population, from as few as 3 or 5, to as many as 12 or 15. They generally serve as election, poll, and town meeting officials, and sit on the boards of civil authority and tax abatement within their municipalities. When assembled as the board of civil authority, they have the authority to decide, in the first instance, election disputes and disagreements about whether a voter should be registered. When the assessed value of property for real estate tax purposes is appealed to the board of civil authority, at least three board members are appointed to inspect the property. They may perform civil marriages throughout the state and are eligible to serve as notaries without payment of the usual registration fee. Justices may also serve as a magistrate when commissioned by the Supreme Court.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The option to serve as a magistrate has never been invoked and likely never will be; in June 2019 Associate Justice of the Vermont Supreme Court Marilyn Skoglund described the idea of commissioning a justice of the peace as an actual magistrate as "a truly frightening idea" and stated that she had never heard of such a thing actually happening.


title: Justice of the peace

text: Esther Hobart Morris became the first female justice of the peace in the United States in 1870. She began her tenure as justice in South Pass City, Wyoming, on February 14, 1870, serving a term of nearly 9 months. The Sweetwater County Board of County Commissioners appointed Morris as justice of the peace after the previous justice, R.S. Barr, resigned in protest of Wyoming Territory's passage of the women's suffrage amendment in December 1869.


title: Justice of the peace

text: In many states, the office of justice of the peace has been abolished or transferred to another court, such as the magistrate court. In larger cities, cases may be heard in a municipal court which has jurisdiction only within that city. Most efforts to abolish the office of justice of the peace have been led by the American Bar Association, which views non-lawyer judges as no longer necessary, as there are now far more persons with formal legal education than in the past when justices of the peace were first used.


title: Justice of the peace

text: California formerly had justice of the peace courts staffed by lay judges, but began phasing them out after a landmark 1974 decision in which the Supreme Court of California unanimously held that it was a violation of federal due process (in the state's view of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution) to allow a non-lawyer to preside over a criminal trial which could result in incarceration of the defendant. The court specifically recognized that in the aftermath of "Gideon v. Wainwright" (1963), it was unreasonable to allow a case to be tried before a layperson incapable of understanding the legal arguments of the attorney to whom the defendant was entitled under "Gideon". In 1994, the remaining justice courts were consolidated into the municipal courts by the passage of Proposition 191, and in 1998, the electorate passed Proposition 220, which authorized the merger of the remaining municipal courts (the only remaining courts of inferior jurisdiction) into the superior courts (the courts of general jurisdiction). However, the judges affected by each merger in each county had to affirmatively consent, a process completed in 2001. Under current California law, all California judges must be licensed attorneys.


title: Justice of the peace

text: The Supreme Court of the United States has held in "North v. Russell", , use of nonlawyer judges in Kentucky's system of police courts accords with the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees of due process and equal protection of the laws.


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: In popular psychology, a quarter-life crisis is a crisis "involving anxiety over the direction and quality of one's life" which is most commonly experienced in a period ranging from a person's early twenties up to their mid-thirties (although a quarter-life crisis can begin as early as 18). It is defined by clinical psychologist Alex Fowke as "a period of insecurity, doubt and disappointment surrounding your career, relationships and financial situation".


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: According to Meredith Goldstein of "The Boston Globe", the "quarter-life crisis" occurs in one's twenties, after entering the "real world" (i.e., after graduating college, and/or after moving out of the family home). German psychologist Erik Erikson, who proposed eight crises that humans face during their development, proposed the existence of a life crisis occurring at this age. The conflict he associated with young adulthood is the "Intimacy vs. Isolation" crisis. According to Erikson, after establishing a personal identity in adolescence, young adults seek to form intense, usually romantic relationships with other people.


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: Common symptoms of a quarter-life crisis are often feelings of being "lost, scared, lonely or confused" about what steps to take in early adulthood. Studies have shown that unemployment and choosing a career path is a major cause of stress and anxiety in young adults. Early stages of one living on their own for the first time and learning to cope without parental help can also induce feelings of isolation and loneliness. Re-evaluation of one's close personal relationships can also be a factor, with sufferers feeling they have outgrown their partner or believing others may be more suitable for them.


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: Recently, millennials have occasionally been referred to as the "Boomerang Generation" or "Peter Pan Generation", because of the members' perceived penchant for delaying some rites of passage into adulthood for longer periods than previous generations. These labels were also a reference to a trend toward members returning home after college and/or living with their parents for longer periods than previous generations. These tendencies might also be partly explained by changes in external social factors rather than characteristics intrinsic to millennials (e.g., higher levels of student loan debt in the US among millennials when compared to earlier generations can make it more difficult for young adults to achieve traditional markers of independence such as marriage, home ownership or investing).


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: The notion of the quarter-life crisis is explored by the 1967 film "The Graduate", one of the first film depictions of this issue. Other notable films that also do so are "Bright Lights, Big City"; "The Paper Chase"; "St. Elmo's Fire"; "How to Be"; "Reality Bites"; "Garden State"; "Accepted"; "Ghost World"; "High Fidelity"; "(500) Days of Summer"; "Lost in Translation"; "Silver Linings Playbook"; "Vicky Cristina Barcelona"; "Amélie"; and "Shaun of the Dead"; as well as the musical "Avenue Q", in the television show "The Office", and the HBO television series "Girls". The 2008 web series "Quarterlife" was so named for the phenomenon. Other movies exploring the quarter-life crisis include: "Tiny Furniture", "The Puffy Chair", "Fight Club", "Stranger than Fiction", "Greenberg", "Frances Ha" and "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind". A 2014 comedy directed by Lynn Shelton titled "Laggies" delves into the complexities of a quarter-life crisis. The 2nd season of 2021's "Cubicles" revolved majorly on quarter life crisis psychology, its symptoms, effects and ways to deal with them.


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: The 2003 John Mayer single "Why Georgia" explores the concept of a quarter-life crisis. The song was based upon John Mayer's experiences during this age period, when he moved to Georgia.


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: The 1975 Fleetwood Mac song "Landslide", written by Stevie Nicks in her late twenties, explores many of the self-doubts and fears of the quarter-life crisis, at a time when Nicks professed to be uncertain about her musical career and her romantic life.


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: English indie rock band Spector's song "True Love (For Now)", the opening track to their 2012 album "Enjoy It While It Lasts", references a quarter-life crisis.


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: "20 Something", the final track on "SZA"s 2017 album Ctrl, delves into the many insecurities she experienced in her twenties, both personal and professional, and the urgency she felt to make the most of her life before entering into mature adulthood.


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: In the album "Pep talks" by Judah & the Lion lead single “Quarter-Life Crisis” is about the ensuing rootlessness and insecurity that Akers, band's lead vocalist, felt during his twenties, caused by loss of his aunt and his parent's divorce.


title: Quarter-life crisis

text: The 2020 released EP "Young Life Crisis" by UPSAHL is about a breakup, lost friendships and a canceled tour, all during the coronavirus pandemic and the uncertainness around her life.<ref>


title: Lanthanide

text: The lanthanide () or lanthanoid () series of chemical elements comprises the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers 57–71, from lanthanum through lutetium. These elements, along with the chemically similar elements scandium and yttrium, are often collectively known as the rare-earth elements or rare-earth metals.


title: Lanthanide

text: The informal chemical symbol Ln is used in general discussions of lanthanide chemistry to refer to any lanthanide. All but one of the lanthanides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling of the 4f electron shell. There is some dispute on whether lanthanum or lutetium is a d-block element, but lutetium is usually considered so by those who study the matter; it is included due to its chemical similarities with the other 14. All lanthanide elements form trivalent cations, Ln, whose chemistry is largely determined by the ionic radius, which decreases steadily from lanthanum to lutetium.


title: Lanthanide

text: These elements are called lanthanides because the elements in the series are chemically similar to lanthanum. Since "lanthanide" means "like lanthanum", it has been argued that lanthanum cannot logically be a lanthanide, but the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage.


title: Lanthanide

text: In presentations of the periodic table, the f-block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table. This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table inserts the 4f and 5f series in their proper places, as parts of the table's sixth and seventh rows (periods).


title: Lanthanide

text: The 1985 IUPAC "Red Book" (p. 45) recommends using ""lanthanoid"" instead of ""lanthanide"," as the ending "-ide" normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to wide current use, "lanthanide" is still allowed.


title: Lanthanide

text: The term "lanthanide" was introduced by Victor Goldschmidt in 1925. Despite their abundance, the technical term "lanthanides" is interpreted to reflect a sense of elusiveness on the part of these elements, as it comes from the Greek λανθανειν ("lanthanein"), "to lie hidden".


title: Lanthanide

text: Rather than referring to their natural abundance, the word reflects their property of "hiding" behind each other in minerals. The term derives from lanthanum, first discovered in 1838, at that time a so-called new rare-earth element "lying hidden" or "escaping notice" in a cerium mineral, and it is an irony that lanthanum was later identified as the first in an entire series of chemically similar elements and gave its name to the whole series.


title: Lanthanide

text: Together with the two elements at the top of group 3, scandium and yttrium, the trivial name "rare earths" is sometimes used to describe all the lanthanides; a definition of rare earths including the group 3, lanthanide, and actinide elements is also occasionally seen, and rarely Sc + Y + lanthanides + thorium. The "earth" in the name "rare earths" arises from the minerals from which they were isolated, which were uncommon oxide-type minerals. However, these elements are neither rare in abundance nor "earths" (an obsolete term for water-insoluble strongly basic oxides of electropositive metals incapable of being smelted into metal using late 18th century technology). Group 2 is known as the alkaline earth elements for much the same reason.


title: Lanthanide

text: The "rare" in the "rare earths" name has much more to do with the difficulty of separating out each of the individual lanthanide elements than scarcity of any of them. By way of the Greek "dysprositos" for "hard to get at," element 66, dysprosium was similarly named; lanthanum itself is named after a word for "hidden." The elements 57 (La) to 71 (Lu) are very similar chemically to one another and frequently occur together in nature, often anywhere from three to all 15 of the lanthanides (along with yttrium as a 16th) occur in minerals such as samarskite, monazite and many others which can also contain the other two group 3 elements as well as thorium and occasionally other actinides as well. A majority of the rare earths were discovered at the same mine in Ytterby, Sweden and four of them are named (yttrium, ytterbium, erbium, terbium) after the city and a fifth *(holmium) after Stockholm; scandium is named after Scandinavia, thulium after the old name Thule, and the immediately-following group 4 element (number 72) hafnium is named for the Latin name of the city of Copenhagen.


title: Lanthanide

text: Samarskite (a mineral which is the source of the name of the element samarium) and other similar minerals in particular also have these elements in association with the nearby metals tantalum, niobium, hafnium, zirconium, vanadium, and titanium, from group 4 and group 5 often in similar oxidation states. Monazite is a phosphate of numerous group 3 + lanthanide + actinide metals and mined especially for the thorium content and specific rare earths especially lanthanum, yttrium and cerium. Cerium and lanthanum as well as other members of the rare earth series are often produced as a metal called mischmetal containing a variable mixture of these elements with cerium and lanthanum predominating; it has direct uses such as lighter flints and other spark sources which do not require extensive purification of one of these metals.


title: Lanthanide

text: There are also rare earth-bearing minerals based on group 2 elements such as yttrocalcite, yttrocerite, yttrofluorite which vary in content of yttrium, cerium, and lanthanum in a particular as well as varying amounts of the others. Other lanthanide/rare earth minerals include bastnäsite, florencite, chernovite, perovskite, xenotime, cerite, gadolinite, lanthanite, fergusonite, polycrase, blomstrandine, håleniusite, miserite, loparite, lepersonnite, euxenite, all of which have a range of relative element concentration and may have the symbol of a predominating one such as monazite-ce; group 3 elements do not occur as native element minerals in the fashion of gold, silver, tantalum and many others on earth but may in lunar regolith. Very rare cerium, lanthanum, and presumably other lanthanide/group 3 halides, feldspars and garnets are also known to exist.


title: Lanthanide

text: All of this is the result of the order in which the electron shells of these elements are filled—the outermost has the same configuration for all of them, and a deeper shell is progressively filled with electrons as the atomic number increases from 57 towards 71. For many years, mixtures of more than one rare earth were considered to be single elements, such as neodymium and praseodymium being thought to be the single element didymium and so on. Very small differences in solubility are used in solvent and ion-exchange purification methods for these elements which require a great deal of repeating to get a purified metal. The refined metals and their compounds have subtle and stark differences amongst themselves in electronic, electrical, optical, and magnetic properties which account for their many niche uses.


title: Lanthanide

text: By way of examples of the term meaning the above considerations rather than their scarcity, cerium is the 26th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and more abundant than copper, neodymium is more abundant than gold; thulium (the second least common naturally occurring lanthanide) is more abundant than iodine, which is itself common enough for biology to have evolved critical usages thereof, and even the lone radioactive element in the series, promethium, is more common than the two rarest naturally occurring elements, francium and astatine, combined.


title: Lanthanide

text: <nowiki>**</nowiki> Sm has a close packed structure like most of the lanthanides but has an unusual 9 layer repeat


title: Lanthanide

text: Gschneider and Daane (1988) attribute the trend in melting point which increases across the series, (lanthanum (920 °C) – lutetium (1622 °C)) to the extent of hybridization of the 6s, 5d, and 4f orbitals. The hybridization is believed to be at its greatest for cerium, which has the lowest melting point of all, 795 °C.


title: Lanthanide

text: The lanthanide metals are soft; their hardness increases across the series. Europium stands out, as it has the lowest density in the series at 5.24 g/cm and the largest metallic radius in the series at 208.4 pm. It can be compared to barium, which has a metallic radius of 222 pm. It is believed that the metal contains the larger Eu ion and that there are only two electrons in the conduction band. Ytterbium also has a large metallic radius, and a similar explanation is suggested.


title: Lanthanide

text: The resistivities of the lanthanide metals are relatively high, ranging from 29 to 134 μΩ·cm. These values can be compared to a good conductor such as aluminium, which has a resistivity of 2.655 μΩ·cm.


title: Lanthanide

text: With the exceptions of La, Yb, and Lu (which have no unpaired f electrons), the lanthanides are strongly paramagnetic, and this is reflected in their magnetic susceptibilities. Gadolinium becomes ferromagnetic at below 16 °C (Curie point). The other heavier lanthanides – terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, and ytterbium – become ferromagnetic at much lower temperatures.


title: Lanthanide

text: f → f transitions are symmetry forbidden (or Laporte-forbidden), which is also true of transition metals. However, transition metals are able to use vibronic coupling to break this rule. The valence orbitals in lanthanides are almost entirely non-bonding and as such little effective vibronic coupling takes, hence the spectra from f → f transitions are much weaker and narrower than those from d → d transitions. In general this makes the colors of lanthanide complexes far fainter than those of transition metal complexes.


title: Lanthanide

text: Going across the lanthanides in the periodic table, the 4f orbitals are usually being filled. The effect of the 4f orbitals on the chemistry of the lanthanides is profound and is the factor that distinguishes them from the transition metals. There are seven 4f orbitals, and there are two different ways in which they are depicted: as a "cubic set" or as a general set. The cubic set is "f", "f", "f", "f", "f", "f" and "f". The 4f orbitals penetrate the [Xe] core and are isolated, and thus they do not participate in bonding. This explains why crystal field effects are small and why they do not form π bonds. As there are seven 4f orbitals, the number of unpaired electrons can be as high as 7, which gives rise to the large magnetic moments observed for lanthanide compounds.


title: Lanthanide

text: Measuring the magnetic moment can be used to investigate the 4f electron configuration, and this is a useful tool in providing an insight into the chemical bonding. The lanthanide contraction, i.e. the reduction in size of the Ln ion from La (103 pm) to Lu (86.1 pm), is often explained by the poor shielding of the 5s and 5p electrons by the 4f electrons.


title: Lanthanide

text: The electronic structure of the lanthanide elements, with minor exceptions, is [Xe]6s4f. The chemistry of the lanthanides is dominated by the +3 oxidation state, and in Ln compounds the 6s electrons and (usually) one 4f electron are lost and the ions have the configuration [Xe]4f. All the lanthanide elements exhibit the oxidation state +3. In addition, Ce can lose its single f electron to form Ce with the stable electronic configuration of xenon. Also, Eu can gain an electron to form Eu with the f configuration that has the extra stability of a half-filled shell. Other than Ce(IV) and Eu(II), none of the lanthanides are stable in oxidation states other than +3 in aqueous solution.


title: Lanthanide

text: In terms of reduction potentials, the Ln couples are nearly the same for all lanthanides, ranging from −1.99 (for Eu) to −2.35 V (for Pr). Thus these metals are highly reducing, with reducing power similar to alkaline earth metals such as Mg (−2.36 V).


title: Lanthanide

text: The ionization energies for the lanthanides can be compared with aluminium. In aluminium the sum of the first three ionization energies is 5139 kJ·mol, whereas the lanthanides fall in the range 3455 – 4186 kJ·mol. This correlates with the highly reactive nature of the lanthanides.


title: Lanthanide

text: The sum of the first two ionization energies for europium, 1632 kJ·mol can be compared with that of barium 1468.1 kJ·mol and europium's third ionization energy is the highest of the lanthanides. The sum of the first two ionization energies for ytterbium are the second lowest in the series and its third ionization energy is the second highest. The high third ionization energy for Eu and Yb correlate with the half filling 4f and complete filling 4f of the 4f subshell, and the stability afforded by such configurations due to exchange energy. Europium and ytterbium form salt like compounds with Eu and Yb, for example the salt like dihydrides. Both europium and ytterbium dissolve in liquid ammonia forming solutions of Ln(NH) again demonstrating their similarities to the alkaline earth metals.


title: Lanthanide

text: The relative ease with which the 4th electron can be removed in cerium and (to a lesser extent praseodymium) indicates why Ce(IV) and Pr(IV) compounds can be formed, for example CeO is formed rather than CeO when cerium reacts with oxygen.


title: Lanthanide

text: The similarity in ionic radius between adjacent lanthanide elements makes it difficult to separate them from each other in naturally occurring ores and other mixtures. Historically, the very laborious processes of cascading and fractional crystallization were used. Because the lanthanide ions have slightly different radii, the lattice energy of their salts and hydration energies of the ions will be slightly different, leading to a small difference in solubility. Salts of the formula Ln(NO)·2NHNO·4HO can be used. Industrially, the elements are separated from each other by solvent extraction. Typically an aqueous solution of nitrates is extracted into kerosene containing tri-"n"-butylphosphate. The strength of the complexes formed increases as the ionic radius decreases, so solubility in the organic phase increases. Complete separation can be achieved continuously by use of countercurrent exchange methods. The elements can also be separated by ion-exchange chromatography, making use of the fact that the stability constant for formation of EDTA complexes increases for log K ≈ 15.5 for [La(EDTA)] to log K ≈ 19.8 for [Lu(EDTA)].


title: Lanthanide

text: When in the form of coordination complexes, lanthanides exist overwhelmingly in their +3 oxidation state, although particularly stable 4f configurations can also give +4 (Ce, Tb) or +2 (Eu, Yb) ions. All of these forms are strongly electropositive and thus lanthanide ions are hard Lewis acids. The oxidation states are also very stable; with the exceptions of SmI and cerium(IV) salts, lanthanides are not used for redox chemistry. 4f electrons have a high probability of being found close to the nucleus and are thus strongly affected as the nuclear charge increases across the series; this results in a corresponding decrease in ionic radii referred to as the lanthanide contraction.


title: Lanthanide

text: The low probability of the 4f electrons existing at the outer region of the atom or ion permits little effective overlap between the orbitals of a lanthanide ion and any binding ligand. Thus lanthanide complexes typically have little or no covalent character and are not influenced by orbital geometries. The lack of orbital interaction also means that varying the metal typically has little effect on the complex (other than size), especially when compared to transition metals. Complexes are held together by weaker electrostatic forces which are omni-directional and thus the ligands alone dictate the symmetry and coordination of complexes. Steric factors therefore dominate, with coordinative saturation of the metal being balanced against inter-ligand repulsion. This results in a diverse range of coordination geometries, many of which are irregular, and also manifests itself in the highly fluxional nature of the complexes. As there is no energetic reason to be locked into a single geometry, rapid intramolecular and intermolecular ligand exchange will take place. This typically results in complexes that rapidly fluctuate between all possible configurations.


title: Lanthanide

text: Many of these features make lanthanide complexes effective catalysts. Hard Lewis acids are able to polarise bonds upon coordination and thus alter the electrophilicity of compounds, with a classic example being the Luche reduction. The large size of the ions coupled with their labile ionic bonding allows even bulky coordinating species to bind and dissociate rapidly, resulting in very high turnover rates; thus excellent yields can often be achieved with loadings of only a few mol%. The lack of orbital interactions combined with the lanthanide contraction means that the lanthanides change in size across the series but that their chemistry remains much the same. This allows for easy tuning of the steric environments and examples exist where this has been used to improve the catalytic activity of the complex and change the nuclearity of metal clusters.


title: Lanthanide

text: Despite this, the use of lanthanide coordination complexes as homogeneous catalysts is largely restricted to the laboratory and there are currently few examples them being used on an industrial scale. Lanthanides exist in many forms other than coordination complexes and many of these are industrially useful. In particular lanthanide metal oxides are used as heterogeneous catalysts in various industrial processes.


title: Lanthanide

text: The trivalent lanthanides mostly form ionic salts. The trivalent ions are hard acceptors and form more stable complexes with oxygen-donor ligands than with nitrogen-donor ligands. The larger ions are 9-coordinate in aqueous solution, [Ln(HO)] but the smaller ions are 8-coordinate, [Ln(HO)]. There is some evidence that the later lanthanides have more water molecules in the second coordination sphere. Complexation with monodentate ligands is generally weak because it is difficult to displace water molecules from the first coordination sphere. Stronger complexes are formed with chelating ligands because of the chelate effect, such as the tetra-anion derived from 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA).


title: Lanthanide

text: The most common divalent derivatives of the lanthanides are for Eu(II), which achieves a favorable f configuration. Divalent halide derivatives are known for all of the lanthanides. They are either conventional salts or are Ln(III) "electride"-like salts. The simple salts include YbI, EuI, and SmI. The electride-like salts, described as Ln, 2I, e, include LaI, CeI and GdI. Many of the iodides form soluble complexes with ethers, e.g. TmI(dimethoxyethane). Samarium(II) iodide is a useful reducing agent. Ln(II) complexes can be synthesized by transmetalation reactions. The normal range of oxidation states can be expanded via the use of sterically bulky cyclopentadienyl ligands, in this way many lanthanides can be isolated as Ln(II) compounds.


title: Lanthanide

text: Ce(IV) in ceric ammonium nitrate is a useful oxidizing agent. The Ce(IV) is the exception owing to the tendency to form an unfilled f shell. Otherwise tetravalent lanthanides are rare. However, recently Tb(IV) and Pr(IV) complexes have been shown to exist.


title: Lanthanide

text: Lanthanide metals react exothermically with hydrogen to form LnH, dihydrides. With the exception of Eu and Yb, which resemble the Ba and Ca hydrides (non-conducting, transparent salt-like compounds),they form black pyrophoric, conducting compounds where the metal sub-lattice is face centred cubic and the H atoms occupy tetrahedral sites. Further hydrogenation produces a trihydride which is non-stoichiometric, non-conducting, more salt like. The formation of trihydride is associated with and increase in 8–10% volume and this is linked to greater localization of charge on the hydrogen atoms which become more anionic (H hydride anion) in character.


title: Lanthanide

text: The only tetrahalides known are the tetrafluorides of cerium, praseodymium, terbium, neodymium and dysprosium, the last two known only under matrix isolation conditions.


title: Lanthanide

text: All of the lanthanides form trihalides with fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. They are all high melting and predominantly ionic in nature. The fluorides are only slightly soluble in water and are not sensitive to air, and this contrasts with the other halides which are air sensitive, readily soluble in water and react at high temperature to form oxohalides.


title: Lanthanide

text: The trihalides were important as pure metal can be prepared from them. In the gas phase the trihalides are planar or approximately planar, the lighter lanthanides have a lower % of dimers, the heavier lanthanides a higher proportion. The dimers have a similar structure to AlCl.


title: Lanthanide

text: Some of the dihalides are conducting while the rest are insulators. The conducting forms can be considered as Ln electride compounds where the electron is delocalised into a conduction band, Ln (X)(e). All of the diodides have relatively short metal-metal separations. The CuTi structure of the lanthanum, cerium and praseodymium diodides along with HP-NdI contain 4 nets of metal and iodine atoms with short metal-metal bonds (393-386 La-Pr). these compounds should be considered to be two-dimensional metals (two-dimensional in the same way that graphite is). The salt-like dihalides include those of Eu, Dy, Tm, and Yb. The formation of a relatively stable +2 oxidation state for Eu and Yb is usually explained by the stability (exchange energy) of half filled (f) and fully filled f. GdI possesses the layered MoS structure, is ferromagnetic and exhibits colossal magnetoresistance


title: Lanthanide

text: The sesquihalides LnX and the LnI compounds listed in the table contain metal clusters, discrete LnI clusters in LnI and condensed clusters forming chains in the sesquihalides. Scandium forms a similar cluster compound with chlorine, ScCl Unlike many transition metal clusters these lanthanide clusters do not have strong metal-metal interactions and this is due to the low number of valence electrons involved, but instead are stabilised by the surrounding halogen atoms.


title: Lanthanide

text: LaI is the only known monohalide. Prepared from the reaction of LaI and La metal, it has a NiAs type structure and can be formulated La (I)(e).


title: Lanthanide

text: All of the lanthanides form sesquioxides, LnO. The lighter/larger lanthanides adopt a hexagonal 7-coordinate structure while the heavier/smaller ones adopt a cubic 6-coordinate "C-MO" structure. All of the sesquioxides are basic, and absorb water and carbon dioxide from air to form carbonates, hydroxides and hydroxycarbonates. They dissolve in acids to form salts.


title: Lanthanide

text: Cerium forms a stoichiometric dioxide, CeO, where cerium has an oxidation state of +4. CeO is basic and dissolves with difficulty in acid to form Ce solutions, from which Ce salts can be isolated, for example the hydrated nitrate Ce(NO).5HO. CeO is used as an oxidation catalyst in catalytic converters. Praseodymium and terbium form non-stoichiometric oxides containing Ln, although more extreme reaction conditions can produce stoichiometric (or near stoichiometric) PrO and TbO.


title: Lanthanide

text: Europium and ytterbium form salt-like monoxides, EuO and YbO, which have a rock salt structure. EuO is ferromagnetic at low temperatures, and is a semiconductor with possible applications in spintronics. A mixed Eu/Eu oxide EuO can be produced by reducing EuO in a stream of hydrogen. Neodymium and samarium also form monoxides, but these are shiny conducting solids, although the existence of samarium monoxide is considered dubious.


title: Lanthanide

text: All of the lanthanides form hydroxides, Ln(OH). With the exception of lutetium hydroxide, which has a cubic structure, they have the hexagonal UCl structure. The hydroxides can be precipitated from solutions of Ln. They can also be formed by the reaction of the sesquioxide, LnO, with water, but although this reaction is thermodynamically favorable it is kinetically slow for the heavier members of the series. Fajans' rules indicate that the smaller Ln ions will be more polarizing and their salts correspondingly less ionic. The hydroxides of the heavier lanthanides become less basic, for example Yb(OH) and Lu(OH) are still basic hydroxides but will dissolve in hot concentrated NaOH.


title: Lanthanide

text: All of the lanthanides form LnQ (Q= S, Se, Te). The sesquisulfides can be produced by reaction of the elements or (with the exception of EuS) sulfidizing the oxide (LnO) with HS. The sesquisulfides, LnS generally lose sulfur when heated and can form a range of compositions between LnS and LnS. The sesquisulfides are insulators but some of the LnS are metallic conductors (e.g. CeS) formulated (Ln) (S) (e), while others (e.g. EuS and SmS) are semiconductors. Structurally the sesquisulfides adopt structures that vary according to the size of the Ln metal. The lighter and larger lanthanides favoring 7-coordinate metal atoms, the heaviest and smallest lanthanides (Yb and Lu) favoring 6 coordination and the rest structures with a mixture of 6 and 7 coordination.


title: Lanthanide

text: Polymorphism is common amongst the sesquisulfides. The colors of the sesquisulfides vary metal to metal and depend on the polymorphic form. The colors of the γ-sesquisulfides are LaS, white/yellow; CeS, dark red; PrS, green; NdS, light green; GdS, sand; TbS, light yellow and DyS, orange. The shade of γ-CeS can be varied by doping with Na or Ca with hues ranging from dark red to yellow, and CeS based pigments are used commercially and are seen as low toxicity substitutes for cadmium based pigments.


title: Lanthanide

text: All of the lanthanides form monochalcogenides, LnQ, (Q= S, Se, Te). The majority of the monochalcogenides are conducting, indicating a formulation LnQ(e-) where the electron is in conduction bands. The exceptions are SmQ, EuQ and YbQ which are semiconductors or insulators but exhibit a pressure induced transition to a conducting state.


title: Lanthanide

text: Compounds LnQ are known but these do not contain Ln but are Ln compounds containing polychalcogenide anions.


title: Lanthanide

text: Oxysulfides LnOS are well known, they all have the same structure with 7-coordinate Ln atoms, and 3 sulfur and 4 oxygen atoms as near neighbours.


title: Lanthanide

text: Doping these with other lanthanide elements produces phosphors. As an example, gadolinium oxysulfide, GdOS doped with Tb produces visible photons when irradiated with high energy X-rays and is used as a scintillator in flat panel detectors.


title: Lanthanide

text: When mischmetal, an alloy of lanthanide metals, is added to molten steel to remove oxygen and sulfur, stable oxysulfides are produced that form an immiscible solid.


title: Lanthanide

text: All of the lanthanides form a mononitride, LnN, with the rock salt structure. The mononitrides have attracted interest because of their unusual physical properties. SmN and EuN are reported as being "half metals". NdN, GdN, TbN and DyN are ferromagnetic, SmN is antiferromagnetic. Applications in the field of spintronics are being investigated.


title: Lanthanide

text: CeN is unusual as it is a metallic conductor, contrasting with the other nitrides also with the other cerium pnictides. A simple description is CeN (e–) but the interatomic distances are a better match for the trivalent state rather than for the tetravalent state. A number of different explanations have been offered.


title: Lanthanide

text: The nitrides can be prepared by the reaction of lanthanum metals with nitrogen. Some nitride is produced along with the oxide, when lanthanum metals are ignited in air. Alternative methods of synthesis are a high temperature reaction of lanthanide metals with ammonia or the decomposition of lanthanide amides, Ln(NH). Achieving pure stoichiometric compounds, and crystals with low defect density has proved difficult. The lanthanide nitrides are sensitive to air and hydrolyse producing ammonia.


title: Lanthanide

text: The other pnictides phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth also react with the lanthanide metals to form monopnictides, LnQ, where Q = P, As, Sb or Bi. Additionally a range of other compounds can be produced with varying stoichiometries, such as LnP, LnP, LnP, LnAs, LnAs and LnAs.


title: Lanthanide

text: Carbides of varying stoichiometries are known for the lanthanides. Non-stoichiometry is common. All of the lanthanides form LnC and LnC which both contain C units. The dicarbides with exception of EuC, are metallic conductors with the calcium carbide structure and can be formulated as LnC(e–). The C-C bond length is longer than that in CaC, which contains the C anion, indicating that the antibonding orbitals of the C anion are involved in the conduction band. These dicarbides hydrolyse to form hydrogen and a mixture of hydrocarbons. EuC and to a lesser extent YbC hydrolyse differently producing a higher percentage of acetylene (ethyne). The sesquicarbides, LnC can be formulated as Ln(C).


title: Lanthanide

text: These compounds adopt the PuC structure which has been described as having C anions in bisphenoid holes formed by eight near Ln neighbours. The lengthening of the C-C bond is less marked in the sesquicarbides than in the dicarbides, with the exception of CeC.


title: Lanthanide

text: Other carbon rich stoichiometries are known for some lanthanides. LnC (Ho-Lu) containing C, C and C units; LnC (Ho-Lu) contain C atoms and C units and LnC (Gd-Ho) containing C and C units.


title: Lanthanide

text: Metal rich carbides contain interstitial C atoms and no C or C units. These are LnC (Tb and Lu); LnC (Dy, Ho, Tm) and LnC (Sm-Lu).


title: Lanthanide

text: All of the lanthanides form a number of borides. The "higher" borides (LnB where x > 12) are insulators/semiconductors whereas the lower borides are typically conducting. The lower borides have stoichiometries of LnB, LnB, LnB and LnB. Applications in the field of spintronics are being investigated. The range of borides formed by the lanthanides can be compared to those formed by the transition metals. The boron rich borides are typical of the lanthanides (and groups 1–3) whereas for the transition metals tend to form metal rich, "lower" borides. The lanthanide borides are typically grouped together with the group 3 metals with which they share many similarities of reactivity, stoichiometry and structure. Collectively these are then termed the rare earth borides.


title: Lanthanide

text: Many methods of producing lanthanide borides have been used, amongst them are direct reaction of the elements; the reduction of LnO with boron; reduction of boron oxide, BO, and LnO together with carbon; reduction of metal oxide with boron carbide, BC. Producing high purity samples has proved to be difficult. Single crystals of the higher borides have been grown in a low melting metal (e.g. Sn, Cu, Al).


title: Lanthanide

text: Diborides, LnB, have been reported for Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu. All have the same, AlB, structure containing a graphitic layer of boron atoms. Low temperature ferromagnetic transitions for Tb, Dy, Ho and Er. TmB is ferromagnetic at 7.2 K.


title: Lanthanide

text: Tetraborides, LnB have been reported for all of the lanthanides except EuB, all have the same UB structure. The structure has a boron sub-lattice consists of chains of octahedral B clusters linked by boron atoms. The unit cell decreases in size successively from LaB to LuB. The tetraborides of the lighter lanthanides melt with decomposition to LnB. Attempts to make EuB have failed. The LnB are good conductors and typically antiferromagnetic.


title: Lanthanide

text: Hexaborides, LnB have been reported for all of the lanthanides. They all have the CaB structure, containing B clusters. They are non-stoichiometric due to cation defects. The hexaborides of the lighter lanthanides (La – Sm) melt without decomposition, EuB decomposes to boron and metal and the heavier lanthanides decompose to LnB with exception of YbB which decomposes forming YbB. The stability has in part been correlated to differences in volatility between the lanthanide metals. In EuB and YbB the metals have an oxidation state of +2 whereas in the rest of the lanthanide hexaborides it is +3. This rationalises the differences in conductivity, the extra electrons in the Ln hexaborides entering conduction bands. EuB is a semiconductor and the rest are good conductors. LaB and CeB are thermionic emitters, used, for example, in scanning electron microscopes.


title: Lanthanide

text: Dodecaborides, LnB, are formed by the heavier smaller lanthanides, but not by the lighter larger metals, La – Eu. With the exception YbB (where Yb takes an intermediate valence and is a Kondo insulator), the dodecaborides are all metallic compounds. They all have the UB structure containing a 3 dimensional framework of cubooctahedral B clusters.


title: Lanthanide

text: The higher boride LnB is known for all lanthanide metals. The composition is approximate as the compounds are non-stoichiometric. They all have similar complex structure with over 1600 atoms in the unit cell. The boron cubic sub lattice contains super icosahedra made up of a central B icosahedra surrounded by 12 others, B(B). Other complex higher borides LnB (Tb, Dy, Ho Er Tm Lu) and LnB are known (Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er) and these contain boron icosahedra in the boron framework.


title: Lanthanide

text: Lanthanide-carbon σ bonds are well known; however as the 4f electrons have a low probability of existing at the outer region of the atom there is little effective orbital overlap, resulting in bonds with significant ionic character. As such organo-lanthanide compounds exhibit carbanion-like behavior, unlike the behavior in transition metal organometallic compounds. Because of their large size, lanthanides tend to form more stable organometallic derivatives with bulky ligands to give compounds such as Ln[CH(SiMe)]. Analogues of uranocene are derived from dilithiocyclooctatetraene, LiCH. Organic lanthanide(II) compounds are also known, such as Cp*Eu.


title: Lanthanide

text: All the trivalent lanthanide ions, except lanthanum and lutetium, have unpaired f electrons. However, the magnetic moments deviate considerably from the spin-only values because of strong spin-orbit coupling. The maximum number of unpaired electrons is 7, in Gd, with a magnetic moment of 7.94 B.M., but the largest magnetic moments, at 10.4–10.7 B.M., are exhibited by Dy and Ho. However, in Gd all the electrons have parallel spin and this property is important for the use of gadolinium complexes as contrast reagent in MRI scans.


title: Lanthanide

text: Crystal field splitting is rather small for the lanthanide ions and is less important than spin-orbit coupling in regard to energy levels. Transitions of electrons between f orbitals are forbidden by the Laporte rule. Furthermore, because of the "buried" nature of the f orbitals, coupling with molecular vibrations is weak. Consequently, the spectra of lanthanide ions are rather weak and the absorption bands are similarly narrow. Glass containing holmium oxide and holmium oxide solutions (usually in perchloric acid) have sharp optical absorption peaks in the spectral range 200–900 nm and can be used as a wavelength calibration standard for optical spectrophotometers, and are available commercially.


title: Lanthanide

text: As f-f transitions are Laporte-forbidden, once an electron has been excited, decay to the ground state will be slow. This makes them suitable for use in lasers as it makes the population inversion easy to achieve. The is one that is widely used. Europium-doped yttrium vanadate was the first red phosphor to enable the development of color television screens. Lanthanide ions have notable luminescent properties due to their unique 4f orbitals. Laporte forbidden f-f transitions can be activated by excitation of a bound "antenna" ligand. This leads to sharp emission bands throughout the visible, NIR, and IR and relatively long luminescence lifetimes.


title: Lanthanide

text: The lanthanide contraction is responsible for the great geochemical divide that splits the lanthanides into light and heavy-lanthanide enriched minerals, the latter being almost inevitably associated with and dominated by yttrium. This divide is reflected in the first two "rare earths" that were discovered: yttria (1794) and ceria (1803). The geochemical divide has put more of the light lanthanides in the Earth's crust, but more of the heavy members in the Earth's mantle. The result is that although large rich ore-bodies are found that are enriched in the light lanthanides, correspondingly large ore-bodies for the heavy members are few. The principal ores are monazite and bastnäsite. Monazite sands usually contain all the lanthanide elements, but the heavier elements are lacking in bastnäsite. The lanthanides obey the Oddo–Harkins rule – odd-numbered elements are less abundant than their even-numbered neighbors.


title: Lanthanide

text: Three of the lanthanide elements have radioactive isotopes with long half-lives (La, Sm and Lu) that can be used to date minerals and rocks from Earth, the Moon and meteorites. Promethium is effectively a man-made element, as all its isotopes are radioactive with half-lives shorter than 20 years.


title: Lanthanide

text: Lanthanide elements and their compounds have many uses but the quantities consumed are relatively small in comparison to other elements. About 15000 ton/year of the lanthanides are consumed as catalysts and in the production of glasses. This 15000 tons corresponds to about 85% of the lanthanide production. From the perspective of value, however, applications in phosphors and magnets are more important.


title: Lanthanide

text: The devices lanthanide elements are used in include superconductors, samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron high-flux rare-earth magnets, magnesium alloys, electronic polishers, refining catalysts and hybrid car components (primarily batteries and magnets). Lanthanide ions are used as the active ions in luminescent materials used in optoelectronics applications, most notably the laser. Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers are significant devices in optical-fiber communication systems. Phosphors with lanthanide dopants are also widely used in cathode-ray tube technology such as television sets. The earliest color television CRTs had a poor-quality red; europium as a phosphor dopant made good red phosphors possible. Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) spheres can act as tunable microwave resonators.


title: Lanthanide

text: Lanthanide oxides are mixed with tungsten to improve their high temperature properties for TIG welding, replacing thorium, which was mildly hazardous to work with. Many defense-related products also use lanthanide elements such as night-vision goggles and rangefinders. The SPY-1 radar used in some Aegis equipped warships, and the hybrid propulsion system of s all use rare earth magnets in critical capacities.


title: Lanthanide

text: The price for lanthanum oxide used in fluid catalytic cracking has risen from $5 per kilogram in early 2010 to $140 per kilogram in June 2011.


title: Lanthanide

text: Most lanthanides are widely used in lasers, and as (co-)dopants in doped-fiber optical amplifiers; for example, in Er-doped fiber amplifiers, which are used as repeaters in the terrestrial and submarine fiber-optic transmission links that carry internet traffic. These elements deflect ultraviolet and infrared radiation and are commonly used in the production of sunglass lenses. Other applications are summarized in the following table:


title: Lanthanide

text: Lanthanide complexes can be used for optical imaging. Applications are limited by the lability of the complexes.


title: Lanthanide

text: Some applications depend on the unique luminescence properties of lanthanide chelates or cryptates). These are well-suited for this application due to their large Stokes shifts and extremely long emission lifetimes (from microseconds to milliseconds) compared to more traditional fluorophores (e.g., fluorescein, allophycocyanin, phycoerythrin, and rhodamine).


title: Lanthanide

text: The biological fluids or serum commonly used in these research applications contain many compounds and proteins which are naturally fluorescent. Therefore, the use of conventional, steady-state fluorescence measurement presents serious limitations in assay sensitivity. Long-lived fluorophores, such as lanthanides, combined with time-resolved detection (a delay between excitation and emission detection) minimizes prompt fluorescence interference.


title: Lanthanide

text: Time-resolved fluorometry (TRF) combined with Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) offers a powerful tool for drug discovery researchers: Time-Resolved Förster Resonance Energy Transfer or TR-FRET. TR-FRET combines the low background aspect of TRF with the homogeneous assay format of FRET. The resulting assay provides an increase in flexibility, reliability and sensitivity in addition to higher throughput and fewer false positive/false negative results.


title: Lanthanide

text: This method involves two fluorophores: a donor and an acceptor. Excitation of the donor fluorophore (in this case, the lanthanide ion complex) by an energy source (e.g. flash lamp or laser) produces an energy transfer to the acceptor fluorophore if they are within a given proximity to each other (known as the Förster's radius). The acceptor fluorophore in turn emits light at its characteristic wavelength.


title: Lanthanide

text: The two most commonly used lanthanides in life science assays are shown below along with their corresponding acceptor dye as well as their excitation and emission wavelengths and resultant Stokes shift (separation of excitation and emission wavelengths).


title: Lanthanide

text: Currently there is research showing that lanthanide elements can be used as anticancer agents. The main role of the lanthanides in these studies is to inhibit proliferation of the cancer cells. Specifically cerium and lanthanum have been studied for their role as anti-cancer agents.


title: Lanthanide

text: One of the specific elements from the lanthanide group that has been tested and used is cerium (Ce). There have been studies that use a protein-cerium complex to observe the effect of cerium on the cancer cells. The hope was to inhibit cell proliferation and promote cytotoxicity. Transferrin receptors in cancer cells, such as those in breast cancer cells and epithelial cervical cells, promote the cell proliferation and malignancy of the cancer. Transferrin is a protein used to transport iron into the cells and is needed to aid the cancer cells in DNA replication. Transferrin acts as a growth factor for the cancerous cells and is dependent on iron. Cancer cells have much higher levels of transferrin receptors than normal cells and are very dependent on iron for their proliferation.


title: Lanthanide

text: Cerium has shown results as an anti-cancer agent due to its similarities in structure and biochemistry to iron. Cerium may bind in the place of iron on to the transferrin and then be brought into the cancer cells by transferrin-receptor mediated endocytosis. The cerium binding to the transferrin in place of the iron inhibits the transferrin activity in the cell. This creates a toxic environment for the cancer cells and causes a decrease in cell growth. This is the proposed mechanism for cerium's effect on cancer cells, though the real mechanism may be more complex in how cerium inhibits cancer cell proliferation. Specifically in HeLa cancer cells studied in vitro, cell viability was decreased after 48 to 72 hours of cerium treatments. Cells treated with just cerium had decreases in cell viability, but cells treated with both cerium and transferrin had more significant inhibition for cellular activity.


title: Lanthanide

text: Another specific element that has been tested and used as an anti-cancer agent is lanthanum, more specifically lanthanum chloride (LaCl). The lanthanum ion is used to affect the levels of let-7a and microRNAs miR-34a in a cell throughout the cell cycle. When the lanthanum ion was introduced to the cell in vivo or in vitro, it inhibited the rapid growth and induced apoptosis of the cancer cells (specifically cervical cancer cells). This effect was caused by the regulation of the let-7a and microRNAs by the lanthanum ions. The mechanism for this effect is still unclear but it is possible that the lanthanum is acting in a similar way as the cerium and binding to a ligand necessary for cancer cell proliferation.


title: Lanthanide

text: Due to their sparse distribution in the earth's crust and low aqueous solubility, the lanthanides have a low availability in the biosphere, and for a long time were not known to naturally form part of any biological molecules. In 2007 a novel methanol dehydrogenase that strictly uses lanthanides as enzymatic cofactors was discovered in a bacterium from the phylum Verrucomicrobiota, "Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum". This bacterium was found to survive only if there are lanthanides present in the environment. Compared to most other nondietary elements, non-radioactive lanthanides are classified as having low toxicity. The same nutritional requirement has also been observed "Methylorubrum extorquens" and "Methylobacterium radiotolerans".


title: Bakumatsu

text: Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of to seize personal power. Furthermore, there were two other main driving forces for dissent: first, growing resentment on the part of the (or outside lords), and second, growing anti-Western sentiment following the arrival of Matthew C. Perry. The first related to those lords whose predecessors had fought against Tokugawa forces at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, after which they had been permanently excluded from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The second was to be expressed in the phrase , or "revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians". The turning point of the Bakumatsu was during the Boshin War and the Battle of Toba–Fushimi when pro-shogunate forces were defeated.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Frictions with foreign shipping led Japan to take defensive actions from the beginning of the 19th century. Western ships were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling activities and the trade with China. They were hoping for Japan to become a base for supply or at least a place where shipwrecks could receive assistance. The incident in Nagasaki Harbour where the Royal Navy frigate HMS "Phaeton" demanded supplies from the harbour chief in 1808 shocked the Tokugawa government, who ordered the ports to be even more tightly guarded. In 1825, the was issued by the shogunate, prohibiting any contacts with foreigners; it remained in place until 1842.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Meanwhile, Japan endeavoured to learn about foreign sciences through ("Western studies"). To reinforce Japan's capability to carry on the orders to repel Westerners, some such as the Nagasaki-based Takashima Shūhan managed to obtain weapons through the Dutch at Dejima, such as field guns, mortars and firearms. Domains sent students to learn from Takashima in Nagasaki, from Satsuma Domain after the intrusion of an American warship in 1837 in Kagoshima Bay, and from Saga Domain and Chōshū Domain, all southern domains mostly exposed to Western intrusions. These domains also studied the manufacture of Western weapons. By 1852 Satsuma and Saga had reverberatory furnaces to produce the iron necessary for firearms.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Following the "Morrison" incident involving the "Morrison" under Charles W. King in 1837, Egawa Hidetatsu was put in charge of establishing the defense of Tokyo Bay against Western intrusions in 1839. After the humiliating defeat suffered by Qing China in the First and Second Opium Wars, many Japanese officials realized that their traditional methods would be no match for western powers. To deal with Western powers on equal terms, Western guns were studied and demonstrations made in 1841 by Takashima Shūhan to the Tokugawa government.


title: Bakumatsu

text: A national debate was already taking place about how to better avoid foreign incursions. Some such as Egawa claimed that it was necessary to use the foreigners' techniques to repel them. Others, such as Torii Yōzō argued that only traditional Japanese methods should be employed and reinforced. Egawa argued that just as Confucianism and Buddhism had been introduced from abroad, it made sense to introduce useful Western techniques. A theoretical synthesis of "Western knowledge" and "Eastern morality" would later be accomplished by Sakuma Shōzan and Yokoi Shōnan, in view of "controlling the barbarians with their own methods".


title: Bakumatsu

text: After 1839, however, traditionalists tended to prevail. Students of Western sciences were accused of treason (), put under house arrest (Takashima Shūhan), forced to commit ritual suicide (Watanabe Kazan, Takano Chōei), or even assassinated as in the case of Sakuma Shōzan.


title: Bakumatsu

text: When Commodore Matthew C. Perry's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay (Tokyo Bay) in July 1853, the shogunate was thrown into turmoil. Commodore Perry was fully prepared for hostilities if his negotiations with the Japanese failed, and threatened to open fire if the Japanese refused to negotiate. He gave them two white flags, telling them to hoist the flags when they wished a bombardment from his fleet to cease and to surrender. To demonstrate his weapons, Perry ordered his ships to attack several buildings around the harbor. The ships of Perry were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns, capable of bringing destruction everywhere a shell landed.


title: Bakumatsu

text: In response to the Perry Expedition and increasing incursions of foreign warships into Japanese territorial waters, several modern sailing frigates, including and , were constructed on orders of the Tokugawa shogunate of -period Japan by the Satsuma Domain. The was built from 1853 to 1854 at Sakurajima in what is now Kagoshima Prefecture in accordance with a Dutch blueprint. Furthermore, fortifications were established at Odaiba in Tokyo Bay in order to protect Edo from an American incursion. Industrial developments were also soon started in order to build modern cannons. A reverbatory furnace was established by Egawa Hidetatsu in Nirayama to cast cannons.


title: Bakumatsu

text: The American fleet returned in 1854. The chairman of the senior councillors, Abe Masahiro, was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat to national security, Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of the feudal rulers who wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe compromised by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854, the Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) maintained the prohibition on trade but opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American whaling ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence in Shimoda, a seaport on the Izu Peninsula, southwest of Edo. In February 1855, the Russians followed suit with the Treaty of Shimoda.


title: Bakumatsu

text: The resulting damage to the shogunate was significant. Debate over government policy was unusual and had engendered public criticism of the shogunate. In the hope of enlisting the support of new allies, Abe, to the consternation of the , had consulted with the and , further undermining the already weakened .


title: Bakumatsu

text: In the Ansei Reform (1854–1856), Abe then tried to strengthen the regime by ordering Dutch warships and armaments from the Netherlands and building new port defenses. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the shogunate acquired its first steam warship, the , which was used for training, and opened the Nagasaki Naval Training Center with Dutch instructors, while a Western-style military school was established at Edo. In 1857, it acquired its first screw-driven steam warship, the . Scientific knowledge was quickly expanded from the pre-existing foundation of Western knowledge ().


title: Bakumatsu

text: Opposition to Abe increased within circles, which opposed opening shogunate councils to the , and he was replaced in 1855 as chairman of the senior councilors by Hotta Masayoshi (1810–1864). At the head of the dissident faction was Tokugawa Nariaki, who had long embraced a militant loyalty to the emperor along with anti-foreign sentiments, and who had been put in charge of national defense in 1854. The Mito school—based on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles—had as its goal the restoration of the imperial institution, the turning back of the West.


title: Bakumatsu

text: The years 1854–1855 saw a dramatic series of earthquakes, known as the Ansei great earthquakes, with 120 major and minor temblors recorded over a less than two-year period including the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Tōkai earthquake on 23 December 1854, the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Nankai earthquake occurring the following day, and the 6.9 magnitude 1855 Edo earthquake, which struck what is today modern Tokyo, on 11 November 1855. Shimoda on the Izu Peninsula was struck by the Tōkai earthquake and a subsequent tsunami, and because the port had just been designated as the prospective location for a US consulate, some construed the natural disasters as demonstration of the displeasure of the gods. As the earthquakes were blamed by many Japanese on a giant catfish ("Namazu") thrashing about, Ukiyo-e prints depicting "namazu" became very popular during this time.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Following the nomination of Townsend Harris as the U.S. Consul in 1856 and two years of negotiation, the Treaty of Amity and Commerce was signed in 1858 and put into application from mid-1859. During the negotiations, Harris had convinced the Japanese negotiators to sign the treaty on the basis it was the best possible terms a Western power would offer.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Japan was also forced to apply any further conditions granted to other foreign nations in the future to the United States, under the "most favoured nation" provision. Several foreign nations soon followed suit and obtained treaties with Japan (the Ansei Five-Power Treaties, with the United States (Harris Treaty) on July 29, 1858, the Netherlands (Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Netherlands and Japan) on August 18, Russia (Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Russia and Japan) August 19, the United Kingdom (Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce) on August 26, and France (Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan) on October 9).


title: Bakumatsu

text: The opening of Japan to uncontrolled foreign trade brought massive economic instability. While some prospered, many others went bankrupt. Unemployment rose, as well as inflation. Coincidentally, major famines also increased the price of food drastically. Incidents occurred between brash foreigners, qualified as "the scum of the earth" by a contemporary diplomat, and the Japanese.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Japan's monetary system, based on Tokugawa coinage, also broke down. Traditionally, Japan's exchange rate between gold and silver was 1:5, whereas international rates were of the order of 1:15. This led to massive purchases of gold by foreigners, and ultimately forced the Japanese authorities to devalue their currency. There was a massive outflow of gold from Japan, as foreigners rushed to exchange their silver for "token" silver Japanese coinage and again exchange these against gold, giving a 200% profit to the transaction. In 1860, about 4 million ryōs thus left Japan, that is about 70 tons of gold. This effectively destroyed Japan's gold standard system, and forced it to return to weight-based system with International rates. The Bakufu instead responded to the crises by debasing the gold content of its coins by two thirds, so as to match foreign gold-silver exchange ratios.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Hotta lost the support of key Daimyōs, and when Tokugawa Nariaki opposed the new treaty, Hotta sought imperial sanction. The court officials, perceiving the weakness of the "bakufu", rejected Hotta's request which resulted in the resignation of himself, and thus suddenly embroiled Kyoto and the emperor in Japan's internal politics for the first time in many centuries. When the "shōgun" died without an heir, Nariaki appealed to the court for support of his own son, Tokugawa Yoshinobu (or Keiki), for "shōgun", a reformist candidate favored by the "shinpan" and "tozama daimyōs". The "fudai" won the power struggle, however, installing the 12 year old Tokugawa Iemochi as "shōgun" whom it was perceived Tairō Ii Naosuke would have influence over, ultimately placing Nariaki and Yoshinobu under house arrest, and executing Yoshida Shōin (1830–1859, a leading "sonnō-jōi" intellectual who had opposed the American treaty and plotted a revolution against the bakufu) known as the Ansei Purge.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Tairō Ii Naosuke, who had signed the Harris Treaty and tried to eliminate opposition to Westernization with the Ansei Purge, was himself murdered in March 1860 in the Sakuradamon incident. A servant of the French Minister was attacked at the end of 1860. On 14 January 1861, Henry Heusken, Secretary to the American mission, was attacked and murdered. On 5 July 1861, a group of samurai attacked the British Legation, resulting in two deaths. During this period, about one foreigner was killed every month. The Richardson Affair occurred in September 1862, forcing foreign nations to take decisive action in order to protect foreigners and guarantee the implementation of Treaty provisions. In May 1863, the US legation in Edo was torched.


title: Bakumatsu

text: During the 1860s, peasant uprisings and urban disturbances multiplied. "World renewal" movement appeared, as well as feverish hysteric movements such as the Eejanaika.


title: Bakumatsu

text: From 1859, the ports of Nagasaki, Hakodate and Yokohama became open to foreign traders as a consequence of the Treaties. Foreigners arrived in Yokohama and Kanagawa in great numbers, giving rise to trouble with the samurai. Violence increased against the foreigners and those who dealt with them. Murders of foreigners and collaborating Japanese soon followed. On 26 August 1859, a Russian sailor was cut to pieces in the streets of Yokohama. In early 1860, two Dutch captains were slaughtered, also in Yokohama. Chinese and native servants of foreigners were also killed.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Several missions were sent abroad by the Bakufu, in order to revise the commercial treaties. These efforts towards revision remained largely unsuccessful. A Japanese Embassy to the United States was sent in 1860, on board the "Kanrin Maru" and the USS "Powhattan". A First Japanese Embassy to Europe was sent in 1862. A Second Japanese Embassy to Europe would be sent in December 1863, with the mission to obtain European support to reinstate Japan's former closure to foreign trade, and especially stop foreign access to the harbor of Yokohama. The Embassy ended in total failure as European powers did not see any advantages in yielding to its demands.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Belligerent opposition to Western influence further erupted into open conflict when the Emperor Kōmei, breaking with centuries of imperial tradition, began to take an active role in matters of state and issued, on March 11 and April 11, 1863, his .


title: Bakumatsu

text: The Mōri clan of Chōshū, under Lord Mōri Takachika, followed on the order, and began to take actions to expel all foreigners from the date fixed as a deadline (May 10, Lunar calendar). Openly defying the shogunate, Takachika ordered his forces to fire without warning on all foreign ships traversing Shimonoseki Strait.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Under pressure from the Emperor, the Shogun was also forced to issue a declaration promulgating the end of relations with foreigners. The order was forwarded to foreign legations by Ogasawara Zusho no Kami on June 24, 1863:


title: Bakumatsu

text: Edward Neale, the head of the British Legation, responded on very strong terms, equating the move with a declaration of war:


title: Bakumatsu

text: American influence, which had been of high importance in the beginning, waned after 1861 due to the advent of the American Civil War (1861–1865) that monopolized all available U.S. resources. This influence would be replaced by that of the British, the Dutch and the French.


title: Bakumatsu

text: The two ringleaders of the opposition to the were from the Satsuma (present day Kagoshima prefecture) and Chōshū (present-day Yamaguchi prefecture) provinces, two of the strongest anti-shogunate domains in Edo-period Japan. Satsuma military leaders Saigō Takamori and Okubo Toshimichi were brought together with Katsura Kogorō (Kido Takayoshi) of Chōshū. As they happened to be directly involved in the murder of Richardson for the former, and the attacks on foreign shipping in Shimonoseki for the latter, and as the declared itself unable to placate them, Allied forces decided to mount direct military expeditions.


title: Bakumatsu

text: In the morning of July 16, 1863, under sanction by Minister Pruyn, in an apparent swift response to the attack on the "Pembroke", the U.S. frigate USS "Wyoming" under Captain McDougal sailed into the strait and single-handedly engaged the U.S.-built but poorly manned fleet. For almost two hours before withdrawing, McDougal sank one Japanese vessel and severely damaged the other two, along with some forty Japanese casualties, while the "Wyoming" suffered extensive damage with fourteen crew dead or wounded.


title: Bakumatsu

text: On the heels of McDougal's engagement, two weeks later a French landing force of two warships, the "Tancrède" and the "Dupleix", and 250 men under Captain Benjamin Jaurès swept into Shimonoseki and destroyed a small town, together with at least one artillery emplacement.


title: Bakumatsu

text: In August 1863, the Bombardment of Kagoshima took place, in retaliation for the Namamugi incident and the murder of the English trader Richardson. The Royal Navy bombarded Kagoshima and sunk several ships. Satsuma however later negotiated and paid 25,000 pounds, but did not remit Richardson's killers, and in exchange obtained an agreement by Great Britain to supply steam warships to Satsuma. The conflict actually became the starting point of a close relationship between Satsuma and Great Britain, which became major allies in the ensuing Boshin War. From the start, the Satsuma Province had generally been in favour of the opening and modernization of Japan. Although the Namamugi Incident was seen as unfortunate, it was taken not to be characteristic of Satsuma's policy, and was instead branded as an example of anti-foreign sentiment, as a justification to a strong Western show of force.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Naval forces from Great Britain, France, the Netherlands and the United States, planned an armed reaction against Japanese acts of violence against the citizens with the Bombardment of Shimonoseki. The Allied intervention occurred in September 1864, combining the naval forces of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France and the United States, against the powerful "daimyō" Mōri Takachika of the Chōshū Domain based in Shimonoseki, Japan. This conflict proved inopportune for America, which in 1864, was already torn by its own civil war.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Following these successes against the imperial movement in Japan, the shogunate was able to reassert a certain level of primacy at the end of 1864. The traditional policy of "sankin-kōtai" was reinstated, and remnants of the rebellions of 1863–64 as well as the "Shishi" movement were brutally suppressed throughout the land.


title: Bakumatsu

text: The military interventions by foreign powers also proved that Japan was no military match against the Allies. The "sonnō jōi" movement thus lost its initial impetus. The structural weaknesses of the Bakufu however remained an issue, and the focus of opposition would then shift to creating a strong government under a single authority.


title: Bakumatsu

text: On 2 May 1864, the Mito rebellion erupted against the power of the shogunate in the name of the "sonnō jōi". The Shogunate managed to send an army to quell the revolt, which was ended in blood with the surrender of the rebels on 14 January 1865.


title: Bakumatsu

text: In the Kinmon Incident on 20 August 1864, troops from Chōshū Domain attempted to take control of Kyoto and the Imperial Palace in order to pursue the objective of "Sonnō Jōi". This also led to a punitive expedition by the Tokugawa government, the First Chōshū expedition.


title: Bakumatsu

text: As the Bakufu proved incapable to pay the $3,000,000 indemnity demanded by foreign nations for the intervention at Shimonoseki, foreign nations agreed to reduce the amount in exchange for a ratification of the Harris Treaty by the Emperor, a lowering of customs tariffs to a uniform 5%, and the opening of the harbours of Hyōgo (modern Kōbe) and Osaka to foreign trade. In order to press their demands more forcefully, a squadron of four British, one Dutch and three French warships were sent to the harbour of Hyōgo in November 1865. Other displays of force were made by foreign forces, until the Emperor finally agreed to change his total opposition to the Treaties, by formally allowing the "shōgun" to handle negotiations with foreign powers. An agreements providing for the tariff revision was signed in June 1866.


title: Bakumatsu

text: These conflicts led to the realization that head-on conflict with Western nations was not a solution for Japan. As the Bakufu continued its modernization efforts, Western "daimyōs" (especially from Satsuma and Chōshū) also continued to modernize intensively in order to build a stronger Japan and to establish a more legitimate government under Imperial power.


title: Bakumatsu

text: The shogunate led a second punitive expedition against Chōshū from June 1866, but the shogunate was actually defeated by the more modern and better organized troops of Chōshū. The new "shōgun" Tokugawa Yoshinobu managed to negotiate a ceasefire due to the death of the previous "shōgun", but the prestige of the shogunate was nevertheless seriously affected.


title: Bakumatsu

text: During the last years of the "bakufu", or "bakumatsu", the "bakufu" took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it a target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto Takeaki. The French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868, the Japanese navy of the "shōgun" already possessed eight western-style steam warships around the flagship "Kaiyō Maru", which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin War, under the command of Admiral Enomoto. A French Military Mission to Japan (1867) was established to help modernize the armies of the Bakufu. Japan sent a delegation to and participated in the 1867 World Fair in Paris.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Tokugawa Yoshinobu (informally known as Keiki) reluctantly became head of the Tokugawa house and "shōgun" following the unexpected death of Tokugawa Iemochi in mid-1866. In 1867, Emperor Kōmei died and was succeeded by his second son, Mutsuhito, as Emperor Meiji. Tokugawa Yoshinobu tried to reorganize the government under the Emperor while preserving the "shōgun"s leadership role, a system known as "kōbu gattai". Fearing the growing power of the Satsuma and Chōshū "daimyōs", other "daimyōs" called for returning the "shōgun"s political power to the emperor and a council of "daimyōs" chaired by the former Tokugawa "shōgun". With the threat of an imminent Satsuma-Chōshū led military action, Yoshinobu moved pre-emptively by surrendering some of his previous authority.


title: Bakumatsu

text: After Keiki had temporarily avoided the growing conflict, anti-shogunal forces instigated widespread turmoil in the streets of Edo using groups of "rōnin". Satsuma and Chōshū forces then moved on Kyoto in force, pressuring the Imperial Court for a conclusive edict demolishing the shogunate. Following a conference of "daimyōs", the Imperial Court issued such an edict, removing the power of the shogunate in the dying days of 1867. The Satsuma, Chōshū, and other "han" leaders and radical courtiers, however, rebelled, seized the imperial palace, and announced their own restoration on January 3, 1868. Keiki nominally accepted the plan, retiring from the Imperial Court to Osaka at the same time as resigning as "shōgun". Fearing a feigned concession of the shogunal power to consolidate power, the dispute continued until culminating in a military confrontation between Tokugawa and allied domains with Satsuma, Tosa and Chōshū forces, in Fushimi and Toba. With the turning of the battle toward anti-shogunal forces, Keiki then quit Osaka for Edo, essentially ending both the power of the Tokugawa and the shogunate that had ruled Japan for over 250 years.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Following the Boshin War (1868–1869), the "bakufu" was abolished, and Keiki was reduced to the ranks of the common "daimyōs". Resistance continued in the North throughout 1868, and the "bakufu" naval forces under Admiral Enomoto Takeaki continued to hold out for another six months in Hokkaidō, where they founded the short-lived Republic of Ezo. This defiance ended in May 1869 at the Battle of Hakodate, after one month of fighting.


title: Bakumatsu

text: Matsudaira Yoshinaga, Date Munenari, Yamauchi Toyoshige and Shimazu Nariakira are collectively referred to as .


title: Storks (film)

text: Storks is a 2016 American 3D computer-animated adventure comedy film produced by the Warner Animation Group and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It was directed by Nicholas Stoller and Doug Sweetland (the latter in his feature debut), written by Stoller and stars the voices of Andy Samberg, Katie Crown, Kelsey Grammer, Jennifer Aniston, Ty Burrell, Keegan-Michael Key, Jordan Peele, Stephen Kramer Glickman and Danny Trejo.


title: Storks (film)

text: The film follows a hotshot package delivering stork (Junior) and his female human partner (Tulip), working at the distribution center of an enormous online store, Cornerstore.com, situated high in the mountains. After a boy sends a letter to the company, the two accidentally create a female baby using the defunct baby factory the storks had formerly used in their original business of making and delivering babies. In order to protect the baby from the company's manager and ensure Junior's promotion to succeed him, the two set off on a journey to deliver the baby to the boy's family.


title: Storks (film)

text: After the Warner Animation Group was founded in January 2013, the project was announced, with Sweetland attached to direct the film, while Stoller was hired by the studio to create and write the film. It was announced in April 2015 that Stoller and Sweetland would co-direct the film, while Stoller would produce the film alongside Brad Lewis, with the main cast were added. Mychael and Jeff Danna composed the film's musical score. The animation was provided by Sony Pictures Imageworks.


title: Storks (film)

text: "Storks" premiered in Los Angeles on September 17, 2016, and was released six days later in 3D, IMAX and conventional formats. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the animation, humor and voice acting, but criticized the screenplay. It earned $183 million worldwide against a $70 million budget.


title: Storks (film)

text: For generations, the storks of Stork Mountain delivered babies to families around the world, until one stork named Jasper imprinted on an infant girl and attempted to keep her for himself. Jasper accidentally destroyed the infant's address beacon and went into exile. Unable to deliver the orphaned girl, the storks adopted her under the name Tulip. CEO stork Hunter discontinued baby delivery in favor of package delivery with Cornerstore.com.


title: Storks (film)

text: Eighteen years later, Tulip, now a young adult, tries to promote new ideas for Cornerstore, which backfire and cause the company to lose stocks. Hunter declares her to be a severe burden and liability due to this incompetence (the charts also justify this, as every time she tries to help, their profits go down, and when they "do" make progress, it is when she's absent). Hunter explains to Junior, his top employee, that he's being promoted to chairman, and so he chooses him to take his place as boss, exciting Junior. He assigns him to fire Tulip so he may be promoted to boss. Junior cannot bring himself to do so and instead transfers Tulip to the mailroom.


title: Storks (film)

text: Meanwhile, a young boy named Nate Gardner, who lives with his workaholic parents Henry and Sarah, is feeling lonely and wants a younger sibling. He sends a letter to Cornerstore and it reaches Tulip, who enters the defunct baby factory and inserts the letter into the baby-making machine, causing it to create a pink-haired infant girl. Junior injures his wing trying to shut down the machine. Afraid Hunter will fire him, Junior agrees to accompany Tulip and secretly deliver the baby to her family using a makeshift flying craft that Tulip invented. They eventually crash, escape a pack of wolves that fall in love with the baby, and reach civilization, during which Junior and Tulip bond with the baby and name her Diamond Destiny. In the meantime, Henry and Sarah open up to Nate's desire for a younger sibling and spend time with their son by building a landing platform for the storks.


title: Storks (film)

text: Junior and Tulip encounter Jasper, who had followed them from Stork Mountain. Jasper has nearly repaired Tulip's delivery beacon, but is missing one piece, which had been in Tulip's possession for years. Junior confesses to Tulip that he was supposed to fire her but couldn't bring himself to do it, and a saddened Tulip leaves with Jasper to meet her family while Junior continues alone to deliver Diamond Destiny. Cornerstore's pigeon employee Toady learns about Diamond Destiny and informs Hunter, who reroutes her address beacon and leads Junior into a trap. Hunter fires Junior and has Diamond Destiny taken away to live with penguins until she is an adult in order to silence the incident and prevent more plummeting stocks while Junior is tied up and gagged until his waiting attempt to death.


title: Storks (film)

text: Tulip reunites with Junior from being coughed to demise and they return to Stork Mountain during the highly anticipated Storkcon event to save Diamond Destiny from the penguins. When they are cornered in the baby factory by Hunter and the other stork employees, Junior sends millions of archived letters from families into the baby-making machine, causing it to rapidly produce babies and distract the storks. Hunter seizes control of a giant crane and tries to destroy the factory, only to have Diamond destiny make the Cornerstore building collapse off Stork Mountain, causing Hunter, who is trapped inside the crane and unsuccessfully attempts to kill Junior and Tulip, to fall to his death.


title: Storks (film)

text: In the aftermath of Cornerstore.com's destruction, Junior rallies the storks to deliver all the babies to their families. Junior, Tulip, and Jasper deliver Diamond Destiny to the Gardners, and Junior has a vision of her future, taking her first steps, learning to ride a bike, being in a ballet, training her ninja skills, graduating and getting married. Nate is at first not happy about not getting a little brother but quickly cheers up upon seeing his new sister's ninja skills. Tulip finally meets her family, and Junior and Tulip continue working as co-bosses at Stork Mountain.


title: Storks (film)

text: Additionally, Ike Barinholtz, Amanda Lund, Abigail MacVean, and Jorma Taccone provided the voices for miscellaneous storks.


title: Storks (film)

text: The project was first announced in January 2013, when Warner Bros. formed its animation "think tank" with some directors and writers to develop animated films, Nicholas Stoller was hired by the studio to create and write "Storks", while Doug Sweetland was attached to direct the film. On April 20, 2015, Andy Samberg and Kelsey Grammer were added to the voice cast of the film, and it was announced that Stoller and Sweetland would co-direct the film, while Stoller would produce the film alongside Brad Lewis. The original idea film was developed under Warner Bros. Animation. Keegan-Michael Key and Jordan Peele were also announced in the cast who provided their voices for the film. On June 15, 2016, Jennifer Aniston was announced in the cast. Sony Pictures Imageworks handled animation services for the film.


title: Storks (film)

text: The film's score was composed by Mychael and Jeff Danna. The soundtrack also contains "Holdin' Out", performed by The Lumineers. The soundtrack was released on September 16, 2016, by WaterTower Music. The film featured songs "How You Like Me Now" by The Heavy, "And She Was" by Talking Heads, "Keep on Loving You" by REO Speedwagon, and "Fire and the Flood" by Vance Joy, but these songs do not feature in the soundtrack. The song "Kiss the Sky" by Jason Derulo was made for the film, but does not appear on the soundtrack.


title: Storks (film)

text: "Storks" was originally going to be released on February 10, 2017, which Warner Bros. had reset for "The Lego Batman Movie". The film was released on September 23, 2016, which was previously set for "The Lego Ninjago Movie", which was then moved to a year later. "Storks" was preceded by "The Master", a five-minute short film based on the Lego Ninjago line of sets, the short was later re-released in cinemas with "The Lego Batman Movie" in selected cinemas in the UK.


title: Storks (film)

text: "Storks" was released by Warner Home Video on Blu-ray (2D, 3D and 4K Ultra HD) and DVD on December 20, 2016, with a digital release on December 6, 2016. Extras included a two-minute short film, titled "Storks: Guide to Your New Baby" (with onscreen title "Pigeon Toady's Guide to Baby's"), the Lego Ninjago short film, "The Master".


title: Storks (film)

text: "Storks" grossed $72.7 million in the United States and Canada and $109.7 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $182.4 million, against a budget of $70 million.


title: Storks (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Storks" opened alongside "The Magnificent Seven" was originally projected to gross around $30 million from 3,922 theaters in its opening weekend, with some estimates reaching $36 million. "The Hollywood Reporter" noted that in recent decades, Warner Bros. has not been able to produce very successful and lucrative animated films except for "Space Jam" in 1996, "The Polar Express" in 2004, "Happy Feet" in 2006, and "The Lego Movie" in 2014 and that the studio is hoping "Storks" would duplicate that success. It grossed $435,000 from its Thursday previews and just $5.7 million on its first day, lowering weekend projections to $20 million. It ended up opening to $21.8 million, finishing second at the box office behind "The Magnificent Seven"s $35 million debut.


title: Storks (film)

text: Internationally, the film opened in conjuncture with its North American debut across 34 foreign territories, including the likes of Russia, China, India, and Japan.


title: Storks (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 65% based on 139 reviews and has an average rating of 6.10/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Colorful animation and a charming cast help "Storks" achieve a limited liftoff, but scattershot gags and a confused, hyperactively unspooled plot keep it from truly soaring." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 56 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Storks (film)

text: Michael Rechtshaffen of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave the film a positive review and said: "There's a nice, snappy playfulness in the rapport between Samberg and engaging newcomer Crown. That lively, back-and-forth vibe also extends to the Aniston/Burrell and Key/Peele dynamic." Peter Hartlaub of "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote: "Whoever is running Warner Animation Group appears to be allowing the lunatics to run the asylum. And that is a wonderful thing." Tom Russo of "The Boston Globe" gave the film three stars out of four and said "Storks are known for delivering bundles that are irresistible, exhaustingly active at times, and frequently pretty darn messy. How completely appropriate, then, that Warner Bros.' 3-D animated feature "Storks" delivers the same."


title: Storks (film)

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Variety" gave the film a mixed review and called it "a strenuously unfunny animated comedy". Samantha Ladwig of "IGN" rated the film a (of 10) and said ""Storks" starts off well enough and delivers a few laughs, but ultimately it isn't quite sure of what it is." Jesse Hassenger of "The A.V. Club" noted the "filmmakers' assumption [...] that if lines are said very fast and in silly voices, they will become funny," and criticized Warner Bros. for putting out a generic animation along the same, safe lines of what "other second-tier animation houses" are producing: ""The Lego Movie" brought with it the hope that the studio might reclaim some of the animation territory it has long ceded to other studios. "Storks", though, is just another okay cartoon."


title: Storks (film)

text: Joe Morgenstern of "The Wall Street Journal" gave the film a negative review, saying "The whole movie seems to be on fast-forward, with crushingly brainless dialogue, hollow imagery and no way of slowing down the febrile action or making sense of the chaotic plot." Barbara VanDenburgh of "The Arizona Republic" said, ""Storks" is charmless with rote obligation. This is a kid's film for hire, with none of the creativity, emotion and design that elevate the genre to art, or even simply a fun time at the movies."


title: Ramallah

text: Ramallah ( , ; ) is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank that serves as the "de facto" administrative capital of the State of Palestine. It is situated on the Judaean Mountains, north of Jerusalem, at an average elevation of above sea level, adjacent to al-Bireh.


title: Ramallah

text: Ramallah has buildings containing masonry from the period of Herod the Great, but no complete building predates the Crusades of the 11th century. The modern city was founded during the 16th century by the Hadadeens, an Arab Christian clan descended from Ghassanids. In 1517, the city was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire, and in 1920, it became part of British Mandatory Palestine after it was captured by the United Kingdom during World War I. The 1948 Arab–Israeli War saw the entire West Bank, including Ramallah, occupied and annexed by Transjordan. Ramallah was later captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. Since the 1995 Oslo Accords, Ramallah has been governed by the PNA as part of Area A of the West Bank.


title: Ramallah

text: In recent years, Ramallah has emerged as a key political, cultural, and economic center. It houses various Palestinian governmental bodies, including the Mukataa, the official residence of the President of the Palestinian National Authority, the Palestinian Legislative Council, and the headquarters of the Palestinian Security Services. It is also home to several museums and cultural centers, and has a notable nightlife scene. While historically a predominantly Christian town, Muslims constituted a majority of Ramallah's 38,998 residents by 2017, with Christians making up a significant minority.


title: Ramallah

text: Ancient rock-cut tombs have been found near Ramallah. Located just south of the built-up area is Tell en-Nasbeh, an archeological site where biblical Mizpah in Benjamin is likely to have been located.


title: Ramallah

text: Several Ramallah buildings incorporate masonry dating back to the reign of Herod the Great (37-4 BCE).


title: Ramallah

text: Ramallah has been identified with the Crusader place called "Ramalie". Remains of a building with an arched doorway from the Crusader era, called "al-Burj," have been identified, but the original use of the building is undetermined.


title: Ramallah

text: Ramallah was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine. In 1596 it was listed in the tax registers as being in the "nahiya" of Quds, part of the "Liwa of Quds." It had a population of 71 Christian households and 9 Muslim households. It paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on wheat, barley, olives, vines or fruit trees, and goats or beehives; a total of 9,400 akçe. All of the revenue went to a waqf.


title: Ramallah

text: Modern Ramallah was founded in the mid-1500s by the Haddadins (also: Haddad"ee"n), a clan of brothers descended from Ghassanid Christians. The Haddadins (ancestors of the present-day Jadallah family, among others), and their leader Rashid El-Haddadin, arrived from east of the Jordan River from the areas of Karak and Shoubak. The Haddadin migration is attributed to fighting and unrest among clans in that area.


title: Ramallah

text: Haddadin was attracted to the mountainous site of Ramallah because it was similar to the other mountainous areas he came from. In addition, the heavily forested area could supply him with plenty of fuel for his forges.


title: Ramallah

text: In 1838 American biblical scholar Edward Robinson visited the area, noting that the inhabitants were Christian "of the Greek rite". There were 200 taxable men, which gives an estimated total population of 800–900 people. The village "belonged" to the Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem, to which it paid an annual tax of 350 Mids of grain.