title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis needs to supply both the source of energy to drive this process and the electrons needed to convert into a carbohydrate. This addition of the electrons is a reduction reaction. In general outline and in effect, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce and water, and to release exothermic chemical energy to drive the organism's metabolism. However, the two processes take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: The Earth's oceans contain a large amount of in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions—much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric . Since the right side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding on the left side decreases the pH of seawater, a process which has been termed ocean acidification (pH of the ocean becomes more acidic although the pH value remains in the alkaline range). Reactions between and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as . Over hundreds of millions of years, this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: From 1850 until 2022, the ocean has absorbed 26 % of total anthropogenic emissions. However, the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain. Even if equilibrium is reached, including dissolution of carbonate minerals, the increased concentration of bicarbonate and decreased or unchanged concentration of carbonate ion will give rise to a higher concentration of un-ionized carbonic acid and dissolved . This higher concentration in the seas, along with higher temperatures, would mean a higher equilibrium concentration of in the air.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Carbon moves between the atmosphere, vegetation (dead and alive), the soil, the surface layer of the ocean, and the deep ocean. From 1850 until 2022, the ocean has absorbed 26 % of total anthropogenic emissions.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Direct effects of increasing CO concentrations in the atmosphere include: increasing global temperatures, ocean acidification and a CO fertilization effect on plants and crops.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: emissions have also led to the stratosphere contracting by 400 meters since 1980, which could affect satellite operations, GPS systems and radio communications.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Carbon dioxide has unique long-term effects on climate change that are nearly "irreversible" for a thousand years after emissions stop (zero further emissions). The greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide do not persist over time in the same way as carbon dioxide. Even if human carbon dioxide emissions were to completely cease, atmospheric temperatures are not expected to decrease significantly in the short term. This is because the air temperature is determined by a balance between heating, due to greenhouse gases, and cooling due to heat transfer to the ocean. If emissions were to stop, CO levels and the heating effect would slowly decrease, but simultaneously the cooling due to heat transfer would diminish (because sea temperatures would get closer to the air temperature), with the result that the air temperature would decrease only slowly. Sea temperatures would continue to rise, causing thermal expansion and some sea level rise. Lowering global temperatures more rapidly would require carbon sequestration or geoengineering.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Carbon dioxide is believed to have played an important effect in regulating Earth's temperature throughout its 4.7 billion year history. Early in the Earth's life, scientists have found evidence of liquid water indicating a warm world even though the Sun's output is believed to have only been 70% of what it is today. Higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the early Earth's atmosphere might help explain this faint young sun paradox. When Earth first formed, Earth's atmosphere may have contained more greenhouse gases and concentrations may have been higher, with estimated partial pressure as large as , because there was no bacterial photosynthesis to reduce the gas to carbon compounds and oxygen. Methane, a very active greenhouse gas, may have been more prevalent as well.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Carbon dioxide concentrations have shown several cycles of variation from about 180 parts per million during the deep glaciations of the Holocene and Pleistocene to 280 parts per million during the interglacial periods. Carbon dioxide concentrations have varied widely over the Earth's 4.54 billion year history. It is believed to have been present in Earth's first atmosphere, shortly after Earth's formation. The second atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen and was produced by outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids. A major part of carbon dioxide emissions were soon dissolved in water and incorporated in carbonate sediments.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: The production of free oxygen by cyanobacterial photosynthesis eventually led to the oxygen catastrophe that ended Earth's second atmosphere and brought about the Earth's third atmosphere (the modern atmosphere) 2.4 billion years before the present. Carbon dioxide concentrations dropped from 4,000 parts per million during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 parts per million during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: On long timescales, atmospheric concentration is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock weathering, and volcanic degassing. The net effect of slight imbalances in the carbon cycle over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric . On a timescale of billions of years, such downward trend appears bound to continue indefinitely as occasional massive historical releases of buried carbon due to volcanism will become less frequent (as earth mantle cooling and progressive exhaustion of internal radioactive heat proceed further). The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of no relevance to the atmospheric concentration over the next hundreds or thousands of years.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Over the course of Earth's geologic history concentrations have played a role in biological evolution. The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water. Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced contributed to the oxygen catastrophe, which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. In recent geologic times, low concentrations below 600 parts per million might have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 million years ago over plants that use the less efficient C3 metabolic pathway. At current atmospheric pressures photosynthesis shuts down when atmospheric concentrations fall below 150 ppm and 200 ppm although some microbes can extract carbon from the air at much lower concentrations.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before instrumental sampling is to measure bubbles of air (fluid or gas inclusions) trapped in the Antarctic or Greenland ice sheets. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric concentrations were about 260–280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years. The longest ice core record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800,000 years. During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied between 180 and 210 ppm during ice ages, increasing to 280–300 ppm during warmer interglacials. The beginning of human agriculture during the current Holocene epoch may have been strongly connected to the atmospheric increase after the last ice age ended, a fertilization effect raising plant biomass growth and reducing stomatal conductance requirements for intake, consequently reducing transpiration water losses and increasing water usage efficiency.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Various proxy measurements have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations millions of years in the past. These include boron and carbon isotope ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of stomata observed on fossil plant leaves.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Phytane is a type of diterpenoid alkane. It is a breakdown product of chlorophyll and is now used to estimate ancient levels. Phytane gives both a continuous record of concentrations but it also can overlap a break in the record of over 500 million years.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: There is evidence for high concentrations between 200 and 150 million years ago of over 3,000 ppm, and between 600 and 400 million years ago of over 6,000 ppm.


title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: In more recent times, atmospheric concentration continued to fall after about 60 million years ago. About 34 million years ago, the time of the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event and when the Antarctic ice sheet started to take its current form, was about 760 ppm, and there is geochemical evidence that concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 million years ago. Decreasing concentration, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation. Low concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 million years ago.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Aerial refueling, also referred to as air refueling, in-flight refueling (IFR), air-to-air refueling (AAR), and tanking, is the process of transferring aviation fuel from one aircraft (the tanker) to another (the receiver) while both aircraft are in flight. The two main refueling systems are "probe-and-drogue", which is simpler to adapt to existing aircraft, and the "flying boom", which offers faster fuel transfer, but requires a dedicated boom operator station.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue/physical needs and engineering factors such as engine oil consumption. As the receiver aircraft can be topped up with extra fuel in the air, air refueling can allow a takeoff with a greater payload which could be weapons, cargo, or personnel: the maximum takeoff weight is maintained by carrying less fuel and topping up once airborne. Aerial refueling has also been considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than . Potential fuel savings in the range of 35–40% have been estimated for long-haul flights (including the fuel used during the tanker missions).


title: Aerial refueling

text: Usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods may be fitted to existing aircraft designs in the case of "probe-and-drogue" systems. The cost of the refueling equipment on both tanker and receiver aircraft and the specialized aircraft handling of the aircraft to be refueled (very close "line astern" formation flying) has resulted in the activity only being used in military operations; there are no regular civilian in-flight refueling activities. Originally employed shortly before World War II on a limited scale to extend the range of British civilian transatlantic flying boats, and then after World War II on a large scale to extend the range of strategic bombers, aerial refueling since the Vietnam War has been extensively used in large-scale military operations.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Some of the earliest experiments in aerial refueling took place in the 1920s; two slow-flying aircraft flew in formation, with a hose run down from a hand-held fuel tank on one aircraft and placed into the usual fuel filler of the other. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, between two planes occurred on June 27, 1923, between two Airco DH-4B biplanes of the United States Army Air Service. An endurance record was set by three DH-4Bs (a receiver and two tankers) on August 27–28, 1923, in which the receiver airplane remained aloft for more than 37 hours using nine mid-air refuelings to transfer of aviation gasoline and of engine oil. The same crews demonstrated the utility of the technique on October 25, 1923, when a DH-4 flew from Sumas, Washington, on the Canada–United States border, to Tijuana, Mexico, landing in San Diego, using mid-air refuelings at Eugene, Oregon, and Sacramento, California.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Similar trial demonstrations of mid-air refueling technique took place at the Royal Aircraft Establishment in England and by the Armée de l'Air in France in the same year, but these early experiments were not yet regarded as a practical proposition, and were generally dismissed as stunts.


title: Aerial refueling

text: As the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and he began experimenting with the possibilities of in-flight refueling to extend the range of flight.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Cobham was one of the founding directors of Airspeed Limited, an aircraft manufacturing company that went on to produce a specially adapted Airspeed Courier that Cobham used for his early experiments with in-flight refueling. This craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobham's specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the plane's flight duration.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U.S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with a Fokker C-2A named the "Question Mark" over Los Angeles. Between June 11 and July 4, 1930, the brothers John, Kenneth, Albert, and Walter Hunter set a new record of 553 hours 40 minutes over Chicago using two Stinson SM-1 Detroiters as refueler and receiver. Aerial refueling remained a very dangerous process until 1935, when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle, designed by A. D. Hunter. They exceeded the Hunters' record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane , staying aloft for more than 27 days.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the second assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for "Popular Mechanics" concerning the challenges and the need for such a regular service. In his article he even mentioned the use of aerial refueling after takeoff as a possible solution.


title: Aerial refueling

text: At Le Bourget Airport near Paris, the Aéro-Club de France and the 34th Aviation Regiment of the French Air Force were able to demonstrate passing fuel between machines at the annual aviation fete at Vincennes in 1928. The UK's Royal Aircraft Establishment was also running mid-air refueling trials, with the aim to use this technique to extend the range of the long-distance flying boats that serviced the British Empire. By 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. While posted to the Middle East he developed and patented his 'crossover' system in 1934, in which the tanker trailed a large hooked line that would reel in a similar dropped line from the receiver, allowing the refueling to commence. In 1935, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service and turned to the development of inflight refueling, founding the company Flight Refuelling Ltd. Atcherly's system was bought up by Cobham's company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late '30s, it became the first practical refueling system.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Sir Alan Cobham's "grappled-line looped-hose" air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the receiver aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker, a Handley Page Type W10. The line was then drawn back into the tanker where the receiver's cable was connected to the refueling hose. The receiver could then haul back in its cable bringing the hose to it. Once the hose was connected, the tanker climbed sufficiently above the receiver aircraft to allow the fuel to flow under gravity.


title: Aerial refueling

text: When Cobham was developing his system, he saw the need as purely for long-range transoceanic commercial aircraft flights, but today aerial refueling is used exclusively by military aircraft.


title: Aerial refueling

text: In 1934, Cobham had founded Flight Refuelling Ltd and by 1938 had used FRL's "looped-hose" system to refuel aircraft as large as the Short Empire flying boat "Cambria" from an Armstrong Whitworth AW.23. Handley Page Harrows were used in the 1939 trials to perform aerial refueling of the Empire flying boats for regular transatlantic crossings. From August 5 to October 1, 1939, sixteen crossings of the Atlantic were made by Empire flying boats, with fifteen crossings using FRL's aerial refueling system. After the sixteen crossings further trials were suspended due to the outbreak of World War II.


title: Aerial refueling

text: During the closing months of World War II, it had been intended that Tiger Force's Lancaster and Lincoln bombers would be in-flight refueled by converted Halifax tanker aircraft, fitted with the FRL's looped-hose units, in operations against the Japanese homelands, but the war ended before the aircraft could be deployed. After the war ended, the USAF bought a small number of FRL looped-hose units and fitted a number of B-29s as tankers to refuel specially equipped B-29s and later B-50s. The USAF made only one major change in the system used by the RAF. The USAF version had auto-coupling of the refueling nozzle, where the leader line with the refueling hose is pulled to the receiver aircraft and a refueling receptacle on the belly of the aircraft, allowing high-altitude air-to-air refueling and doing away with the aircraft having to fly to a lower altitude to be depressurized so a crew member could manually do the coupling.


title: Aerial refueling

text: This air-to-air refueling system was used by the B-50 Superfortress "Lucky Lady II" of the 43rd Bomb Wing to make its famous first non-stop around-the-world flight in 1949. From February 26 to March 3, 1949, "Lucky Lady II" flew non-stop around the world in 94 hours and 1 minute, a feat made possible by four aerial refuelings from four pairs of KB-29M tankers of the 43d ARS. Before the mission, crews of the 43rd had experienced only a single operational air refueling contact. The flight started and ended at Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth, Texas with the refuelings accomplished over the Azores, Saudi Arabia, the Pacific Ocean near Guam, and between Hawaii and the West Coast.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Cobham's company FRL soon realized that their looped-hose system left much to be desired and began work on an improved system that is now commonly called the "probe-and-drogue" air-to-air refueling system and today is one of the two systems chosen by air forces for air-to-air refueling, the other being the flying-boom system. In post-war trials the RAF used a modified Lancaster tanker employing the much improved probe-and-drogue system, with a modified Gloster Meteor F.3 jet fighter, serial "EE397", fitted with a nose-mounted probe. On 7 August 1949, the Meteor flown by FRL test pilot Pat Hornidge took off from Tarrant Rushton and remained airborne for 12 hours and 3 minutes, receiving of fuel in ten refuelings from a Lancaster tanker. Hornidge flew an overall distance of , achieving a new jet endurance record. FRL still exists as part of Cobham plc.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Modern specialized tanker aircraft have equipment specially designed for the task of offloading fuel to the receiver aircraft, based on drogue and probe, even at the higher speeds modern jet aircraft typically need to remain airborne.


title: Aerial refueling

text: In January 1948, General Carl Spaatz, then the first Chief of Staff of the new United States Air Force, made aerial refueling a top priority of the service. In March 1948, the USAF purchased two sets of FRL's looped-hose in-flight refueling equipment, which had been in practical use with British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) since 1946, and manufacturing rights to the system. FRL also provided a year of technical assistance. The sets were immediately installed in two Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, with plans to equip 80 B-29s.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Flight testing began in May 1948 at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, and was so successful that in June orders went out to equip all new B-50s and subsequent bombers with receiving equipment. Two dedicated air refueling units were formed on June 30, 1948: the 43d Air Refueling Squadron at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, and the 509th Air Refueling Squadron at Walker Air Force Base, New Mexico. The first ARS aircraft used FRL's looped-hose refueling system, but testing with a boom system followed quickly in the autumn of 1948.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The first use of aerial refueling in combat took place during the Korean War, involving F-84 fighter-bombers flying missions from Japanese airfields, due to Chinese-North Korean forces overrunning many of the bases for jet aircraft in South Korea, refueling from converted B-29s using the drogue-and-probe in-flight refueling system with the probe located in one of the F-84's wing-tip fuel tanks.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The flying boom is a rigid, telescoping tube with movable flight control surfaces that a boom operator on the tanker aircraft extends and inserts into a receptacle on the receiving aircraft. All boom-equipped tankers (e.g. KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, KC-46 Pegasus) have a single boom and can refuel one aircraft at a time with this mechanism.


title: Aerial refueling

text: In the late 1940s, General Curtis LeMay, commander of the Strategic Air Command (SAC), asked Boeing to develop a refueling system that could transfer fuel at a higher rate than had been possible with earlier systems using flexible hoses, resulting in the flying boom system. The B-29 was the first to employ the boom, and between 1950 and 1951, 116 original B-29s, designated KB-29Ps, were converted at the Boeing plant at Renton, Washington. Boeing went on to develop the world's first production aerial tanker, the KC-97 Stratofreighter, a piston-engined Boeing Stratocruiser (USAF designation C-97 Stratofreighter) with a Boeing-developed flying boom and extra kerosene (jet fuel) tanks feeding the boom. The Stratocruiser airliner itself was developed from the B-29 bomber after World War II. In the KC-97, the mixed gasoline/kerosene fuel system was clearly not desirable and it was obvious that a jet-powered tanker aircraft would be the next development, having a single type of fuel for both its own engines and for passing to receiver aircraft. The 230 mph (370 km/h) cruise speed of the slower, piston-engined KC-97 was also a serious issue, as using it as an aerial tanker forced the newer jet-powered military aircraft to slow down to mate with the tanker's boom, a highly serious issue with the newer supersonic aircraft coming into service at that time, which could force such receiving aircraft in some situations to slow down enough to approach their stall speed during the approach to the tanker. It was no surprise that, after the KC-97, Boeing began receiving contracts from the USAF to build jet tankers based on the Boeing 367-80 (Dash-80) airframe. The result was the Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, of which 732 were built.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The flying boom is attached to the rear of the tanker aircraft. The attachment is gimballed, allowing the boom to move with the receiver aircraft. The boom contains a rigid pipe to transfer fuel. The fuel pipe ends in a nozzle with a flexible ball joint. The nozzle mates to the "receptacle" in the receiver aircraft during fuel transfer. A poppet valve in the end of the nozzle prevents fuel from exiting the tube until the nozzle properly mates with the receiver's refueling receptacle. Once properly mated, toggles in the receptacle engage the nozzle, holding it locked during fuel transfer.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The "flying" boom is so named because flight control surfaces, small movable airfoils that are often in a V-tail configuration, are used to move the boom by creating aerodynamic forces. They are actuated hydraulically and controlled by the boom operator using a control stick. The boom operator also telescopes the boom to make the connection with the receiver's receptacle.


title: Aerial refueling

text: To complete an aerial refueling, the tanker and receiver aircraft rendezvous, flying in formation. The receiver moves to a position behind the tanker, within safe limits of travel for the boom, aided by director lights or directions radioed by the boom operator. Once in position, the operator extends the boom to make contact with the receiver aircraft. Once in contact, fuel is pumped through the boom into the receiver aircraft.


title: Aerial refueling

text: While in contact, the receiver pilot must continue to fly within the "air refueling envelope", the area in which contact with the boom is safe. Moving outside of this envelope can damage the boom or lead to mid-air collision, for example the 1966 Palomares B-52 crash. If the receiving aircraft approaches the outer limits of the envelope, the boom operator will command the receiver pilot to correct their position and disconnect the boom if necessary.


title: Aerial refueling

text: When the desired amount of fuel has been transferred, the two aircraft disconnect and the receiver aircraft departs the formation. When not in use, the boom is stored flush with the bottom of the tanker's fuselage to minimize drag.


title: Aerial refueling

text: In the KC-97 and KC-135 the boom operator lays prone, while the operator is seated in the KC-10, all viewing operations through a window at the tail. The KC-46 seats two operators at the front of the aircraft viewing camera video on 3D screens.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The US Air Force fixed-wing aircraft use the flying boom system, along with countries operating F-16 or F-15 variants. The system is used by Australia (KC-30A), the Netherlands (KDC-10), Israel (modified Boeing 707), Japan (KC-767), Turkey (KC-135Rs), and Iran (Boeing 747). The system allows higher fuel flow rates (up to / per minute for the KC-135, but does require a boom operator, and can only refuel one aircraft at a time.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The probe-and-drogue refueling method employs a flexible hose that trails from the tanker aircraft. The "drogue" (or "para-drogue"), sometimes called a "basket", is a fitting resembling a shuttlecock, attached at its narrow end (like the "cork" nose of a shuttlecock) with a valve to a flexible hose. The drogue stabilizes the hose in flight and provides a funnel to aid insertion of the receiver aircraft probe into the hose. The hose connects to a Hose Drum Unit (HDU). When not in use, the hose/drogue is reeled completely into the HDU.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The receiver has a "probe", which is a rigid, protruding or pivoted retractable arm placed on the aircraft's nose or fuselage to make the connection. Most modern versions of the probe are usually designed to be retractable, and are retracted when not in use, particularly on high speed aircraft.


title: Aerial refueling

text: At the end of the probe is a valve that is closed until it mates with the drogue's forward internal receptacle, after which it opens and allows fuel to pass from tanker to receiver. The valves in the probe and drogue that are most commonly used are to a NATO standard and were originally developed by the company Flight Refuelling Limited in the UK and deployed in the late 1940s and 1950s. This standardization allows drogue-equipped tanker aircraft from many nations the ability to refuel probe-equipped aircraft from other nations.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The NATO standard probe system incorporates shear rivets that attach the refueling valve to the end of the probe. This is so that if a large side or vertical load develops while in contact with the drogue, the rivets shear and the fuel valve breaks off, rather than the probe or receiver aircraft suffering structural damage. A so-called "broken probe" (actually a broken fuel valve, as described above) may happen if poor flying technique is used by the receiver pilot, or in turbulence. Sometimes the valve is retained in the tanker drogue and prevents further refueling from that drogue until removed during ground maintenance.


title: Aerial refueling

text: A "buddy store" or "buddy pod" is an external pod loaded on an aircraft hardpoint that contains a hose and drogue system (HDU). Buddy stores allow fighterbomber aircraft to be reconfigured for "buddy tanking" other aircraft. This allows an air combat force without dedicated/specialized tanker support (for instance, a carrier air wing) to extend the range of its strike aircraft. In other cases, using the buddy store method allows a carrier-based aircraft to take-off with a heavier than usual load, the aircraft then being topped-up with fuel from an HDU-equipped "buddy" tanker, a method previously used by the Royal Navy in operating its Supermarine Scimitar, de Havilland Sea Vixen and Blackburn Buccaneers, in the Buccaneer's case using a bomb-bay-mounted tank and HDU.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The tanker aircraft flies straight and level and extends the hose/drogue which is allowed to trail out behind and below the tanker under normal aerodynamic forces. The pilot of the receiver aircraft extends the probe (if required) and uses normal flight controls to "fly" the refueling probe directly into the basket. This requires a closure rate of approximately two knots (walking speed) in order to establish solid probe/drogue coupling and push the hose several feet into the HDU. Too little closure will cause an incomplete connection and no fuel flow (or occasionally leaking fuel). Too much closure is dangerous because it can trigger a strong transverse oscillation in the hose, severing the probe tip.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The optimal approach is from behind and below (not level with) the drogue. Because the drogue is relatively light (typically soft canvas webbing) and subject to aerodynamic forces, it can be pushed around by the bow wave of approaching aircraft, exacerbating engagement even in smooth air. After initial contact, the hose and drogue is pushed forward by the receiver a certain distance (typically, a few feet), and the hose is reeled slowly back onto its drum in the HDU. This opens the tanker's main refueling valve allowing fuel to flow to the drogue under the appropriate pressure (assuming the tanker crew has energized the pump). Tension on the hose is aerodynamically 'balanced' by a motor in the HDU so that as the receiver aircraft moves fore and aft, the hose retracts and extends, thus preventing bends in the hose that would cause undue side loads on the probe. Fuel flow is typically indicated by illumination of a green light near the HDU. If the hose is pushed in too far or not far enough, a cutoff switch will inhibit fuel flow, which is typically accompanied by an amber light. Disengagement is commanded by the tanker pilot with a red light.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and some Army aircraft refuel using the "hose-and-drogue" system, as well as most Western-European aircraft. The Soviet Union also used a hose and drogue system, which is called UPAZ, and thus later Russian aircraft may be equipped with probe and drogue. The Chinese PLAF has a fleet of Xian H-6 bombers modified for aerial refueling as well as forthcoming Russian Ilyushin Il-78 aerial refueling tankers.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Tankers can be equipped with multipoint hose-and-drogue systems allowing two (or more) aircraft to refuel simultaneously, reducing time spent refueling by as much as 75% for a four aircraft strike package.


title: Aerial refueling

text: USAF KC-135 and French Air Force KC-135FR refueling-boom equipped tankers can be field converted to a probe-and-drogue system using a special adapter unit. In this configuration, the tanker retains its articulated boom, but has a hose/drogue at the end of it instead of the usual nozzle. The tanker boom operator holds the boom in a static position, while the receiver aircraft then flies the probe into the basket. Unlike the soft canvas basket used in most drogue systems, the adapter units use a steel basket, grimly known as the "iron maiden" by naval aviators because of its unforgiving nature. Soft drogues can be contacted slightly off center, wherein the probe is guided into the hose receptacle by the canvas drogue. The metal drogue, when contacted even slightly off center, will pivot out of place, potentially "slapping" the aircraft's fuselage and causing damage.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The other major difference with this system is that when contacted, the hose does not "retract" into an HDU. Instead, the hose bends depending on how far it is pushed toward the boom. If it is pushed too far, it can loop around the probe or nose of the aircraft, damage the windscreen, or cause contact with the rigid boom. If not pushed far enough, the probe will disengage, halting fueling. Because of a much smaller position keeping tolerance, staying properly connected to a KC-135 adapter unit is considerably more difficult than staying in a traditional hose/drogue configuration. When fueling is complete, the receiver carefully backs off until the probe refueling valve disconnects from the valve in the basket. Off center disengagements, like engagements, can cause the drogue to "prang" the probe and/or strike the aircraft's fuselage.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Some tankers have both a boom and one or more complete hose-and-drogue systems. The USAF KC-10 has both a flying boom and a separate hose and drogue system manufactured by Cobham plc. Both are on the aircraft centerline at the tail of the aircraft, so only one system can be used at once. However, such a system allows all types of probe- and receptacle-equipped aircraft to be refueled in a single mission, without landing to install an adapter. Many KC-135s and some KC-10s are also equipped with dual under-wing hose-and-drogue attachments known as Multi-point Refueling System (MPRSs) or Wing Air Refueling Pods (WARPs), respectively.


title: Aerial refueling

text: In this method, similar to the probe-and-drogue method but more complicated, the tanker aircraft released a flexible hose from its wingtip. An aircraft, flying beside it, had to catch the hose with a special lock under its wingtip. After the hose was locked, and the connection was established, the fuel was pumped. It was used on a small number of Soviet Tu-4 and Tu-16 only (the tanker variant was Tu-16Z).


title: Aerial refueling

text: Some historic systems used for pioneering aerial refueling used the grappling method, where the tanker aircraft unreeled the fuel hose and the receiver aircraft would grapple the hose midair, reel it in and connect it so that fuel can be transferred either with the assistance of pumps or simply by gravity feed. This was the method used on the Question Mark endurance flight in 1929.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The probe-and-drogue system is not compatible with flying boom equipment, creating a problem for military planners where mixed forces are involved. Incompatibility can also complicate the procurement of new systems — the Royal Canadian Air Force currently wish to purchase the F-35A, which can only refuel via the flying boom, but only possess probe-and-drogue refuelers. The potential cost of converting F-35As to probe-and-drogue refueling (as is used on U.S. Navy & Marine Corps F-35Bs and F-35Cs) added to the early-2010s political controversy which surrounded F-35 procurement within the RCAF.


title: Aerial refueling

text: These concerns can be addressed by drogue adapters (see section "Boom drogue adapter units" above) that allow drogue aircraft to refuel from boom-equipped aircraft, and by refuelers that are equipped with both drogue and boom units and can thus refuel both types in the same flight, such as the KC-10, MPRS KC-135, or Airbus A330 MRTT.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The development of the KC-97 and Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers was pushed by the Cold War requirement of the United States to be able to keep fleets of nuclear-armed B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers airborne around-the-clock either to threaten retaliation against a Soviet strike for mutual assured destruction, or to bomb the U.S.S.R. first had it been ordered to do so by the President of the United States. The bombers would fly orbits around their assigned positions from which they were to enter Soviet airspace if they received the order, and the tankers would refill the bombers' fuel tanks so that they could keep a force in the air 24 hours a day, and still have enough fuel to reach their targets in the Soviet Union. This also ensured that a first strike against the bombers' airfields could not obliterate the U.S.'s ability to retaliate by bomber.


title: Aerial refueling

text: In 1958, Valiant tankers in the UK were developed with one HDU mounted in the bomb-bay. Valiant tankers of 214 Squadron were used to demonstrate radius of action by refueling a Valiant bomber non-stop from UK to Singapore in 1960 and a Vulcan bomber to Australia in 1961. Other UK exercises involving refueling aircraft from Valiant tankers included Javelin and Lightning fighters, also Vulcan and Victor bombers. For instance, in 1962 a squadron of Javelin air defense aircraft was refueled in stages from the UK to India and back (exercise "Shiksha"). After the retirement of the Valiant in 1965, the Handley Page Victor took over the UK refueling role and had three hoses (HDUs). These were a fuselage-mounted HDU and a refueling pod on each wing. The center hose could refuel any probe-equipped aircraft, the wing pods could refuel the more maneuverable fighter/ground attack types.


title: Aerial refueling

text: A byproduct of this development effort and the building of large numbers of tankers was that these tankers were also available to refuel cargo aircraft, fighter aircraft, and ground attack aircraft, in addition to bombers, for ferrying to distant theaters of operations. This was much used during the Vietnam War, when many aircraft could not have covered the transoceanic distances without aerial refueling, even with intermediate bases in Hawaii and Okinawa. In addition to allowing the transport of the aircraft themselves, the cargo aircraft could also carry matériel, supplies, and personnel to Vietnam without landing to refuel. KC-135s were also frequently used for refueling of air combat missions from air bases in Thailand.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The USAF SR-71 Blackbird strategic reconnaissance aircraft made frequent use of air-to-air refueling. Indeed, design considerations of the aircraft made its mission impossible without aerial refueling. Based at Beale AFB in central California, SR-71s had to be forward-deployed to Europe and Japan prior to flying actual reconnaissance missions. These trans-Pacific and trans-Atlantic flights during deployment were impossible without aerial refueling. The SR-71's designers traded takeoff performance for better high-speed, high-altitude performance, necessitating takeoff with less-than-full fuel tanks from even the longest runways. Once airborne, the Blackbird would accelerate to supersonic speed using afterburners to facilitate structural heating and expansion. The magnitude of temperature changes experienced by the SR-71, from parked to its maximum speed, resulted in significant expansion of its structural parts in cruise flight. To allow for the expansion, the Blackbird's parts had to fit loosely when cold, so loosely, in fact, that the Blackbird constantly leaked fuel before heating expanded the airframe enough to seal its fuel tanks. Following the supersonic dash, and to stop the fuel leaks, the SR-71 would then rendezvous with a tanker to fill its now nearly empty tanks before proceeding on its mission. This was referred to as the "LTTR" (for "Launch To Tanker Rendezvous") profile. LTTR had the added advantage of providing an operational test of the Blackbird's refueling capability within minutes after takeoff, enabling a Return-To-Launch-Site abort capability if necessary. At its most efficient altitude and speed, the Blackbird was capable of flying for many hours without refueling. The SR-71 used a special fuel, JP-7, with a very high flash point to withstand the extreme skin temperatures generated during Mach 3+ cruise flight. While JP-7 could be used by other aircraft, its burn characteristics posed problems in certain situations (such as high-altitude, emergency engine starts) that made it less than optimal for aircraft other than the SR-71.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Normally, all the fuel aboard a tanker aircraft may be either offloaded, or burned by the tanker as necessary. To make this possible, the KC-135 fuel system incorporated gravity draining and pumps to allow moving fuel from tank to tank depending on mission needs. Mixing JP-7 with JP-4 or Jet A, however, rendered it unsuitable for use by the SR-71, so the US Air Force commissioned a specially modified KC-135 variant, the KC-135Q, which included changes to the fuel system and operating procedures preventing inadvertent inflight mixing of fuel intended for offload with fuel intended for use by the tanker. SR-71 aircraft were refueled exclusively by KC-135Q tankers.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Tankers are considered "force multipliers", because they convey considerable tactical advantages. Primarily, aerial refueling adds to the combat radius of attack, fighter and bombers aircraft, and allows patrol aircraft to remain airborne longer, thereby reducing the numbers of aircraft necessary to accomplish a given mission. Aerial refueling can also mitigate basing issues that might otherwise place limitations on combat payload. Combat aircraft operating from airfields with shorter runways must limit their takeoff weight, which could mean a choice between range (fuel) and combat payload (munitions). Aerial refueling, however, eliminates many of these basing difficulties because a combat aircraft can take off with a full combat payload and refuel immediately.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Aside from these issues, the psychological advantage of full fuel tanks – and a tanker likely available nearby – gives a pilot a distinct edge in combat. In most combat situations, speed is a necessity for optimal completion of the mission at hand.


title: Aerial refueling

text: As high speeds require fuel, pilots must always balance fuel and speed requirements. Pilots operating aircraft with aerial refueling capability mitigate low-fuel concerns.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Even as the first practical methods for aerial refueling were being developed, military planners had already envisioned what missions could be greatly enhanced by using such techniques. In the emerging Cold War climate of the late 1940s, the ability for bombers to perform increasingly long distance missions would enable targets to be struck even from air bases on a different continent. Thus, it became commonplace for nuclear-armed strategic bombers to be equipped with aerial refuelling apparatus and for it to be used to facilitate long distance patrols.


title: Aerial refueling

text: During the late 1950s, aerial refuelling had become so prevalent amongst the bombers operated by the U.S. Air Force's Strategic Air Command that many, such as the Convair B-58 Hustler, would operate largely or entirely out of bases in the continental United States while maintaining strategic reach. This practice was promoted to address security concerns as well as diplomatic objections from some overseas nations that did not want foreign nuclear weapon being kept on their soil. In one early demonstration of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress's global reach, performed between 16 and 18 January 1957, three B-52Bs made a non-stop flight around the world during "Operation Power Flite", during which 24,325 miles (21,145 nmi, 39,165 km) was covered in 45 hours 19 minutes (536.8 smph) with multiple in-flight refuelings being performed from KC-97s.


title: Aerial refueling

text: While development of the Avro Vulcan strategic bomber was underway, British officials recognised that its operational flexibility could be improved by the provision of in-flight refuelling equipment. Accordingly, from the 16th aircraft to be completed onwards, the Vulcan was furnished with in-flight refuelling receiving equipment. While continuous airborne patrols were flown by the RAF for a time, these were deemed to be untenable, and the refuelling mechanisms across the Vulcan fleet largely fell into disuse during the 1960s. When the RAF chose to optimise its bomber fleet away from high-altitude flight and towards low-level penetration missions, bombers such as the Handley Page Victor were fitted with aerial refuelling probes and additional fuel tanks to counter the decreased range from the shift in flight profile.


title: Aerial refueling

text: During the mid-1950s, to deliver France's independent nuclear deterrent, work commenced on what would become the Dassault Mirage IV supersonic bomber. The dimensions of this bomber was greatly determined by the viability of aerial refuelling, with work on an enlarged variant of the Mirage IV ultimately being aborted in favour of a greater reliance upon aerial tanker aircraft instead. In order to refuel the Mirage IVA fleet, France purchased 14 (12 plus 2 spares) U.S. Boeing C-135F tankers. Mirage IVAs also often operated in pairs, with one aircraft carrying a weapon and the other carrying fuel tanks and a buddy refueling pack, allowing it to refuel its partner en route to the target. While able to strike at numerous targets inside of the Soviet Union, the inability for the Mirage IV to return from some missions had been a point of controversy during the aircraft's design phase.


title: Aerial refueling

text: On 6 July 1951, the first combat air refueling of fighter-type aircraft took place over Korea. Three RF-80As launched from Taegu with the modified tip-tanks and rendezvoused with a tanker offshore of Wonsan, North Korea. Through in-flight refueling, the RF-80s effectively doubled their range, which enabled them to photograph valuable targets in North Korea.


title: Aerial refueling

text: During the Vietnam War, it was common for USAF fighter-bombers flying from Thailand to North Vietnam to refuel from KC-135s en route to their target. Besides extending their range, this enabled the F-105s and F-4 Phantoms to carry more bombs and rockets. Tankers were also available for refueling on the way back if necessary. In addition to ferrying aircraft across the Pacific Ocean, aerial refueling made it possible for battle-damaged fighters, with heavily leaking fuel tanks, to hook up to the tankers and let the tanker feed its engine(s) until the point where they could glide to the base and land. This saved numerous aircraft.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The US Navy frequently used carrier-based aerial tankers like the KA-3 Skywarrior to refuel Navy and Marine aircraft such as the F-4, A-4 Skyhawk, A-6 Intruder, and A-7 Corsair II. This was particularly useful when a pilot returning from an airstrike was having difficulty landing and was running low on jet fuel. This gave them fuel for more attempts at landing for a successful "trap" on an aircraft carrier. The KA-3 could also refuel fighters on extended Combat Air Patrol. USMC jets based in South Vietnam and Thailand also used USMC KC-130 Hercules transports for air-to-air refueling on missions.


title: Aerial refueling

text: During late August 1970, a pair of HH-53C helicopters performed the first Trans-Pacific flight by a helicopter, flying from Eglin AFB in Florida to Danang in South Vietnam. In addition to making multiple en route stops to refuel on the ground, aerial refuelling was also used in this display of the type's long-range capabilities. The flight proved to be roughly four times faster than the traditional dispatching of rotorcraft to the theatre by ship.


title: Aerial refueling

text: During the 1980s Iran–Iraq War, the Iranian Air Force maintained at least one KC 707-3J9C aerial tanker, which the Islamic Republic had inherited from the Shah's government. This was used most effectively on 4 April 1981, refueling eight IRIAF F-4 Phantoms on long-range sorties into Iraq to bomb the H-3 Al Walid airfield near the Jordanian border, destroying 27–50 Iraqi fighter jets and bombers. However, the Iranian Air Force was forced to cancel its 180-day air offensive and attempts to control Iranian airspace due to unsustainable rates of attrition.


title: Aerial refueling

text: The Israeli Air Force has a fleet of Boeing 707s equipped with a boom refueling system similar to the KC-135, this system has the Israeli name "Ram", used to refuel and extend the range of fighter bombers such as the F-15I and F-16I for deterrent and strike missions, they are nearing 60 years old and Israel does not disclose the number of tankers in their fleet. In 1985, Israeli F-15s used heavily modified Boeing 707 aircraft to provide aerial refueling over the Mediterranean Sea in order to extend their range for Operation Wooden Leg, an air raid on the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) near Tunis, Tunisia, that necessitated a 2,000 km flight. As of 2021 Israel has ordered four of a planned eight Boeing KC-46 Pegasus boom refueling tankers and has requested that the first two aircraft be fast-tracked for delivery in 2022 when they were to be delivered in 2023. The Jerusalem Post reports that Israeli commanders have made this request to enhance the strategic deterrence against Iran, the same article reports that the US, whose air force is also taking its first deliveries of the aircraft type, has refused to move forward the deliveries while supporting Israel's deterrence; the Jpost editor writing "The US State Department approved the possible sale of up to eight KC-46 tanker aircraft and related equipment to Israel for an estimated cost of $2.4 billion last March(i.e. 5/2020), marking the first time that Washington has allowed Jerusalem to buy new tankers."


title: Aerial refueling

text: During the Falklands War, aerial refueling played a vital role in all of the successful Argentine attacks against the Royal Navy. The Argentine Air Force had only two KC-130H Hercules available and they were used to refuel both Air Force and Navy A-4 Skyhawks and Navy Super Etendards in their Exocet strikes. The Hercules on several occasions approached the islands (where the Sea Harriers were in patrol) to search and guide the A-4s in their returning flights. On one of those flights (callsign "Jaguar") one of the KC-130s went to rescue a damaged A-4 and delivered of fuel while carrying it to its airfield at San Julian. However, the Mirage IIIs and Daggers lack of air refueling capability prevented them from achieving better results. The Mirages were unable to reach the islands with a strike payload, and the Daggers could do so only for a five-minute strike flight.


title: Aerial refueling

text: On the British side, air refueling was carried out by the Handley Page Victor K.2 and, after the Argentine surrender, by modified C-130 Hercules tankers. These aircraft aided deployments from the UK to the Ascension Island staging post in the Atlantic and further deployments south of bomber, transport and maritime patrol aircraft. The most famous refueling missions were the 8,000 nmi (15,000 km) "Operation Black Buck" sorties which used 14 Victor tankers to allow an Avro Vulcan bomber (with a flying reserve bomber) to attack the Argentine-captured airfield at Port Stanley on the Falkland Islands. With all the aircraft flying from Ascension, the tankers themselves needed refueling. The raids were the longest-range bombing raids in history until surpassed by the Boeing B-52s flying from the States to bomb Iraq in the 1991 Gulf War and later B-2 flights.


title: Aerial refueling

text: During the time of Operation Desert Shield, the military buildup to the Persian Gulf War, US Air Force Boeing KC-135s & McDonnell Douglas KC-10As, and USMC KC-130 Hercules aircraft were deployed to forward air bases in England, Diego Garcia, and Saudi Arabia. Aircraft stationed in Saudi Arabia normally maintained an orbit in the Saudi–Iraqi neutral zone, informally known as "Frisbee", and refueled coalition aircraft whenever necessary. Two side by side tracks over central Saudi Arabia called "Prune" and "Raisin" featured 2–4 basket equipped KC-135 tankers each and were used by Navy aircraft from the Red Sea Battle Force. Large Navy strike groups from the Red Sea would send A-6 tankers to the Prune and Raisin tracks ahead of the strike aircraft arriving to top off and take up station to the right of the Air Force tankers thereby providing an additional tanking point. RAF Handley Page Victor and Vickers VC10 tankers were also used to refuel British and coalition aircraft and were popular with the US Navy for their docile basket behavior and having three point refueling stations. An additional track was maintained close to the northwest border for the E-3 AWACS aircraft and any Navy aircraft needing emergency fuel. These 24-hour air-refueling zones enabled the intense air campaign during Desert Storm. An additional 24/7 tanker presence was maintained over the Red Sea itself to refuel Navy F-14 Tomcats maintaining Combat Air Patrol tracks. During the conflict's final week, KC-10s moved inside Iraq to support barrier CAP missions set up to block Iraqi fighters from escaping to Iran.


title: Aerial refueling

text: On 16–17 January 1991, the first combat sortie of Operation Desert Storm, and the longest combat sortie in history at that time, was launched from Barksdale AFB, Louisiana. Seven B-52Gs flew a thirty-five-hour mission to the region and back to launch 35 Boeing Air Launched Cruise Missiles (ALCMs) with the surprise use of conventional warheads. This attack, which successfully destroyed 85–95 percent of intended targets, would have been impossible without the support of refueling tankers.


title: Aerial refueling

text: An extremely useful tanker in Desert Storm was the USAF's KC-10A Extender. Besides being larger than the other tankers deployed, the KC-10A is equipped with the USAF "boom" refueling and also the "hose-and-drogue" system, enabling it to refuel not only USAF aircraft, and also USMC and US Navy jets that use the "probe-and-drogue" system, and also allied aircraft, such as those from the UK and Saudi Arabia. KC-135s may be equipped with a drogue depending on the mission profile. With a full jet fuel load, the KC-10A is capable of flying from a base on the American east coast, flying nonstop to Europe, transferring a considerable amount of fuel to other aircraft, and returning to its home base without landing anywhere else.


title: Aerial refueling

text: On 24 January 1991, the Iraqi Air Force launched the Attack on Ras Tanura, an attempt to bomb the Ras Tanura oil facility in Saudi Arabia. On their way to the target, the Iraqi attack aircraft were refueled by tanker at an altitude of 100 meters. The attack ultimately failed, with two aircraft turning back and the remaining two shot down.


title: Aerial refueling

text: Helicopter in-flight refueling (HIFR) is a variation of aerial refueling when a naval helicopter approaches a warship (not necessarily suited for landing operations) and receives fuel through the cabin while hovering. Alternatively, some helicopters equipped with a probe extending out the front can be refueled from a drogue-equipped tanker aircraft in a similar manner to fixed-wing aircraft by matching a high forward speed for a helicopter to a slow speed for the fixed-wing tanker.


title: Aerial refueling

text: A mission modified Cessna 172 Skyhawk with a crew of two set the world record for the longest continuous crewed flight without landing of 64 days, 22 hours, 19 minutes, and five seconds in 1958. A Ford truck was outfitted with a fuel pump, tank, and other paraphernalia required to support the aircraft in flight. The publicity flight for a Las Vegas area hotel ended when the aircraft's performance had degraded to the point where the Cessna had difficulty climbing away from the refueling vehicle.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island is a 1998 American direct-to-video animated mystery comedy horror film based on Hanna-Barbera's "Scooby-Doo" Saturday-morning cartoons. In the film, Shaggy, Scooby, Fred, Velma, and Daphne reunite after a year-long hiatus from Mystery, Inc. to investigate a bayou island said to be haunted by the ghost of the pirate Morgan Moonscar. The film was directed by Jim Stenstrum, from a screenplay by Glenn Leopold.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Popularity for "Scooby-Doo" had grown in the 1990s due to reruns aired on Cartoon Network. The channel's parent company, Time Warner, suggested developing a direct-to-video (DTV) film on the property. The team at Hanna-Barbera consisted of many veteran artists and writers. Many of the original voice actors of the series were replaced for the film, although Frank Welker returned to voice Fred Jones. It was also the first of four "Scooby-Doo" direct-to-video films to be animated overseas by Japanese animation studio Mook Animation. Rock bands Third Eye Blind and Skycycle contribute to the soundtrack.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: "Zombie Island" contains a darker tone than most "Scooby-Doo" productions, and is notable for containing real supernatural creatures rather than people in costumes. The film was released on September 22, 1998, and received acclaim from critics, who complimented its animation and story. The film is also notable for being the first "Scooby" production featuring the entire gang (sans Scrappy-Doo) since "The New Scooby-Doo Mysteries" episode "A Halloween Hassle at Dracula’s Castle", which premiered on ABC on October 27, 1984. The film was aided by a $50 million promotional campaign, and sponsorship deals with multiple companies. Sales of the film on VHS were high, and it became the first in a long-running series of DTV "Scooby-Doo" films.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Two decades after the film's release, Warner Bros. Animation developed a sequel, "Return to Zombie Island", released in 2019.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Mystery, Inc. goes their separate ways after becoming bored of mystery-solving due to their monstrous culprits always being people in costumes. Daphne Blake, along with Fred Jones, starts running a successful television series, determined to hunt down a real ghost rather than a fake one. Fred contacts Velma Dinkley, Shaggy Rogers and his dog Scooby-Doo, and the entire gang is brought back together for Daphne's birthday. They embark on a road trip scouting haunted locations across the U.S. for Daphne's show, only to encounter more fake monsters. Arriving in New Orleans, Louisiana, they are invited by a young woman named Lena Dupree to visit her workplace at Moonscar Island, an island allegedly haunted by the ghost of the pirate Morgan Moonscar. Though they are skeptical, the gang agrees. On the island, they meet ferryman Jacques, Lena's employer Simone Lenoir, who lives in a large mansion on a pepper plantation, and Simone's gardener Beau. Shaggy and Scooby encounter the ghost of Moonscar, who becomes a zombie while the gang receives several ghostly warnings to leave. Despite this, they stay overnight, still skeptical.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: That night, Shaggy and Scooby are chased by a horde of zombies. Velma suspects Beau while Fred and Daphne capture a zombie, believing it is a human culprit until Fred pulls its head off, revealing that the zombies are real. As the horde chases them, the gang gets separated in the chaos and Daphne accidentally causes Fred to drop his video camera in quicksand, losing film evidence for their show. In a cave, Shaggy and Scooby discover wax voodoo dolls resembling Fred, Velma, and Daphne and play with them, involuntarily controlling their friends until the pair disturb a nest of bats.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: The rest of the gang and Beau discover a secret passageway in the house, where Lena claims the zombies dragged Simone away. The passageway leads to a secret chamber for voodoo rituals, where Velma confronts Lena about her lie, having seen her footprints instead of drag marks. After trapping the gang with the voodoo dolls, Simone and Lena reveal themselves and Jacques as werecats. Simone explains that 200 years ago, she and Lena were part of a group of settlers on the island who worshiped a cat god. When Moonscar and his crew invaded the island, they chased the settlers into the bayou, where they were eaten alive by alligators, but Simone and Lena escaped. They prayed to their cat god to curse Moonscar and were transformed into immortal werecats. They killed the pirates, but later realized that invoking the cat god's power had also cursed them. Every harvest moon since, they lured and exploited victims to drain their lives and preserve their immortality, hiring Jacques along the way to facilitate their plot in exchange for making him immortal, with the zombies and ghosts being their previous victims who awaken every harvest moon to try to scare people away to prevent them from suffering the same fate.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: While being chased by Jacques, Shaggy and Scooby disrupt the werecats' draining ceremony, allowing the gang to free themselves. The werecats surround them, but realize too late that the harvest moon has passed, causing them to crumble to dust and allowing the zombies' souls to rest in peace. Beau reveals himself as an undercover police officer who was sent to investigate disappearances on the island. Daphne asks Beau to guest star on her show, and they all leave the island in the morning.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: The "Scooby-Doo" franchise, which by the time of the film's release was nearing its 30-year mark, had entered into a period of diminishing returns in the early 1990s. After the conclusion of the sixth iteration of the series, "A Pup Named Scooby-Doo", the character became absent from Saturday-morning lineups. In 1991, Turner Broadcasting System purchased Hanna-Barbera, the animation studio behind "Scooby", largely to fill programming at a new, 24/7 cable channel centered on animated properties: Cartoon Network. The advent of cable gave the franchise renewed popularity: rapidly, "Scooby" reruns attracted top ratings. "Zombie Island" was not the first attempt at a feature-length "Scooby" adventure; several television films were produced in the late 1980s starring the character, such as "Scooby-Doo and the Ghoul School". In 1996, Turner merged with Time Warner. Davis Doi, in charge at Hanna-Barbera, was tasked with developing projects based on the studio's existing property. Warner executives suggested "Scooby", given that the property held a high Q Score, and proposed it could be a direct-to-video feature film.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: The team assembled, to work on the production were veterans of the animation business, and had most recently worked on "" and "The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest". Screenwriter Glenn Leopold had been with the franchise since 1979's "Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo". The film was directed by Jim Stenstrum, who had worked on "Scooby" projects beginning in 1983's "The New Scooby and Scrappy-Doo Show". As the film was considered a one-off experiment by studio brass, the crew worked with little oversight and complete creative freedom. Doi and Leopold developed the film's story, with Leopold receiving sole credit for the screenplay. Much of the script is recycled from Leopold's script for the unfinished "SWAT Kats" episode "The Curse of Kataluna". Stenstrum and Doi suggested in early story meetings that the monsters in the film be real (previous "Scooby" outings were nearly always "bad guys" in rubber masks), feeling it worked for a half-hour television episode, but might grow tiresome over a feature-length film. Leopold disagreed, noting that throughout the franchise's history, it always remained a simple, solvable mystery. Lance Falk, who worked as model coordinator on the film, suggested they combine both ideas.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Casey Kasem was originally set to reprise his role as Shaggy, but Kasem, a vegetarian, had refused to voice Shaggy in a 1995 Burger King commercial and went on to demand that Shaggy also give up eating meat in future productions. The creative team rejected this, as eating anything was a hallmark of the character. Additionally, production on "Zombie Island" had already begun, with the film featuring a scene with Shaggy eating crawfish. Shaggy was recast with voice actor Billy West. Kasem was given a last-minute opportunity to fill the role and redub over West, but he again refused. Radio personality Scott Innes voiced Scooby-Doo, as Don Messick, the character's original voice actor, retired in 1996 and died in 1997; "Zombie Island" was dedicated to his memory. Heather North was set to reprise her role as Daphne, but after a day of recording, Mary Kay Bergman replaced her, while B. J. Ward, who played Velma in a "Johnny Bravo" crossover episode, reprised her role for this film.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Frank Welker is the only actor from the original series to reprise his role, as Fred Jones. He had initially worried that the producers would replace him as well, given that the producers believed his voice had gone down an octave. The voice director kept requesting Welker perform the voice at a higher pitch. Welker insisted his voice was the same, as Fred's voice is close to his natural speaking voice. The team went back and viewed early "Scooby-Doo" episodes and found that Welker's impression was more or less the same. Bob Miller, of Animation World Network, suggested that the reruns of "Scooby-Doo" aired on Cartoon Network perhaps gave them a false idea of the character's voice, as the episodes were typically time-compressed (or sped-up) to allow more room for commercials, thus giving all of the show's soundtrack a higher pitch.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Japanese animation studio Mook Animation were contracted to work on the film; Doi had a relationship with the team at Mook as they had previously collaborated on "Swat Kats" and "Jonny Quest". Hiroshi Aoyama and Kazumi Fukushima directed the overseas animation, but are not credited on the picture. The film was animated and is presented in standard full frame format. The team were allowed more time to work on the film, as there was no real set schedule—just delivery to the home video department upon completion. The American crew re-designed the series cast for the film, giving them a fashion update. The team felt Fred and Daphne, with their ascots and Fred's bell-bottoms, felt very dated to the 60's (although the original designs were used in the opening scene). They briefly changed Shaggy's shirt color to red and gave him sneakers, though they quickly relented, as they viewed his original outfit as more timeless.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: The group were trusted by the studio's management as they had worked together for a long time, and all involved on the film had a real passion for the project. Drew Gentle was the main background designer for the project, with Falk contributing to the film's color key. Occasionally, the crew would hire freelance artists to contribute to ancillary designs. In addition, the group enlisted the assistance of Iwao Takamoto, the original designer of Scooby-Doo, still on salary at Hanna-Barbera, for advising on scenes. Takamoto called the film "a good solid mystery", and storyboarded several sequences of interplay between Shaggy and Scooby.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Composer Steven Bramson, who is known for "Tiny Toon Adventures", "JAG" and the "Lost in Space" film, scored and conducted the film. The soundtrack for the film features three songs composed specifically for the film. "The Ghost Is Here" and "It's Terror Time Again", both written by Glenn Leopold, were performed by Skycycle. The title track, "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!", was performed by Third Eye Blind.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Originally, the film was planned to be released theatrically, but when Warner Bros noticed the strong market on home media, particularly their successful direct-to-video animated Batman films, it was later decided to release it on VHS on September 22, 1998, through Warner Home Video. Because of the cost of production, the tape retailed at $19.95, which was higher than other direct-to-video titles of that era. Sales for the film exceeded the studio's expectations, according to a 1999 "Billboard" article. It was released on DVD on March 6, 2001, and later re-released in 2008 as a double-feature on DVD alongside the third direct-to-video "Scooby" film, "Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders" (2000).


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: The film was aided by a reportedly $50 million promotional push, as advertisers believed the character's iconic nature would generate strong sales, and deserved "equal visibility to a theatrical release." Tie-ins included the Campbell Soup Company, SpaghettiOs, 1-800-COLLECT, Wendy's, LEGO, and Cartoon Network, who debuted the film on television on October 31, 1998, after a month themed after the series. It was also promoted as part of the network's "Wacky Racing" sponsorship deal with Melling Racing in 1998, as the third of four paint schemes featured on the NASCAR Winston Cup Series #9 Ford Taurus driven by then-rookie Jerry Nadeau. The paint scheme debuted at Richmond International Raceway in the Exide NASCAR Select Batteries 400 on September 12, 1998, and was featured on the car through the Dura Lube Kmart 500 at Phoenix International Raceway on October 25, 1998, for a total of seven races out of the thirty-three race schedule. The promotional push was, at the time, the biggest marketing support in Warner Bros. Family Entertainment's history.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: The film received positive reviews from critics, and currently holds a "Fresh" rating of 88% on Rotten Tomatoes. Donald Liebenson of the "Chicago Tribune" described the film as "ambitious" and calls it "a nostalgic hoot [that] resurrects all the touchstones of the original cartoons." "Entertainment Weekly" Joe Neumaier praised the film as "Fast, fun, and filled with knowing winks, the mystery honors the show’s beloved structure, but writ large." A 1998 "New York Times" article by Peter M. Nichols complimented the film as "well-made." Lynne Heffley at the "Los Angeles Times" called the film "more entertaining than you'd expect, despite the familiar Saturday morning-type animation."


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: Later assessments of the film have been similarly positive. Michael Mallory at the "Los Angeles Times" credited it and its subsequent features for "[spinning] the characters into more modern treatments of action and horror, and toyed with [a] self-spoofing quality."


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: In 2011–12, British comedian Stewart Lee dedicated an extensive section of his live show "Carpet Remnant World" to the "jungle canyon rope bridges" in "Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island", linking what he described as the parlous state of such bridges with the austerity regime of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.


title: Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island

text: A direct sequel, titled "Scooby-Doo! Return to Zombie Island," had its world premiere at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 21, 2019, followed by a digital release on September 3, 2019, and a DVD release on October 1, 2019.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Simhaadri is a 2003 Indian Telugu-language action film directed by S. S. Rajamouli from a story written by V. Vijayendra Prasad. The film stars N. T. Rama Rao Jr., Bhumika Chawla, and Ankitha, with Mukesh Rishi, Nassar, and Rahul Dev playing supporting roles. The film has music composed by M. M. Keeravani while the cinematography and editing are done by Ravindra Babu and Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao respectively.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Released on 9 July 2003, the film was industry hit beating Mega star. The film was made on a budget of ₹8.5 crore (US$1.8 million) and collected a distributors' share of 26 crore (US$5.6 million). The film was subsequently remade in Tamil as "Gajendra" (2004), in Kannada as "Kanteerava" (2012) and in Bangladesh Bengali as "Durdorsho" (2005).


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: An orphan and good-hearted lad Simhadri, grows up under Ram Bhupal Varma's family care in Visakhapatnam. The bond they share is like that of a father and son. Kasturi is Varma's granddaughter, and she is in love with Simhadri. Once a week, Simhadri visits a mentally challenged girl called Indu, and entertains her, where he provides money to her caretakers. When Varma and his wife discover Kasturi's wish to marry Simhadri, where they decides to get them married. He makes a formal announcement to officially adopt Simhadri. At this time, it is revealed that Simhadri is very close to Indu, where the alliance breaks off when Simhadri refuses to leave Indu (who is suspected to be his mistress).


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Meanwhile, two separate groups are in search of Simhadri. They find him at the banks of Godavari river, along with Indu. In the ensuing confrontation between one group of gangsters and Simhadri, Varma and his family are surprised to see that Simhadri, who used to be calm and composed, is ruthlessly killing many goons without mercy. Meanwhile, Indu gets injured, where Simhadri is helped by the second group, who call him "Singhamalai Anna". When Indu regains her senses, she remembers her past and stabs Simhadri with an iron pole. Simhadri is hospitalized in critical condition, where the leader of the second group, who was searching for Simhadri, explains Simhadri's past.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Past: Varma's oldest daughter Saraswati elopes with her lover, a Keralite named Aravind. After some harsh words and saddened over Varma's rejection over her choice to marry her love, they both settle in Kerala. Learning of the sadness surrounding Varma and his wife, Simhadri takes up the job of uniting the family and visits Thiruvananthapuram, where he joins the medical and spiritual therapy spa operated by Saraswati and her family under the disguise of a patient. He finds that Indu is Varma's first granddaughter, and convinces the separated family to reunite and ask for forgiveness. During this time, Saraswati is killed by a local goon Bala Nair for witnessing a homicide done by the latter. A gangster named Bhai Saab controls the mafia of Kerala.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Bala and Bhai belong to the same syndicate. Simhadri takes the law into his hands and eradicates Bala and his small gang in Kerala. The local Kerala people start calling him "Singhamalai Anna". In the ensuing scenes, Simhadri finds himself developing into Singhamalai, eradicating Bhai Saab's network and illegal activities. Indu finds herself alone and constantly worrying about him. She proposes to her father that they should return to Andhra Pradesh because she cannot stand their home without her mother, and Simhadri ignores her now. Indu and Aravind decide to return to Visakhapatnam, where Simhadri receives a call that Indu's father is carrying a bomb in his briefcase.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Aravind is seen rushing to catch a moving train, and Indu was about to lend him a hand. Unable to warn him, Simhadri has two choices: to let Indu's father die so people on the train can live, or let the bomb kill everyone on board, including Indu and her father. Simhadri chooses the first option. As soon as Aravind catches the train bar handle, Simhadri shoots him. Surprised at Simhadri's action, Indu jumps off the train to catch her falling father, and she gets hit her head against a pole, causing her amnesia and becoming mentally challenged.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Present: At the hospital, Bhai and his men arrive at the hospital to finish off Simhadri, but Simhadri has gained consciousness, and with the help of his friends, cops and family (now reunited, including Indu, who apologize for her actions), he takes down Bhai and his henchmen.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: After the success of "Student No.1" (2001), Rajamouli was initially supposed to direct a fantasy film with Kovelamudi Surya Prakash however the project was shelved due to high budget and lead actor's debut film "Neetho" (2002) became a failure. Rajamouli narrated the subject of "Simhadri" to VMC Combines who agreed to produce the film. The film was supposed to be made with the pair of B. Gopal and Balakrishna, which was dropped.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Writer V. Vijayendra Prasad stated that he got the idea to write the story of this film while watching "Vasantha kokila" (1982).


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Soundtrack was composed by M. M. Keeravani. He revealed that Rajamouli mostly selected tunes which are already used or those rejected by other directors. The song "Ammaina Nannaina" was originally used for the film "Kishkinda Kanda" (1994) and the song "Chinnadamme" for the film "Samarpana" (1992). "Singhamalai" was used for the film "People's Encounter" (1991). Keeravani acknowledged that the tune of "Chiraaku Anuko" was inspired by Cotton Eye Joe.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: "Simhadri" distribution rights were sold for crore. It was made with a budget of crore of production cost.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: Jeevi of "Idlebrain" gave a positive review for the film, citing that the story is "pretty strong" and praised N. T. Rama Rao Jr.'s performance stating that the "character offered him the chance to use all his histrionic capability to impress the crowds and he utilized every frame of it to make a deep impact on the hearts of the viewers".


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: After the success, the film was subsequently remade in Tamil as "Gajendra" (2004) with Vijayakanth by Suresh Krissna. The film was also remade in Kannada as "Kanteerava" (2012) with Duniya Vijay.The film was also remade in Bangladesh as "Durdorsho" (2005) with Shakib Khan.


title: Simhadri (2003 film)

text: "Simhadri" was dubbed in Malayalam with the same name, in Hindi as "Yamraaj Ek Faulad" in 2008, and in Bhojpuri as "Paap Ke Ant."


title: Maria Brink

text: Maria Brink (born December 18, 1977) is an American singer and songwriter, best known as the frontwoman of the metal band The band has gone on to release seven studio albums and receive four nominations, two from Alternative Press Music Awards, one from Grammy Awards, and one from Loudwire Music Awards.


title: Maria Brink

text: Brink has been awarded "Rock Goddess of the Year" in the third (2013) and fifth (2015) Annual Loudwire Music Awards, "Hottest Chick in Metal" in 2010, one of eleven women in heavy metal who matter by Yell! Magazine in 2012, and was recognized by Revolver Magazine as one of the "25 Hottest Chicks in Hard Rock & Metal".


title: Maria Brink

text: Brink was born on December 18, 1977, in the state of New York, and her father left the family when she was young. Brink's mother introduced her to bands and artists such as Black Sabbath, Patti Smith, and the Rolling Stones. Brink became interested in performing at the age of 5.


title: Maria Brink

text: The first band Brink was ever in was an Albany, New York-based band called Pulse, before moving to California. In 2002, when she was 25, she moved to Los Angeles to find a band to work with. Before finding a band, she worked in stores, and sang in coffee shops and bars. In 2004, she met now-band member Chris Howorth at an audition. At first, Howorth rejected Brink for being a woman. Two weeks later, Howorth apologized and hired Brink as the singer. They formed the band Dying Star with drummer Jeff Fabb. They were later joined by guitarist Blake Bunzel and bassist Josh Newell. Soon after, the band changed their name to In This Moment.


title: Maria Brink

text: Along with her band, she has released seven studio albums. They released their debut album, "Beautiful Tragedy", on March 20, 2007. Their second studio album, "The Dream", was released on September 30, 2008. The band's third album, "A Star-Crossed Wasteland" was released July 9, 2010. The band's fourth album titled "Blood" was released on August 14, 2012. Their fifth studio album titled "Black Widow" was released on November 17, 2014. Their sixth studio album, "Ritual", was released on July 21, 2017. Their seventh studio album, "Mother" was released on March 27, 2020. Brink has been awarded "Rock Goddess of the Year" in the third (2013) and fifth (2015) Annual Loudwire Music Awards, "Hottest Chick in Metal" in 2010, one of eleven women in heavy metal who matter by Yell! Magazine in 2012, and was recognized by Revolver Magazine as one of the "25 Hottest Chicks in Hard Rock & Metal".


title: Maria Brink

text: At age 15, Brink gave birth to a son, Davion. She worked to support herself and her son as well as helping her mother to overcome a drug addiction. Brink is a vegetarian and active with the PETA campaign. She is also an aspiring artist/painter going by the alias of 'Maria Brink's Wonderland'. Brink was in a relationship with DevilDriver bassist, Jonathan Miller. Brink is currently in a relationship with Ded vocalist Joe Cotela.


title: Maria Brink

text: Brink has cited Deftones, Pantera, M83 as some of her favorite bands. She was inspired by vocalists Sarah McLachlan and Phil Anselmo. Outside of music, Brink has cited Queen Elizabeth I, Mother Teresa, Joan of Arc, and her two mothers as the women that influenced her the most.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: Harlots is a British-American period drama television series created by Alison Newman and Moira Buffini and inspired by "The Covent Garden Ladies" by British historian Hallie Rubenhold. The series focuses on Margaret Wells, who runs a brothel in 18th-century London and struggles to secure a better future for her daughters in an unpredictable environment.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: The series premiered on 27 March 2017 on ITV Encore in the United Kingdom, and on 29 March 2017 on Hulu in the United States. It was subsequently renewed for a second series that premiered on 11 July 2018 in the United States, and on 14 February 2019 in the UK via on-demand service StarzPlay, to which it moved after ITV Encore closed. On September 24, 2018, "Harlots" was renewed for a third season, which premiered in the United States on July 10, 2019, and in the UK the following day. On June 10, 2020, it was reported that Hulu had cancelled the series after three seasons. After this, the BBC acquired the UK rights to broadcast all three series, with the first two episodes of the first season aired on BBC Two on 5 August 2020.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: In 1760s London, women's opportunities for economic advancement are either through marriage or sex work. The city's brothels are run by canny and determined businesswomen, such as Margaret Wells and Lydia Quigley, but there is a new morality on the rise. Religious evangelists demand the closure of brothels, and police are happy to launch brutal raids.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: The show revolves around Wells' determination to improve her life and the lives of those in her "family" by moving her brothel to Greek Street in Soho to serve a wealthier clientele in Georgian society. Her move to Greek Street puts her into direct conflict with a rival madame, Lydia Quigley, for whom she had previously worked. Quigley operates an elite brothel in Golden Square that serves rich, influential people.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: On 26 May 2016, it was announced that Hulu and ITV had given the co-production a programme order for a first series consisting of eight episodes. The series was set to be written by Moira Buffini and based upon an original idea by Buffini and Alison Newman. Directors were expected to include Coky Giedroyc and China Moo-Young. Lawrence Till was set as producer, with Alison Owen and Debra Hayward also on board to executive produce alongside Alison Carpenter, Buffini, and Newman. Production companies involved with the series include Monumental Pictures.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: On 27 July 2017, it was announced at the annual Television Critics Association summer press tour that the programme had been renewed for a second series. On 23 April 2018, it was announced that the second season would premiere in the United States on 11 July 2018.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: On April 12, 2019, it was announced that the third series was set to premiere in the United States on July 10, 2019.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: Alongside the initial series order announcement, it was confirmed that the series would star Samantha Morton, Lesley Manville, and Jessica Brown Findlay. On 7 July 2016, it was announced that Eloise Smyth had been cast in a series regular role.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: Principal photography for series one was expected to commence in June 2016 in London. The majority of filming took place at Langleybury Mansion, Kings Langley, Hertfordshire. Chiswick House was used to replicate 18th-century London for the series, and additional scenes filmed at Historic Dockyard Chatham.


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: All three seasons have been received positively by critics. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 94% with an average rating of 7.08/10 based on 48 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Harlots" uses its titillating subject matter to draw the viewer into a deeper drama about the intersection of survival, business, and family." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 74 out of 100 based on 17 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: The second series holds an approval rating of 100% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 7.83/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: ""Harlots" maintains its lavish grit and holds an 18th-century mirror up to our contemporary world of troubling gender-based suffering."


title: Harlots (TV series)

text: The third series holds an approval rating of 100% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 7.31/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "Delightfully uncomfortable, "Harlots" continues to push boundaries, but never at the expense of its deliciously campy fun." Metacritic reports a score of 77 out of 100 based on 4 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: Vicente del Bosque González, 1st Marquess of Del Bosque (; born 23 December 1950) is a Spanish retired football manager and former player. He is regarded as one of the greatest managers of all time and is to date the only football manager to have won the World Cup, the Champions League, the European Championship and the Intercontinental Cup.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: After taking over from Luis Aragonés – who had led Spain to European success at UEFA Euro 2008 – del Bosque went on to lead the national team to win their first-ever FIFA World Cup in 2010, and then to retain their European Championship in 2012. Del Bosque coached Real Madrid from 1999 to 2003, which was one of the most successful periods in the club's modern era.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: During his playing career, del Bosque made over 400 appearances for Real Madrid, winning five La Liga titles and four Copas del Rey. He played internationally with the senior Spain national team on 18 occasions.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: As a player, del Bosque was a midfielder who played in La Liga 441 times with 30 goals. This career included spells at Castilla CF, Córdoba, Castellón and Real Madrid. He won five league titles (1974–75, 1975–76, 1977–78, 1978–79, 1979–80) and four Copa del Rey titles (1973–74, 1974–75, 1979–80, 1981–82) with Real Madrid. He was also part of the Real Madrid team that lost to Liverpool in the 1981 European Cup Final.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: Internationally, del Bosque received 18 caps with the Spain national team, scoring one goal. He appeared for Spain at UEFA Euro 1980, which would be disappointing for Spain as it exited at the group stage of the competition.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: Del Bosque served at Real Madrid since 1994 and rose through the ranks at the club; however, he only first managed Madrid for a couple of months in 1994 after the sacking of Benito Floro and before the appointment of Jorge Valdano. He would again manage Real for two games in 1996, while he was the youth team coach, after Jorge Valdano was sacked and before Arsenio Iglesias took the job until the end of that season. But in 1999–2000, the club management decided to give him the full-time job after difficulties with their coach, John Toshack, with del Bosque taking over in November 1999.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: In his four seasons in charge, del Bosque ushered the club through one of its most successful spells in modern history, having steered the club to two UEFA Champions League titles in 2000 and 2002, two domestic La Liga titles in 2001 and 2003, a Supercopa de España in 2001, a UEFA Super Cup in 2002, the Intercontinental Cup in 2002 as well as finishing in the last four of the UEFA Champions League every year he was in charge. Not since the great Madrid side of the 1950s and 1960s that had Alfredo Di Stéfano and Ferenc Puskás did the club succeed so consistently. Del Bosque was credited with a humble, patient and unassuming style which saw him manage the club as it underwent a policy during Florentino Pérez's tenure as club President that was known as "Los Galácticos", where the world's best and most marketable stars were signed for the club beginning with Luís Figo and including David Beckham, Zinedine Zidane and Ronaldo. In the del Bosque era Real managed 104 wins out of a possible 186 in his time as coach of Madrid. Despite the level of success, many players – in particular the so-called "Galácticos" – were bought without the input of del Bosque amid often made allegations that the Real Madrid hierarchy (in particular Pérez and general manager Jorge Valdano) had more control over transfer policy, team selection and other aspects of club that minimised the level of control del Bosque had during his time as manager.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: Real Madrid decided not to renew Del Bosque's contract in 2003, just a day after he won the club its 29th Liga title and a week after the club signed David Beckham. Del Bosque was offered the post of technical director but turned it down, leading to many suggestions in the Spain's media that there was a much rumoured political split at the club involving del Bosque and several players, especially captain Fernando Hierro (who was asked to leave the club in the summer of 2003), on one side, while Valdano and Pérez wielded the axe of control to in their words, "shake up the team," on the other. Pérez said in an interview with BBC Sport, "del Bosque was showing signs of exhaustion. I want to be sincere about this – our belief that he was not the right coach for the future."


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: The BBC article states: "It is a strange tale from start to finish – how the shy, mustachioed man from Salamanca came to be in charge of the most expensive and talented bunch of footballers in the modern game, won the biggest trophies on offer and then got the boot in favour of a man yet to be named. With the Real superstars, del Bosque was extremely popular – partly because he was happier to let them get on with it. Cool as a cryogenically-frozen cucumber, he managed to avoid confrontations with his charges, despite the stellar egos in the squad, and never once lost his calm in front of the media."


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: In the four years since Del Bosque's departure, Real Madrid changed seven coaches and did not win any major trophies until they won the La Liga title in 2007, under new coach Fabio Capello (who was also sacked afterwards). They had also been defeated in the round of 16 of the Champions League every year since the 2004–05 season (one year after Del Bosque was sacked), until the 2010–11 Champions League season, which saw Real Madrid defeat Lyon in the round of 16 under new manager José Mourinho. It would take until the 2013–14 campaign for the club to win another Champions League title, under manager Carlo Ancelotti.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: After Iñaki Sáez resigned in the wake of a terrible performance at UEFA Euro 2004, which saw Spain having their worst result in the tournament since 1988, del Bosque was approached as a possible manager of the national side. He was not interested in the job, however, and the job was subsequently given to Luis Aragonés.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: With Beşiktaş, del Bosque arrived in Turkey to much fanfare and hope, but failure to deliver results saw him get the sack towards the tail end of the 2004–05 season.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: After Mexico were eliminated by Argentina in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, del Bosque was approached with an offer to become their manager, but declined.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: During the 2007 Real Madrid crisis, del Bosque spoke on the line saying that the departure of Ronaldo was a mistake, and he was one of the candidates to replace Fabio Capello as manager of the team. Bernd Schuster, however, was awarded the job on 9 July 2007.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: On 11 March 2008, del Bosque announced that he would replace Luis Aragonés as head coach of the Spain national team; it was confirmed on 15 July 2008.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: Spain under del Bosque began their 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign successfully, defeating Bosnia and Herzegovina 1–0 with a goal from David Villa. Spain defeated Armenia 4–0 three days later with two goals coming from Villa, and one each from Joan Capdevila and Marcos Senna, with a notable debut from Bojan, coming on as a substitute and defeating rumours that he will swap allegiances to Serbia. This win secured the Spaniards a first place spot in their group with six points. The next round saw Spain defeat Estonia 3–0, then, four days later, beat Belgium 2–1 away – an 88th-minute strike from Villa (his fifth of the campaign) earning them the win. This result maintained their 100% start to the qualifying campaign.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: Since del Bosque was appointed to the job, 38 players have debuted with the Spain team: Bojan, Andoni Iraola, Fernando Llorente, Diego Capel, Sergio Busquets, Jesús Navas, Diego López, Gerard Piqué, Jordi Alba, Pedro, Pablo Hernández, Borja Valero, Bruno, Nacho Monreal, Víctor Valdés, Álvaro Negredo, Juan Mata, Javi Martínez, Thiago, Manu, Aritz Aduriz, Adrián, Juanfran, Beñat, Iker Muniain, Javi García, Álvaro Domínguez, Markel Susaeta, Koke, Marc Bartra, Isco, César Azpilicueta, Iñigo Martínez, Alberto Moreno, Mario Suárez, Michu, Cristian Tello, Diego Costa, Ander Iturraspe, David de Gea and Gerard Deulofeu, while one uncapped player, Fernando Amorebieta, has been called up but failed to debut.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: On 9 June 2009, in a friendly against Azerbaijan in which Spain won 6–0, del Bosque became the first manager in all of football history to win his first ten games as debut manager of a national team, the previous record being nine held by João Saldanha of Brazil. The record currently stands at 13 successive victories, with the last winning match being a 2–0 win against South Africa in the 2009 Confederations Cup, followed by a 2–0 defeat in the semifinal stage of the same competition against United States.


title: Vicente del Bosque

text: On 14 October 2009, Spain joined the very small number of teams to have won all their World Cup qualifying games in a single campaign, achieving a record-breaking ten wins in ten games.