title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: By 0700 on 17 December 1944, Peiper's "Kampfgruppe" had seized the American fuel dump at Büllingen. At 1330 that same day, at a crossroads near Malmedy, men from Peiper's LSSAH formation shot and killed at least 68 United States POWs, in what became known as the Malmedy massacre. By the evening of 17 December, the leading element of the LSSAH was engaged with the 99th US Division at Stavelot. Mohnke's division was behind schedule by at least 36 hours by the end of the second day. The retreating U.S. troops blew up important bridges and fuel dumps that Mohnke and Peiper had counted on taking intact, further slowing the German advance. With each passing day, enemy resistance stiffened and by 24 December the advance was halted. On 1 January 1945, the Luftwaffe launched a series of attacks on Allied airfields but the operation was very costly for the Germans. They suffered losses which could not be replaced. By this time, the Allies had regrouped their forces and were ready to repulse any attacks launched by the Germans. The operation formally ended on 27 January 1945, and three days later Mohnke was promoted to SS-"Brigadeführer". A short time later the LSSAH and I SS Panzer Corps were transferred to Hungary to try and bolster the crumbling situation there. Mohnke was injured in an air raid where he suffered, among other things, ear damage. He was removed from front-line service and put on the Führer reserve.


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: After recovering from his wounds, Mohnke was personally appointed by Hitler as the "Kommandant" (Battle Commander) for the defense of the centre government district of Berlin ("Zitadelle" sector), which included the Reich Chancellery and "Führerbunker". Mohnke's command post was under the Reich Chancellery in the bunkers therein. He formed "Kampfgruppe Mohnke" (Battle Group Mohnke) and it was divided into two weak regiments. It was made up of the LSSAH Flak Company, replacements from LSSAH "Ausbildungs-und Ersatz Battalion" from Spreenhagen under SS-"Standartenführer" Anhalt, 600 men from the "Begleit-Bataillon Reichsführer-SS", the "Führer-Begleit-Kompanie" and the core group being the 800 men of the "Leibstandarte" (LSSAH) SS Guard Battalion (that was assigned to guard the Führer).


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: Although Hitler had appointed General Helmuth Weidling as defense commandant of Berlin, Mohnke remained free of Weidling's command to maintain his defense objectives of the Reich Chancellery and the "Führerbunker". The combined total (for the city's defense) of Mohnke's SS "Kampfgruppe", General Weidling's LVI Panzer Corps (and the other few units) totaled roughly 45,000 soldiers and 40,000 "Volkssturm". They faced a superior number of Soviet Red Army soldiers. There were approximately 1.5 million Soviet troops allocated for the investment and assault on the Berlin Defence Area.


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: Since Mohnke's fighting force was located at the nerve center of the German Third Reich, it fell under intense artillery bombardment, which began on Hitler's birthday of 20 April 1945 and lasted to the end of local hostilities on 2 May 1945. Street fighting around the "Reichstag" and Reich Chancellery was bitter and bloody. For the Soviets, the "Reichstag" was the symbol of Nazi Germany and therefore of significant military and political value to capture.


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: While the Battle in Berlin was raging around them, Hitler ordered Mohnke to set up a military tribunal for SS-"Gruppenführer" Hermann Fegelein, adjutant to Heinrich Himmler, in order to try the man for desertion. The tribunal consisted of Generals Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf, Johann Rattenhuber, and Mohnke himself. Years later, Mohnke told author James P. O'Donnell the following:


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: "I was to preside over it myself... I decided that the accused man [Fegelein] deserved trial by high-ranking officers... We set up the court-martial... We military judges took our seats at the table with the standard German Army Manual of Courts-Martial before us. No sooner were we seated than defendant Fegelein began acting up in such an outrageous manner that the trial could not even commence.


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: Roaring drunk..., Fegelein first brazenly challenged the competence of the court. He kept blubbering that he was responsible to...Himmler alone, not Hitler... He refused to defend himself. The man was in wretched shape - bawling, whining, vomiting, shaking like an aspen leaf...


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: I was now faced with an impossible situation. On the one hand, based on all available evidence, including his own earlier statements, this miserable excuse for an officer was guilty of flagrant desertion... Yet the German Army Manual states clearly that no German soldier can be tried unless he is clearly of sound mind and body, in a condition to hear the evidence against him... In my opinion and that of my fellow officers, Hermann Fegelein was in no condition to stand trial... I closed the proceedings... So I turned Fegelein over to [SS] General Rattenhuber and his security squad. I never saw the man again."


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: On 30 April, after receiving news of Hitler's suicide from SS-"Sturmbannführer" Otto Günsche, Mohnke took part in a conference where prior orders were implemented that those who could do so were to break out from the Soviet Red Army ring. The plan was to escape from Berlin to the Allies on the western side of the Elbe or to the German Army to the North. Prior to the breakout, Mohnke briefed all commanders (who could be reached) within the "Zitadelle" sector about the events as to Hitler's death and the planned breakout. They split up into ten main groups on 1 May 1945. Mohnke's group included secretary Traudl Junge, secretary Gerda Christian, secretary Else Krüger, Hitler's dietician, Constanze Manziarly, Ernst-Günther Schenck, and Walther Hewel. Mohnke planned to break out towards the German Army which was positioned in Prinzenallee. The group headed along the subway but their route was blocked so they went above ground and later joined hundreds of other Germans civilians and military personnel who had sought refuge at the Schultheiss-Patzenhofer Brewery on Prinzenallee. On 2 May 1945, General Weidling issued an order calling for the complete surrender of all German forces still in Berlin. Knowing they could not get through the Soviet encirclement, Mohnke decided to surrender to the Red Army. However, several of Mohnke's group (including some of the SS personnel) opted to commit suicide.


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: Following their surrender, Mohnke and other senior German officers from "Kampfgruppe Mohnke" (including Dr. Schenck) were treated to a banquet by the Chief of Staff of the 8th Guards Army with the permission of Lieutenant General Vasily Chuikov. At 10:30 pm, the Germans were ushered out into another room where they were confined under guard. On the following night of 3 May, Mohnke and the rest of the Germans were handed over to the NKVD. On 9 May 1945, he was flown to Moscow for interrogation and kept in solitary confinement for six years, after being transferred to Lubyanka Prison. Mohnke was then transferred to the officers' prison camp in Voikovo. He remained in captivity until 10 October 1955.


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: Mohnke's regiment was involved in the murder of three Canadian prisoners of war in Normandy in 1944. Mohnke himself was investigated by Canadian authorities, but was not charged. There was also a campaign by British Member of Parliament Jeff Rooker to prosecute Mohnke for his alleged involvement in war crimes in relation to the Wormhoudt massacre. Mohnke strongly denied the accusations, telling historian Thomas Fischer, "I issued no orders not to take English prisoners or to execute prisoners." After the case was reopened, a German prosecutor came to the conclusion there was insufficient evidence to bring charges.


title: Wilhelm Mohnke

text: Following his release, he worked as a dealer in small trucks and trailers, living in Barsbüttel, West Germany. He died on 6 August 2001 in Barsbüttel-Hamburg, aged 90.


title: Egg cell

text: The egg cell, or ovum (plural ova), is the female reproductive cell, or gamete, in most anisogamous organisms (organisms that reproduce sexually with a larger, female gamete and a smaller, male one). The term is used when the female gamete is not capable of movement (non-motile). If the male gamete (sperm) is capable of movement, the type of sexual reproduction is also classified as oogamous. A nonmotile female gamete formed in the oogonium of some algae, fungi, oomycetes, or bryophytes is an oosphere. When fertilized the oosphere becomes the oospore.


title: Egg cell

text: When egg and sperm fuse during fertilisation, a diploid cell (the zygote) is formed, which rapidly grows into a new organism.


title: Egg cell

text: While the non-mammalian animal egg was obvious, the doctrine "ex ovo omne vivum" ("every living [animal comes from] an egg"), associated with William Harvey (1578–1657), was a rejection of spontaneous generation and preformationism as well as a bold assumption that mammals also reproduced via eggs. Karl Ernst von Baer discovered the mammalian ovum in 1827. The fusion of spermatozoa with ova (of a starfish) was observed by Oskar Hertwig in 1876.


title: Egg cell

text: In animals, egg cells are also known as "ova" (singular "ovum", from the Latin word meaning 'egg'). The term ovule in animals is used for the young ovum of an animal. In vertebrates, ova are produced by female gonads (sex glands) called ovaries. A number of ova are present at birth in mammals and mature via oogenesis. In 2012, White et al. disproved the longstanding dogma that all of the ova are produced before birth. The team from the Vincent Center for Reproductive Biology, Massachusetts, Boston showed that oocyte formation takes place in ovaries of reproductive-age women. This report challenged a fundamental belief, held since the 1950s, that female mammals are born with a finite supply of eggs that is depleted throughout life and exhausted at menopause.


title: Egg cell

text: The human ova grow from primitive germ cells that are embedded in the substance of the ovaries. Each of them divides repeatedly to give secretions of the uterine glands, ultimately forming a blastocyst.


title: Egg cell

text: The ovum is one of the largest cells in the human body, typically visible to the naked eye without the aid of a microscope or other magnification device. The human ovum measures approximately in diameter.


title: Egg cell

text: Ooplasm (also: oöplasm) is the yolk of the ovum, a cell substance at its center, which contains its nucleus, named the germinal vesicle, and the nucleolus, called the germinal disc.


title: Egg cell

text: The ooplasm consists of the cytoplasm of the ordinary animal cell with its spongioplasm and hyaloplasm, often called the "formative yolk"; and the "nutritive yolk" or "deutoplasm", made of rounded granules of fatty and albuminoid substances imbedded in the cytoplasm.


title: Egg cell

text: Mammalian ova contain only a tiny amount of the nutritive yolk, for nourishing the embryo in the early stages of its development only. In contrast, bird eggs contain enough to supply the chick with nutriment throughout the whole period of incubation.


title: Egg cell

text: In the oviparous animals (all birds, most fish, amphibians and reptiles) the ova develop protective layers and pass through the oviduct to the outside of the body. They are fertilized by male sperm either inside the female body (as in birds), or outside (as in many fish). After fertilization, an embryo develops, nourished by nutrients contained in the egg. It then hatches from the egg, outside the mother's body. See egg for a discussion of eggs of oviparous animals.


title: Egg cell

text: The egg cell's cytoplasm and mitochondria are the sole means the egg can reproduce by mitosis and eventually form a blastocyst after fertilization.


title: Egg cell

text: There is an intermediate form, the ovoviviparous animals: the embryo develops within and is nourished by an egg as in the oviparous case, but then it hatches inside the mother's body shortly before birth, or just after the egg leaves the mother's body. Some fish, reptiles and many invertebrates use this technique.


title: Egg cell

text: Nearly all land plants have alternating diploid and haploid generations. Gametes are produced by the gametophyte, which is the haploid generation. The female gametophyte produces structures called archegonia, and the egg cells form within them via mitosis. The typical bryophyte archegonium consists of a long neck with a wider base containing the egg cell. Upon maturation, the neck opens to allow sperm cells to swim into the archegonium and fertilize the egg. The resulting zygote then gives rise to an embryo, which will grow into a new diploid individual (sporophyte). In seed plants, a structure called the ovule contains the female gametophyte. The gametophyte produces an egg cell. After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed containing the embryo.


title: Egg cell

text: In flowering plants, the female gametophyte (sometimes referred to as the embryo sac) has been reduced to just eight cells inside the ovule. The gametophyte cell closest to the micropyle opening of the ovule develops into the egg cell. Upon pollination, a pollen tube delivers sperm into the gametophyte and one sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo inside the ovule. The ovule, in turn, develops into a seed and in many cases, the plant ovary develops into a fruit to facilitate the dispersal of the seeds. Upon germination, the embryo grows into a seedling.


title: Egg cell

text: In the moss "Physcomitrella patens", the Polycomb protein FIE is expressed in the unfertilised egg cell (Figure, right) as the blue colour after GUS staining reveals. Soon after fertilisation the FIE gene is inactivated (the blue colour is no longer visible, left) in the young embryo.


title: Egg cell

text: In algae, the egg cell is often called oosphere. "Drosophila" oocytes develop in individual egg chambers that are supported by nurse cells and surrounded by somatic follicle cells. The nurse cells are large polyploid cells that synthesize and transfer RNA, proteins, and organelles to the oocytes. This transfer is followed by the programmed cell death (apoptosis) of the nurse cells. During oogenesis, 15 nurse cells die for every oocyte that is produced. In addition to this developmentally regulated cell death, egg cells may also undergo apoptosis in response to starvation and other insults.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: Greatest Hits is a compilation album by the British rock band Queen, released worldwide on 26 October 1981. The album consisted of Queen's biggest hits since their first chart appearance in 1974 with "Seven Seas of Rhye", up to their 1980 hit "Flash" (though in some countries "Under Pressure", the band's 1981 chart-topper with David Bowie, was included). There was no universal track listing or cover art for the album, and each territory's tracks were dependent on what singles had been released there and which were successful. In 1992, the US version of the album "Classic Queen" was released following the band's rekindled popularity in the nation.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: "Greatest Hits" is the band's best-selling album to date, with total sales of over 25 million copies, making it one of the best-selling albums of all time. It reached number one on the UK Albums Chart, spending four weeks at the top and sold consistently well throughout the 1980s, becoming the fourth-biggest selling album of the decade. The single "Under Pressure", which was released the same week as "Greatest Hits", also topped the UK Singles Chart.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: As of July 2022, "Greatest Hits" has spent over 1000 weeks on the UK Albums Chart, and has been certified 23× platinum with sales of over seven million copies, making it the best-selling album of all time in the UK. "Greatest Hits" peaked at number eight on the "Billboard" 200 in November 2020, the second-slowest ascent to the top ten of the US album chart in history. Among the longest charting albums in the US, as of November 2020, it has spent over 400 weeks on the "Billboard" 200, and has been certified 9× platinum in the US. It has also been certified 15× platinum in Australia, 10× platinum in New Zealand, and 3× platinum in Canada. Following the release of the Queen biopic "Bohemian Rhapsody" in 2018, it re-entered the charts worldwide.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: There was no universal track listing or cover art for the "Greatest Hits" album, and each territory's tracks were dependent on what singles were released there and what tracks charted. In some territories, despite the band's popularity, not enough songs were issued as singles to fill a compilation album, and a few album tracks were used as filler. Some examples of these were "Sweet Lady" and "Love of My Life", neither of which was released as a single in any country but appear on some regions' 1981 "Hits" release. In the UK, the album was limited to the Queen singles that had reached the top 20 in the UK singles chart up to that point, plus "We Will Rock You", which had been the B-side of "We Are the Champions".


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: The US ended up with its original edit of Queen's first single release, "Keep Yourself Alive", originally released in 1973 and re-released in the US in 1975, following the success of "Bohemian Rhapsody". The US version also added "Under Pressure", Queen's collaboration with David Bowie, which was released the same week as "Greatest Hits" and subsequently topped the UK Singles Chart and reached the top ten in many charts around the world. However, the song was not included on the European versions of "Greatest Hits" – according to Queen's business manager Jim Beach, this was because the longer manufacturing time required to press records in Europe meant that several hundred thousand copies of the album had already been pressed up before the song had been recorded.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: In Argentina and Brazil, the LP edition included the same track listing as the UK "Greatest Hits", minus "Seven Seas of Rhye" and including "Love of My Life" ("Live Killers" version). The CD version is the same as the British version.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: The cover photo that appeared on the UK and US release was taken by Lord Snowdon at his home studio, using only natural light. For the 1981 release, the photo was skewed, but was later presented as it was originally taken for the 2011 re-release.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: In 1991, Queen sought to issue a second "Greatest Hits" collection worldwide, this time with a standard track listing. However, the band had just changed record labels in the US, from Capitol to Hollywood Records, who were keen on a massive promotion of the band's back catalogue. The problem was that Elektra still held the US rights to that first 1981 collection (despite being Hollywood's US licensee). Hollywood Records decided not to release "Greatest Hits II" to the US market, but instead created their own collection, "Classic Queen" (1992), peaking at number four on the "Billboard" 200 chart. This compilation was made up of tracks such as "Bohemian Rhapsody", "Keep Yourself Alive" and "Under Pressure" (which had already appeared on the Elektra 1981 "Hits" collection), as well as newer tracks ("A Kind of Magic" and "Radio Ga Ga"). Some tracks were not even singles in the US ("One Year of Love") or anywhere ("Stone Cold Crazy"). Though well received, this collection would eventually pose the problem of overlapping track lists in the future.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: Later that year, Hollywood Records released a companion collection, "Greatest Hits", with similar artwork (on a red background, where "Classic Queen" was on royal blue). Commonly referred to as the "Red Greatest Hits", it features most of the '70s tracks absent from "Classic Queen" (including "Another One Bites the Dust", "We Will Rock You", "We Are the Champions" and "Killer Queen").


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: In 2004, to promote the Las Vegas production of the musical "We Will Rock You", Hollywood Records released "Greatest Hits: We Will Rock You Edition", which was the UK "Greatest Hits" with three bonus tracks.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: "Greatest Hits" was released alongside "Greatest Flix", a 60-minute compilation released on VHS video and LaserDisc of all the videos Queen had made up until that point in chronological order, and "Greatest Pix", a 96-page paperback book edited by Jacques Lowe which featured photos of the band taken by Neal Preston. Although "Greatest Flix" only listed 17 videos on its sleeve, it contained two videos for "We Will Rock You". The video for "Killer Queen" had been shot especially for "Greatest Flix", as no video had been made for the song on its original release in 1974. In the US, the release of "Greatest Flix" was scheduled for 15 November 1981 on Warner Home Video, but distribution was switched to EMI Music after the band's management disagreed with Warner's recent decision to move to a rental-only programme instead of selling their videos. In 1992, Holywood Records released a VHS version to accompany the album, simply called "Greatest Hits".


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: Note: On the sleeve notes of the video, "We Are the Champions" is incorrectly listed after the two versions of "We Will Rock You".


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: Note: New videos were created for Now I'm Here, Seven Seas Of Rhye and Good Old-Fashioned Lover Boy for this collection, as they did not previously have music videos.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: Initial reviews of the album in the British music press were negative. In "NME" Barney Hoskyns said, "All of [their songs], besides 'Another One Bites the Dust', are quite repulsive, unbelievably crass insults to their respective genres and uniformly vulgar music. It was only when Queen took vulgarity to its absolute limit that they stood out." "Melody Maker"s Adam Sweeting stated, "I've never been the slightest bit interested in Queen's ridiculous pomposity and Freddie just makes me snigger, but I suppose songs like 'Killer Queen' are sort of catchy, while anything as preposterous as 'We Will Rock You' deserves an award if only for bad taste".


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: However, retrospective reviews have rated the album higher: Ira Robbins gave "Greatest Hits" a B+ rating in "Entertainment Weekly" upon its reissue in 1992, and AllMusic awarded the record four and a half stars out of five. In an interview in 2003 as part of the Arte television programme "Music Planet 2Nite", Radiohead guitarist Ed O'Brien hailed the album as "impeccable" and "absolutely genius".


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: In the UK, "Greatest Hits" debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart and climbed to number one the following week, spending four weeks at the top. The album continued to sell well throughout the 1980s, appearing on several UK year-end charts, and by the end of the decade it had become the fourth-biggest selling album in the UK during the 1980s, with sales of over 1.9 million copies. By 2006, "Greatest Hits" had become the best-selling album in the UK and the first album to sell more than five million copies there. In February 2014, "Greatest Hits" became the first album in the UK to sell over six million copies, and it was claimed that one in three families in the UK owned a copy. In June 2022, "Greatest Hits" spent its 1000th week on the UK Albums Chart, and in July 2022, it reached seven million sales, with one in four households in the UK estimated to have a copy of the album.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: In the US, "Greatest Hits" sold moderately well on initial release in 1981, obtaining a platinum certification. It reached a new peak of number 11 on the "Billboard" 200 chart on its reissue in 1992, and finally made the top ten of the "Billboard" 200 in November 2020 when it peaked at number eight, as a result of a Walmart sale on various vinyl albums on 14 November 2020. The 39 years and one month that the album took to reach the top ten of the "Billboard" 200 is the second-longest ascent to the top ten in the history of the US album chart. One of the longest charting albums in the US, as of August 2020 it had spent 400 weeks on the "Billboard" 200. "Greatest Hits" has now been certified nine times platinum in the US for sales of nine million copies, making it the band's best-selling album in that country. It is also the band's best-selling album to date, with total sales of over 25 million copies.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: This section includes the track listings for the original "Greatest Hits" in its various forms. For other compilations, including the second and third "Greatest Hits" albums, see the relevant articles.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: On the 17-track UK editions, Freddie Mercury was the writer of ten of the songs, Brian May five and John Deacon two. Roger Taylor had not written any songs that had been released as singles for the band at that point.


title: Greatest Hits (Queen album)

text: In addition to the variations above, the official biography "Queen: As It Began" by Jacky Gunn and Jim Jenkins states the following variations on the original UK track listing:


title: Shoah (film)

text: Shoah is a 1985 French documentary film about the Holocaust (known as "Shoah" in Hebrew), directed by Claude Lanzmann. Over nine hours long and 11 years in the making, the film presents Lanzmann's interviews with survivors, witnesses and perpetrators during visits to German Holocaust sites across Poland, including extermination camps.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Released in Paris in April 1985, "Shoah" won critical acclaim and several prominent awards, including the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Non-Fiction Film and the BAFTA Award for Best Documentary. Simone de Beauvoir hailed it as a "sheer masterpiece", while documentary maker Marcel Ophüls (who would later win an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature for "" three years later) called it "the greatest documentary about contemporary history ever made". The film was not well received in Poland; the Polish government argued that it accused Poland of "complicity in Nazi genocide".


title: Shoah (film)

text: "Shoah" premiered in New York at the Cinema Studio in October 1985 and was broadcast in the United States by PBS over four nights in 1987.


title: Shoah (film)

text: The film is concerned chiefly with four topics: the Chełmno extermination camp, where mobile gas vans were first used by Germans to exterminate Jews; the death camps of Treblinka and Auschwitz-Birkenau; and the Warsaw ghetto, with testimonies from survivors, witnesses and perpetrators.


title: Shoah (film)

text: The sections on Treblinka include testimony from Abraham Bomba, who survived as a barber; Richard Glazar, an inmate; and Franz Suchomel, an SS officer. Bomba breaks down while describing how he came across the wife and sister of a barber friend of his while cutting hair in the gas chamber. This section includes Henryk Gawkowski, who drove transport trains while intoxicated with vodka. Gawkowski's photograph appears on the poster used for the film's marketing campaign.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Testimonies on Auschwitz are provided by Rudolf Vrba, who escaped from the camp before the end of the war; and Filip Müller, who worked in an incinerator burning the bodies from the gassings. Müller recounts what prisoners said to him and describes the experience of personally going into the gas chamber: bodies were piled up by the doors "like stones". He breaks down as he recalls the prisoners starting to sing while being forced into the gas chamber. Accounts include some from local villagers, who witnessed trains heading daily to the camp and returning empty; they quickly guessed the fate of those on board.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Lanzmann also interviews bystanders. He asks whether they knew what was going on in the death camps. Their answers reveal that they did, but they justified their inaction by their fear of death. Two survivors of Chełmno are interviewed: Simon Srebnik, who was forced to sing military songs to entertain the Nazis; and Mordechaï Podchlebnik. Lanzmann also has a secretly filmed interview with Franz Schalling, a German security guard, who describes the workings of Chełmno. Walter Stier, a former Nazi bureaucrat, describes the workings of the railways. Stier insists he was too busy managing railroad traffic to notice his trains were transporting Jews to their deaths.


title: Shoah (film)

text: The Warsaw ghetto is described by Jan Karski, a member of the Polish Underground who worked for the Polish government-in-exile, and Franz Grassler, a Nazi administrator in Warsaw who liaised with Jewish leaders. A Christian, Karski sneaked into the Warsaw ghetto and travelled using false documents to England to try to convince the Allied governments to intervene more strongly on behalf of the Jews.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Memories from Jewish survivors of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising conclude the documentary. Lanzmann also interviews Holocaust historian Raul Hilberg, who discusses the significance of Nazi propaganda against the European Jews and the Nazi development of the Final Solution and a detailed analysis of railroad documents showing the transport routes to the death camps. The complete text of the film was published in 1985.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Corporal Franz Suchomel, interviewed by Lanzmann in Germany on 27 April 1976, was an SS officer who had worked at Treblinka. Suchomel agreed to be interviewed for 500 Deutschmarks, but refused to be filmed, so Lanzmann used hidden recording equipment while assuring Suchomel that he would not use his name. Documentary maker Marcel Ophüls wrote: "I can hardly find the words to express how much I approve of this procedure, how much I sympathize with it."


title: Shoah (film)

text: Suchomel talks in detail about the camp's gas chambers and the disposal of bodies. He states that he did not know about the extermination at Treblinka until he arrived there. On his first day he says he vomited and cried after encountering trenches full of corpses, 6–7 m deep, with the earth around them moving in waves because of the gases. The smell of the bodies carried for kilometres depending on the wind, he said, but local people were scared to act in case they were sent to the work camp, Treblinka I.


title: Shoah (film)

text: He explained that from arrival at Treblinka to death in the gas chambers took 2–3 hours for a trainload of people. They would undress, the women would have their hair cut, then they would wait naked outside, including during the winter in minus 10–20 °C, until there was room in the gas chamber. Suchomel told Lanzmann that he would ask the hairdressers to slow down so that the women would not have to wait so long outside.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Compared to the size and complexity of Auschwitz, Suchomel calls Treblinka "primitive. But a well-functioning assembly line of death."


title: Shoah (film)

text: The publicity poster for the film features Henryk Gawkowski, a Polish railway worker from Malkinia, who, in 1942–1943 when he was 20–21 years old, worked on the trains to Treblinka as an "assistant machinist with the right to drive the locomotive". Conducted in Poland in July 1978, the interview with Gawkowski is shown 48 minutes into the film, and is the first to present events from the victims' perspective. Lanzmann hired a steam locomotive similar to the one Gawkowski worked on and shows the tracks and a sign for Treblinka.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Gawkowski told Lanzmann that every train had a Polish driver and assistant, accompanied by German officers. What happened was not his fault, he said; had he refused to do the job, he would have been sent to a work camp. He would have killed Hitler himself had he been able to, he told Lanzmann. Lanzmann estimated that 18,000 Jews were taken to Treblinka by the trains Gawkowski worked on. Gawkowski said he had driven Polish Jews there in cargo trains in 1942, and Jews from France, Greece, Holland and Yugoslavia in passenger trains in 1943. A train carrying Jews was called a "Sonderzug" (special train); the "cargo" was given false papers to disguise that humans were being hauled. The Germans gave the train workers vodka as a bonus when they drove a "Sonderzug"; Gawkowski drank liberally to make the job bearable.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Gawkowski drove trains to the Treblinka train station and from the station into the camp itself. He said the smell of burning was unbearable as the train approached the camp. The railcars would be driven into the camp by the locomotive in three stages; as he drove one convoy into Treblinka, he would signal to the ones that were waiting by making a slashing movement across his throat. The gesture would cause chaos in those convoys, he said; passengers would try to jump out or throw their children out. Dominick LaCapra wrote that the expression on Gawkowski's face when he demonstrated the gesture for Lanzmann seemed "somewhat diabolical". Lanzmann grew to like Gawkowski over the course of the interviews, writing in 1990: "He was different from the others. I have sympathy for him because he carries a truly open wound that does not heal."


title: Shoah (film)

text: Lanzmann was commissioned by Israeli officials to make what they thought would be a two-hour film, delivered in 18 months, about the Holocaust from "the viewpoint of the Jews". As time went on, Israeli officials withdrew as his original backers. Over 350 hours of raw footage were recorded, including the verbatim questions, answers, and interpreters' translations. "Shoah" took eleven years to make. It was plagued by financial problems, difficulties tracking down interviewees, and threats to Lanzmann's life. The film was unusual in that it did not include any historical footage, relying instead on interviewing witnesses and visiting the crime scenes. Five feature-length films have since been released from the outtakes.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Some German interviewees were reluctant to talk and refused to be filmed, so Lanzmann used a hidden camera, producing a grainy, black-and-white appearance. The interviewees in these scenes are sometimes obscured or distinguished by technicians watching the recording. During one interview, with Heinz Schubert, the covert recording was discovered by Schubert's family, and Lanzmann was physically attacked. He was hospitalized for a month and charged by the authorities with "unauthorized use of the German airwaves".


title: Shoah (film)

text: Lanzmann arranged many of the scenes, but not the testimony, before filming witnesses. For example, Bomba was interviewed while cutting his friend's hair in a working barbershop; a steam locomotive was hired to recreate the journey the death train conductor had taken while transporting Jews; and the opening scene shows Srebnik singing in a rowboat, similarly to how he had "serenaded his captors".


title: Shoah (film)

text: The first six years of production were devoted to the recording of interviews in 14 countries. Lanzmann worked on the interviews for four years before first visiting Poland. After the shooting, editing of the 350 hours of raw footage continued for five years. Lanzmann frequently replaced the camera shot of the interviewee with modern footage from the site of the relevant death camp. The matching of testimony to places became a "crucial trope of the film".


title: Shoah (film)

text: "Shoah" was made without voice-over translations. The questions and answers were kept on the soundtrack, along with the voices of the interpreters, with subtitles where necessary. Transcripts of the interviews, in original languages and English translations, are held by the US Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. Videos of excerpts from the interviews are available for viewing online, and linked transcripts can be downloaded from the museum's website.


title: Shoah (film)

text: The film received numerous nominations and awards at film festivals around the world. Prominent awards included the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Non-Fiction Film in 1985, a special citation at the 1985 Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards, and the BAFTA Award for Best Documentary in 1986. That year it also won the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Non-Fiction Film and Best Documentary at the International Documentary Association.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Hailed as a masterpiece by many critics, "Shoah" was described in "The New York Times" as "an epic film about the greatest evil of modern times". According to Richard Brody, François Mitterrand attended the first screening in Paris in April 1985 when he was president of France, Václav Havel watched it in prison, and Mikhail Gorbachev arranged public screenings in the Soviet Union in 1989.


title: Shoah (film)

text: In 1985, critic Roger Ebert described it as "an extraordinary film" and "one of the noblest films ever made". He wrote: "It is not a documentary, not journalism, not propaganda, not political. It is an act of witness." Rotten Tomatoes shows a 100% score, based on 34 reviews, with an average rating of 9.25/10. The website's critical consensus states: "Expansive in its beauty as well as its mind-numbing horror, "Shoah" is a towering – and utterly singular – achievement in cinema." Metacritic reports a 99 out of 100 rating, based on four critics, indicating "universal acclaim". As of July 2019, it is the site's 20th highest-rated film, including re-releases.


title: Shoah (film)

text: "Time Out" and "The Guardian" listed "Shoah" as the best documentary of all time in 2016 and 2013 respectively. In a 2014 British Film Institute (BFI) "Sight and Sound" poll, film critics voted it second of the best documentary films of all time. In 2012 it ranked 29th and 48th respectively in the BFI's critics' and directors' polls of the greatest films of all time.


title: Shoah (film)

text: The film had detractors, however, and it was criticized in Poland. Mieczyslaw Biskupski wrote that Lanzmann's "purpose in making the film was revealed by his comments that he 'fears' Poland and that the death camps could not have been constructed in France because the 'French peasantry would not have tolerated them. Government-run newspapers and state television criticized the film, as did numerous commentators; Jerzy Turowicz, editor of the Catholic weekly "Tygodnik Powszechny", called it partial and tendentious. The Socio-Cultural Association of Jews in Poland ("Towarzystwo Społeczno-Kulturalne Żydów w Polsce") called it a provocation and delivered a protest letter to the French embassy in Warsaw. Foreign Minister Władysław Bartoszewski, an Auschwitz survivor and an honorary citizen of Israel, criticized Lanzmann for ignoring the thousands of Polish rescuers of Jews, focusing instead on impoverished rural Poles, allegedly selected to conform with his preconceived notions.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Gustaw Herling-Grudziński, a Jewish-Polish writer and dissident, was puzzled by Lanzmann's omission of anybody in Poland with advanced knowledge of the Holocaust. In his book "Dziennik pisany nocą", Herling-Grudziński wrote that the thematic construction of "Shoah" allowed Lanzmann to exercise a reduction method so extreme that the plight of the non-Jewish Poles must remain a mystery to the viewer. Grudziński asked a rhetorical question in his book: "Did the Poles live in peace, quietly plowing farmers' fields with their backs turned on the long fuming chimneys of death-camp crematoria? Or, were they exterminated along with the Jews as subhuman?" According to Grudziński, Lanzmann leaves this question unanswered, but the historical evidence shows that Poles also suffered widespread massacres at the hands of the Nazis.


title: Shoah (film)

text: The American film critic Pauline Kael, whose parents were Jewish immigrants to the U.S. from Poland, called the film "a form of self-punishment", describing it in "The New Yorker" in 1985 as "logy and exhausting right from the start ..." "Lanzmann did all the questioning himself," she wrote, "while putting pressure on people in a discursive manner, which gave the film a deadening weight." Writing in "The New Yorker" in 2010, Richard Brody suggested that Kael's "misunderstandings of "Shoah" are so grotesque as to seem willful."


title: Shoah (film)

text: In 2000, it was released on VHS and in 2010 on DVD. Lanzmann's 350 hours of raw footage, along with the transcripts, are available on the website of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. The entire 566-minute film was digitally restored and remastered by The Criterion Collection over 2012–13 in 2K resolution, from the original 16 mm negatives. The monaural audio track was remastered without compression. A Blu-ray edition in three disks was then produced from these new masters, including three additional films by Lanzmann.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Lanzmann released four feature-length films based on unused material shot for "Shoah". The first three are included as bonus features in the Criterion Collection DVD and Blu-ray release of the film. All four are included in the Masters of Cinema Blu-ray release of the film.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Previously unseen "Shoah" outtakes have been featured in Adam Benzine's Oscar-nominated HBO documentary "" (2015), which examines Lanzmann's life from 1973 to 1985, the years he spent making "Shoah".


title: Shoah (film)

text: Ziva Postec's work as the film's editor was profiled in the 2018 documentary film " (Ziva Postec : La monteuse derrière le film Shoah)", by Canadian documentarian Catherine Hébert.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Yvonne Kozlovsky Golan (2017), "Benjamin Murmelstein, a Man from the "Town 'As If'": A Discussion of Claude Lanzmann's Film the Last of the Unjust (France/Austria, 2013)", Holocaust Studies, A Journal of Culture and History, vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 464–482.


title: Shoah (film)

text: Yvonne Kozlovsky Golan (2019), "The Role of the Judenräte in Serving Nazi Racial Policy: A Discussion of Claude Lanzmann’s film 'Last of the unjust'", Slil: a Journal of History, Cinema and Television, pp. 72–98, (Heb.).


title: Shoah (film)

text: Yvonne Kozlovsky Golan (2020), "Through the Director’s Lens: Claude Lanzmann’s Oeuvre: Commemorating the First Anniversary of his Passing",


title: Shoah (film)

text: Canadian Institute for the Study of Antisemitism (CISA), Antisemitism Studies, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Spring 2020), pp. 143–168.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: Petals on the Wind is a novel written by V. C. Andrews in 1980. It is the second book in the Dollanganger series. The timeline takes place from the siblings' successful escape in November 1960 to the fall of 1975. The book, like the others in the series, was a number one best-seller in North America in the early 1980s. In 2014, it was adapted into a Lifetime original movie.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: "Petals on the Wind" picks up immediately where "Flowers in the Attic" left off: with Cathy, Chris, and Carrie traveling to Florida after escaping Foxworth Hall. Still weak from the effects of the poison that killed her twin Cory, Carrie gets sick on the bus. Henrietta "Henny" Beech, a mute African-American woman, rescues them and takes them to the home of her employer, 40-year-old widower Dr. Paul Sheffield of Clairmont, South Carolina. At first the children refuse to reveal their identities, but once Cathy is convinced that Paul genuinely cares and might be able to help them, she tells him their story.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: During the siblings' first Christmas with Paul, Cathy begins bleeding profusely during a ballet audition and collapses; after waking in the hospital, she is told that they had to perform a D&C and that the bleeding was due to irregular periods (due to her near-starvation in the attic). Cathy suspects that the bleeding was actually a miscarriage, the result of her sexual relationship with her brother, Christopher, in the attic; however, she does not mention this suspicion, telling herself that it is in the past and all that matters is her ability to dance.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: Though the children thrive under Paul and Henny's care and start fulfilling their dreams (Chris heads to college and then medical school; Cathy gets into a local ballet school and then one in New York City), Cathy is still bent on revenge against their mother, knowing she is to blame for everything wrong in their lives. Carrie continues to feel anguish over Cory's death and is embarrassed by her failure to grow properly and the problems caused by her lack of height, while Cathy and Chris still struggle with their feelings for each other. Determined to live a "normal" life, Cathy rejects Chris's advances and insists that he must find someone else to love.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: Over time, Cathy falls in love with Paul and they plan to marry, to Chris's dismay. Paul tells Cathy the story of his wife, Julia, and how she had drowned herself and their son, Scotty, after Paul confessed to an affair. Cathy and Paul become engaged. Her ballet troupe begins performing in New York City. Cathy finishes a performance to find Paul's sister, Amanda, waiting to meet her. Amanda leads Cathy to believe that Julia is still alive and states that she knows Cathy miscarried Chris' child. Devastated, Cathy runs to a man in her dance troupe, Julian Marquet, who had been pursuing her since the day they met, and agrees to marry him immediately. When she returns to South Carolina, it is as Mrs. Julian Marquet. Only then does Cathy confront Paul about Amanda's message—and learns that Julia had been in a permanent vegetative state from her suicide attempt at the time Paul took them in, but had died around the time Cathy and Paul became intimate. Paul also insists that Cathy did not have a miscarriage. Cathy still is not sure, but realizes that she has now revealed to Paul that Chris assaulted her while they were imprisoned. Paul assures Cathy that he loves her; Cathy knows she has made a mistake in marrying Julian, but she feels she must honor her vows.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: Julian is a possessive husband and jealous of Cathy's relationships with Paul and Chris. He abuses Cathy, cheats on her, and forbids her from seeing them. He breaks Cathy's toes so she cannot perform. Chris pleads with Cathy to leave Julian, but Cathy has found out she is pregnant and tells Chris that she loves her husband and wants to make their marriage work, despite Paul's and Chris's insistence that she must leave for her own safety. Julian has a car accident and is paralyzed, at least temporarily. He believes he will never dance again and commits suicide in the hospital.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: After Cathy gives birth to her son, Julian Janus "Jory" Marquet, she becomes more determined to destroy her own mother's life. She packs up Carrie and Jory and they move to Virginia, not far from Foxworth Hall. Under the guise of collecting Julian's insurance, she hires Bart Winslow, her mother's second husband, as her lawyer. Meanwhile, Carrie meets a young man named Alex and enjoys a sweet courtship, until he says he plans to be a minister. Frightened by the memory of her grandmother's rants about the children being the "Devil's spawn," Carrie purchases powdered doughnuts and arsenic and attempts suicide. In the hospital, Cathy reassures Carrie that Alex won't be a minister if it upsets her so much. Carrie reveals her other motive for suicide: she saw their mother on the street, ran up to her, and was angrily rejected. This only strengthened Carrie's conviction that she must be evil and undeserving. Carrie dies, and Cathy becomes even more intent on taking revenge on Corrine and soon comes up with a plan to blackmail her along with stealing her handsome young husband, Bart.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: Cathy refuses to stop, obsessed with making their mother pay for all the pain that the children have suffered, even after Chris discovers Cathy's plan and threatens to distance himself from Cathy completely. Though initially focused solely on revenge, Cathy falls in love with Bart, and he returns her affections. She discovers she is pregnant and believes this will be a crushing blow to Corrine. Bart is torn between his desire to stay married to Corrine and his wish to be a father but does manage to put an end to Cathy sending blackmail letters to Corrine.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: Cathy returns to Foxworth Hall on the eve of the annual Christmas Ball, in a replica of the gown Corrine wore to the Christmas party Cathy and Chris spied on so many years ago. She visits the room where she and her siblings were locked away and sees that it has been untouched since their escape. At the stroke of midnight, she appears in the ballroom and exposes the truth to Bart and the party guests. Bart takes Cathy and Corrine to the library where Grandmother Olivia is seated. At first, Bart believes Cathy is lying, but after hearing Cathy's whole story, he confronts Corrine. Corrine breaks down, claiming to be the real victim because her father had "known" his grandchildren were hidden in his home, and he wanted them to die in captivity. Corrine claims she gave the children arsenic to make them sick gradually so she could sneak them out to safety one by one and then tell her parents the children had died in hospital. Bart is visibly disgusted. Cathy demands to know what happened to Cory's body. Corrine says she stashed the body in a ravine, but Cathy accuses her of hiding Cory's body in a small room off the attic that gave off a telltale odor. Chris bursts into the library, and Corrine perceives him as the ghost of his father, her first husband. She suffers a mental breakdown and sets fire to Foxworth Hall. Corrine, Chris, and Cathy escape, but Bart and Olivia are trapped and die in the fire. Corrine is committed to a mental institution.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: After Chris drags Cathy from Foxworth Hall he informs her that Henny has had a stroke, and while trying to help her, Paul suffered a massive heart attack. Cathy returns to Paul, marries him, and gives birth to Bart Jr. Paul dies when Bart Jr. is still quite young, and on his deathbed encourages Cathy to be with Chris, who has loved her and waited all these years. Realizing that Chris was the right one for her all along and that she still loves him, Cathy agrees. They move to California with the two boys and live as the Sheffields. Cathy dreads what will happen if their secret is exposed, and the book ends with her stating that she has been having strange thoughts about the attic in their house and has put two twin beds up there.


title: Petals on the Wind

text: The book was adapted into a television film of the same name in 2014. Unlike the book, the film jumped 10 years ahead from the events of "Flowers". It starred Rose McIver as Cathy, Wyatt Nash as Christopher, replacing Kiernan Shipka and Mason Dye from the previous movie, respectively, and Will Kemp as Julian Marquet, with Heather Graham as Corrine and Ellen Burstyn as Olivia Foxworth. Production for the film began on February 25, 2014, in Los Angeles. The film premiered on May 26, 2014, on Lifetime.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: Kimberleigh Marie Zolciak-Biermann ( Zolciak; born May 19, 1978) is an American television personality and singer. In 2008, she appeared as one of the original housewives on the reality television series "The Real Housewives of Atlanta." Zolciak-Biermann left "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" in 2012 during the fifth season of the series, and returned as a "friend of the housewives" for the show's tenth season in 2017–18.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: In 2012, she received her own spin-off show titled "Don't Be Tardy for the Wedding", which focused on the preparation of her wedding to football player Kroy Biermann. The series was subsequently renewed for a second season with a shortened title, "Don't Be Tardy", and aired for eight seasons until the final episode on December 29, 2020.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: In 2015, she was one of the contestants of the 21st season of the dancing competition series "Dancing with the Stars".


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: Kim Zolciak was born in Pensacola, Florida, to a military family, and grew up in Windsor Locks, Connecticut. Her parents are Joseph and Karen, and she has a brother named Michael. She is of Polish and Italian descent and was raised Roman Catholic.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: At age 17, Zolciak had an affair with a Windsor Locks police sergeant who had interviewed her as a material witness in a criminal investigation, initially resulting in the officer's firing. The termination was later changed to a 45-day suspension without pay. She graduated from East Catholic High School in Manchester, Connecticut in 1996, and studied nursing at the University of Connecticut. At 21, she moved to Atlanta, Georgia, where her parents had moved, and eventually settled in the suburb of Johns Creek.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: Zolciak-Biermann first appeared on the reality television series "The Real Housewives of Atlanta", airing on Bravo, on October 7, 2008. Between seasons four and five, Zolciak and her then fiancé were the subject of a spinoff show, "Don't Be Tardy for the Wedding", chronicling Zolciak's wedding preparations. Zolciak left "Real Housewives" in the middle of the fifth season, with her final episode airing December 9, 2012. "Don't Be Tardy for the Wedding", later renamed to "Don't Be Tardy...", is in its eighth season as of 2020. Zolciak-Biermann returned to 'Real Housewives' for its tenth season in a recurring capacity.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: Zolciak-Biermann was scheduled to star in a new reality show on Bravo with fellow "The Real Housewives" cast member, NeNe Leakes, called "NeNe and Kim: The Road to Riches". However, the network later decided not to move forward with the show.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: Zolciak-Biermann competed on the 21st season of the dancing competition show "Dancing with the Stars". She was paired with professional dancer Tony Dovolani. She withdrew in September 2015, three weeks into the competition, because of a transient ischemic attack, which prevented her from air travel.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: In 2008 Zolciak began work on a country music album. She released a debut single, the dance track "Tardy for the Party", in 2009, followed by a remix EP the following year.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: On March 12, 2013, Zolciak's "Real Housewives of Atlanta" castmate Kandi Burruss and her collaborating songwriter/producer Rodney "Don Vito" Richard filed suit against Zolciak for profits earned from "Tardy for the Party". In the documents filed, Burruss' attorney, "RHOA" castmate Phaedra Parks, alleges her clients wrote the song for Zolciak and that Zolciak released and sold the single "without [the] plaintiffs' authorization, license or consent." Burruss was also seeking a temporary restraining order to prevent future sales of the song and the "destruction of all copies of the infringing single and any other product of defendant's that infringe plaintiffs' copyrights", punitive damages, attorney's fees, and a jury trial.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: In May 2016, Zolciak-Biermann launched a line of skin-care products called "Kashmere Kollection". Later in 2016, Zolciak began working on a perfume, also called "Kashmere".


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: Zolciak has two daughters from previous relationships, Brielle Karenna (born 1997) and Ariana Lenee (born 2001). She was married to Daniel Toce from 2001 to 2003.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: Zolciak is bisexual and has publicly stated that she and DJ Tracy Young were in a romantic relationship.


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: In May 2010, Zolciak met Atlanta Falcons football player Kroy Biermann at the charity event "Dancing with Atlanta Stars". Their meeting was later shown on season three of "The Real Housewives of Atlanta". The couple wed at their Roswell, Georgia, home on November 11, 2011. They have four children together: Kroy Jagger "KJ" (born 2011), Kash Kade (born 2012), and twins Kaia Rose and Kane Ren (born 2013).


title: Kim Zolciak-Biermann

text: In March 2013, Biermann filed to adopt Zolciak's daughters. In July 2013, the adoption became final and the girls subsequently changed their last names to become Brielle Biermann and Ariana Biermann.


title: Jason Lewis (actor)

text: Jason Lewis (born c. 1970/1971) is an American actor and former fashion model. He is known for his role as Jerry "Smith" Jerrod on the HBO series "Sex and the City".


title: Jason Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis was born in Newport Beach, California, to Nancy, a nurse, and Gregory Lewis, a judge; his parents are divorced. He has three siblings, Sean, Katie and Nicole. He grew up in Los Alamitos, California, and graduated from Los Alamitos High School. He attended college at San Diego State University. After college he started modeling, first in Paris and then with star status in Milan in the late 1990s for Guess?, Tommy Hilfiger and Hugo Boss, among others.


title: Jason Lewis (actor)

text: In 1995, Lewis made his acting debut as a regular on "High Sierra Search and Rescue". He appeared on "Beverly Hills, 90210" in 1997, playing Rob Andrews, a love interest of character Valerie (Tiffani-Amber Thiessen). His most prominent role to date was on "Sex and the City", where he was a recurring member of the show's cast in its final season as waiter turned emerging young actor Jerry "Smith" Jerrod, the one man whose sincerity got to Samantha. He reprised the role in 2008's "Sex and the City: The Movie" and its 2010 sequel.


title: Jason Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis has appeared in several films: "My Bollywood Bride", a Hollywood/Bollywood romantic comedy where Lewis plays the leading man opposite Bollywood actress Kashmera Shah, and "Mr. Brooks", a thriller, where he plays opposite Demi Moore and Kevin Costner. He is also known in Europe for playing the hunk on the Aero Advert for Aero Bubbles.


title: Jason Lewis (actor)

text: After appearing on The WB's supernatural drama "Charmed", where he played the recurring role of Dex Lawson, a love interest (and brief husband) of Phoebe Halliwell (Alyssa Milano), it was announced on December 5, 2006, that he would guest-star on episodes of "Brothers & Sisters" as a possible love interest to Matthew Rhys' character Kevin Walker. He signed on to do seven episodes to play Chad Barry, a closeted gay soap opera actor who finds it difficult trying to develop a relationship with Kevin while keeping his sexuality secret from the Hollywood press. He reprised the role in an episode in April 2009. He also played a soap opera actor on two episodes of "House". Lewis appears and is highlighted on the cover in the limited-edition coffee table book "About Face", shot by celebrity photographer John Russo and published by Pixie Press Worldwide.


title: Jason Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis is a supporter of the LGBT community. On May 10, 2008, he attended the 19th GLAAD Media Awards, a ceremony that celebrates gay-friendly actors and actresses as well as media outlets.


title: Jason Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis appeared in the "How I Met Your Mother" episode "The Wedding Bride" as a star in a fictional film within the show. He starred in the 2011 Canadian film "Textuality". In addition, he appeared as Pete in the Israeli television show, "Be With Her". He starred as Christopher Dollanganger in "If There Be Thorns" and "Seeds of Yesterday", the third and fourth films of the "Flowers in the Attic" TV film series based on the Dollanganger novel series by V.C. Andrews.


title: Jason Lewis (actor)

text: On September 8, 2022, Lewis was announced as a contestant on season 31 of "Dancing with the Stars". He was partnered with Peta Murgatroyd. They were eliminated during week 1, finishing in last place.


title: Cognate

text: In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Because language change can have radical effects on both the sound and the meaning of a word, cognates may not be obvious, and often it takes rigorous study of historical sources and the application of the comparative method to establish whether lexemes are cognate or not. Cognates are distinguished from loanwords, where a word has been borrowed from another language.


title: Cognate

text: Cognates need not have the same meaning, which may have changed as the languages developed independently. For example English "starve" and Dutch "sterven" 'to die' or German "sterben" 'to die' all descend from the same Proto-Germanic verb, "*sterbaną" 'to die'.


title: Cognate

text: Cognates also do not need to look or sound similar: English "father", French "père", and Armenian հայր ("hayr") all descend directly from Proto-Indo-European "*ph₂tḗr". An extreme case is Armenian երկու ("erku") and English "two", which descend from Proto-Indo-European "*dwóh₁"; the sound change "*dw" > "erk" in Armenian is regular.


title: Cognate

text: An example of cognates from the same Indo-European root are: "night" (English), "nicht" (Scots), "Nacht" (German), "nacht" (Dutch, Frisian), "nag" (Afrikaans), "Naach" (Colognian), "natt" (Swedish, Norwegian), "nat" (Danish), "nátt" (Faroese), "nótt" (Icelandic), "noc" (Czech, Slovak, Polish), ночь, "noch" (Russian), ноќ, "noć" (Macedonian), нощ, "nosht" (Bulgarian), "ніч", "nich" (Ukrainian), "ноч", "noch"/"noč" (Belarusian), "noč" (Slovene), "noć" (Serbo-Croatian), "nakts" (Latvian), "naktis" (Lithuanian), νύξ, "nyx" (Ancient Greek), "νύχτα" / "nychta" (Modern Greek), "nakt-" (Sanskrit), "natë" (Albanian), "nox", gen. sg. "noctis" (Latin), "nuit" (French), "noche" (Spanish), "nueche" (Asturian), "noite" (Portuguese and Galician), "notte" (Italian), "nit" (Catalan), "nuet/nit/nueit" (Aragonese), "nuèch" / "nuèit" (Occitan) and "noapte" (Romanian). These all mean 'night' and derive from the Proto-Indo-European 'night'. The Indo-European languages have hundreds of such cognate sets, though few of them are as neat as this.


title: Cognate

text: The Arabic "salām", the Hebrew "shalom", the Assyrian Neo-Aramaic "shlama" and the Amharic "selam" 'peace' are cognates, derived from the Proto-Semitic *šalām- 'peace'.


title: Cognate

text: False cognates are pairs of words that appear to have a common origin, but which in fact do not. For example, Latin and German both mean 'to have' and are phonetically similar. However, the words evolved from different Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots: , like English "have", comes from PIE "*kh₂pyé-" 'to grasp', and has the Latin cognate "capere" 'to seize, grasp, capture'. , on the other hand, is from PIE "*gʰabʰ" 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English "give" and German .


title: Cognate

text: Likewise, English "much" and Spanish look similar and have a similar meaning, but are not cognates: "much" is from Proto-Germanic "*mikilaz" < PIE "*meǵ-" and is from Latin "multum" < PIE "*mel-". A true cognate of "much" is the archaic Spanish 'big'.


title: D. Suresh Babu

text: Daggubati Suresh Babu (born 24 December 1958) is an Indian film producer, studio owner and distributor who serves as the managing director of Suresh Productions. In 2012, he received the Andhra Pradesh state Nagireddy–Chakrapani National Award for his contribution to popular cinema.


title: D. Suresh Babu

text: He has produced several Telugu-language films under Suresh Productions banner including "Bobbili Raja, Coolie No.1, Preminchukundam Raa, Ganesh, Kalisundam Raa, Jayam Manade Raa, Nuvvu leka nenu lenu, Malliswari, Tulasi, Drushyam and Gopala Gopala".


title: D. Suresh Babu

text: He is the son of the producer D. Ramanaidu and elder brother of popular actor Venkatesh. He did his schooling in Don Bosco school at Madras. He completed his PUC from Loyola College. He did his graduate studies at University of Michigan in 1981.


title: D. Suresh Babu

text: He is married to Lakshmi and they have three children, Rana Daggubati, Malavika Daggubati and Abhiram Daggubati.


title: D. Suresh Babu

text: He started his career with the film Devatha in 1982, though he started putting his name as producer from Bobbili Raja onwards.


title: Apraxia

text: Apraxia is a motor disorder caused by damage to the brain (specifically the posterior parietal cortex or corpus callosum), which causes difficulty with motor planning to perform tasks or movements. The nature of the damage determines the disorder's severity, and the absence of sensory loss or paralysis helps to explain the level of difficulty. Children may be born with apraxia; its cause is unknown, and symptoms are usually noticed in the early stages of development. Apraxia occurring later in life, known as "acquired apraxia", is typically caused by traumatic brain injury, stroke, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, brain tumor, or other neurodegenerative disorders. The multiple types of apraxia are categorized by the specific ability and/or body part affected.


title: Apraxia

text: Apraxia is most often due to a lesion located in the dominant (usually left) hemisphere of the brain, typically in the frontal and parietal lobes. Lesions may be due to stroke, acquired brain injuries, or neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease or other dementias, Parkinson's disease, or Huntington's disease. Also, apraxia possibly may be caused by lesions in other areas of the brain.


title: Apraxia

text: Ideomotor apraxia is typically due to a decrease in blood flow to the dominant hemisphere of the brain and particularly the parietal and premotor areas. It is frequently seen in patients with corticobasal degeneration.


title: Apraxia

text: Ideational apraxia has been observed in patients with lesions in the dominant hemisphere near areas associated with aphasia, but more research is needed on ideational apraxia due to brain lesions. The localization of lesions in areas of the frontal and temporal lobes would provide explanation for the difficulty in motor planning seen in ideational apraxia, as well as its difficulty to distinguish it from certain aphasias.


title: Apraxia

text: Constructional apraxia is often caused by lesions of the inferior nondominant parietal lobe, and can be caused by brain injury, illness, tumor, or other condition that can result in a brain lesion.


title: Apraxia

text: Although qualitative and quantitative studies exist, little consensus exists on the proper method to assess for apraxia. The criticisms of past methods include failure to meet standard psychometric properties and research-specific designs that translate poorly to nonresearch use.


title: Apraxia

text: The Test to Measure Upper Limb Apraxia (TULIA) is one method of determining upper limb apraxia through the qualitative and quantitative assessment of gesture production. In contrast to previous publications on apraxic assessment, the reliability and validity of TULIA was thoroughly investigated. The TULIA consists of subtests for the imitation and pantomime of nonsymbolic ("put your index finger on top of your nose"), intransitive ("wave goodbye"), and transitive ("show me how to use a hammer") gestures. Discrimination (differentiating between well- and poorly performed tasks) and recognition (indicating which object corresponds to a pantomimed gesture) tasks are also often tested for a full apraxia evaluation.


title: Apraxia

text: However, a strong correlation may not be seen between formal test results and actual performance in everyday functioning or activities of daily living (ADLs). A comprehensive assessment of apraxia should include formal testing, standardized measurements of ADLs, observation of daily routines, self-report questionnaires, and targeted interviews with the patients and their relatives.


title: Apraxia

text: As stated above, apraxia should not be confused with aphasia (the inability to understand language); however, they frequently occur together. Apraxia is so often accompanied by aphasia that many believe that if a person displays AOS, then the patient also having some level of aphasia should be assumed.


title: Apraxia

text: Treatment for individuals with apraxia includes speech therapy, occupational therapy, and physical therapy. Currently, no medications are indicated for the treatment of apraxia, only therapy treatments. Generally, treatments for apraxia have received little attention for several reasons, including the tendency for the condition to resolve spontaneously in acute cases. Additionally, the very nature of the automatic-voluntary dissociation of motor abilities that defines apraxia means that patients may still be able to automatically perform activities if cued to do so in daily life. Nevertheless, patients experiencing apraxia have less functional independence in their daily lives, and that evidence for the treatment of apraxia is scarce. However, a literature review of apraxia treatment to date reveals that although the field is in its early stages of treatment design, certain aspects can be included to treat apraxia.


title: Apraxia

text: One method is through rehabilitative treatment, which has been found to positively impact apraxia, as well as ADLs. In this review, rehabilitative treatment consisted of 12 different contextual cues, which were used to teach patients how to produce the same gesture under different contextual situations. Additional studies have also recommended varying forms of gesture therapy, whereby the patient is instructed to make gestures (either using objects or symbolically meaningful and nonmeaningful gestures) with progressively less cuing from the therapist. Patients with apraxia may need to use a form of alternative and augmentative communication depending on the severity of the disorder. In addition to using gestures as mentioned, patients can also use communication boards or more sophisticated electronic devices if needed.


title: Apraxia

text: No single type of therapy or approach has been proven as the best way to treat a patient with apraxia, since each patient's case varies. One-on-one sessions usually work the best, though, with the support of family members and friends. Since everyone responds to therapy differently, some patients will make significant improvements, while others will make less progress. The overall goal for treatment of apraxia is to treat the motor plans for speech, not treating at the phoneme (sound) level. Individuals with apraxia of speech should receive treatment that focuses on the repetition of target words and rate of speech. The overall goal for treatment of apraxia should be to improve speech intelligibility, rate of speech, and articulation of targeted words.


title: Apraxia

text: The prognosis for individuals with apraxia varies. With therapy, some patients improve significantly, while others may show very little improvement. Some individuals with apraxia may benefit from the use of a communication aid.


title: Apraxia

text: However, many people with apraxia are no longer able to be independent. Those with limb-kinetic and/or gait apraxia should avoid activities in which they might injure themselves or others.


title: Apraxia

text: Occupational therapy, physical therapy, and play therapy may be considered as other references to support patients with apraxia. These treatments could work along with the SLP to provide the best therapy for people with apraxia. Because people with limb apraxia may have trouble directing their motor movements, however, occupational therapy for stroke or other brain injury can be difficult.


title: Robert Ri'chard

text: Robert Andrew Ri'chard (born January 7, 1983) is an American television and film actor, known for his roles as Arnaz Ballard on the UPN sitcom "One on One" and Bobby Walker on the Nickelodeon sitcom "Cousin Skeeter".


title: Robert Ri'chard

text: He has starred in the Nickelodeon sitcom "Cousin Skeeter". He also made a few appearances as himself on the hit Nickelodeon game show, "Figure It Out". He played Samuel on "Touched By An Angel", a troubled teen whose brother is in prison for shooting a man. Also, he has appeared in films such as "Coach Carter" and "House of Wax". His breakout role was in the TV adaptation of Anne Rice's novel, "The Feast of All Saints", where he played the young Marcel who becomes a man within society. He has been professionally acting since the age of 13. He appeared in the movie "Light It Up" along with R&B star Usher. He attended Palms Middle School in Los Angeles, California.


title: Robert Ri'chard

text: Ri'chard has guest starred on many hit shows such as "Boston Public", "Touched by an Angel", "", "My Wife and Kids", and "The Jamie Foxx Show". In 2000, he starred in the Disney Channel TV movie "Alley Cats Strike". Ri'chard has appeared in the 2006 season of "Veronica Mars". In 1997, Ri'chard starred in the television special, "In His Father's Shoes", which earned him the 1998 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in a Children's Special. He became popular in 2001 when he got the role of Arnaz Ballard on the UPN hit sitcom "One on One" alongside Flex Alexander and Kyla Pratt. That role was the most significant of his television roles. He continued to play the role until the show ended in 2006.


title: Robert Ri'chard

text: In the sitcom "Meet the Browns", he portrayed Derek Porter, a buffoonish frat student who lived next door to Brown Meadows. He often provided service to Brown Meadows, and was often either the mastermind or participant in Brown's antics. He debuted in season 3 as a recurring character, and in the fourth season, was promoted to a main character.


title: Robert Ri'chard

text: Ri’chard was considered for the role of Barry Frost in Rizzoli & Isles but the role was given to Lee Thompson Young.


title: Robert Ri'chard

text: Ri'chard was set to star in a new series entitled "Eight Days a Week", starring Christina Milian and Mario Lopez on the CW Television Network during the fall 2007 season, but it was canceled due to the 2007 Writers Strike before airing. On November 16, 2011, it was announced that Robert Ri'chard was cast as Jamie in the TV series "The Vampire Diaries".


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Merab Dvalishvili (born January 10, 1991) is a Georgian professional mixed martial artist. He currently competes in the Bantamweight division in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). As of December 13, 2022, he is #3 in the UFC bantamweight rankings.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Dvalishvili grew up in Tbilisi, Georgia. He started training in qartuli chidaoba (traditional wrestling) and khridoli (transitional fighting), Sambo and judo when he was young for self-defense and moved to the United States when he was 21 years old to become a professional MMA fighter. He trains under Ray Longo and Matt Serra.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: In 2019, Dvalishvili finished second in the Sambo World Championships in South Korea. Dvalishvili competed in combat sambo at 68 kilograms and lost in the finals to Russia's Stepan Kobenov.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Dvalishvili started his MMA career in 2014 and fought under various promotions namely the Ring of Combat. He amassed a record of 7–2 prior to competing in the UFC.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Dvalishvili made his UFC debut on December 9, 2017 against Frankie Saenz at . He lost the fight via split decision.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: His next fight came on April 21, 2018 at against Ricky Simón. He lost the fight via technical submission at the final bell. This fight earned him the "Fight of the Night" award. Dvalishvili's team appealed the result on the grounds that he was not unconscious at the end of the round, but the appeal was denied.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Dvalishvili faced Casey Kenney on February 15, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 167. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Dvalishvili was scheduled to face Ray Borg on June 13, 2020 at . However, on June 11, 2020 it was reported that Borg withdrew from the bout and he was replaced by promotional newcomer Gustavo Lopez in a catchweight bout of 140 pounds. Dvalishvili was victorious via unanimous decision.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Dvalishvili faced John Dodson on August 15, 2020 at UFC 252. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Dvalishvili was expected to face Cody Stamann on December 5, 2020 at UFC on ESPN 19. However on October 22, it was announced that Stamann pulled out due to undisclosed reasons, and he was replaced by Raoni Barcelos. However, Barcelos was removed from the contest due to a medical suspension related to his latest bout on . The bout between Dvalishvili and Stamann was reschedule for UFC Fight Night 184 on February 6, 2021. In turn, in mid January, Dvalishvili was forced to pull out from the bout due to the struggle of the after-effects of a COVID-19 complication, and he was replaced by Andre Ewell. After a positive test for COVID-19, Ewell was pulled from the event and replaced by promotional newcomer Askar Askar, with the contest expected to take place at featherweight. On the day of the event, Askar was not medically cleared and the bout was cancelled. The bout between Dvalishvili and Stamann was re-scheduled again to May 1, 2021 at . Dvalishvili won the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Dvalishvili faced Marlon Moraes on September 25, 2021 at UFC 266. After being knocked down and nearly finished in the first round, Dvalishvili rallied and won the fight via TKO in round two. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Merab Dvalishvili

text: Dvalishvili faced former UFC Featherweight champion José Aldo on August 20, 2022 at UFC 278. He won the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Briana Evigan

text: Briana Barbara-Jane Evigan is an American actress and dancer best known for her roles in the "Step Up" series and for her scream queen roles in numerous horror films. Born in Los Angeles, Evigan is the daughter of actor Greg Evigan and his wife Pamela, a dancer, model and choreographer. She began dancing and acting at a young age, graduating from Los Angeles Valley College with a degree in speech and communication.


title: Briana Evigan

text: Evigan began dancing professionally and appeared in numerous music videos, most notably "Numb" by Linkin Park (2003). She also started acting and had small roles in films such as "Bottom's Up" (2006) and television series such as "Fear Itself" (2008). She made her breakthrough when she appeared as Andrea "Andie" West in the dance film "" (2008). She has since been noted as a Scream Queen for starring in numerous horror and thriller films, including "S. Darko" (2009), "Sorority Row" (2009), "Burning Bright" (2010), "Mother's Day" (2010), "The Devil's Carnival" (2012), "Stash House" (2012), "Mine Games" (2012), "Alleluia! The Devil's Carnival" (2016) and the second season of "" (2015).


title: Briana Evigan

text: Evigan was born in Los Angeles, California, the daughter of Pamela C. Serpe, a dancer, model and actress, and actor Greg Evigan. She has Polish (from her paternal grandmother) and Italian (from her maternal grandfather) heritage. She is the youngest of three siblings, with brother Jason and sister Vanessa. She has studied dance since she was nine. She is one of the singers and plays keyboards in the group Moorish Idol. She also undertook a speech and communication degree at Los Angeles Valley College. She currently lives in Los Angeles, California, where she usually has Fanchats with fans through UStream, and has her own YouTube channel, in which she posted exercise videos; the channel is currently inactive.


title: Briana Evigan

text: A professional dancer, Evigan has appeared in music videos for Linkin Park, Flo Rida, T-Pain and Enrique Iglesias. She has also had small roles in television series and films such as "Bottom's Up", "Something Sweet" and "Fear Itself".


title: Briana Evigan

text: In 2008, she won the breakout role of Andie West in the sequel to the 2006 dance drama "Step Up", "". Filming took place in late 2007 in Baltimore and was released February 14, 2008. The film, which met with negative reviews with Rotten Tomatoes (receiving 24%), achieved box office success earning a worldwide gross of $148,424,320. Both Evigan and co-star Robert Hoffman earned the Best Kiss Award at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards.


title: Briana Evigan

text: In 2009, "S. Darko", a sequel to the 2001 cult-hit horror "Donnie Darko", was released. Evigan played Samantha Darko's best friend, Corey. The film stars James Lafferty and Ed Westwick. A theatrical release was scrapped and was released Straight-to-DVD on May 12, 2009. Unlike Donnie Darko, the film received negative reviews.


title: Briana Evigan

text: In August 2008, Summit Entertainment announced Evigan has signed on to portray the central character Cassidy Tappan in the remake of the low-budget horror film "Sorority Row". The screenplay was written by "Good Luck Chuck" writer Josh Stolberg and directed by Stewart Hendler. The film was budgeted at $12,500,000. Evigan stars alongside Audrina Patridge, Rumer Willis and Jamie Chung. "Sorority Row" was released on September 11, 2009, and debuted at No. 6 at the box office and earned worldwide $26,735,797. Critical reception was mixed to negative. Evigan's performance was well received by critics. The leading female cast members earned a ShoWest Award for "Female Stars of Tomorrow" in April 2009. The DVD release was February 23, 2010.


title: Briana Evigan

text: In January 2009, Evigan was confirmed by Lionsgate to star in "Burning Bright". She plays the lead female role, Kelly Taylor. In the film, "A young woman and her autistic brother find themselves trapped in their house with a ravenous tiger during a hurricane". Critical reception was extremely positive. Despite this, the film was announced to be released Straight-to-DVD on August 17, 2010.


title: Briana Evigan

text: In February 2009, Evigan announced in an interview she has signed on for another remake. The film will be a remake of the cult slasher horror film "Mother's Day" and will be directed by Darren Lynn Bousman, best known for his work with previous Lionsgate films such as the Saw trilogy. Bousman previously directed Evigan in an episode of "Fear Itself" in 2008. The film will co-star A. J. Cook and Jaime King. The film has suffered numerous push backs, and was finally released on May 8, 2012, on DVD and Blu-ray. The film was also part of the 2010 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Briana Evigan

text: She stars in "The Devil's Carnival", a short film that got a 30 city world tour that began on April 15, 2012. Evigan later confirmed that she had reprised her role in its sequel, "", which was released in late 2015.


title: Briana Evigan

text: In 2011, during a UStream, Evigan announced that she was working in a TV series with her family, though nothing has been confirmed yet. She was scheduled to star as the protagonist of "Left for Red: Betrayal", the first of a trilogy which centered on a young woman seeking vengeance on the soldiers who sold her to a sex trafficking group, but has been shelved due to budget issues.


title: Briana Evigan

text: In 2014, Evigan reprised her role as Andie West in the fifth installment of the "Step Up" series, "". She was later cast "Love Is All You Need?" as Jude, a heterosexual woman living in a world where homosexuality is right, and heterosexuality is the wrong.


title: Briana Evigan

text: In 2015, Evigan announced, via Twitter that she would be recurring, alongside Danny Trejo in the second season of the Action-Vampire TV Series "" as Sonja, "an American expatriate working as a tattoo artist in a Mexican Mercado – who also has a sideline forging papers and passports out of her back room". The season premiered August 25, 2015, on El Rey.


title: Briana Evigan

text: In 2017, she joined director James Kicklighter's Angel of Anywhere, with co-stars David A. Gregory, Ser'Darius Blain and introducing Axel Roldos.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The XVIII Airborne Corps is a corps of the United States Army that has been in existence since 1942 and saw extensive service during World War II. The corps is designed for rapid deployment anywhere in the world and is referred to as "America's Contingency Corps." Its headquarters are at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: XVIII Airborne Corps returned to Fort Bragg in October 2022 after a nine month deployment to Germany, in support of NATO and European Allies and partners. The mission was to provide a joint task force-capable headquarters in light of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The corps was first activated on 17 January 1942, five weeks after the entry of the United States into World War II, as the II Armored Corps at Camp Polk, Louisiana, under the command of Major General William Henry Harrison Morris, Jr. When the concept of armored corps proved unnecessary, II Armored Corps was re-designated as XVIII Corps on 9 October 1943 at the Presidio of Monterey, California.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: XVIII Corps deployed to Europe on 17 August 1944 and became the XVIII Airborne Corps on 25 August 1944 at Ogbourne St. George, England, assuming command of the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, as part of the preparation for Operation Market Garden. Prior to this time, the two divisions were assigned to VII Corps and jumped into Normandy during Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy, as part of VII Corps.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: Major General Matthew Bunker Ridgway, a highly professional, competent and experienced airborne commander who had led the 82nd Airborne Division in Sicily, Italy and Normandy, was chosen to command the corps, which then consisted of the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions and was part of the newly created First Allied Airborne Army.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The corps headquarters did not see service in Operation Market Garden, with the British I Airborne Corps being chosen instead to exercise operational command of all Allied airborne forces in the operation, including the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: Following the Battle of the Bulge, in which the corps played a significant part (and which, during the early stages of the battle, the corps was commanded by Major General James M. Gavin of the 82nd Airborne), all American airborne units on the Western Front fell under command of the corps. XVIII Airborne Corps planned and executed Operation Varsity, the airborne component of Operation Plunder, the crossing of the River Rhine into Germany. It was one of the largest airborne operations of the war, with the British 6th and U.S. 17th Airborne Divisions under command.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: After taking part in the Western Allied invasion of Germany, the XVIII Airborne Corps, still under Ridgway, returned to the United States in June 1945 and was initially to take part in the invasion of Japan, codenamed Operation Downfall. However, the Japanese surrendered just weeks later and XVIII Airborne Corps was inactivated on 15 October 1945 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The Corps was reactivated at Fort Bragg on 21 May 1951 under the command of Major General John W. Leonard. Since then, the corps has been the primary strategic response force, with subordinate units participating in over a dozen major operations (listed below) in both combat and humanitarian roles, primarily in Central America and the CENTCOM area of responsibility.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: In 1958 the XVIII Airborne Corps was given the additional mission of becoming the Strategic Army Corps. The corps was now tasked, in addition, to provide a flexible strike capability that could deploy worldwide, on short notice, without a declaration of an emergency. The 4th Infantry Division at Fort Lewis, Washington, and the 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, were designated as STRAC's first-line divisions, while the 1st Infantry Division at Fort Riley, Kansas, and the 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg were to provide backup in the event of general war. The 5th Logistical Command (later inactivated), also at Fort Bragg, would provide the corps with logistics support, while Fort Bragg's XVIII Airborne Corps Artillery would control artillery units.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The Corps deployed forces to the United States occupation of the Dominican Republic ('Operation Power Pack') in 1965.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The Corps deployed forces to the Vietnam War, including the entire 101st Airborne Division and the 3rd Brigade of the 82nd Airborne division.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: In 1967 elements of the Corps were deployed to Detroit to suppress riots, and also to The Congo to support the government there and to rescue civilian hostages as part of Operation Dragon Rouge.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: In 1982 the Corps first rotated elements to the Sinai Peninsula as part of the Multinational Force and Observers (UN) to guarantee the Camp David Peace Accords.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: In 1983 elements of the Corps were deployed to the island of Grenada as part of Operation Urgent Fury, with the stated goal of reestablishing the democratically elected government.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: In 1989 XVIII Airborne Corps, commanded by then LTG Carl Stiner, participated in the invasion of Panama in Operation Just Cause. Stiner served concurrently as Commander of Joint Task Force South.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: In 1991, XVIII Airborne Corps participated in the Persian Gulf War. The corps was responsible for securing VII Corps' northern flank against a possible Iraqi counterattack. Along with the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, 24th Infantry Division and 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment, XVIII Airborne Corps also gained operational control of the French 6th Light Armor Division (LAD) (which also included units from the French Foreign Legion).


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, XVIII Airborne Corps Artillery consisted of the 3d Battalion, 8th Field Artillery; 5th Battalion, 8th Field Artillery; and the 1st Battalion (Airborne), 39th Field Artillery. The living quarters for these three units were situated between the 82d Airborne Division and the Special Forces at Fort Bragg. Of the three units, only 1-39th was airborne qualified and served as the only fully airborne deployable 155 mm Field Artillery unit in history. The 1-39th FA and 3-8th FA were key components of the thrust into Iraq in the first Gulf War, providing fire support for the French Foreign Legion and the 82nd Airborne Division.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The 5th Battalion, 8th Field Artillery also served in a major support role for 82d and French troops during the Gulf War. It consisted of three individual batteries. Batteries A and B were Airborne-qualified, while Battery C was air assault. Batteries A and B were assigned to Fort Bragg, North Carolina and Battery C was assigned to Fort Campbell, Kentucky. All of the battalions were subsequently re-flagged during the years following the Gulf War.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: Task Force 118 had flown the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior off naval vessels during Operation Prime Chance in the 1980s, operating against Iran in the Persian Gulf. It was redesignated the 4th Squadron, 17th Cavalry on 15 January 1991. During the Gulf War of 1991 it was part of the 18th Aviation Brigade.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions have served with the corps since the 1950s. The 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized) was 'reflagged' as the 3rd Infantry Division (Mechanized) in April 1996.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The Corps headquarters was deployed to Afghanistan from May 2002 – 2003, and became Combined Joint Task Force 180 for the deployment.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: XVIII Airborne Corps was deployed from January 2005 to January 2006 to Baghdad, Iraq, where it served as the Multi-National Corps – Iraq. Following its return, XVIII Airborne Corps and its subordinate units began the process of modernization and reorganization.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: Under the previous Army Chief of Staff's future restructure of the Army, the corps headquarters of the XVIII Airborne Corps will lose its airborne (specifically parachute) certification as a cost-cutting measure—the same will occur to the divisional headquarters of the 82nd Airborne Division. This plan is designed to follow the U.S. Army's restructuring plan to go from being division-based to brigade-based. This will mean that the largest units that will be airborne – specifically parachute certified – will be at the brigade level. Even so, for traditional and historical reasons, the formation will continue to be called the XVIII Airborne Corps.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: The divisions that fall under the XVIII Airborne Corps (as well as the other two corps in the Army) are in a period of transition, shifting from corps control to fall directly under FORSCOM, eliminating the corps status as a middle man. This ties in with the Army's broad modularity plan, as a corps can deploy and support any unit, not just the units subordinate to the corps. The 3d Infantry Division, the 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), and the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) have already changed over to direct FORSCOM control. The 82nd Airborne Division will transfer after the division returns from Afghanistan.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: In August 2006, XVIII Airborne Corps traveled to South Korea to participate in Ulchi Focus Lens, a joint training exercise between the Republic of Korea Army and coalition forces stationed there.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: In mid-April, 2007, the Department of the Army confirmed the next OIF deployment schedule, with XVIII Airborne Corps deploying to relieve III Corps as the MNC-I at Camp Victory, Baghdad, Iraq. XVIII Airborne Corps is scheduled to replace III Corps in November, 2007. The corps will deploy along with 1st Armored Division and 4th Infantry Division, as well as 1st Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division, and 1st BCT, 82nd Airborne Division.


title: XVIII Airborne Corps

text: On 21 December 2016, "Stars and Stripes" reported that in August the XVIII Airborne Corps deployed to Iraq for Operation Inherent Resolve, in December this included the XVIII Airborne Corps headquarters and the 1st Special Forces Command, which is deployed as the Special Operations Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve. The 18th Field Artillery Brigade deployed into Iraq with High Mobility Artillery Rocket Systems.


title: Oceanic whitetip shark

text: The oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharhinus longimanus), also known as shipwreck shark, Brown Milbert's sand bar shark, brown shark, lesser white shark, nigano shark, oceanic white-tipped whaler, and silvertip shark, is a large pelagic requiem shark inhabiting tropical and warm temperate seas. Its stocky body is most notable for its long, white-tipped, rounded fins.


title: Oceanic whitetip shark

text: Though slow-moving, it is opportunistic and aggressive, and is reputed to be dangerous to shipwreck survivors. Recent studies show steeply declining populations because its large fins are highly valued as the chief ingredient of shark fin soup, and as with other shark species, the whitetip faces mounting fishing pressure throughout its range.


title: Oceanic whitetip shark

text: The oceanic whitetip shark, or lesser white shark, was described in 1831 by naturalist René-Primevère Lesson, who named the shark "Carcharhinus maou". It was next described by Cuban Felipe Poey in 1861 as "Squalus longimanus". The name "Pterolamiops longimanus" has also been used. The species epithet ' refers to the size of its pectoral fins (' translates from Latin as "long hands"). The oceanic whitetip shark has many common names in English: Brown Milbert's sand bar shark, brown shark, nigano shark, oceanic white-tipped whaler, and whitetip shark.


title: Oceanic whitetip shark

text: The rules of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature are that in general the first-published description has priority; therefore, the valid scientific name for the oceanic whitetip shark should be "Carcharhinus maou". However, Lesson's name remained forgotten for so long that "Carcharhinus longimanus" remains widely accepted.


title: Oceanic whitetip shark

text: The oceanic whitetip is found globally in deep, open oceans, with a temperature greater than , although exceptionally it occurs in water as cold as . It prefers waters between and tends to withdraw from areas when temperatures fall outside of these limits. It was once extremely common and widely distributed, and still inhabits a wide band around the globe; however, recent studies suggest that its numbers have drastically declined. An analysis of the US pelagic longline logbook data between 1992 and 2000 (covering the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic) estimated a decline of 70% over that period.


title: Oceanic whitetip shark

text: It is found worldwide between 45°N and 43°S latitude. In September 2004, a vagrant oceanic whitetip shark was seen in the brackish waters of Gullmarsfjorden in Sweden; it died shortly after. This is the only North European record and far north of its usual range limit.