title: Solar power in India

text: via a local grid. Not only the roof top area but also outer surface area of tall buildings can be used for solar PV power generation by installing PV modules in vertical position in place of glass panels to cover facade area. Such an infrastructure, which does not have the economy of scale of mass, utility-scale solar-panel deployment, needs a lower deployment price to attract individuals and family-sized households. The cost of high efficiency and compact mono PERC modules and battery storage systems have reduced to make rooftop solar PV more economical and feasible in a microgrid.


title: Solar power in India

text: It is more economical to have multi-purpose floating solar PV power plants compared to single-purpose floating solar plants. Three tier boat houses are constructed on pontoons with the top tier (inclined roof up to 35 degrees) fully covered by solar panels (1 MW/acre area), bottom area (below the pontoon) for cage fish culture and middle two tiers one each for poultry and mushroom/orchid cultivation. Pontoon can have a tilting arrangement (another 35 degrees) to have inclined floating by varying water content in the ballast tanks to track the sun's direction for optimum solar power generation. Water is oxygenated in a evaporative cooler and used in cage cultivation with the power generated by the solar panels. The cold air at wet-bulb temperature from the evaporative cooler is used for cooling the poultry and mushroom areas. These boat houses can move to safer water depths with the variation in the water level of the water body or for avoiding occasional high winds. The excess power generated during the daytime is stored in a battery system mounted on a separate pontoon which can be moved to shore for feeding power to the grid during nighttime. Multipurpose solar plants can be installed at deeper (10 meters and more) water areas, unlike single-purpose floating solar PV plants. With multipurpose PV solar plants, the floating solar power potential of India enhances many times by utilising much of the inland water bodies area. Water is sprinkled over the solar panels to keep them cool and clean to optimize the power output. Rainwater harvesting can also be achieved by storing the water in collapsible bladders which can float on water for generating bottled drinking water.


title: Solar power in India

text: Greenpeace recommends that India adopt a policy of developing solar power as a dominant component of its renewable-energy mix since, being a densely-populated country in the tropical belt, the subcontinent has an ideal combination of high insolation and a large potential consumer base. In one scenario India could make renewable resources the backbone of its economy by 2030, curtailing carbon emissions without compromising its economic-growth potential. A study suggested that 100 GW of solar power could be generated through a mix of utility-scale and rooftop solar, with the realizable potential for rooftop solar between 57 and 76 GW by 2024.


title: Solar power in India

text: After the subsidence of the Covid pandemic in 2022, the electricity demand has increased steeply and spot/day ahead power sale prices are at upper ceiling price of per kWh round the clock.


title: Solar power in India

text: It is considered prudent to encourage solar-plant installations up to a threshold (such as 7,000 MW) by offering incentives. Otherwise, substandard equipment with overrated nameplate capacity may tarnish the industry. The power purchaser, transmission agency and financial institution should require capacity utilisation and long-term performance guarantees for the equipment backed by insurance coverage in the event that the original equipment manufacturer ceases to exist. Alarmed by the low quality of equipment, India issued draft quality guide lines in May 2017 to be followed by the solar plant equipment suppliers conforming to Indian standards.


title: Solar power in India

text: The Indian government announced an allocation of for the National Solar Mission and a clean-energy fund for the 2010-11 fiscal year, an increase of from the previous budget. The budget encouraged private solar companies by reducing the import duty on solar panels by five percent. This is expected to reduce the cost of a rooftop solar-panel installation by 15 to 20 percent.


title: Solar power in India

text: The average bid in reverse auctions in April 2017 is per kWh, compared with per kWh in 2010, which is around 73% drop over the time window. The current prices of solar PV electricity is around 18% lower than the average price of electricity generated by coal-fired plants. By the end of 2018, competitive reverse auctions, falling panel and component prices, the introduction of solar parks, lower borrowing costs and large power companies have contributed to the fall in prices. The cost of solar PV power in India, China, Brazil and 55 other emerging markets fell to about one-third of its 2010 price, making solar the cheapest form of renewable energy and cheaper than power generated from fossil fuels such as coal and gas.


title: Solar power in India

text: India has the lowest capital cost per MW globally of installing solar power plants. However the global levelized cost of solar PV electricity fell to 1.04¢ US per kWh (₹0.77 per kWh) in April 2021, much cheaper than the lowest solar PV tariff in India. The intermittent / non-dispatchable solar PV at the prevailing low tariffs clubbed with Pumped-heat electricity storage can offer cheapest dispatchable power round the clock on demand.


title: Solar power in India

text: The Indian government has reduced the solar PV power purchase price from the maximum allowed per KWh to per KWh, reflecting the steep fall in cost of solar power-generation equipment. The applicable tariff is offered after applying viability gap funding (VGF) or accelerated depreciation (AD) incentives. In January 2019, the time period for commissioning the solar power plants is reduced to 18 months for units located outside the solar parks and 15 months for units located inside the solar parks from the date of power purchase agreement.


title: Solar power in India

text: Solar PV generation cost fell to per kWh for the 750 MW Rewa Ultra Mega Solar power project, India's lowest electricity-generation cost. In first quarter of calendar year 2020, large scale ground mounted solar power installations cost fell to Rs 35 million/MW by 12% in a year. Solar panel prices are lower than those of mirrors by unit area.


title: Solar power in India

text: In an auction of 250 MW capacity of the second phase in Bhadla solar park, South Africa's Phelan Energy Group and Avaada Power were awarded 50 MW and 100 MW of capacity respectively in May 2017 at per kilowatt hour. The tariff is also lower than NTPC's average coal power tariff of 3.20 per kilowatt hour. SBG Cleantech, a consortium of SoftBank Group, Airtel and Foxconn, was awarded the remaining 100 MW capacity at a rate of per kWh. Few days later in a second auction for another 500 MW at the same park, solar tariff has further fallen to per kilowatt hour which are the lowest tariffs for any solar power project in India. These tariffs are lower than traded prices for day time in non-monsoon period in IEX and also for meeting peak loads on a daily basis by using cheaper solar PV power in pumped-storage hydroelectricity stations indicating there is no need of any power purchase agreements and any incentives for the solar PV power plants in India. Solar PV power plant developers are forecasting that solar power tariff would drop to /unit in near future.


title: Solar power in India

text: The lowest solar tariff in May 2018 is Rs 2.71/kWh (without incentives) which is less than the tariff of Bhadla solar park (₹2.44 per kWh with VGF incentive) after the clarification that any additional taxes are pass through cost with hike in the tariff. In early July 2018 bids, the lowest solar PV tariff has touched per kWh without viability gap funding incentive. In June 2019, the lowest tariff is /kWh for feeding in to the high voltage interstate transmission system (ISTS). In February 2019, the lowest solar power tariff is per kWh for 50 MW contracted capacity at Pavagada Solar Park.


title: Solar power in India

text: The tariff for rooftop installations are also falling with the recent offer of with 100% locally made components. In August 2022, the installation cost of rooftop solar has reduced below 45,000 Rs/KW for capacity between 1 to 3 KW.


title: Solar power in India

text: In May 2020, the discovered first year tariff is per KWh with per KWh levelized tariff for round the clock hybrid renewable power supply. In November 2020, Solar PV power tariff has fallen to per KWh.


title: Solar power in India

text: In March 2021, the discovered levelized tariff was per KWh after imposition of basic customs duty (BCD) on imported solar PV panels and cells. The discovered tariff for floating solar power was per kWh in November 2022.


title: Solar power in India

text: In January 2016, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and French President François Hollande laid the foundation stone for the headquarters of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) in Gwal Pahari, Gurugram. The ISA will focus on promoting and developing solar energy and solar products for countries lying wholly or partially between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The alliance of over 120 countries was announced at the Paris COP21 climate summit.


title: Solar power in India

text: As of November 2021, manufacturing capacity of solar cells and solar modules in India was 4.3 GW and 18 GW, respectively. Nearly 80 percent of solar-panel's weight is flat glass. 100-150 tons of flat glass is used to manufacture a MW of solar panels. Low-iron flat or float glass is manufactured from soda ash and iron-free silica. Soda-ash manufacturing from common salt is an energy-intensive process unless it is extracted from soda lakes or glasswort cultivation in alkali soil. To increase installation of photovoltaic solar-power plants, the production of flat glass and its raw materials must expand commensurately to eliminate supply constraints or future imports.


title: Solar power in India

text: The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), India, has issued a memorandum to ensure the quality of solar cells and solar modules. Compliance with the requisite specifications will grant manufacturers and their specific products an entry in the ALMM (Approved List of Models and Manufacturers.) Indian manufacturers are gradually enhancing the production capacity of monocrystalline silicon PERC cells to supply better performing and enduring solar cells to local market.


title: Solar power in India

text: For utility scale solar projects, top solar module suppliers in 2016-17 were: Waaree Energies Ltd., Trina Solar, JA Solar, Canadian Solar, Risen, and Hanwha.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Porter Wayne Wagoner (August 12, 1927 – October 28, 2007) was an American country music singer known for his flashy Nudie and Manuel suits and blond pompadour.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: In 1967, he introduced singer Dolly Parton on his television show, "The Porter Wagoner Show". She became part of a well-known vocal duo with him from the late 1960s to the early 1970s.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Known as Mr. Grand Ole Opry, Wagoner charted 81 singles from 1954 to 1983. He was elected to the Country Music Hall of Fame in 2002.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Wagoner was born in West Plains, Missouri, United States, the son of Bertha May (née Bridges) and Charles E. Wagoner, a farmer. His first band, the Blue Ridge Boys, performed on radio station KWPM-AM from a butcher shop in his native West Plains, where Wagoner cut meat. In 1951, he was hired by Si Siman as a performer on KWTO in Springfield, Missouri. This led to a contract with RCA Victor.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: With lagging sales, Wagoner and his trio played schoolhouses for the gate proceeds; but in 1953 his song "Trademark" became a hit for Carl Smith, followed by a few hits of his own for RCA Victor. Starting in 1955, he was a featured performer on ABC-TV's "Ozark Jubilee" in Springfield. He often appeared on the show as part of the Porter Wagoner Trio with Don Warden and Speedy Haworth. Warden, on steel guitar, became Wagoner's long-time business manager. In 1957, Wagoner and Warden moved to Nashville, Tennessee, joining the "Grand Ole Opry".


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Wagoner's 81 charted records include "A Satisfied Mind" (No. 1, 1955), "Misery Loves Company" (No. 1, 1962), "I've Enjoyed as Much of This as I Can Stand" (No. 7, 1962–1963), "Sorrow on the Rocks" (No. 5, 1964), "Green, Green Grass of Home" (No. 4, 1965), "Skid Row Joe" (No. 3, 1965–1966), "The Cold Hard Facts of Life" (No. 2, 1967), and "The Carroll County Accident" (No. 2, 1968–1969).


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Among his hit duets with Dolly Parton were a remake of Tom Paxton's "The Last Thing on My Mind" (1967), "We'll Get Ahead Someday" (1968), "Just Someone I Used to Know" (1969), "Daddy Was An Old Time Preacher Man", (1970), "Better Move it on Home" (1971), "The Right Combination" (1972), "Please Don't Stop Loving Me" (No. 1, 1974) and "Making Plans" (No. 2, 1980). He also won three Grammy Awards for gospel recordings.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: His syndicated television program, "The Porter Wagoner Show", aired from 1960 to 1981. There were 686 30-minute episodes taped, the first 104 (1960–66) in black-and-white and the remainder (1966–81) in color. At its peak, his show was featured in over 100 markets, with an average viewership of over three million. Reruns of the program air on the rural cable network RFD-TV and its sister channel in the UK Rural TV.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: The shows usually featured opening performances by Wagoner with performances by Norma Jean, or later Dolly Parton, and comedic interludes by Speck Rhodes. During Parton's tenure, she and Wagoner usually sang a duet. Each episode also featured a guest who would usually perform one or two songs. A spiritual or gospel performance was almost always featured toward the end of the show, generally performed by either Wagoner or Parton or the show's guest star, or occasionally the entire cast. After Parton left the show, Porter began taping the show at Opryland USA in various locations around the park.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: The shows had a friendly, informal feel, with Wagoner trading jokes with band members (frequently during songs) and exchanging banter with Dolly Parton and Don Howser. In 1974, Dolly Parton's song "I Will Always Love You", written about her professional break from Wagoner, went to number one on the country music chart.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Wagoner brought James Brown to the Grand Ole Opry, produced a rhythm & blues album for Joe Simon, and appeared in the Clint Eastwood film "Honkytonk Man". During the mid 1980s, Wagoner formed an all-girl group, The Right Combination, named after one of his hit records with Parton, and toured with them for several years. He also hosted "Opry Backstage" during the 1990s on The Nashville Network. Though Parton's departure was difficult for both, the two reconciled in the late 1980s and appeared together a number of times in the following years. Parton inducted Wagoner into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 2002.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Wagoner made a guest appearance on the HBO comedy series "Da Ali G Show" in 2004, its second season, interviewed by Borat Sagdiyev.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Wagoner was honored on August 12, 2007, his 80th birthday, at the Grand Ole Opry for his 50 years of membership. It was telecast on GAC's "Grand Ole Opry Live" that day with artists including Parton, Marty Stuart and Patty Loveless. "Grand Ole Opry Live" host Nan Kelley was part of the birthday celebration.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: On June 5, 2007, Wagoner released his final album, called "Wagonmaster". Produced by Stuart for the Anti- label, the album received the best reviews of Wagoner's career and briefly appeared on the country chart. A music video was also produced of one of the tracks, a cover of Johnny Cash's "Committed to Parkview". He toured during the summer of 2007 to promote the album, including a late-July appearance on "Late Show with David Letterman". One of these performances was to open for the rock group The White Stripes at a sold-out concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Wagoner was married twice, to Velma Johnson for less than a year in 1943, and Ruth Olive Williams from 1946 to 1986, though they separated 20 years before the divorce. He was survived by his three children, Richard, Denise and Debra.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Wagoner died from lung cancer in Nashville on October 28, 2007, with his family and Dolly Parton at his side. Wagoner's funeral was held November 1, 2007, at the Grand Ole Opry House. He is buried at Woodlawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Nashville.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: In 2013, the television show "Drunk History" presented a brief summary of Wagoner's relationship with Parton.


title: Porter Wagoner

text: Dan Cooper at AllMusic noted, "As for his music, after signing with RCA in 1952 he produced a wealth of superb hard country, and just as much of the most wretchedly oversentimentalized tripe you'll ever want to hear. The latter, of course, is half the reason he's loved".


title: Vaush

text: Ian Kochinski (born February 14, 1994), better known as Vaush ( ), is an American self-described left-wing YouTuber and Twitch streamer known for debating and discussing politics online from what he describes as a libertarian socialist perspective.


title: Vaush

text: Ian Kochinski was born on February 14, 1994, in Los Angeles. He is of Irish and Polish descent. Kochinski studied sociology at Humboldt State University, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 2018.


title: Vaush

text: Kochinski is best known for his livestreamed debates with alt-right figures such as Stefan Molyneux and Sargon of Akkad, which have millions of views. His first appearances online were in discussions with the political streamer Destiny, and encouraged by Destiny's audience he later began a Twitch channel of his own. Kochinski felt that other members of the online left at the time were too academic to reach the demographic of insecure white men that he thought was most susceptible to online radicalization and he opted to instead create loud, angry content that he thought would be more likely to appeal to them. While appealing to what he calls "masculine tendencies", Kochinski has aimed to create an inclusive community and has comparatively high proportions of women, and gay and trans people in his audience.


title: Vaush

text: Kochinski mimicks the style of right-wing YouTubers and utilizes similar video titles so that his videos are suggested by recommendation algorithms to those at risk of radicalization, a common strategy employed by the left-wing BreadTube community on YouTube. He also uses memes and internet slang in his videos to appeal to the audience of primarily young people online. His content features himself discussing news events and contentious issues, and debating other political streamers from the left and right, often in a confrontational style aimed at making his opponent appear unintelligent and often utilizing the research skills and knowledge he gained from his sociology education to back up his arguments. However, when engaging with conspiracy theorists, Kochinski generally does not spend much time on research or debunking debated topics, as he believes that taking a more amiable approach is better at influencing people away from such hardened views. His channel also features discussions and debates with offline figures, including journalists, radio hosts, and political candidates.


title: Vaush

text: In 2019, he was banned from Twitch for saying that the US should invade Israel in defense of Palestinians, an incident which he later described as himself "going too far criticising Israeli imperialism". As a result, he transitioned to YouTube as his main platform, after having created his YouTube channel that January. In June 2019, Kochinski debated conservative YouTuber Hunter Avallone. Avallone later said "I got wrecked in [that] debate" and subsequent to the debate his views took a leftward turn resulting in a video titled "Why I Left The Right". In December 2021, Kochinski was again banned from Twitch indefinitely for using the racial epithet "cracker" on stream. He used the term while discussing whether it is a racial slur and whether saying it should be a bannable offense following the ban of fellow Twitch streamer Hasan Piker for saying the word on stream. In response to the ban, Kochinski told "The Washington Post" that social media platforms are "terrible at acknowledging context and power relations when it comes to harassment."


title: Vaush

text: Online, Kochinski is seen as a controversial figure. In 2021, controversy on Twitter surrounding Vaush was prompted by the reemergence of videos in which he justified his past uses of the "N-word" and argued that the word is acceptable in certain contexts. Responding to the controversy on his livestream, Kochinski said that earlier statements that he had made had been a failed attempt at being "overly edgy" and that he "no longer stand[s] by" his arguments justifying the use of the n-word.


title: Vaush

text: Later in 2021, his arguments that kink should be excluded from some pride events for not being family-friendly and for making pride inaccessible to young questioning queer people were met with divided opinions on social media and criticism from writers for "Vox", "The Mary Sue", and "The Bulwark". Also in 2021, Kochinski received praise from "Kotaku" for a charity livestream in which he raised over $200,000 for the Palestine Children's Relief Fund and from "The Daily Beast" for challenging Tim Pool on the meaning of critical race theory while appearing on his podcast "Timcast IRL". He was also positively cited by Communication & Media Studies Professor Tanner Mirrlees as an example of a leftist livestreamer who "demolishes [alt-right YouTubers'] bad arguments, even humiliating them in front of like 70,000 viewers in real time" and by sociologist Anthony Knowles for successfully communicating sociological ideas to a large audience outside of the reach of academic sociologists.


title: Vaush

text: A debate between Kochinski and Charlie Kirk hosted by Tim Pool on August 4, 2021, received a divisive reception on the internet forum 4chan and led to some members of the website's community perceiving Kirk as having had a poor performance in the debate. This resulted in suggestions that Kochinski should debate Nick Fuentes, a white nationalist who has previously criticized Kirk for being inadequately conservative.


title: Vaush

text: Kochinski is a self-described progressive, anti-fascist, and libertarian socialist. He has also described himself as a "dirtbag leftist" and "a big fan of democracy". In the 2020 United States presidential election, he opposed the "Bernie or Bust" movement and urged people to vote for Joe Biden, calling a refusal to vote "stupid" and motivated by "[an] incredibly narcissistic 'doomerism' that prevents people from engaging in meaningful action". Kochinski opposes the United States embargo against Cuba and supported the withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan. He also opposed Donald Trump's withdrawal of United States troops from Rojava. While believing that tech companies have too much power, Kochinski also felt that Donald Trump being banned from various social media websites was an "unequivocally good thing". In 2022, Kochinski posted multiple videos and broadcast multiple livestreams condemning the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Vaush

text: Kochinski has criticized the online right for creating a "pipeline" that pushes people to radical hard-right views such as ethnic nationalism and disenfranchising women, and for engaging in "absolute abject cruelty to trans people". He has also criticized the online left for "purity politics" and for engaging in actions that create "great content but terrible political advocacy". Nonetheless, he believes that the left should engage in online advocacy because the internet allows for their message to reach a wider audience than any other medium and has argued that BreadTube has decreased the number of people online moving to the political right.


title: Vaush

text: In May 2021, he opposed Twitch's use of the term "womxn", saying "There is already an inclusive term for trans women and cis women, and it's women... The only reason you [would not] believe that is if you don't believe trans women are women." He has criticized Twitter for banning trans people for using the term TERF, which he argues is "categorically not a slur".


title: Vaush

text: Kochinski identifies as pansexual. Kochinski has a Sphynx cat and an orange tabby cat, both of whom sometimes feature in his livestreams.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Leto II Atreides () is a fictional character from the "Dune" universe created by Frank Herbert. Born at the end of "Dune Messiah" (1969), Leto is a central character in "Children of Dune" (1976) and is the title character of "God Emperor of Dune" (1981). The character is brought back as a ghola in the Brian Herbert/Kevin J. Anderson sequels which conclude the original series, "Hunters of Dune" (2006) and "Sandworms of Dune" (2007). Leto also appears as a child in the prequel "The Winds of Dune" (2009).


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Leto is the son of Paul Atreides and his Fremen concubine Chani, and the twin brother of Ghanima. Leto is named for his paternal grandfather Duke Leto I Atreides, who is killed in the Harkonnen invasion of the desert planet Arrakis (Dune) during the events of "Dune" (1965). Leto II is the second child of Paul to bear that name, the first having been killed as an infant by the Emperor's Sardaukar in "Dune".


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Chani dies giving birth to Leto and his twin sister Ghanima near the end of "Dune Messiah". Blinded by the blast of a nuclear weapon called a stone burner, Paul is at a disadvantage when the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale holds a knife over the newborns and threatens their death if Paul does not surrender his Empire to the Tleilaxu. Paul suddenly finds that he is able to see through the eyes of the infant Leto, allowing him to aim and throw a crysknife that kills Scytale.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: In "Children of Dune", Leto and Ghanima are nine years old. Because of the melange ingested by their mother, which causes unusual effects for the Atreides bloodline, the twins are "pre-born", meaning that as fetuses they had been awakened to consciousness and to their genetic memories; they had been born as fully matured human beings in the bodies of infants. At the start of the novel, Leto is not prescient to the degree that his father Paul had been, but he senses the test his father had faced — to embrace a prescient vision of the universe is to set the universe on that path, a terrible responsibility that comes with terrible power. At the end of "Dune Messiah", Paul had forsaken that responsibility by walking into the desert — his time as the Fremen messiah had shown him that he was not strong enough to be messiah/tyrant to the universe. Leto believes that he must face the same test.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: At the same time, the Imperium created by Paul is ruled by his sister Alia Atreides as regent. The horror of the pre-born—the reason the Bene Gesserit call them "Abominations"—is that they are easily possessed by the ego-memories of their ancestors. When Bene Gesserit awaken to their "other memories" in the rite of the spice agony, they are adults with fully formed personalities, and can withstand the inner assault of their forebears; the pre-born have no such defense. Like Leto and Ghanima, Alia had been pre-born, and she succumbs to the pressure under an intense dose of spice. Among her ancestors is the Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, still hungry for revenge against his enemies, the Atreides. Alia is possessed by him, and unconsciously turns against the Atreides empire, plotting to kill Leto and Ghanima and to tear down the Imperium in a bloody civil war.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Independently, Leto and Ghanima both solve the problem of the pre-born. Leto constructs his own personality out of an executive committee of his ancestors; with all (the important ones) possessing him, none can possess him individually. Following an assassination attempt by House Corrino, Leto disappears into the desert leaving Ghanima behind. As part of Leto's plan, Ghanima hypnotizes herself to believe that Leto had been killed. The intense mental discipline needed for this self-deception builds a safe haven in Ghanima's mind for her own personality to safely develop, with the spirit of Chani acting as a guardian.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Leto finds Jacurutu, a sietch that has been forbidden to anyone by Fremen law. There he faces the test his father had refused to take, and embraces prescience, its visions, its attendant power, and the terrible price it will extract — to follow his vision, Leto will become a symbiote with the sandworm, setting the universe on the Golden Path, a future in which humanity's survival is assured. After consuming massive amounts of spice, he allows many sandtrout to cover his body, the concentration of spice in his blood fooling the creatures:


title: Leto II Atreides

text: This layer gives Leto tremendous strength and speed, acting as a living powered exoskeleton and also protection from mature sandworms, who mistake his sandtrout-covered body for a lethal mass of water. He calls it a "living, self-repairing stillsuit of a sandtrout membrane," and soon notes that he is "no longer human." Leto returns to wrest the Imperium from Alia and take his rightful place as Emperor.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: A little more than 3,500 years have passed, and in "God Emperor of Dune", Leto is now almost fully transformed into a sandworm. He is almost invulnerable to physical damage; only his face is susceptible to injury, and his single greatest weakness that he shares with the sandworms, an intense vulnerability to water, is a secret. "Leto's peace" has kept the universe quiet for that time, and the entirety of human society has become an audience for him. He is their emperor; he is their god. His all-female army of Fish Speakers keeps order and act as priestesses. Leto believes that a female army is a nurturing disciplinarian, while a male army is essentially predatory, always turns against its civilian support base in the absence of an enemy, and has "a strong tendency toward homosexual activities".


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Desolate Dune is gone; Arrakis is now a verdant planet with a great river named after Duncan Idaho. Except for Leto, the sandworms are extinct, and all that is left of the "ocean without water", "bahr bela ma", is a desert preserve set aside for Leto alone. This remnant is called the Sareer and is about the size of California. The old institutions, the Bene Gesserit, the Bene Tleilax, the Spacing Guild, the houses Major and Minor, the Landsraad, the technocrats of Ix, and CHOAM, have all faded from power in the face of Leto's hydraulic despotism: since he has absolute control of the spice on which the whole universe depends, he has the universe in the palm of his hand, and ruthlessly enforces his simplistic order.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Leto has taken over the Bene Gesserit's breeding program for himself, the same program that produced his father, the Kwisatz Haderach. His Golden Path is nearly assured now, and his long rule has begun to bore him; the trap of prescience is an existence without surprises. To ensure that humanity will survive, Leto has spent millennia enforcing quiescence on humanity: people rarely travel, rarely fight in wars, rarely do anything but live and worship him. This repression has created in humanity a deep and urgent need to explode upon the universe, scattering itself beyond the reach of any single tyrant. Leto seeks a solution in which he might die without destroying his people; if a god commits suicide, his worshippers would commit suicide with him. The only option is revolution, so Leto breeds for the person who will overthrow him: Siona Atreides, the daughter of his majordomo, Moneo.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Siona is the second human to carry a gene that makes her invisible to prescience and thus uncontainable by it, the first being the Count Fenring, from the novel "Dune". Siona is different from Fenring in that she can pass on this gene to her descendants, whereas Fenring was a genetic eunuch. Since Siona cannot be seen in a vision, she cannot be controlled by a vision, nor can her descendants. Thus the tyranny of prescience will end with Siona — humanity can never again be bound by a powerful prescient like Muad'dib or the God Emperor himself.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Siona's partner in revolution is Duncan Idaho, the constant companion of Leto throughout the long millennia. For his entire reign, Leto has had a ghola of Duncan in charge of his Fish Speaker army. The Duncans represent the old Atreides loyalty, along with everything vital in humanity, so something in the Duncans always rebels against the blasphemous chimaera Leto has made of himself; many Duncans die trying to kill Leto. When Siona finally arrives, she finds in Duncan a justification for revolt.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Meanwhile, the rest of the universe is scheming to kill Leto as well. The Bene Tleilax try many ham-fisted schemes; the technocrats of Ix are smarter. They craft a human to seduce Leto. First they create Malky, a being of perfect evil, a Devil to Leto's God. Malky is a charming Lucifer, and as ambassador to Leto's court he plumbs the depths of Leto's piety. In "Dune Messiah", the Face Dancer Scytale reveals to a Reverend Mother that the Bene Tleilax created their own Kwisatz Haderachs, and discovered that Kwisatz Haderachs will die before becoming their opposites (and so can be killed by manipulating them into betraying themselves). Malky's purpose is to get Leto to turn against his holy creativity, but Malky fails because Leto, more than anyone, understands the blasphemy of his enterprise.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: At the same time as Leto is breeding a psi-invisible human, Ix invents another solution: no-chambers. A no-chamber is an electro-mechanical construct that hides its contents from prescient vision. Inside the first no-chamber, the Ixians grow their replacement for Malky: his niece Hwi Noree, a creature of pure goodness. Where Malky failed, Hwi succeeds. Leto falls in love with her, and plans to marry her. He is not alone in loving her, however, for his current Duncan has also fallen to her charms. By this chain of events, Leto weakens his godhood enough to allow Siona's revolt the possibility of success.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Leto planned to wed Hwi in what remains of an old Fremen village near the former Sietch Tabr, but changes his mind at the last instant to use the Museum Fremen's Tuono Village, the place where Moneo had sent Siona and Duncan in an attempt to keep the peace and keep Duncan alive, safe from the God Emperor's wrath. However, that is not to be.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: The Royal Peregrination, the journey on foot for any of Leto's trips, to Tuono has all the appearance of a normal trip. However, Siona and Duncan, both well aware of the God Emperor's coming and his schemes to breed them, are primed for rebellion, not quiet acceptance. Siona uses her power over Nayla, Leto's pet Fish Speaker, to set in motion his demise. At the point of the Sareer's guardian wall that opens to allow for the passage of the Idaho River, Nayla, caught in her faith in Leto, opens fire on the bridge with a lasgun, destroying it as Leto and Hwi are crossing, dropping them into the Idaho River. The water destroys Leto's sandworm body, decomposing it into the sandtrout that will lock up the water in their bodies, recreating the conditions for the sandworms to re-appear, each with a pearl of Leto's consciousness and adaptability inside it. Leto dies, his last vision that of the Golden Path, shining brightly in humanity's future. His total reign spanned 3509 years.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Before arrival to Tuono, Hwi asks Leto to "share their souls", since they cannot interact physically after Leto's loss of humanity. Her deep empathy and ability to see beyond the abyss that separates Leto from all human beings—an abyss that no other human would ever dare to cross—and to love him brings a tear in each of his eyes. Earlier, it was remarked that the God Emperor was unable to shed tears, partly because of the disrupting effect water had on his worm body and partly because of the Fremen-inherited inhibition of wasting body water. (The discussion in which that matter had been brought up sparked a deep interest and concern for Hwi.)


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Although the Atreides (Moneo, Siona) that surround him needed to be shown (by activating their genetically-inherited prescient powers) the absolute horrors that could only be avoided by Leto's apparent tyranny in order for them to support the Golden Path, Hwi is able to understand without having seen any proof the altruism in Leto's actions and the ultimate sacrifice that he had to make... and is able to love him.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: It is that moment they share which brings forth the deepest emotions in Leto's current life... emotions thought forgotten: fear, surprise, admiration, understanding and being understood and ultimately that moment of true happiness that he had lost hope for.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: After Leto's death, driven by the Famine Times and the pent up desires of thousands of years of Leto's enforced peace, which bred stagnation and isolation, humanity explodes out into the universe in waves of migration known as The Scattering (as predicted and forced by Leto's Golden Path). Humanity's exponential expansion in the Scattering spreads them beyond the ability of any single force to control or threaten their destiny. Thus Leto's Golden Path gave humanity both immunity to domination by prescient rulers via Siona's genetic trait, and immunity to domination by any single ruler or disaster by spreading them far and wide into unknown reaches of the universe.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: The sandworms which once again travel Dune after Leto's death carry, in his words, "a pearl of his awareness locked forever in an endless dream." They (and Leto) are worshipped as the Divided God, and their existence keeps humanity locked on Leto's Golden Path.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: More than 1500 years after his death, Leto II is brought back as a ghola on board the no-ship "Ithaca" in Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson's continuation of the original series, "Hunters of Dune" (2006). Even at a very young age, this Leto shows signs that he may be more than he seems. During an assassination attempt, he appears to transform into a small sandworm and defends himself before reverting to an innocent one-year-old. Genetically, he is noted to be very unusual; as he grows older, he displays an uncanny intelligence, but is very withdrawn. The current Duncan ghola notes that it had been cruel to bring Leto back without his twin sister, who had been so much of the original's life.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: In the concluding novel "Sandworms of Dune" (2007), Leto (like Sheeana) can control the worms. After his memories are returned, he leads the seven sandworms being transported on the "Ithaca" to wreak havoc in Synchrony, homeworld of the thinking machines. At the conclusion of the battle, all seven worms fuse together into one massive worm; Leto steps inside, and they descend below the planet's surface. While it is stated that Leto had foreseen the conflict with Omnius and the thinking machines, the ultimate fate of the Golden Path, or the worms' status on Synchrony, is left open.


title: Leto II Atreides

text: Leto is portrayed by James McAvoy in the 2003 miniseries "Frank Herbert's Children of Dune". Laura Fries of "Variety" wrote, "the mini picks up a great deal of charisma when McAvoy and [Jessica] Brooks [as Ghanima] come aboard as the next generation of the house of Atreides." The characters Leto and Ghanima were aged from ten-year-olds to teens for the miniseries, which Emmet Asher-Perrin of "Tor.com" called "a smart move here, as finding two ten year old kids who had the ability to behave as though they had millennia of ancestral memory bubbling up inside of them was always going to be an impossibility." Asher-Perrin also called McAvoy "easily one of the highlights of the miniseries, and he plays the part with a sort of brooding-yet-impish etherealness. He's really excellent, and his rapport with Jessica Brooks's Ghanima is dazzling.


title: Bae In-hyuk

text: Bae In-hyuk is a South Korean actor. He is known for his roles in television dramas such as "My Roommate Is a Gumiho" (2021), "At a Distance, Spring Is Green" (2021) and "Cheer Up" (2022).


title: Bae In-hyuk

text: In 2019, Bae debuted from the Web Film "Love Buzz", which he starred together with Choi Ji-hui and Lee Han-ik. Later the same year, Bae joined the web drama "When You Love Yourself 2", "Triple Fling Season 2", "Teacher, Would You Like to Date Me?" and "Kiss Scene in Yeonnamdong".


title: Bae In-hyuk

text: In 2020, Bae joined the web dramas "XX" and "Kiss Goblin". Later, Bae made his small screen debut in the KBS drama "Men Are Men" and made a short appearance in the JTBC drama "Was It Love?". and Bae joined the MBC drama "The Spies Who Loved Me", and earned him a nomination for Best New Actor at the 2020 MBC Drama Awards.


title: Bae In-hyuk

text: In 2021, Bae participated in the tvN drama "My Roommate Is a Gumiho". Bae later joined the KBS drama "At A Distance, Spring Is Green". Later in July, Bae was confirmed to star in the SBS drama "Why Her", which is scheduled to air in June 2022.


title: Bae In-hyuk

text: In 2022, he was confirmed to star in the SBS drama "Cheer Up" along with Han Ji-hyun, which marked his first leading role. In October, the same month, he appeared in a cameo role as the son of actress Kim Hye-soo in the tvN drama "Under The Queen's Umbrella"


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: 24 is a 2016 Indian Tamil-language science fiction action drama film written and directed by Vikram Kumar. Based on the concept of time travel, the film stars actor Suriya in a triple role alongside Samantha Ruth Prabhu and Nithya Menen.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: The film's development dates back to 2009, at which time it was to star Vikram and Ileana D'Cruz. However, in February 2010, the project was dropped due to the difference in opinions between the director, producer, and actor, facing rejection of the refined script. In August 2014, Suriya agreed to produce and act in the film, with principal photography commencing in Mumbai in April 2015, continuing in Nasik, Goregaon and Pune. The second phase of filming was done in Poland by the end of September 2015. Filming was completed in Chennai by November 2015.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: Produced by 2D Entertainment, the film has cinematography by S. Tirru. The soundtrack and film score were composed by A. R. Rahman, with lyrics by Vairamuthu and Madhan Karky. The film (along with a dubbed Telugu version with the same title) was released on 6 May 2016.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: The film was a critical and commercial success, and won two awards at the 64th National Film Awards Best Cinematography and Best Production Design. Suriya won the Critics Best Actor Award at the 64th Filmfare Awards.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: Dr. Sethuraman is a brilliant scientist and renowned watchmaker who lives with his wife Priya and newborn son Manikandan. He has devoted himself to inventing a time machine using a watch. In January 1990, Sethuraman manages to successfully complete his invention, although it was only capable of moving back and forth in time for 24 hours. His happiness is short-lived, however, as his evil twin brother Athreya attacks the family and kills Priya to get the watch. He manages to find the key to the box that the watch was hidden in, but not the box. Unable to use the watch and fearful for his son’s life, an injured Sethuraman manages to escape with his son and gets on a train, with Athreya in close pursuit. Sethuraman pleads with a woman he met on the train named Sathyabhama to take care of his son and goes to face Athreya. He manages to trick Athreya into thinking he’s carrying a bomb, prompting Athreya to quickly kill Sethuraman before jumping off the train to his apparent death.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: 26 years later, Manikandan (Mani) is now a talented watch mechanic who believes Sathyabhama to be his mother. It is revealed that Sethuraman placed the locked box containing his watch along with Mani, who grew up unaware of the contents of the box, as well as his true parents. Mani meets a girl Sathya and falls in love with her. Somewhere else, Athreya, who survived his fall and was in a coma, wakes up after 26 years and is shocked to find out that he is now paralysed from the waist down and significantly older. He is cared for by his trusted confidante, Mithran.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: Through an incredible set of coincidences, the key to the box ends up in the hands of Mani, who unlocks the box and discovers the watch inside. He figures out its incredible capabilities including its ability to freeze time for 30 seconds, but questions the origin of the watch, and how it ended up in his possession.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: Athreya, upset with the fact that he lost 26 years of his life and has become a paraplegic, obsesses over the watch and wishes to go back in time to relive his lost youth. Mithran issues an advertisement offering INR 5 crores (50 million) as a reward for the lost watch. Mani deduces that the creator of the advertisement is aware of the powers of the watch. In order to figure out the truth, Mani uses the original to make an identical copy and along with his friend, goes to the provided address.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: At the office, Athreya spots Mani’s copy among countless others and realises that Mani has the original watch. He summons both of them to the office and viciously attacks them, kills Mani, and gets hold of the watch. An ecstatic Athreya reverses time only to find out that the watch cannot transport its wearer beyond 24 hours, waking up at 12 am the night before. He now realises that Mani is the only one who can upgrade the watch. Since the day’s events have reversed, Mani is still alive and their confrontation at the office is yet to occur. Athreya then decides to convince Mani that he is Sethuraman, and lie that he is dying from an incurable disease.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: Now disguised as Sethuraman, Athreya finds Mani and tricks him to upgrade the watch to enable larger time jumps. Mani manages to successfully upgrade the watch but learns Athreya’s true identity and the reason for his parent’s death. Mani tricks Athreya into revealing the date of his parent’s death and returns to 1990 to warn them. Sethuraman discovers the upgraded watch and realises that Mani has travelled back in time to warn them. Now prepared, Sethuraman manages to successfully use his watch to freeze time, kill Athreya and escape his henchmen. Priya asks Sethu to throw the watch away as she has had enough of the past to which he complies.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: Sethu and Priya board the same train as Sathyabhama, and they start a conversation in which Sethu tells Sathyabama that he is a physics teacher to which she asked them to come and join her family's school as they want to hire a physics teacher. Sethu and Priya, for a fresh and happy start, agree to it. The film ends with a young Mani talking to a young Sathya.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: In August 2009, director Vikram Kumar announced that he was set to direct a film titled "24." The film was backed by producer Mohan Natarajan, which would feature actor Vikram in a lead role. Harris Jayaraj was confirmed to score the music and P. C. Sreeram to handle the film cinematography. By late 2009, the filming commenced at AVM Studios, Chennai. Sets that resembled dense forests and caves were replicated. In an interview with "The Times of India" in Chennai, director Vikram stated: "We have signed Ileana D'Cruz to do "24". It will be her re-launch in Tamil cinema. She has given us bulk dates from February 2010 for the second schedule of the film." In February 2010, Vikram Kumar officially announced that he had dropped the film. Vikram clarified that he fine-tuned the film script but it was rejected by actor Vikram and the film producer. Further, the other reason cited was that the director had failed to provide the complete script even while production expenses were increasing. Due to difference of opinions, the director voluntarily walked out and stated that he had been making changes in the script and would approach a leading actor in future.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: In August 2014, Suriya's production company 2D Entertainment announced the project through their official Twitter handle. In October 2014, A. R. Rahman was announced as the film soundtrack and score composer. Actor Suriya was confirmed as the male lead. The main plot of the revived project was the same as the one narrated to actor Vikram, but over the years, Vikram Kumar changed the screenplay with new dimensions in narration. In an interview Suriya pointed the core of the plot stating: "The one thing that humans cannot control is "time" but what if one has the power to do so. This is the core theme of the film "24"."


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: Actor Suriya played triple roles in the film, with five appearances. One of the roles being that of an antagonist, five to six looks were designed for him. The antagonist character "Athreya" is a wicked, yet smart guy who goes to any extent to fulfill his desires. The producers had potential discussions with Catherine Tresa for the lead female role before Samantha Ruth Prabhu was finalised in February 2015. In July 2015, Nithya Menen was roped to play the other leading character. Characters played by Samantha and Nithya in the film are of contrasting nature though both play love interest opposite Suriya. Samantha plays the love interest opposite to the character "Mani" whereas Nithya Menen to the character "Sethuraman". Saranya Ponvannan plays the role of a mother of the character "Mani".


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: Principal photography commenced in Mumbai on 8 April 2015. A romantic song was filmed in Nashik by early June 2015. Certain scenes were filmed at Filmistaan studios in Goregaon. VFX works were also carried out in the same studio by September 2015. Nithya Menen began filming her portions in the city from 1 August 2015. The first schedule was completed by early September 2015. By mid of the same month, a twenty-day schedule began in Poland. The crew filmed action scenes and songs at Kraków, the Zborow Mountain, Zakopane, Leba, Lewin Klodzki, Jedlina Zdroj, Wałbrzych, Bulowice and Nowe Brzesko–all in Poland. The lights were provided by Kraków Company Cinelight. The Kraków Film Commission and Kraków Film Cluster supported the project in Poland. This second schedule of filming was wrapped up on 30 September 2015. On 26 October 2015, the team shot an important sequences in Subrata Roy Sahara Stadium in Pune. The shoot was completed in a single day. By the end of the same month, the last schedule of filming was done at Adithyaram Studios in Chennai. On 2 November 2015, the filming was completed.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: In all, the film was shot for over 100 days, out of which 30 days of work was done abroad. More than 60 percent of the film involves VFX.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: The film score and soundtrack album are composed by A. R. Rahman. The lyrics to the songs are written by Vairamuthu and Madhan Karky. The soundtrack album was released by Eros Music on 9 April 2016.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: The film was released on an estimated 1,950–2,000 screens worldwide. The screen count in United States was 267, with special premieres held on 5 May 2016. The states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana shared 425 plus screens between them.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: A game titled "24: Athreya Run" which was created by Creative Monkey Games was released through application distribution platforms iOS App Store and Google Playstore on 1 May 2016.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: In his review for "The Hindu", critic Baradwaj Rangan called "24" an "intelligent, joyous mix of sci-fi and masala-myth." Sreedhar Pillai in his review for "Firstpost" mentioned, ""24" is a classy commercial entertainer, which has its moments." Malini Mannath of "The New Indian Express" wrote, "Attractively packaged, 24 is refreshing, novel and worth a watch." M. Suganth of "The Times of India", assigned 4 out of 5 stars, stating: "It is not often that we see a big star choosing to take a risk with a script that is not simplistic or formulaic, especially when his last few films have underperformed at the box office, but here Suriya pulls it off admirably." IndiaGlitz.com rated the film 3.3 out of 5 and called it as "A beautiful and brilliant show of Time" For "The Indian Express", Goutham VS wrote: "Suriya’s ‘Athreya’ is a role to remember for years to come. Director Vikram Kumar needs to be applauded for handling such a complex multi-layered screenplay." He gave the film 3.5 stars out of 5. Critic based at "India Today", Kirubhakar Purushothaman praised the director, calling him the hero of the film. He extended his review by assigning 3.5 stars (out of 5). In her review for "Daily News and Analysis", Latha Srinivasan stated, "Actor Suriya gives a stellar performance in this tale of time travel! Vikram Kumar's '24' is a visually stunning film with a novel concept." She gave the film 3.5 stars out of 5. A 3.5 star (out of 5) generalized review by "Indo-Asian News Service" mentioned that the "Suriya starrer is truly ambitious". Critical review board based at "Behindwoods" said: ""24" is all about Suriya. Every emotion is portrayed in his point of view; from love to comedy to pain to revenge, it all comes under his coverage as he plays three important roles in the film." They assigned the film 3.25 stars out of 5. In her review published by "The Deccan Chronicle", Anupama Subramaniam called the film a "well executed and intelligently woven sci-fi thriller." She gave the film 3 stars out of 5. Subha Shetty Saha, in her review for "Mid-Day" stated, ""24" is a fantastic attempt at sci-fi genre of filmmaking and also belies a lot of hard work and thought that have gone into this at the screenplay stage." She gave the film 3 stars out of 5. S Saraswathi of "Rediff" felt, ""24" is a cleverly crafted entertainer that is worth your time and money." Gautaman Bhaskaran of the "Hindustan Times" gave the film 2.5 stars out of 5, claiming: "The Sathya-Mani romance is silly to the core, and drags the narrative down by several notches, though uniformly fine performances by Menen, Samantha and Suriya come as magic relief."Sify rated 3 out of 5 stars stating "Straight off the bat Vikram Kumar's Suriya sci-fi film 24 is a well executed thinking movie within the commercial format."


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: J Hurtado of "Twitch" commented on the film, ""24" is about as high concept as masala entertainers come, it never forgets its purpose is to thrill its audience and give them what they paid for. It is a breathless, inventive, romantic, action packed adventure that is packed to the gills with surprises and joy." Mythily Ramachandran, in her review for "Gulf News" concluded that the film was an entertaining ride and went on to say, "The time-travelling film wins with superb and often hilarious performances by its leading actors."


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: By the end of its first weekend, the film had earned around in India, with a considerable part of the revenues coming from the Telugu version. At , the collections from Telangana and AP were equal to that from Tamil Nadu during the opening weekend. The film collected approximately from Tamil Nadu in its entire run.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: The film grossed over $1 million in three days on 161 screens in the United States. In the U. A. E. and Australia, the film earned $200,000 and AUD187,000 respectively during the same period. The film grossed $1.6 million in the United States in its lifetime.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: The film's trailer, teaser and the first look posters featured Suriya as a paraglider. However, the paragliding sequences were removed by the film editor due to time constraints. In an interview, the editor stated that paragliding is Mani's (character played by Suriya) hobby and was supposed to be featured as an introductory scene for Mani. Later, he stated that the deleted scene would be featured in the second part of the film; planned as "24 Decoded."


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: In a scene where Sethu throws the watch away on Priya's request, an Eagle which effected key events in both Mani and Sethu's timelines was seen flying over the watch implying a continuation of the Butterfly effect it caused previously thus forming the basis for a sequel


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: The title "24" was in a legal tussle when actor Anil Kapoor planned an action against the production house 2D Entertainment as the official look and logo of the film title seemed similar to the American TV series "24", for which Kapoor had bought the remake rights from 20th Century Fox International TV. Kapoor held the rights of the 192 episodes for a period of four years extendable to another ten years. His lawyers defended the case, stating that Kapoor holds one of the highest licensee deals for a fiction format. A legal action was planned against Suriya and his production house 2D Entertainment but was settled in April 2015.


title: 24 (2016 film)

text: The film received two Awards at the 2017 Vikatan Awards Best Visual Effects for Julian Trousselliar and Best Art Direction for Amit and Subrata. It won two awards Best Cinematography and Best Production Design at the 64th National Film Awards.


title: Stankonia

text: Stankonia is the fourth studio album by American hip hop duo Outkast. It was released on October 31, 2000, by LaFace Records. The album was recorded in the duo's recently purchased Atlanta recording facility Stankonia Studios, which allowed for fewer time and recording constraints, and featured production work from Earthtone III (a production team consisting of Outkast and Mr. DJ) and Organized Noize.


title: Stankonia

text: For the follow-up to their 1998 album "Aquemini", the duo worked to create an expansive and experimental musical aesthetic, incorporating a diverse array of styles including funk, rave music, psychedelia, gospel, and rock within a Dirty South-oriented hip hop context. During the recording sessions, André 3000 began moving beyond traditional rapping in favor of a more melodic vocal style, an approach to which Big Boi and several other producers were initially unaccustomed. Lyrically, the duo touched upon a wide range of subject matter, including sexuality, politics, misogyny, African-American culture, parenthood, and introspection. "Stankonia" featured appearances from a variety of local musicians discovered by the group while they were visiting clubs in their native city of Atlanta, Georgia.


title: Stankonia

text: "Stankonia" received universal acclaim from music critics upon its release, and has since been regarded by many to be one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time. The album debuted at number two on the "Billboard" 200 chart, selling over 530,000 copies the first week. It produced three singles: "B.O.B", "Ms. Jackson", and "So Fresh, So Clean"; "Ms. Jackson" became the group's first single to reach number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100. At the 2001


title: Stankonia

text: In 1998, OutKast released their third album "Aquemini" to critical acclaim while diversifying and expanding their sound. The album's success also attracted national attention to the Southern hip hop scene. Having collaborated on the "Aquemini" track "Skew It on the Bar-B", Wu-Tang Clan member Raekwon later recalled the duo's impact at the time: "Before that, the South just wasn't played in New York. But that song was hot, the flows was crazy. The cycle changed. It really opened up the door for Southern rappers."


title: Stankonia

text: In March 1998, OutKast purchased a studio nearby Northside Drive in Atlanta. Formerly owned by R&B singer Bobby Brown, the studio was the first place the duo had ever recorded vocals together – on a remix of TLC's "What About Your Friends" (1992) – and held sentimental value for them. Outkast named the studio "Stankonia", a word created by André 3000 as a portmanteau of the words "stank" (a slang synonym for "funky") and "Plutonia" (the title of a poster in his bedroom depicting a futuristic city). As he explained, "Stankonia is this place I imagined where you can open yourself up and be free to express anything".<ref name="Poet/Playa"></ref>


title: Stankonia

text: The recording of "Stankonia" began in spring of 1999 and lasted for about a year. Owning a studio helped the band expand creatively, as the duo did not need to worry about time constraints that would occur with a rented studio. André 3000 observed, "You can sit there and fuck with just a kick and a snare all day long if you want to ... You're not working on the clock. Really, you're just working on your mind." Big Boi spent the majority of the recording time in the studio, while André 3000 worked at home, creating beats and experimenting with an acoustic guitar. One song that came from a jam session on the guitar was "Ms. Jackson", the album's second single. André 3000 also created song lyrics by writing words on the walls of his home: "I had planned to paint my house anyway; writing on the walls was just something I would do." One stray lyric on his wall eventually developed into "Gasoline Dreams".


title: Stankonia

text: Much of the album was formulated during "vibe sessions" in which the group and producers would visit clubs in downtown Atlanta, select performers they saw, and invite them to the studio. They would then "sit around, smoke a few, drink a few", and create ideas for new songs. However, recording sessions became difficult as André 3000 grew tired of rapping on songs, which made Big Boi and the producers uneasy about how the music would sound. To maintain musical cohesion with Big Boi while continuing to expand his vocal palette, André decided to combine rapping with soul-inspired crooning, which had a major influence on "Stankonia"'s sound. "Snappin & Trappin'" features a guest appearance from then-unknown rapper Killer Mike. The rapper noted that while working with Outkast, he used the opportunity to try to "compete" with the duo to improve his rapping skills. Big Boi was impressed with Killer Mike's abilities, noting, "When I first heard him spit, his voice was just so commanding. He's a very intelligent guy."


title: Stankonia

text: While OutKast's previous albums were considered to be laid-back, mellow efforts, "Stankonia" contains faster, more high-energy tempos, partially to reflect the "chaotic times" at the turn of the 21st century. The group took note of new, harder drugs hitting the hip hop scene and teenagers using ecstasy, cocaine, and methamphetamine. Big Boi reflected, "Niggas living this life at a fast speed don't know what's going on around them. If you live fast, you gonna come out of here real fast, so the music need to show that." While recording "Stankonia", the band refrained from listening to hip hop, "That music was starting to sound real comfortable. There wasn't any adventure to it." Instead, the duo drew influence from musicians such as Jimi Hendrix, Little Richard, Prince, and George Clinton, as well as Clinton's Parliament-Funkadelic collective. However, the band refrained from producing a throwback sound with the record and instead hoped to utilize these influences in a modern, experimental fashion. André 3000 stated that "I don't want this to be the generation that went back to '70s rock. You gotta take it and do new things with it."


title: Stankonia

text: On "Stankonia", OutKast experimented with a wide variety of musical genres. According to M. Matos of "Vibe", "Stankonia" "turned the South's predominantly reclined hip-hop sound into something freaky and menacing." AllMusic's Steve Huey said their experimentation resulted in "a trippy sort of techno-psychedelic funk". "B.O.B" features "jittery drum'n'bass rhythms" and has been classified as a "stylistic tour de force" combining "Hendrix-ian" guitars, organs, and gospel vocals. On the track, André 3000 and Big Boi employ a "frantic" flow in order to keep pace with the song's high-speed tempo, which runs at 155 beats per minute. "Humble Mumble" is a salsa-influenced track that evolves into a club groove, while "Ms. Jackson" "marries early Prince with late P-funk". The smooth melodies of "I'll Call Before I Come" have also been likened to Prince. "Gasoline Dreams" has been classified as a "gritty rock scorcher" comparable to the work of Public Enemy. David Bry of "Vibe" detected a "polished 80's pimp strut" in "So Fresh, So Clean" and an "appreciative, fat-ass bounce" in "We Luv Deez Hoes". The album ends with three psychedelic-influenced tracks, "Toilet Tisha", "Slum Beautiful", and "Stankonia (Stank Love)". "Stankonia (Stank Love)" has also been described as an "homage of sorts" to gospel choirs and '60s doo-wop groups, while also including a slowed down coda reminiscent of chopped and screwed hip hop.


title: Stankonia

text: According to Miles Marshall Lewis, "Stankonia" is among the most "eclectic" of mainstream progressive rap albums from its time. Paul Lester of "The Guardian" described OutKast's lyrical style on the album by saying, "They are, in a way, post-hip-hop, combining PM Dawn's kooky confections with the Pharcyde's hallucinatory whimsy, Public Enemy's hardline politicking with De La Soul's cartoon dementia, to fashion something vital and new." "Gasoline Dreams" assails the "bling-bling" aspirations of contemporary black culture, instead presenting a sobering view of circumstances upending the world in Outkast's perspective ("I hear that Mother Nature's now on birth control / The coldest pimp be lookin' for somebody to hold"). "Red Velvet" discusses the materialistic nature of the hip hop scene in particular, while "Humble Mumble" addresses critics who make negative assumptions about hip hop based on preconceived notions; André 3000 raps in the song: "I met a critic / I made her shit her draws / She said she thought hip hop was only guns and alcohol / I said oh hell naw / but yet it's that too / You can't discrima-hate cause you done read a book or two."


title: Stankonia

text: The album commonly features the words "stank" and "smell" in their blues-rooted definition to mean "low-down, blunt, pungent: a measure of authenticity". Outkast often incorporates word play into the lyrics, including "Humble Mumble"s references to the "underground smellroad" and chants of "I stank I can, I stank I can", an allusion to "The Little Engine That Could". The duo offers encouragement for maturity and facing adversity on the song, beginning with Big Boi's verse advising that "everything in life don't always happen like it's supposed to" while referencing Isaiah 54:17 ("No weapon formed against me prospers"). Meanwhile, André 3000 frames his perspective in the context of progressing African Americans collectively: "The game changes every day, so obsolete is the fist and marches / Speeches only reaches those who already know about it". Erykah Badu, his ex-girlfriend and friend at the time, concludes "Humble Mumble" with a "soaring metaphysical gospel verse that celebrate[s] the circle of life", as pop-culture writer Roni Sarig details.


title: Stankonia

text: Much of the album discusses the status of women in the South, and contrasts with the misogynistic attitudes common in hip hop music. In his book "Classic Material: The Hip-Hop Album Guide", Oliver Wang writes that songs such as "Slum Beautiful" and "Toilet Tisha" "reimagine 'round the way girls, not only as just more than one-dimensional accessories, but as objects of affection with lives and concerns that are worth exploring." In "Toilet Tisha", the duo empathizes with suicidal pregnant teenagers. "Ms. Jackson" is dedicated to the mother of a mother of an out-of-wedlock child, which André 3000 refers to as "the baby's mama's mamas". Inspired by his relationship with Badu, who had given birth to their son Seven, the song serves as an apology to a "baby mama"'s mother for causing her daughter pain. "I'll Call Before I Come" discusses the members putting a woman's sexual needs before their own.


title: Stankonia

text: "Stankonia" debuted at number two on the "Billboard" 200 album chart, selling 525,844 copies in its first week, behind Jay-Z's ""; which sold 557,789 copies. Outkast's "Stankonia" sold more than ahead U2's, which finished in third place in the U.S. The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) within its first week of release. It also reached number two on the "Billboard" R&B/Hip-Hop albums chart, remaining on the chart for 45 weeks. By February 2002, the album has sold 3.79 million copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan. On November 3, 2003, "Stankonia" was certified quadruple platinum, for shipments of four million copies. In Canada, the album peaked at number four, and was certified double platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association on September 23, 2003, for shipments of over 200,000 units. The record also became a top ten hit in Germany, Finland, and Norway, reaching the number six, number eight, and number eight spots on the countries' official charts, respectively.


title: Stankonia

text: The lead single released from "Stankonia", "B.O.B", peaked at number 69 on the R&B/Hip-Hop songs chart. However, the single was banned from many urban Top 40 radio stations due to its title and the subject matter it was assumed to have. On February 3, 2001, "Ms. Jackson" topped the R&B/Hip-Hop songs chart, and then on February 17, the single also reached number one on the Hot 100, remaining on the chart for 22 weeks. The song also reached number 13 on the "Billboard" Pop Songs chart, as well as number three on the magazine's Radio Songs chart. The third single, "So Fresh, So Clean", peaked at number 30 on the Hot 100, and stayed on the chart for 20 weeks. The single also peaked at number ten on the "Billboard" R&B/Hip-Hop songs chart, and number 24 on the Radio songs chart.


title: Stankonia

text: "Stankonia" received universal acclaim from contemporary music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 95, based on 20 reviews. Derek A. Bardowell of "NME" noted that with "Stankonia", OutKast "hit that rare balance of creative eccentricity and mass appeal" and wrote that the album contains "eternal qualities that will unravel in time on an emotional, intellectual and spiritual level." Nathan Brackett of "Rolling Stone" called the record "one of the best albums of the year" noting that all of the tracks contain "a down-home generosity and accessibility" and that "even the most street-oriented songs have some sort of commentary in them." Tony Green of "The Village Voice" praised OutKast's "feel for sonics and structure" and stated, "they've moved toward harder, darker textures, in service of song designs that are often disarmingly subtle." Steve Huey of AllMusic commented that, "given the variety of moods, it helps that the album is broken up by brief, usually humorous interludes, which serve as a sort of reset button. It takes a few listens to pull everything together, but given the immense scope, it's striking how few weak tracks there are". Aishah Hight of "PopMatters" stated, "Within "Stankonia", Outkast successfully presented a southern perspective of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. But on the surface, phat beats and pure funk should suffice." "Alternative Press" commented that "experienced, acclaimed groups rarely make albums as bold and confrontational as "Stankonia", because they have too much to lose", but felt that "OutKast don't care", writing that they "coalesced the political and societal challenges of hip hop's past into what is one of the genre's most artistically unorthodox releases so far."


title: Stankonia

text: Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" observed "more bounce-to-the-ounce and less molasses in the jams, more delight and less braggadocio in the raps", and opined that Big Boi and André 3000's "realism and high spirits drive each other higher". "Entertainment Weekly"s Ken Tucker wrote that ""Stankonia" reeks of artful ambition rendered with impeccable skill" and described OutKast as "endlessly good-humored and imaginative even when dealing with the most grim and mind-deadening facets of ghetto life." Yahoo! Music's Soren Baker commented that "Dre and Big Boi again reinvent themselves, this time as Parliament-inspired musicians who specialize on male-female relationships, boasting, and out-there lyrics." Baker concluded in his review, "With another nearly flawless album, OutKast arguably solidifies their reputation as one of the best hip-hop groups of all time." The "Los Angeles Times" opined that "the record's most interesting moments are gorgeous Prince-style soul." Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" wrote that "OutKast's music savors the viscous propulsion of funk, with raps and tunes that never ignore the body and its instinctive desires ... Yet OutKast -- taking cues from a band it obviously reveres, Parliament-Funkadelic -- never forgets that bodies are attached to minds." "URB" called the album "a complex tome that enmeshes contemporary hip-hop values with a timeless Southern soul, while pushing the envelope damn near off the table." "Mojo" called it "hip hop with the power to convert even the most reactionary nonbelievers."


title: Stankonia

text: "Stankonia" has received many accolades and appeared on many magazines' "best of" lists; in his book "Dirty South", author Ben Westhoff noted that the album appeared on "every critical best-list worth mentioning." At the 2002 Grammy Awards, OutKast won Best Rap Album for "Stankonia" and Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for "Ms. Jackson". Despite OutKast's being expected favorites, The Recording Academy instead chose the 2000 soundtrack album "O Brother, Where Art Thou?" for Album of the Year. Before the group's nominations, much of the hip hop community felt that rappers were not being awarded enough attention from The Recording Academy. However, the album's musical diversity allowed the band to reach a wider audience and was credited for opening the academy up to more hip hop musicians.


title: Stankonia

text: In 2006, "Time" named "Stankonia" as one of the 100 best albums of all time. "Rolling Stone" ranked the album number 16 on the magazine's list of the 100 Best Albums of the 2000s. In 2009, "Pitchfork" ranked "Stankonia" number 13 on its list of the top 200 albums of the 2000s, and Rhapsody ranked it at number 2 on its "100 Best Albums of the Decade" list. Rhapsody also ranked the album number 6 on its "Hip-Hop's Best Albums of the Decade" list. "Vibe" ranked the record at number 23 on its list of the "100 Greatest Albums from 1985 to 2005". "Entertainment Weekly" put it on its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, saying, "With hummable hits ('Ms. Jackson') and out-there experiments ('B.O.B.'), the rap duo gave us all a visa to the funky if fictional land of Stankonia in 2000." "Q" listed "Stankonia" as one of the best 50 albums of 2001. The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". In 2015, "Mic" stated that "Stankonia helped hip-hop build its foundation in the mainstream," adding that in addition to the "irresistibly quotable" hit singles, "the deep cuts are still some of the most rewarding experimental hip-hop around."


title: Stankonia

text: With "Stankonia", OutKast became the first hip hop act to openly acknowledge rave culture as an influence. During the late 1990s, rappers tended to embrace slow, laid-back beats in their productions. On several tracks on "Stankonia", the group employed faster, more chaotic tempos to reflect rave culture and the introduction of new drugs such as ecstasy into the hip hop scene. Boston-based DJ Armand Van Helden recalls, "In the nineties, the bpms in hip-hop got slower and the clubs were moody ... it just kind of dragged. I really missed that kind of hands-in-the-air shit." A remix of "B.O.B" created by Rage Against the Machine's Zack de la Rocha received airplay on alternative radio stations, expanding the group's fanbase beyond hip hop and urban listeners. Despite containing anti-war sentiments, "B.O.B" became popular amongst American troops deployed in Afghanistan. While working on her acclaimed album "The ArchAndroid" (2010), American R&B singer Janelle Monáe cited "Stankonia"'s experimental nature as an influence. Rapper Pill also acknowledged "Stankonia", and particularly the production of Organized Noize, as an inspiration: "The sounds, the instrumentation of the samples, the different horns—everything about the tracks were great to me."


title: Shrike

text: Shrikes () are passerine birds of the family Laniidae. The family is composed of 34 species in four genera.


title: Shrike

text: The family name, and that of the largest genus, "Lanius", is derived from the Latin word for "butcher", and some shrikes are also known as butcherbirds because of their feeding habits. The common English name shrike is from Old English , alluding to the shrike's shriek-like call.


title: Shrike

text: Most shrike species have a Eurasian and African distribution, with just two breeding in North America (the loggerhead and northern shrikes). No members of this family occur in South America or Australia, although one species reaches New Guinea. The shrikes vary in the extent of their ranges, with some species, such as the great grey shrike, ranging across the Northern Hemisphere; to the Newton's fiscal, which is restricted to the island of São Tomé.


title: Shrike

text: They inhabit open habitats, especially steppe and savannah. A few species of shrikes are forest dwellers, seldom occurring in open habitats. Some species breed in northern latitudes during the summer, then migrate to warmer climes for the winter.


title: Shrike

text: Shrikes are medium-sized birds with grey, brown, or black-and-white plumage. Most species are between and in size; however, the genus "Corvinella", with its extremely elongated tail-feathers, may reach up to in length. Their beaks are hooked, like those of a bird of prey, reflecting their carnivorous nature; their calls are strident.


title: Shrike

text: Shrikes are known for their habit of catching insects and small vertebrates and impaling them on thorns, branches, the spikes on barbed-wire fences, or any available sharp point. This helps them to tear the flesh into smaller, more conveniently sized fragments, and serves as a cache so that the shrike can return to the uneaten portions at a later time. This same behaviour of impaling insects serves as an adaptation to eating the toxic lubber grasshopper, "Romalea microptera". The bird waits 1–2 days for the toxins within the grasshopper to degrade before eating it.


title: Shrike

text: Loggerhead shrikes kill vertebrates by using their beaks to grab or pierce the neck and violently shake their prey.


title: Shrike

text: Shrikes are territorial, and these territories are defended from other pairs. In migratory species, a breeding territory is defended in the breeding grounds and a smaller feeding territory is established during migration and in the wintering grounds. Where several species of shrikes exist together, competition for territories can be intense.


title: Shrike

text: Shrikes make regular use of exposed perch sites, where they adopt a conspicuous upright stance. These sites are used to watch for prey and to advertise their presence to rivals.


title: Shrike

text: Shrikes are generally monogamous breeders, although polygyny has been recorded in some species. Co-operative breeding, where younger birds help their parents raise the next generation of young, has been recorded in both species in the genera "Eurocephalus" and "Corvinella", as well as one species of "Lanius". Males attract females to their territory with well-stocked caches, which may include inedible but brightly coloured items. During courtship, the male performs a ritualised dance which includes actions that mimic the skewering of prey on thorns, and feeds the female. Shrikes make simple, cup-shaped nests from twigs and grasses, in bushes and the lower branches of trees.


title: Shrike

text: The family Laniidae was introduced (as Lanidia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815.


title: Shrike

text: Other species with names including the word shrike, due to perceived similarities in morphology, are in the families:


title: Shrike

text: The helmetshrikes and bushshrikes were formerly included in Laniidae, but they are now known to be not particularly closely related to true shrikes.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: In chemistry, a radical, also known as a free radical, is an atom, molecule, or ion that has at least one unpaired valence electron.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: With some exceptions, these unpaired electrons make radicals highly chemically reactive. Many radicals spontaneously dimerize. Most organic radicals have short lifetimes.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: A notable example of a radical is the hydroxyl radical (HO·), a molecule that has one unpaired electron on the oxygen atom. Two other examples are triplet oxygen and triplet carbene (꞉) which have two unpaired electrons.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Radicals may be generated in a number of ways, but typical methods involve redox reactions. Ionizing radiation, heat, electrical discharges, and electrolysis are known to produce radicals. Radicals are intermediates in many chemical reactions, more so than is apparent from the balanced equations.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Radicals are important in combustion, atmospheric chemistry, polymerization, plasma chemistry, biochemistry, and many other chemical processes. A majority of natural products are generated by radical-generating enzymes. In living organisms, the radicals superoxide and nitric oxide and their reaction products regulate many processes, such as control of vascular tone and thus blood pressure. They also play a key role in the intermediary metabolism of various biological compounds. Such radicals can even be messengers in a process dubbed redox signaling. A radical may be trapped within a solvent cage or be otherwise bound.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Radicals are either (1) formed from spin-paired molecules or (2) from other radicals. Radicals are formed from spin-paired molecules through homolysis of weak bonds or electron transfer, also known as reduction. Radicals are formed from other radicals through substitution, addition, and elimination reactions.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Homolysis makes two new radicals from a spin-paired molecule by breaking a covalent bond, leaving each of the fragments with one of the electrons in the bond. Because breaking a chemical bond requires energy, homolysis occurs under the addition of heat or light. The bond dissociation energy associated with homolysis depends on the stability of a given compound, and some weak bonds are able to homolyze at relatively lower temperatures.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Some homolysis reactions are particularly important because they serve as an initiator for other radical reactions. One such example is the homolysis of halogens, which occurs under light and serves as the driving force for radical halogenation reactions.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Another notable reaction is the homolysis of dibenzoyl peroxide, which results in the formation of two benzoyloxy radicals and acts as an initiator for many radical reactions.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Radicals can also form when a single electron is added to a spin-paired molecule, resulting in an electron transfer. This reaction, also called reduction, usually takes place with an alkali metal donating an electron to another spin-paired molecule.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Hydrogen abstraction describes when a hydrogen atom is removed from a hydrogen donor molecule (e.g. tin or silicon hydride) with its one electron. Abstraction produces a new radical and a new spin-paired molecule. This is different from homolysis, which results in two radicals from a single spin-paired molecule and doesn’t include a radical as its reactant. Hydrogen abstraction is a fundamental process in radical chemistry because it serves as the final propagation step in many chemical reactions, converting carbon radicals into stable molecules. The figure to the right shows a radical abstraction between a benzoyloxy radical and a hydrogen bromide molecule, resulting in the production of a benzoic acid molecule and a bromine radical.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Radical addition describes when a radical is added to a spin-paired molecule to form a new radical. The figure on the right shows the addition of a bromine radical to an alkene. Radical addition follows the Anti -Markovnikov rule, where the substituent is added to the less substituted carbon atom.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Radical elimination can be viewed as the reverse of radical addition. In radical elimination, an unstable radical compound breaks down into a spin-paired molecule and a new radical compound. Shown below is an example of a radical elimination reaction, where a benzoyloxy radical breaks down into a phenyl radical and a carbon dioxide molecule.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Although organic radicals are generally stable intrinsically (in isolation), practically speaking their existence is only transient because they tend to dimerize. Some are quite long-lived. Generally organic radicals are stabilized by any or all of these factors: presence of electronegativity, delocalization, and steric hindrance. The compound 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyloxyl illustrates the combination of all three factors. It is a commercially available solid that, aside from being magnetic, behaves like a normal organic compound.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Organic radicals are inherently electron deficient thus the greater the electronegativity of the atom on which the unpaired electron resides the less stable the radical. Between carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, for example, carbon is the most stable and oxygen the least stable.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Electronegativity also factors into the stability of carbon atoms of different hybridizations. Greater s-character correlates to higher electronegativity of the carbon atom (due to the close proximity of s orbitals to the nucleus), and the greater the electronegativity the less stable a radical. sp-hybridized carbons (50% s-character) form the least stable radicals compared to sp3-hybridized carbons (25% s-character) which form the most stable radicals.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: The delocalization of electrons across the structure of a radical, also known as its ability to form one or more resonance structures, allows for the electron-deficiency to be spread over several atoms, minimizing instability. Delocalization usually occurs in the presence of electron-donating groups, such as hydroxyl groups (−OH), ethers (−OR), adjacent alkenes, and amines (−NH or −NR), or electron-withdrawing groups, such as C=O or C≡N.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Delocalization effects can also be understood using molecular orbital theory as a lens, more specifically, by examining the intramolecular interaction of the unpaired electron with a donating group’s pair of electrons or the empty π* orbital of an electron-withdrawing group in the form of a molecular orbital diagram. The HOMO of a radical is singly-occupied hence the orbital is aptly referred to as the SOMO, or the Singly-Occupied Molecular Orbital. For an electron-donating group, the SOMO interacts with the lower energy lone pair to form a new lower-energy filled bonding-orbital and a singly-filled new SOMO, higher in energy than the original. While the energy of the unpaired electron has increased, the decrease in energy of the lone pair forming the new bonding orbital outweighs the increase in energy of the new SOMO, resulting in a net decrease of the energy of the molecule. Therefore, electron-donating groups help stabilize radicals.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: With a group that is instead electron-withdrawing, the SOMO then interacts with the empty π* orbital. There are no electrons occupying the higher energy orbital formed, while a new SOMO forms that is lower in energy. This results in a lower energy and higher stability of the radical species. Both donating groups and withdrawing groups stabilize radicals.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Another well-known albeit weaker form of delocalization is hyperconjugation. In radical chemistry, radicals are stabilized by hyperconjugation with adjacent alkyl groups. The donation of sigma (σ) C−H bonds into the partially empty radical orbitals helps to differentiate the stabilities of radicals on tertiary, secondary, and primary carbons. Tertiary carbon radicals have three σ C-H bonds that donate, secondary radicals only two, and primary radicals only one. Therefore, tertiary radicals are the most stable and primary radicals the least stable.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Most simply, the greater the steric hindrance the more difficult it is for reactions to take place, and the radical form is favored by default. For example, compare the hydrogen-abstracted form of "N"-hydroxypiperidine to the molecule TEMPO. TEMPO, or (2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl, is too sterically hindered by the additional methyl groups to react making it stable enough to be sold commercially in its radical form. "N"-Hydroxypiperidine, however, does not have the four methyl groups to impede the way of a reacting molecule so the structure is unstable.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: The stability of many (or most) organic radicals is not indicated by their isolability but is manifested in their ability to function as donors of H. This property reflects a weakened bond to hydrogen, usually O−H but sometimes N−H or C−H. This behavior is important because these H donors serve as antioxidants in biology and in commerce. Illustrative is α-tocopherol (vitamin E). The tocopherol radical itself is insufficiently stable for isolation, but the parent molecule is a highly effective hydrogen-atom donor. The C−H bond is weakened in triphenylmethyl (trityl) derivatives.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: A large variety of inorganic radicals are stable and in fact isolable. Examples include most first-row transition metal complexes.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: With regard to main group radicals, the most abundant radical in the universe is also the most abundant chemical in the universe, H. Most main group radicals are not however "isolable", despite their intrinsic stability. Hydrogen radicals for example combine eagerly to form H. Nitric oxide (NO) is well known example of an isolable inorganic radical. Fremy's salt (Potassium nitrosodisulfonate, (KSO)NO) is a related example. Many thiazyl radicals are known, despite limited extent of π resonance stabilization.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Many radicals can be envisioned as the products of breaking of covalent bonds by homolysis. The homolytic bond dissociation energies, usually abbreviated as "Δ"H"°" are a measure of bond strength. Splitting H into 2 H, for example, requires a Δ"H"° of +435 kJ/mol, while splitting Cl into two Cl requires a Δ"H"° of +243 kJ/mol. For weak bonds, homolysis can be induced thermally. Strong bonds require high energy photons or even flames to induce homolysis.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Diradicals are molecules containing two radical centers. Dioxygen (O) is an important example of a stable diradical. Singlet oxygen, the lowest-energy non-radical state of dioxygen, is less stable than the diradical due to Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity. The relative stability of the oxygen diradical is primarily due to the spin-forbidden nature of the triplet-singlet transition required for it to grab electrons, i.e., "oxidize". The diradical state of oxygen also results in its paramagnetic character, which is demonstrated by its attraction to an external magnet. Diradicals can also occur in metal-oxo complexes, lending themselves for studies of spin forbidden reactions in transition metal chemistry. Carbenes in their triplet state can be viewed as diradicals centred on the same atom, while these are usually highly reactive persistent carbenes are known, with N-heterocyclic carbenes being the most common example.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Triplet carbenes and nitrenes are diradicals. Their chemical properties are distinct from the properties of their singlet analogues.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: A familiar radical reaction is combustion. The oxygen molecule is a stable diradical, best represented by O–O. Because spins of the electrons are parallel, this molecule is stable. While the ground state of oxygen is this unreactive spin-unpaired (triplet) diradical, an extremely reactive spin-paired (singlet) state is available. For combustion to occur, the energy barrier between these must be overcome. This barrier can be overcome by heat, requiring high temperatures. The triplet-singlet transition is also "forbidden". This presents an additional barrier to the reaction. It also means molecular oxygen is relatively unreactive at room temperature except in the presence of a catalytic heavy atom such as iron or copper.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Combustion consists of various radical chain reactions that the singlet radical can initiate. The flammability of a given material strongly depends on the concentration of radicals that must be obtained before initiation and propagation reactions dominate leading to combustion of the material. Once the combustible material has been consumed, termination reactions again dominate and the flame dies out. As indicated, promotion of propagation or termination reactions alters flammability. For example, because lead itself deactivates radicals in the gasoline-air mixture, tetraethyl lead was once commonly added to gasoline. This prevents the combustion from initiating in an uncontrolled manner or in unburnt residues (engine knocking) or premature ignition (preignition).


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: When a hydrocarbon is burned, a large number of different oxygen radicals are involved. Initially, hydroperoxyl radical (HOO) are formed. These then react further to give organic hydroperoxides that break up into hydroxyl radicals (HO).


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Many polymerization reactions are initiated by radicals. Polymerization involves an initial radical adding to non-radical (usually an alkene) to give new radicals. This process is the basis of the radical chain reaction. The art of polymerization entails the method by which the initiating radical is introduced. For example, methyl methacrylate (MMA) can be polymerized to produce Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA - Plexiglas or Perspex) via a repeating series of radical addition steps:


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Newer radical polymerization methods are known as living radical polymerization. Variants include reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP).


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Being a prevalent radical, O reacts with many organic compounds to generate radicals together with the hydroperoxide radical. Drying oils and alkyd paints harden due to radical crosslinking initiated by oxygen from the atmosphere.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: The most common radical in the lower atmosphere is molecular dioxygen. Photodissociation of source molecules produces other radicals. In the lower atmosphere, important radical are produced by the photodissociation of nitrogen dioxide to an oxygen atom and nitric oxide (see below), which plays a key role in smog formation—and the photodissociation of ozone to give the excited oxygen atom O(1D) (see below). The net and return reactions are also shown ( and , respectively).


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: In the upper atmosphere, the photodissociation of normally unreactive chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by solar ultraviolet radiation is an important source of radicals (see eq. 1 below). These reactions give the chlorine radical, Cl, which catalyzes the conversion of ozone to O, thus facilitating ozone depletion (– below).


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Such reactions cause the depletion of the ozone layer, especially since the chlorine radical is free to engage in another reaction chain; consequently, the use of chlorofluorocarbons as refrigerants has been restricted.


title: Radical (chemistry)

text: Radicals play important roles in biology. Many of these are necessary for life, such as the intracellular killing of bacteria by phagocytic cells such as granulocytes and macrophages. Radicals are involved in cell signalling processes, known as redox signaling. For example, radical attack of linoleic acid produces a series of 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids and 9-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids, which may act to regulate localized tissue inflammatory and/or healing responses, pain perception, and the proliferation of malignant cells. Radical attacks on arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid produce a similar but broader array of signaling products.