title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri was born on 15 July 1926 in Caseros, Buenos Aires Province to working-class Italian Argentine parents Francisco Rosario Galtieri and Nélida Victoria Castelli. In 1943, at 17 years-old, he enrolled at the National Military Academy to study civil engineering, and his early military career was as an officer in the engineering branch of the Argentine Army. As well as rising through the ranks of the military, he continued his studies in engineering until the mid-1950s. In 1949 he graduated from the US Army School of the Americas. In 1958, he became a professor of engineering at the Senior War College.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: In 1975, after more than 25 years as a combat engineer, Galtieri became commander of the Argentine engineering corps. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the March 1976 coup d'état that overthrew President Isabel Perón and started the self-styled National Reorganisation Process, the establishment of a right-wing military junta government in Argentina. This helped him rise through the ranks, becoming a major general in 1977, and commander-in-chief of the army in 1980 with the rank of lieutenant general. During the junta's rule, Congress was suspended, trade unions, political parties, and provincial governments were banned, and in what became known as the Dirty War, between 9,000 and 30,000 people deemed left-wing subversives disappeared from society with torture and mass executions being commonplace. Argentina's economy had been in dire condition prior to the coup and recovered for a short time. An impending economic collapse was one of the main justifications for the overthrow of Perón and the civilian government.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: In March 1981, Galtieri visited the United States and was warmly received, as the Reagan administration viewed the regime as a bulwark against communism. National Security Advisor Richard V. Allen described him as a "majestic general". An adherent to the Argentine military's Cold War-era doctrine of "ideological frontiers", Galtieri secured his country's support for Contra rebel groups opposing the Socialist Sandinista government in Nicaragua during the Nicaraguan Revolution. In August, he sent advisers to help organize the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN, for a time the principal Contra group), as well as training FDN leaders in Argentine bases. His support for this initiative allowed Galtieri to remove a number of rival generals.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: On 22 December 1981, Galtieri was appointed President of Argentina one week after ousting General Roberto Viola, who had been in power since March. Officially Viola resigned due to health issue and designated Interior Minister Horacio Liendo as his successor. In reality, Viola was removed from power due to his regime's inability to reverse the economic crisis which caused infighting within the military.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Galtieri retained direct control of the army whilst President of the governing Military Junta and did not appoint a new commander-in-chief.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Galtieri instituted limited political reforms which allowed the expression of dissent, and anti-junta demonstrations soon became common, as did agitation for a return to democracy.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Galtieri appointed conservative economist and publisher Roberto Alemann as Economy Minister. Alemann inherited an economy in deep recession in the aftermath of José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz's economic policies of the late 1970s. Alemann slashed spending, began selling off government-owned industries (with only minor success), enacted a tight monetary policy, and ordered salaries frozen (amid 130% inflation).


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: The Central Bank Circular 1050, which tied mortgage rates to the value of the US dollar locally, was maintained, however, leading to further deepening of the crisis; GDP fell by 5%, and business investment by 20% over the weakened levels of 1981.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: One of Galtieri's closest allies, the head of the First Army Corps, General Guillermo Suárez Mason, was named Chairman of Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (YPF), at the time the state petroleum concern, and the largest company of any type in Argentina. Suárez Mason's role would contribute to a US$6 billion loss for the company, the largest recorded corporate loss in the world, up to that point.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Galtieri supported the Central Intelligence Agency in its fight against the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, while he was warmly welcomed during his visit to the White House. Argentina support became the principal source of funds and training for the Contras during Galtieri's tenure.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Argentine military and intelligence cooperation with the Reagan Administration ended in 1982, when Argentina seized the British territory of the Falkland Islands in an attempt to quell domestic and economic unrest. The move was condemned by the West, who provided intelligence to the British government in its military operations to regain sovereign control over the Falklands.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: By April 1982, Galtieri had been in office for four months and his popularity was low. On 2 April, on his orders, Argentine forces invaded the Falkland Islands, a United Kingdom territory subject to a long-standing Argentine claim.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Initially the invasion was popular in Argentina, and the anti-junta demonstrations were replaced by patriotic demonstrations in support of Galtieri.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Galtieri and most of his government mistakenly believed the United Kingdom would not respond militarily.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: The British government led by the prime minister, Margaret Thatcher, dispatched a naval task force to retake the islands militarily if Argentina refused to comply with a United Nations resolution demanding an immediate Argentine withdrawal. Argentina did not comply with the resolution which resulted in a surrender to British forces on 14 June 1982.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: On 14 June 1982, the Falklands' capital, Stanley, was retaken by British forces. Within days Galtieri was removed from power, and he spent the next 18 months at a well-protected country retreat while democracy was restored to Argentina. Along with other members of the former junta, he was arrested in late 1983 and charged in a military court with human rights violations during the Dirty War and with mismanaging the Falklands War. The Argentine Army's internal investigation, known as the Rattenbach report after the general who led it, recommended that those responsible for the misconduct of the war be prosecuted under the Code of Military Justice. In 1986 he was sentenced to twelve years in prison.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Galtieri was cleared of the civil rights charges in December 1985, but (together with the Air Force and Navy commanders-in-chief) in May 1986 he was found guilty of mishandling the war and sentenced to prison. All three appealed in a civil court, and the prosecution appealed for heavier sentences. In November 1988 the original sentences were confirmed, and all three commanders were stripped of their rank. In 1989, Galtieri and 39 other officers of the dictatorship received President Carlos Menem's pardon.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Galtieri was heavily blamed for Argentina's humiliating defeat in the ill-conceived Falklands War. Following his release from prison, he moved to the Villa Devoto suburb of Buenos Aires, and lived modestly with his wife Lucía. He became a recluse and refused most requests for interviews by journalists, though in a rare interview he stated he had "no regrets" over anything he had done during the Dirty War. He lived on an army pension of $9,000 per month, and attempted to claim a Presidential pension, but a judge denied it. In her ruling, the judge stated that his presidency had been illegal due to his never having been elected, and she also ordered him to pay court costs.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: In May 2002, he was invited to the military parade of the Argentine Army for the celebrations of Argentine Army Day (Día del Ejército Argentino): the presence of the former "president de facto" caused a huge controversy in public opinion after he was confronted and questioned by the journalist Martín Ciccioli in the television programme "Kaos en la Ciudad".


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: In July 2002, new civil charges were brought concerning the kidnapping of children and the disappearance of 18 leftist sympathizers in the late 1970s (while Galtieri was commander of the Second Army Corps), and the disappearance or death of three Spanish citizens at about the same time. Galtieri faced prosecution with 28 other officials, but due to his poor health, he was allowed to remain at home.


title: Leopoldo Galtieri

text: Leopoldo Galtieri underwent surgery for pancreatic cancer on 16 August 2002 at a hospital in Buenos Aires. He died there of a heart attack on 12 January 2003, aged 76. His body was interred in a small mausoleum in La Chacarita Cemetery in the capital.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Yasin Malik (born 3 April 1966) is a Kashmiri separatist leader and former militant who advocates the separation of Kashmir from both India and Pakistan. He is the Chairman of the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front, which originally spearheaded armed militancy in the Kashmir Valley. Malik renounced violence in 1994 and adopted peaceful methods to come to a settlement of the Kashmir conflict. In May 2022, Malik pleaded guilty to charges of criminal conspiracy and waging war against the state, and was sentenced to life imprisonment.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Yasin Malik was born on 3 April 1966 in the densely populated Maisuma locality of Srinagar. His father Ghulam Qadir Malik (1937–2012) died due to a cardiac arrest on 14 May 2012, while Yasin was on a visit to Pakistan. He has three sisters, including Amina Malik who has advocated for better prisoner's rights for Malik at the Tihar Jail.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Malik states that, as a young boy, he had witnessed violence carried out on the streets by the security forces. In 1980, after witnessing an altercation between the army and taxi drivers, he is said to have become a rebel. He formed a party called the "Tala Party", which formed a revolutionary front, printing and distributing political materials and causing disturbances. His group was involved in attempting to disrupt the 1983 cricket match with West Indies in the Sher-i-Kashmir Stadium, disturbing National Conference gatherings in Srinagar and protesting Maqbool Bhat's execution. Malik was arrested and detained for four months.


title: Yasin Malik

text: After getting released in 1986, the "Tala Party" was renamed the "Islamic Students League" (ISL), with Malik as the general secretary. The ISL became an important youth movement. Among its members were Ashfaq Majeed Wani, Javed Mir and Abdul Hameed Sheikh. They were drawn to the Jamaat leader of the Srinagar district, Maulvi Mohammad Yusuf Shah, whose Friday sermons were said to have been a favourite of the youth.


title: Yasin Malik

text: In the run up to the Legislative Assembly elections in 1987, the Islamic Students League led by Yasin Malik joined the Muslim United Front (MUF). It did not contest any seats because it did not believe in the constitution. But it took responsibility for campaigning for the MUF in all Srinagar constituencies. According to a spokesman of the "Jamaat-e-Islami", all the parties that joined in the MUF were either pro-independence or pro-self-determination. According to another Jamaat member, the ISL was recruited into the MUF to provide "street power" to counter the "hooliganism" of the National Conference, the ruling party.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Malik campaigned for the Jamaat candidate Mohammad Yusuf Shah (part of MUF) who stood for the 1987 elections from Amirakadal, Srinagar. Scholar Sumantra Bose states that, as the vote counting began, it became clear that Yusuf Shah was winning by a landslide. However, the opposing National Conference candidate Ghulam Mohiuddin Shah was declared the winner. Yusuf Shah as well as Malik were arrested by the Jammu and Kashmir Police and imprisoned until the end of 1987 without a formal charge, court appearance or a trial. Widespread rigging and "booth-capturing" in the elections were reported, which, were reportedly carried out by the National Conference leader Farooq Abdullah in connivance with the Government of India. The police refused to listen to any complaint. The National Conference–Congress alliance was declared the winner with 62 seats in the Assembly, and formed the government.


title: Yasin Malik

text: The rigged election of 1987 is seen by most scholars as the trigger for Kashmir insurgency. Malik disagrees by saying, "Let me clear it, rigging in 1987 elections didn't result in armed militancy. We were there even before 1987."


title: Yasin Malik

text: After release from prison, Malik crossed over to the Pakistan-administered Kashmir to receive training at camps situated there. Pakistan's secret service ISI had struck deal with Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) in 1986 to support the launching of an insurgency in Indian-administered Kashmir. This is believed to have been a short-term expedient for ISI to spur the Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir into action.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Malik returned to the Kashmir Valley as a core member of the JKLF, declaring his goal as the independence for the entirety of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Malik, along with Hamid Sheikh, Ashfaq Wani and Javed Ahmad Mir, formed the core group—dubbed the "HAJY" group—of the JKLF militants returning with arms and training received in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. They received an enthusiastic response to their call for independence in the Kashmir Valley. They waged a guerrilla war with the Indian security forces, kidnapping Rubiya Sayeed, the daughter of Indian Home Minister Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, and targeting attacks on the government and security officials.


title: Yasin Malik

text: By 1990, JKLF was out of favour with Pakistan. The pro-Pakistan Islamist militant group Hizbul Mujahideen had been formed in the Valley and the Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir agreed to sponsor it. Pakistan cut off JKLF's funding in early 1990.


title: Yasin Malik

text: In March 1990, Ashfaq Wani was killed in a battle with Indian security forces. In August 1990, Yasin Malik was captured in a wounded condition. He was imprisoned until May 1994. Hamid Sheikh was also captured in 1992 but released by the Border Security Force to counteract the pro-Pakistan guerrillas. By 1992, the majority of the JKLF militants were killed or captured and they were yielding ground to pro-Pakistan guerilla groups such as the Hizbul Mujahideen, strongly promoted by the Pakistani military authorities. Further encroachment by pan-Islamist fighters infiltrating into the Valley from Pakistan changed the colour of the insurgency.


title: Yasin Malik

text: After release from prison on bail in May 1994, Malik declared an indefinite ceasefire of the JKLF. However, he says that JKLF still lost a hundred activists to Indian operations. Independent journalists mentioned three hundred activists were killed. Hizb-ul-Mujahideen members often informed their whereabouts to the Indian security forces in order to decimate the JKLF field presence.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Malik renounced violence and adopted a Gandhian non-violent struggle for independence. He expressed a desire for a "democratic approach" involving the "true representatives" of Jammu and Kashmir. He offered political negotiations, but insisted that they must be tripartite with both Indian and Pakistani governments, and should cover the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir. This was not acceptable to the Indian government. In the Spring of 1995, Malik protested the holding of Legislative Assembly elections and threatened to immolate himself. He contended that the Indian government has "thrust this election process" on the Kashmiris just as a display of democracy.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Malik's peaceful struggle was unacceptable to the leadership of JKLF in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. At the end of 1995, Amanullah Khan, the founder chairman of JKLF, removed Malik as the president of JKLF. In return, Malik expelled Khan from chairmanship. Thus JKLF had split into two factions. Victoria Schofield states that the Pakistan government recognised Yasin Malik as the leader of JKLF, which further complicated the situation.


title: Yasin Malik

text: In October 1999, Malik was arrested by Indian Authorities under the Jammu and Kashmir Public Safety Act (PSA) and was again arrested on 26 March 2002 under the Indian Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA); he was detained for almost a year.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Malik has had one-on-one meetings with the president of Pakistan, prime minister of Pakistan, prime Minister of India and other world leaders. In 2007, Malik and his party launched a campaign known as "Safar-i-Azadi" (Journey of Freedom).


title: Yasin Malik

text: In 2005, a rival faction to Malik's within the JKLF formed a separate organisation "JKLF(R)". Javed Mir is its convener.


title: Yasin Malik

text: In February 2013, Malik shared the dais with the banned Lashker-e-Taiba chief Hafiz Muhammad Saeed at a protest in Islamabad, which was condemned by many commentators, including Muslim bodies.


title: Yasin Malik

text: On 4 December 2013, the JKLF claimed that Malik was thrown out of a hotel in New Delhi with his wife and 18-month-old daughter due to his political ideology of separatism. On 12 January 2016, Yasin Malik wrote a letter to Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, opposing Gilgit-Baltistan's merger with Pakistan.


title: Yasin Malik

text: In March 2020, Malik and six accomplices were charged under the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (TADA), the Arms Act 1959 and Ranbir Penal Code for the attack on 40 Indian Air Force personnel in Rawalpora, Srinagar on 25 January 1990. During the attack four IAF personnel died. Malik was facing trial for the kidnapping of Rubaiyya Sayeed and the subsequent exchange of five militants.


title: Yasin Malik

text: In 2017, India's National Investigation Agency (NIA) registered a case of terror funding against various separatist leaders, and named Malik and four others in a charge sheet filed in 2019. The agency charged them with receiving funds from Pakistan to carry out terrorist activities and stone-pelting during the Kashmir unrest, especially in 2010 and 2016.


title: Yasin Malik

text: In March 2022, a Delhi court reviewed the evidence, and ordered framing of charges against Malik and others under the stringent UAPA and Indian Penal Code. The judge observed there was "prima facie" evidence that the accused were direct recipients of terror funds, mainly from Pakistan, with which they shared goals. The court saw a criminal conspiracy in organising large-scale protests, resulting in violence and arson at a massive scale.


title: Yasin Malik

text: It found sufficient evidence against Malik under sections 38 and 39 of UAPA (association with a terrorist organisation and inviting support for the terrorist organisation) with regard to Lashkar-e-Taiba.


title: Yasin Malik

text: On 10 May 2022, Malik pled guilty of the charges framed against him. He chose not to have a lawyer represent him and was appearing for himself. The court appointed an "amicus curiae" to explain the charges to Malik and make him understand the consequences. Malik confirmed to the amicus that he did not want to contest the charges and that he was ready to face whatever was in store for him.


title: Yasin Malik

text: On 19 May 2022, Malik was convicted by the NIA Court on charges of conspiracy and waging war against the state, and subsequently sentenced to two counts of life imprisonment and five 10-year prison sentences, all to be held concurrently.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Reacting to the court's verdict, Malik's wife Mushaal appealed to the UN, UNHCR and international powers "to take notice of this war crime and save the life of a warrior of his motherland and to stop this grave injustice against Yasin." Pakistan's foreign ministry condemned the sentencing as a "sham trial" and described it as "another abhorrent attempt of the Indian government to deprive the Kashmiri people of their true leadership".


title: Yasin Malik

text: In 2009, Malik married Pakistani artist Mushaal Hussein Mullick (b. 1985) in Rawalpindi on 22 February 2009. The two met while Yasin was on a tour of Pakistan in 2005. They became parents to a girl named Raziyah Sultana in March 2012. Mushaal and her daughter currently reside in Islamabad.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Mushaal is a graduate of the London School of Economics. She comes from an affluent Pakistani family, her mother -Rehana Hussein Mullick- was the secretary general of PML-N Women's Wing, while her father -M. A. Hussein Mullick (d. 2002)- was an international economist who headed the University of Bonn's economics department and was the first Pakistani member of a Nobel Prize jury; her brother -Haider Ali Hussein Mullick- is a foreign policy analyst based in Washington, D. C. and is currently a lecturer at the Naval Post Graduate School; and her sister, Sabien Hussein Mullick, is a social worker.


title: Yasin Malik

text: Yasin had completed his graduation from S. P. College in Srinagar and also says that most of his knowledge has been acquired by self-taught methods while he served his time in various jails. Malik loves the poetry of Allama Iqbal and the writings of Imam Ghazali.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The Mini Countryman, also called Mini Crossover in Japan, is a subcompact luxury crossover SUV, the first vehicle of this type to be launched by BMW under the Mini marque. It was launched in 2010 and received a facelift in 2014. The second generation vehicle was released in 2017.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The Mini Crossover Concept previewed the design of the Countryman. It has four doors (2 right swing open, 1 left swing open, 1 left lift/sliding) and four single seats. It was unveiled at the 2008 Paris Motor Show.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The 2010 Mini Beachcomber Concept was based on the Crossover Concept and the Mini Countryman, with no doors and no conventional roof. It included ALL4 all-wheel drive and offroad wheels. It was unveiled at the 2010 North American International Auto Show.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The design of Mini's first five-door crossover echoed that of the Mini Crossover Concept. The production model was first unveiled at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show. UK models went on sale on 18 September 2010. The availability of models varies between markets, with the United States and Russia not taking the One versions or any diesel-powered models. The All4 all-wheel-drive option is available on variable models, again depending on the country.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The ALL4 all-wheel-drive powertrain includes electro-hydraulic differential, positioned directly on the transmission's final drive, to vary the power distribution from front to rear. Under normal driving conditions, up to 50 percent of the engine's power goes to the rear wheels. Under "extreme" conditions ("extreme" being undefined) up to 100 percent heads to the back wheels.


title: Mini Countryman

text: Early models included Cooper S, Cooper S ALL4, Cooper, One, Cooper D, Cooper D ALL4, and One D. Cooper SD, Cooper SD ALL4, Cooper D Automatic, Cooper D ALL4 Automatic were added from spring 2011.


title: Mini Countryman

text: In 2012 the Countryman received some minor amendments, including an EU6 exhaust emissions standard compliance for the One and Cooper models, and using a different clutch material and improved software to reduce stalling problems. They went on sale from November 2012.


title: Mini Countryman

text: Changes to US 2014 model year range included the omission of the interior "Centre Rail" feature from the back seats. The rail is still present in the front.


title: Mini Countryman

text: This is the rallying version of Mini Cooper S ALL4 developed with Prodrive beginning in early 2009, with a 1.6-litre, four-cylinder turbo-charged engine from BMW Motorsport. The first test drive for the Mini Countryman WRC, which would also be available to customer teams, was planned for autumn 2010. It was unveiled at the Paris Show in 2010.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The John Cooper Works is a derivative of the Cooper S ALL4 version of the Countryman, with increased engine power to and with over boost: . Steering, suspension, wheels and appearance have also been modified. It was unveiled at the 2012 International Geneva Motor Show, and went on sale in autumn 2012.


title: Mini Countryman

text: US models receive reduced engine power to and (overboost: ), and went on sale in July 2012 as a 2013 model year vehicle.


title: Mini Countryman

text: In June 2011, Mini USA collaborated with rock band Kiss to create a quartet of one-off Countryman crossovers themed after the band. The cars were placed on auction on eBay, with proceeds going to UNICEF to help children affected by the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The auction was able to raise US$129,000. Mini USA also sold replica vehicle wraps for Countryman owners through their website and dealerships.


title: Mini Countryman

text: In a nod to the adventurous spirit of the United Kingdom’s northernmost region, the MINI Countryman Highlands Edition emphasized the Countryman’s versatility and rugged capabilities. The Edition set itself apart with a unique Crystal Silver roof and mirror caps - inspired by ice sheets and streams carving the Highland’s rugged mountain ranges and blue lochs, and was offered in four nature-oriented exterior colors: Cosmic Blue, Jungle Green, Midnight Grey, and Absolute Black. Limited to just 400 units, the MINI Highlands Edition began arriving stateside in September 2016.


title: Mini Countryman

text: Pulitzer Prize winning automotive journalist Dan Neil suggested the Countryman had jumped the shark – that is to say the car pushed the Mini ethos beyond relevance, marking the zenith of popularity and the start of decline. Neil suggested that by making a vehicle that is longer, wider and taller, the company had forsaken the inner logic of the brand: excellent handling in a tiny size. In a March 2011 review titled "What Part of 'Mini' Did You Not Grasp, BMW? ", Neil wrote "with the Countryman, tiny sharks have been jumped."


title: Mini Countryman

text: The Countryman became Mini's second most popular model after the iconic Hardtop. The very first year of production it sold almost 50% more units than the Clubman, Convertible, and Coupe added together. Almost 1 out of every 3 vehicles Mini sold in the US in 2011 was a Countryman.


title: Mini Countryman

text: This trend continued through 2012 also with almost 1 in 3 MINIs sold again being a Countryman - both in the US and globally.


title: Mini Countryman

text: A minor facelift to the Countryman was unveiled at the 2014 New York International Auto Show. Changes include a new structure of the hexagonal radiator grill, underride guard elements for the Cooper S Countryman ALL4 and additional body colour options. It went on sale in July 2014. All variants carried over. US variants include Cooper, Cooper S, Cooper S ALL4, John Cooper Works (with ALL4), with 6-speed manual transmission or optional 6-speed automatic transmission.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The second generation Countryman was introduced at the LA Auto Show in November 2016 and went on sale in February 2017 in Europe, and March elsewhere. It was launched with three variants: Cooper (FWD or ALL4), Cooper S (FWD or ALL4), and in June 2017, the new Cooper S E ALL4 plug-in hybrid. The new Countryman is longer than the first generation, and wider. The Cooper Countryman will be powered by a turbocharged 3-cylinder engine, while the Cooper S will use a new 2.0-litre turbo I4.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The Cooper S E plug-in hybrid combines a 134 hp (100 kW) 3-cylinder petrol engine and a synchronous electric motor, producing a combined system output of 221 hp (165 kW) with system torque of 385 N·m (284 lb-ft). Average fuel consumption on the NEDC test cycle is , with emissions of 49 grams per kilometer. The 7.6 kWh lithium-ion battery is positioned directly in front of the electric motor underneath the rear seat, delivering an all-electric range of up to and a top speed of . Charging at a 240-volt socket takes 3 hours and 15 minutes.


title: Mini Countryman

text: Mini makes the John Cooper Works edition available again in this generation with the tuned version based on the Cooper S. The 2.0-litre four-cylinder petrol engine has been upgraded with a new heat-resistant turbocharger and additional inter-cooler, resulting in , of torque and a 0-62 mph (100 km/h) time of 6.5 seconds. Similar to the Countryman S, JCW Countryman can be mated to either a 6-speed manual or 8-speed automatic transmission (which comes with the option to choose between Normal, Sport, and Eco mode). United States EPA-tested fuel economy for the JCW under manual transmission is for city and for highway which the automatic does slightly better with for city and for highway.


title: Mini Countryman

text: In summer 2019, Mini launched an updated version of the Countryman JCW, unofficially known as Countryman JCW 306. This is thanks to the now increased output of which now gives the vehicle a 0-62 mph (100 km/h) time of 5.1 seconds.


title: Mini Countryman

text: In July 2010, Mini announced plans to enter the World Rally Championship (WRC) with the Countryman beginning in 2011, and entering season-long tournament starting from 2012. The factory team had its first test outing of the 2011 WRC season at the 2011 Rally d'Italia Sardegna, before taking on the full calendar in 2012 and 2013. In the Intercontinental Rally Challenge, the RRC version had its first win at the 2012 Tour de Corse, driven by Dani Sordo. After just one season Mini terminated its works involvement in the World Rally Championship. The car continued to be used outside of the WRC, and won the 2012 Qatar International Rally and 2014 Barum Czech Rally Zlín, also taking podium finishes at the 2013 Rally of Lebanon.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The All4, equipped with a straight-six engine, has won the Dakar Rally 4 straight years beginning in 2012, with Stéphane Peterhansel driving in 2012 and cars from German Monster Energy X-raid Team won the 2013 Dakar Rally. Mini won the car category of the 2014 Dakar Rally with the All4 driven by Nani Roma. Another overall win in the 2015 Dakar Rally made it four straight wins, with a 100% finish rate. Carlos Saintz won again in 2020. The same team won the Abu Dhabi Desert Challenge five times from 2011, with other wins in the Baja Aragón, Desafio Ruta and Desafio Inca, and being the runner-up in the 2011 Silk Way Rally, 2012 Desafio Litoral Rally and 2015 Baja Russia Northern Forest.


title: Mini Countryman

text: Khalifa Al Mutaiwei win the FIA Cross Country Rally World Cup in 2012, Krzysztof Holowczyc in 2013, Vladimir Vasilyev in 2014, and Nasser Al-Attiyah in 2015.


title: Mini Countryman

text: Jean-Philippe Dayraut used a Mini Countryman to win the Andros Trophy ice racing championship in 2013 and 2014.


title: Mini Countryman

text: A 900 bhp vehicle based on the Mini Countryman entered the 2013 Pikes Peak International Hillclimb, finishing third overall.


title: Mini Countryman

text: Team JRM entered the 2015 FIA World Rallycross Championship season, acquired ex-Prodrive Minis, which unlike its competitors, using 1.6-litre engine with some concessions so the cars were able to competing with 2.0-litre engine cars. Guy Wilks reaching the final in the British round. It was also entered into the 2013 Global RallyCross Championship, with Liam Doran winning the Munich round. A further car was entered into the 2015 FIA European Rallycross Championship season, driven by Riku Tahko.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The team eventually entering FIA World Rallycross full-time, with Liam Doran as the driver. The Minis losing its concessions, as they debuted their self developed 2.0-litre engine in the fourth round in Great Britain.


title: Mini Countryman

text: The first generation Countryman was primarily built in Graz, Austria, under contract by Magna Steyr, making it the first of the BMW era Minis to be manufactured entirely outside the UK.


title: Mini Countryman

text: In 2013, assembly of the Countryman was expanded to three international locations: from April 2013 at BMW's plant near Chennai, India, specifically for the Indian market from June 2013 at the BMW Group Malaysia Assembly Plant in Kulim, Kedah, and at the BMW Manufacturing Thailand plant in Rayong from August 2013.


title: Mini Countryman

text: In 2012, worldwide sales of Countryman reached 102,000 units, 21,012 of which were sold in the US. In March 2013, the 250,000th Countryman was produced at Magna Steyr's Graz plant.


title: Mini Countryman

text: Since November 2016, the second generation Countryman has been assembled at VDL Nedcar in Born, the Netherlands.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Joseph Tyler Mixon (born July 24, 1996) is an American football running back for the Cincinnati Bengals of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Oklahoma, where he was a first-team All-Big 12, and was selected by the Bengals in the second round of the 2017 NFL Draft. Mixon received Pro Bowl honors in 2021 as a member of the team that reached Super Bowl LVI.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Mixon attended Freedom High School, where he played football and basketball for the Falcons. He was a three-year starter at running back for the Freedom High School Falcons football team. He rushed for 1,134 yards and 13 touchdowns as a sophomore on 171 carries. In his junior year, he rushed for 1,443 yards and 21 touchdowns on 201 carries. In his final year, he rushed for 1,704 yards and 23 touchdowns on 226 carries.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Mixon played in 16 basketball games for the Falcons. He had a 12.2 PPG average and a free throw percentage of 57% and made 79 field goals. His team went 22-2 overall and 10-0 in league play that season.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Mixon was ranked as a five-star recruit and the top-ranked running back in the nation by the Rivals.com recruiting network. In January 2014, he committed to the University of Oklahoma to play college football. He had 47 offers, and ultimately chose Oklahoma over Alabama, California, Wisconsin, and UCLA.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Mixon attended and played college football for the University of Oklahoma from 2014–2016. He was suspended from the Oklahoma football team for the 2014 season after a misdemeanor assault charge in October 2014.


title: Joe Mixon

text: In 2015, Mixon earned playing time his redshirt freshman year, playing in all 12 games with three starts. In his first career game, Mixon had a 76-yard touchdown reception, the longest catch ever by a Sooner freshman running back. In addition, he ran for 27 yards on five carries against Akron. On October 24, against Texas Tech, he had 154 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns. In the annual rivalry game against Oklahoma State, he had 136 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns. Oklahoma qualified for the College Football Playoff in the 2015 season. In the semifinals against Clemson in the Orange Bowl, he was limited to four rushing yards and 11 receiving yards in the loss. During the 2015 regular season, he ran for 749 yards on 110 carries, averaging 6.8 yards. He rushed for seven touchdowns and set his career long carry at 66 yards. He also recorded 25 receptions for 345 yards, averaging 13.8 yards per reception, and four touchdowns.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Mixon started the 2016 season with 40 rushing yards, one rushing touchdown, and 77 receiving yards in a loss to Houston. In the next game against Louisiana–Monroe, he had 117 rushing yards. On October 1, against TCU, he had 105 rushing yards, one rushing touchdown, five receptions, and 70 receiving yards. On October 15, against Kansas State, he had 88 rushing yards, 34 receiving yards, one receiving touchdown, and threw a 26-yard touchdown. On October 22, he had the best statistical performance of his collegiate career with 31 carries for 263 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns to go along with four receptions for 114 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns in a win over Texas Tech. His career day against Texas Tech marked the first of six consecutive games with at least one rushing touchdown. On November 12, against Baylor, he had 124 rushing yards, one rushing touchdown, five receptions, and 63 receiving yards. He followed that up with 147 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown against West Virginia. On December 3, against Oklahoma State, he had 99 rushing yards, one rushing touchdown, two receptions, 19 receiving yards, and a receiving touchdown. On January 2, he had 91 rushing yards, two rushing touchdowns, five receptions, and 89 receiving yards in the victory over Auburn in the Sugar Bowl.


title: Joe Mixon

text: After the 2016 season, Mixon decided to forgo his remaining two years of eligibility and enter the 2017 NFL Draft.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Coming out of college, some analysts and scouts graded Mixon as a first-round talent but projected him to be selected in the third or fourth round due to his prior history. He was ranked the fifth-best running back by NFLDraftScout.com, the fourth-best by Sports Illustrated, and the third-best back by Pro Football Focus. Although he was a talented prospect, the NFL declined to invite him to the NFL Scouting Combine. ESPN reported that on the weekend of the combine the Cincinnati Bengals met with Mixon in order for them to get a chance to talk with him extensively about his character. On March 8, 2017, Mixon performed all of the combine tests and completed the positional workouts at Oklahoma's Pro Day.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Mixon was drafted by the Cincinnati Bengals in the second round (48th overall) of the 2017 NFL Draft. He was the fourth running back to be selected in that year's draft. He was viewed as a first-round talent by some scouts, but several teams removed him from their draft board entirely due to character concerns after a prior assault on Amelia Molitor, a female student at Oklahoma. New England Patriots owner Robert Kraft said, "While I believe in second chances and giving players an opportunity for redemption, I also believe that playing in the NFL is a privilege, not a right. For me, personally, I believe that privilege is lost for men who have a history of abusing women." After Mixon was drafted, ESPN writer Dan Graziano wrote that, "No 2017 draft pick enters the league under more intense scrutiny or controversy." The editorial board of Cincinnati TV station WCPO criticized the draft pick and called for a boycott of the Bengals, writing, "Instead of buying a Bengals ticket this year, take the $50 or more you would have spent on that ticket and donate the money to a nonprofit that works to prevent violence against women." On June 2, 2017, the Bengals signed Mixon to a four-year, $5.45 million contract with $2.81 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $2.10 million.


title: Joe Mixon

text: On September 10, 2017, Mixon made his NFL debut in a 20–0 loss to the Baltimore Ravens. He had eight rushes for nine yards and three receptions for 15 yards. In Week 3, against the Green Bay Packers, his role in the offense expanded with 18 carries for 62 yards. In Week 5, against the Buffalo Bills, he recorded his first career rushing touchdown, a five-yard rush in the fourth quarter. In Week 8, against the Indianapolis Colts, he recorded over 100 scrimmage yards (18 rushing and 91 receiving) for the first time in his career, 67 of them coming on a long run-after-catch play in the second quarter. After three disappointing weeks of 31 rushing yards against the Jacksonville Jaguars, 37 rushing yards against the Tennessee Titans, and 49 rushing yards against the Denver Broncos, averaging just 2.79 yards per carry over the time span but recording two touchdowns, Mixon led the NFL in Week 12 with a career-best 114 rushing yards against Cleveland, along with a touchdown and 51 yards receiving. Mixon closed out his rookie season with 96 rushing yards against the Baltimore Ravens in the 31–27 victory. Overall, in his rookie season, Mixon finished with 626 rushing yards, 4 rushing touchdowns, 30 receptions, and 287 receiving yards.


title: Joe Mixon

text: In the 2018 season opener against the Indianapolis Colts, Mixon started the season off with 95 rushing yards, a rushing touchdown, and five receptions for 54 yards in the 34–23 victory. In the next game against the Baltimore Ravens, Mixon had to leave the game multiple times due to a knee injury. He returned to action in Week 5 against the Miami Dolphins with 93 rushing yards, 22 receiving yards, and a receiving touchdown in the 27–17 victory. In Week 8, against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, he had 123 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 37–34 victory for his second-career multi-touchdown game. On December 9, Mixon racked up 111 yards and a score on the ground against the Los Angeles Chargers. In Week 15 against the Oakland Raiders, Mixon rushed for 129 yards and two touchdowns in a 30–16 win. This was the third multi-touchdown game of Mixon's career. He finished the season leading the AFC in rushing yards with 1,168. In addition, he had eight rushing touchdowns and one receiving touchdown.


title: Joe Mixon

text: In Week 3 against the Buffalo Bills, Mixon rushed 15 times for 61 yards and caught two passes for 34 yards and a touchdown as the Bengals lost 21–17. In Week 10 against the Baltimore Ravens, Mixon rushed a season high 30 times for 114 yards in the 49–13 loss. In Week 11 against the Oakland Raiders, Mixon rushed 15 times for 86 yards and his first rushing touchdown of the season in the 17–10 loss. In Week 14 against the Cleveland Browns, Mixon finished the game with 23 rushes for 146 yards and a touchdown and three catches for 40 yards as the Bengals lost 27–19. During Week 15 against the New England Patriots, Mixon finished with 25 rush attempts for 136 rushing yards as the Bengals lost 34–13. In Week 17 against the Cleveland Browns, Mixon rushed 26 times for 162 yards and two touchdowns during the 33–23 win. In the 2019 season, Mixon finished with 1,137 rushing yards and five rushing touchdowns to go along with 35 receptions for 287 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns.


title: Joe Mixon

text: On September 1, 2020, Mixon signed a four-year, $48 million contract extension with the Bengals through the 2024 season. In Week 4, against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Mixon had 25 carries for 151 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns to go along with six receptions for 30 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown during the 33–25 win. Mixon was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for his performance in Week 4. In Week 6, he suffered a foot injury and missed the next three games before being placed on injured reserve on November 21, 2020. In the 2020 season, Mixon finished with 428 rushing yards and three rushing touchdowns to go along with 21 receptions for 138 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in six games.


title: Joe Mixon

text: During Week 1 against the Minnesota Vikings, Mixon finished with 127 rushing yards and a touchdown as the Bengals won 27–24 in overtime. In Week 11, against the Las Vegas Raiders, he had 121 rushing yards and two touchdowns. In Week 12, Mixon had 165 rushing yards and two touchdowns in a 41–10 win over the Pittsburgh Steelers, earning AFC Offensive Player of the Week. In December, Mixon was selected to his first Pro Bowl, making him the first Bengals running back to make the Pro Bowl since Rudi Johnson in 2004. On January 5, 2022, Mixon was revealed to have tested positive for COVID-19, and thus could not play in the season finale. Overall, Mixon finished the 2021 season with a career high 1,205 rushing yards and 13 rushing touchdowns to go along with 42 receptions for 314 receiving yards and 3 receiving touchdowns. Mixon's 13 rushing touchdowns were the most by a Bengals player since Ickey Woods had 15 in the 1988 season.


title: Joe Mixon

text: In Super Bowl LVI, Mixon rushed for 72 yards, and threw his first career pass attempt, a 6-yard passing touchdown to Tee Higgins in the 23–20 loss to the Los Angeles Rams. He was ranked 38th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2022.


title: Joe Mixon

text: In the Bengals' season-opener, Mixon had 145 scrimmage yards in the 23–20 overtime loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers. In Week 9 against the Carolina Panthers, Mixon rushed for 153 yards, had 58 receiving yards, and a career-high, franchise record, five touchdowns in the 42–21 win. He was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for his game against the Panthers.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Mixon entered an Alford plea to a misdemeanor assault charge in October 2014 for punching Amelia Molitor, breaking bones in her face and resulting in hospitalization and surgery. The incident happened on July 25, 2014, a day after Mixon turned 18, in Norman, Oklahoma.


title: Joe Mixon

text: According to Molitor, Mixon and some of his teammates were harassing Molitor and her friend outside a store. The surveillance video shows Mixon follow Molitor inside the store and the two begin arguing, followed by Molitor pushing and slapping Mixon’s face, and then Mixon punching Molitor, causing her to fall into a table. Molitor required surgery after the incident, as the punch and resulting fall had broken four bones in her face. According to Molitor, the incident was escalated when Mixon used a homophobic slur towards her friend after Mixon followed them into the store. Mixon claimed that Molitor's friend had directed a racial slur at him and that he responded with a homophobic slur at the friend.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Mixon received a one-year deferred sentence and was ordered to undergo counseling along with 100 hours of community service. Molitor filed suit in federal court against Mixon on July 22, 2016, accusing Mixon of negligence, wilful and wanton misconduct, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. A settlement in the case was reached, and Mixon apologized to Molitor on April 21, 2017.


title: Joe Mixon

text: Oklahoma coach Bob Stoops suspended Mixon for one game in 2016 after an incident involving him and a parking attendant. After receiving a parking citation, Mixon confronted the attendant, tore the citation in half, and threw the pieces. According to the incident report, he then "inched at the officer" with his vehicle "to intimidate the officer".


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Orphism (more rarely Orphicism; ) is the name given to a set of religious beliefs and practices originating in the ancient Greek and Hellenistic world, associated with literature ascribed to the mythical poet Orpheus, who descended into the Greek underworld and returned. This type of journey is called a katabasis and is the basis of a several hero worships and journeys. Orphics revered Dionysus (who once descended into the Underworld and returned) and Persephone (who annually descended into the Underworld for a season and then returned). Orphism has been described as a reform of the earlier Dionysian religion, involving a re-interpretation or re-reading of the myth of Dionysus and a re-ordering of Hesiod's "Theogony", based in part on pre-Socratic philosophy.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: The central focus of Orphism is the suffering and death of the god Dionysus at the hands of the Titans, which forms the basis of Orphism's central myth. According to this myth, the infant Dionysus is killed, torn apart, and consumed by the Titans. In retribution, Zeus strikes the Titans with a thunderbolt, turning them to ash. From these ashes, humanity is born. In Orphic belief, this myth describes humanity as having a dual nature: body (), inherited from the Titans, and a divine spark or soul (), inherited from Dionysus. In order to achieve salvation from the Titanic, material existence, one had to be initiated into the Dionysian mysteries and undergo "teletē", a ritual purification and reliving of the suffering and death of the god. Orphics believed that they would, after death, spend eternity alongside Orpheus and other heroes. The uninitiated (), they believed, would be reincarnated indefinitely.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: In order to maintain their purity following initiation and ritual, Orphics attempted to live an ascetic life free of spiritual contamination, most notably by adhering to a strict vegetarian diet that also excluded broad beans.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Orphism is named after the legendary poet-hero Orpheus, who was said to have originated the Mysteries of Dionysus. However, Orpheus was more closely associated with Apollo than to Dionysus in the earliest sources and iconography. According to some versions of his mythos, he was the son of Apollo, and during his last days, he shunned the worship of other gods and devoted himself to Apollo alone.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Poetry containing distinctly Orphic beliefs has been traced back to the 6th century BC or at least 5th century BC, and graffiti of the 5th century BC apparently refers to "Orphics". The Derveni papyrus allows Orphic mythology to be dated to the end of the 5th century BC, and it is probably even older. Orphic views and practices are attested as by Herodotus, Euripides, and Plato. Plato refers to "Orpheus-initiators" (), and associated rites, although how far "Orphic" literature in general related to these rites is not certain.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Orphic views and practices have parallels to elements of Pythagoreanism, and various traditions hold that the Pythagoreans or Pythagoras himself authored early Orphic works; alternately, later philosophers believed that Pythagoras was an initiate of Orphism. The extent to which one movement may have influenced the other remains controversial. Some scholars maintain that Orphism and Pythagoreanism began as separate traditions which later became confused and conflated due to a few similarities. Others argue that the two traditions share a common origin and can even be considered a single entity, termed "Orphico-Pythagoreanism."


title: Orphism (religion)

text: The belief that Pythagoreanism was a subset or direct descendant of Orphic religion existed by late antiquity, when Neoplatonist philosophers took the Orphic origin of Pythagorean teachings at face value. Proclus wrote:


title: Orphism (religion)

text: In the fifteenth century, the Neoplatonic Greek scholar Constantine Lascaris (who found the poem Argonautica Orphica) considered a Pythagorean Orpheus. Bertrand Russell (1947) noted:


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Study of early Orphic and Pythagorean sources, however, is more ambiguous concerning their relationship, and authors writing closer to Pythagoras' own lifetime never mentioned his supposed initiation into Orphism, and in general regarded Orpheus himself as a mythological figure. Despite this, even these authors of the 5th and 4th centuries BC noted a strong similarity between the two doctrines. In fact, some claimed that rather than being an initiate of Orphism, Pythagoras was actually the original author of the first Orphic texts. Specifically, Ion of Chios claimed that Pythagoras authored poetry which he attributed to the mythical Orpheus, and Epigenes, in his "On Works Attributed to Orpheus", attributed the authorship of several influential Orphic poems to notable early Pythagoreans, including Cercops. According to Cicero, Aristotle also claimed that Orpheus never existed, and that the Pythagoreans ascribed some Orphic poems to "Cercon" (see Cercops).


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Belief in metempsychosis was common to both currents, although it also seems to contain differences. Where the Orphics taught about a cycle of grievous embodiments that could be escaped through their rites, Pythagoras seemed to teach about an eternal, neutral metempsychosis against which personal actions would be irrelevant.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: The Neoplatonists regarded the theology of Orpheus, carried forward through Pythagoreanism, as the core of the original Greek religious tradition. However, earlier sources demonstrate that it began as a fringe movement, with its mythology and ritual considered unorthodox and incorporating alien elements similar to the Egyptian religion of the 4th and 5th centuries BC. Modern historians tend to support the latter view.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: The Orphic theogonies are genealogical works similar to the "Theogony" of Hesiod, but the details are different. The theogonies are symbolically similar to Near Eastern models. The main story has it that Zagreus, Dionysus' previous incarnation, is the son of Zeus and Persephone. Zeus names the child as his successor, which angers his wife Hera. She instigates the Titans to murder the child. Zagreus is then tricked with a mirror and children's toys by the Titans, who shred him to pieces and consume him. Athena saves the heart and tells Zeus of the crime, who in turn hurls a thunderbolt on the Titans. The resulting soot, from which sinful mankind is born, contains the bodies of the Titans and Zagreus. The soul of man (the Dionysus part) is therefore divine, but the body (the Titan part) holds the soul in bondage. Thus, it was declared that the soul returns to a host ten times, bound to the wheel of rebirth. Following the punishment, the dismembered limbs of Zagreus were cautiously collected by Apollo who buried them in his sacred land Delphi. In later centuries, these versions underwent a development where Apollo's act of burying became responsible for the reincarnation of Dionysus, thus giving Apollo the title "Dionysiodotes" (bestower of Dionysus). Apollo plays an important part in the dismemberment myth because he represents the reverting of Encosmic Soul back towards unification.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: There are two Orphic stories of the rebirth of Dionysus: in one it is the heart of Dionysus that is implanted into the thigh of Zeus; in the other Zeus has impregnated the mortal woman Semele, resulting in Dionysus's literal rebirth. Many of these details differ from accounts in the classical authors. Damascius says that Apollo "gathers him (Dionysus) together and brings him back up". Firmicus Maternus, a Christian author, gives a different account with the book "On the Error of Profane Religions". He says that Jupiter (Zeus) originally was a (mortal) king of Crete—a concept of Euhemerus—and Dionysos was his son. Dionysos was murdered, and then cannibalized. Only his heart was salvaged by Athena. A statue of gypsum (the same substance the Titans used to disguise themselves) was then made to look like Dionysos, and the heart placed within.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: In Orphic theogonies, the Orphic Egg is a cosmic egg from which hatched the primordial hermaphroditic deity Phanes/Protogonus (variously equated also with Zeus, Pan, Metis, Eros, Erikepaios and Bromius), who in turn created the other gods. The egg is often depicted with the serpent-like creature, Ananke, wound about it. Phanes is the golden winged primordial being who was hatched from the shining cosmic egg that was the source of the universe. Called Protogonos (First-Born) and Eros (Love)—being the seed of gods and men—Phanes means "to bring light" or "to shine" and is related to the Greek "to shine forth" as well as the Latin "Lucifer". An ancient Orphic hymn addresses him thus:Ineffable, hidden, brilliant scion, whose motion is whirring, you scattered the dark mist that lay before your eyes and, flapping your wings, you whirled about, and through this world you brought pure light.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Surviving written fragments show a number of beliefs about the afterlife similar to those in the "Orphic" mythology about Dionysus' death and resurrection. Bone tablets found in Olbia (5th century BC) carry short and enigmatic inscriptions like: "Life. Death. Life. Truth. Dio(nysus). Orphics." The function of these bone tablets is unknown.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Gold-leaf tablets found in graves from Thurii, Hipponium, Thessaly and Crete (4th century BC and after) give instructions to the dead. Although these thin tablets are often highly fragmentary, collectively they present a shared scenario of the passage into the afterlife. When the deceased arrives in the underworld, he is expected to confront obstacles. He must take care not to drink of Lethe ("Forgetfulness"), but of the pool of Mnemosyne ("Memory"). He is provided with formulaic expressions with which to present himself to the guardians of the afterlife. As said in the Petelia tablet:


title: Orphism (religion)

text: I am a son of Earth and starry sky. I am parched with thirst and am dying; but quickly grant me cold water from the Lake of Memory to drink.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Now you have died and now you have come into being, O thrice happy one, on this same day. Tell Persephone that the Bacchic One himself released you.


title: Orphism (religion)

text: Stian Torjussen (2005) Phanes and Dionysos in the Derveni Theogony , Symbolae Osloenses, 80:1, 7-22, DOI: 10.1080/00397670600684691


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: Sleepy Hollow is a village in the town of Mount Pleasant, in Westchester County, New York, United States. The village is located on the east bank of the Hudson River, about north of New York City, and is served by the Philipse Manor stop on the Metro-North Hudson Line. To the south of Sleepy Hollow is the village of Tarrytown, and to the north and east are unincorporated parts of Mount Pleasant. The population of the village at the 2020 census was 9,986.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: Originally incorporated as North Tarrytown in the late 19th century, the village adopted its current name in 1996. The village is known internationally through "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow", an 1820 short story about the local area and its infamous specter, the Headless Horseman, written by Washington Irving, who lived in Tarrytown and is buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. Owing to this story, as well as the village's roots in early American history and folklore, Sleepy Hollow is considered by some to be one of the "most haunted places in the world". Despite this designation, Sleepy Hollow has also been called "the safest small 'city' [i.e., under 100,000 residents] in America".


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: The village is home to the Philipsburg Manor House and the Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow, as well as the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, where in addition to Irving, numerous other notable people are buried.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: The land that would become Sleepy Hollow was first bought from Adriaen van der Donck, a patroon in New Netherland before the English takeover in 1664. Starting in 1672 Frederick Philipse began acquiring large parcels of land mainly in today's southern Westchester County. Comprising some of land, it was bounded by the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, the Croton River, the Hudson River, and the Bronx River. Philipse was granted a royal charter in 1693, creating the Manor of Philipsburg and establishing him as first lord.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: In today's Sleepy Hollow, he established an upper mill and shipping depot, today part of the Philipse Manor House historic site. A pious man, he was architect and financier of the town's Old Dutch Church, and was said to have built the pulpit with his own hands.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: When Philipse died in 1702, the manor was divided between his son, Adolphus Philipse, and his grandson, Frederick Philipse II. Adolph received the Upper Mills property, which extended from Dobbs Ferry to the Croton River. Frederick II was given the Lower Mills at the confluence of the Saw Mill and Hudson Rivers, the two parcels being reunited on his uncle's death. His son, Frederick III, became the third lord of the manor in 1751.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: In 1779, Frederick Philipse III, a Loyalist, was attainted for treason. The manor was confiscated and sold at public auction, split between 287 buyers. The largest tract of land (about ) was at the Upper Mills; it passed to numerous owners until 1951, when it was acquired by Sleepy Hollow Restorations. Thanks to the philanthropy of John D. Rockefeller Jr., about were restored as today's historic site.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: Sleepy Hollow is located at (41.091998, −73.864361). According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which is land and , or 55.58%, is water.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 9,870 people, 3,181 households, and 2,239 families residing in the village. The population density was 4,054.7 people per square mile (1,566.9/km). There were 3,253 housing units at an average density of 1,431.8 per square mile (553.3/km). The racial makeup of the village was 61.0% Caucasian, 6.2% African American, 0.8% Native American, 3.3% Asian, <0.1% Pacific Islander, 23.5% from other races, and 5.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 51.0% of the population, many of whom are Ecuadorian, Dominican, Chilean, and Puerto Rican. Sleepy Hollow has one of the highest proportions of Ecuadorian American residents of any community nationwide, standing at 17.5% as of the 2010 census.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: There were 3,181 households, out of which 36.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.5% were married couples living together, 13.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.6% were non-families. 23.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.37.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: In the village, the population was spread out, with 25.0% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 36.7% from 25 to 44, 18.9% from 45 to 64, and 10.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.9 males.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: The median income for a household in the village was $54,201, and the median income for a family was $63,889. Males had a median income of $39,923 versus $32,146 for females. The per capita income for the village was $28,325. About 5.7% of families and 7.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.3% of those under age 18 and 7.9% of those age 65 or over.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: The Edward Harden Mansion, now serving as the administration building for the Public Schools of the Tarrytowns, Patriot's Park, Philipse Manor Railroad Station, Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, and the Tarrytown Light are all listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow and Philipsburg Manor House are listed as National Historic Landmarks. Also of note are Kingsland Point Park (allegedly haunted by the spirit of Captain Kidd, an associate of Philipse), Philipse Manor Beach Club, Sleepy Hollow Manor (residential neighborhood on the former estate of renowned explorer and politician John C. Frémont, whose now-updated house still overlooks the Hudson River there), segments of the Old Croton Aqueduct, and the Rockefeller State Park Preserve.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: , the village's police department had 27 officers, four school crossing guards, and three civilian employees.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: The village is also served by the New York State Police and Westchester County Department of Public Safety.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: Police officers from the villages of Sleepy Hollow and Dobbs Ferry, the town of Greenburgh, and the New York State Police make up a Marine / H.E.A.T. Unit.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: As of 2006, police base salaries in Sleepy Hollow were low compared to other Westchester County forces, in part due to the lower tax base.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: The Sleepy Hollow Fire Department began with organization of the North Tarrytown Fire Patrol on May 26, 1876. Within 25 years it had grown to five companies in three fire stations. As of 2019, there were three engines (Engines 85, 86 and 87), one tower ladder (Tower Ladder 38), one rescue (Rescue 12), and other equipment. The fire department is run by volunteers and responds to over 300 calls each year. The local hospital, Phelps Memorial, responds to hundreds of emergencies per year.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: Emergency medical services in Sleepy Hollow depend on volunteers assisted by paid staff. The Ambulance Corps has two basic life support ambulances. Mount Pleasant Paramedics provides advanced life support.


title: Sleepy Hollow, New York

text: Sleepy Hollow has been used as a setting or filming location for numerous media works, including films, games, literature, motion pictures, and television productions, including:


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: American Eagle is a US brand name for the regional branch of American Airlines, under which six individual regional airlines operate short- and medium-haul feeder flights. Three of these airlines, Envoy Air (formerly American Eagle Airlines), Piedmont Airlines, and PSA Airlines, are wholly owned subsidiaries of the American Airlines Group. American Eagle's largest hub is Charlotte Douglas International's Concourse E, which operates over 340 flights per day, making it the largest express flight operation in the world.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: Prior to the Airline Deregulation Act in 1978, most major US air carriers had maintained close relationships with independent regional carriers in order to feed passengers from smaller markets into the larger cities, and, in turn, onto the larger legacy carriers. In the post-regulation era, the hub-and-spoke system gained prominence, and in order to feed traffic from smaller markets into these newly established hubs, the major carriers outsourced regional operations to these smaller carriers. These relationships included the use of code sharing, shared branding, and listing regional partners in the computer reservations systems of the mainline carrier.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: American Eagle commenced service on November 1, 1984, with a flight from Fayetteville, Arkansas, to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW). This flight was operated by Metroflight Airlines (a wholly owned subsidiary of Metro Airlines), using a Convair 580 turboprop aircraft. Metroflight also operated de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter commuter turboprop aircraft on American Eagle flights serving DFW. Other operators contracted by American Airlines to fly the American Eagle banner during this time included Air Midwest, Air Virginia (later AVAir), Chaparral Airlines, Command Airways, Simmons Airlines, and Wings West.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: On September 15, 1986, Executive Airlines joined the American Eagle system. With hub operations at Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan, Puerto Rico, the addition of Executive Airways to the American Eagle family opened up an extensive inter-island network throughout the Caribbean.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: Between 1987 and 1989 AMR Corp. (parent corporation of American Airlines) gradually acquired most of its regional carriers, starting with Simmons Airlines. By 1991, AMR had consolidated its wholly owned regional carriers into four separate entities: Executive Airlines, Flagship Airlines, Simmons Airlines, and Wings West. AMR would later purchase the assets of bankrupt Metro Airlines in 1993. At this point, AMR owned all of the airlines that were operating for American Eagle.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: On May 15, 1998, Flagship Airlines and Wings West were merged into Simmons Airlines, with the new entity given the name American Eagle Airlines. Along with Executive Airlines, these would be the only two operators using the American Eagle brand name for the next fourteen years.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: After American Airlines acquired Trans World Airlines (TWA) in 2001, it retained the contracts with the carriers that operated under the Trans World Express banner, which, at the time, included Chautauqua Airlines, Corporate Airlines, and Trans States Airlines. However, instead of being integrated into the American Eagle brand, these carriers operated under a separate regional brand known as AmericanConnection. This brand name was used for thirteen years before being discontinued in 2014.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: As part of its restructuring and emergence from chapter 11 bankruptcy, AMR announced that it would start contracting American Eagle flying to carriers outside of its wholly owned subsidiaries. On November 15, 2012, SkyWest Airlines and ExpressJet Airlines, both subsidiaries of SkyWest, Inc. began operations for American Eagle. On August 1, 2013, Republic Airways a subsidiary of Republic Airways Holdings, commenced flying operations under the American Eagle branding as part of a 12-year capacity purchase agreement to operate Embraer 175 aircraft for American Eagle.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: On September 12, 2012, AMR announced the discontinuation of the AmericanConnection brand, and all operations were going to be integrated into the American Eagle brand. However, Chautauqua Airlines, a subsidiary of Republic Airways Holdings, and the only operator of AmericanConnection flights at the time of the announcement, opted not to renew its contract. All AmericanConnection flights ended on August 19, 2014.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: American Eagle service operated by Executive Airlines ceased operations on March 31, 2013. At the same time, its base at San Juan was dehubbed.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: Due to the fact that an increasing number of other carriers were being contracted to fly under the American Eagle brand, it was announced on January 15, 2014, that American Eagle Airlines would change its name to Envoy Air. The name change took effect on April 15, 2014.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: Compass Airlines, a subsidiary of Trans States Holdings, began American Eagle operations on March 27, 2015, as part of a deal to operate 20 new Embraer 175 aircraft on behalf of American. These aircraft are based at American's Los Angeles hub.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: Air Wisconsin had announced it would exclusively fly as United Express which commenced in March 2018, ending their involvement in operating flights under the American Eagle brand.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: In May 2018, American Airlines announced the termination of its partnerships with ExpressJet and Trans States Airlines as of 2019, meaning the end of those operators conducting American Eagle flights.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: In March 2020, due to the reduction in flying in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Compass Airlines announced that it would be ceasing operations on April 5, 2020, ending its operations as American Eagle.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: In September 2020, Envoy Air, a subsidiary of American Eagle, announced a permanent closure at its two NY bases at LGA and JFK, due to a new codeshare agreement between American Airlines and JetBlue.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: • In January 1988, Nashville Eagle became AMR Corp.’s first and only start-up airline, using equipment acquired from Air Midwest.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: • Business Express was acquired by AMR Eagle Holdings Corporation in March 1999, although it never flew under the American Eagle brand before being fully integrated into American Eagle Airlines, Inc. in December 2000.


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: The American Eagle brand, through its various regional and commuter airline partners, operated a variety of twinjet aircraft over the years including the following types:


title: American Eagle (airline brand)

text: The American Eagle brand, through its various regional and commuter airline partners, operated a variety of twin-turboprop aircraft over the years including the following types:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Renal functions include maintaining an acid–base balance; regulating fluid balance; regulating sodium, potassium, and other electrolytes; clearing toxins; absorption of glucose, amino acids, and other small molecules; regulation of blood pressure; production of various hormones, such as erythropoietin; and activation of vitamin D.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Glomerular filtration rate describes the flow rate of filtered fluid through the kidney. Creatinine clearance rate (C or CrCl) is the volume of blood plasma that is cleared of creatinine per unit time and is a useful measure for approximating the GFR. Creatinine clearance exceeds GFR due to creatinine secretion, which can be blocked by cimetidine. Both GFR and C may be accurately calculated by comparative measurements of substances in the blood and urine, or estimated by formulas using just a blood test result (eGFR and eC) The results of these tests are used to assess the excretory function of the kidneys. Staging of chronic kidney disease is based on categories of GFR as well as albuminuria and cause of kidney disease.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The normal range of GFR, adjusted for body surface area, is 100–130 average 125 mL/min/1.73m in men and 90–120 mL/min/1.73m in women younger than the age of 40. In children, GFR measured by inulin clearance is 110 mL/min/1.73 m until 2 years of age in both sexes, and then it progressively decreases. After age 40, GFR decreases progressively with age, by 0.4–1.2 mL/min per year.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Estimated GFR (eGFR) is now recommended by clinical practice guidelines and regulatory agencies for routine evaluation of GFR whereas measured GFR (mGFR) is recommended as a confirmatory test when more accurate assessment is required.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the volume of fluid filtered from the renal (kidney) glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule per unit time. Central to the physiologic maintenance of GFR is the differential basal tone of the afferent and efferent arterioles (see diagram). In other words, the filtration rate is dependent on the difference between the higher blood pressure created by vasoconstriction of the input or afferent arteriole versus the lower blood pressure created by lesser vasoconstriction of the output or efferent arteriole.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: GFR is equal to the renal clearance rate when any solute is freely filtered and is neither reabsorbed nor secreted by the kidneys. The rate therefore measured is the quantity of the substance in the urine that originated from a calculable volume of blood. Relating this principle to the below equation – for the substance used, the product of urine concentration and urine flow equals the mass of substance excreted during the time that urine has been collected. This mass equals the mass filtered at the glomerulus as nothing is added or removed in the nephron. Dividing this mass by the plasma concentration gives the volume of plasma which the mass must have originally come from, and thus the volume of plasma fluid that has entered Bowman's capsule within the aforementioned period of time. The GFR is typically recorded in units of "volume per time", e.g., milliliters per minute (mL/min). Compare to filtration fraction.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: There are several different techniques used to calculate or estimate the glomerular filtration rate (GFR or eGFR). The above formula only applies for GFR calculation when it is equal to the Clearance Rate.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: In clinical practice, however, creatinine clearance or estimates of creatinine clearance based on the serum creatinine level are used to measure GFR. Creatinine is produced naturally by the body (creatinine is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate, which is found in muscle). It is freely filtered by the glomerulus, but also actively secreted by the peritubular capillaries in very small amounts such that creatinine clearance overestimates actual GFR by 10% to 20%. This margin of error is acceptable, considering the ease with which creatinine clearance is measured. Unlike precise GFR measurements involving constant infusions of inulin, creatinine is already at a steady-state concentration in the blood, and so measuring creatinine clearance is much less cumbersome. However, creatinine estimates of GFR have their limitations. All of the estimating equations depend on a prediction of the 24-hour creatinine excretion rate, which is a function of muscle mass which is quite variable. One of the equations, the Cockcroft and Gault equation (see below) does not correct for race. With a higher muscle mass, serum creatinine will be higher for any given rate of clearance.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The GFR can be determined by injecting inulin or the inulin-analog sinistrin into the blood stream. Since both inulin and sinistrin are neither reabsorbed nor secreted by the kidney after glomerular filtration, their rate of excretion is directly proportional to the rate of filtration of water and solutes across the glomerular filter. Incomplete urine collection is an important source of error in inulin clearance measurement.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Using inulin to measure kidney function is the "gold standard" for comparison with other means of estimating glomerular filtration rate.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: GFR can be accurately measured using radioactive substances, in particular chromium-51 and technetium-99m. These come close to the ideal properties of inulin (undergoing only glomerular filtration) but can be measured more practically with only a few urine or blood samples. Measurement of renal or plasma clearance of Cr-EDTA is widely used in Europe but not available in the United States, where Tc-DTPA may be used instead. Renal and plasma clearance Cr-EDTA has been shown to be accurate in comparison with the gold standard, inulin. Use of Cr‑EDTA is considered a reference standard measure in UK guidance.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Problems with creatinine (varying muscle mass, recent meat ingestion (much less dependent on the diet than urea), etc.) have led to evaluation of alternative agents for estimation of GFR. One of these is cystatin C, a ubiquitous protein secreted by most cells in the body (it is an inhibitor of cysteine protease).


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Cystatin C is freely filtered at the glomerulus. After filtration, Cystatin C is reabsorbed and catabolized by the tubular epithelial cells, with only small amounts excreted in the urine. Cystatin C levels are therefore measured not in the urine, but in the bloodstream.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Equations have been developed linking estimated GFR to serum cystatin C levels. Most recently, some proposed equations have combined (sex, age and race) adjusted cystatin C and creatinine. The most accurate is (sex, age and race) adjusted cystatin C, followed by (sex, age and race) adjusted creatinine and then cystatine C alone in slightly different with adjusted creatinine.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: More precisely, GFR is the fluid flow rate between the glomerular capillaries and the Bowman's capsule:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Because this constant is a measurement of hydraulic conductivity multiplied by the capillary surface area, it is almost impossible to measure physically. However, it can be determined experimentally. Methods of determining the GFR are listed in the above and below sections and it is clear from our equation that formula_4 can be found by dividing the experimental GFR by the net filtration pressure:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The hydrostatic pressure within the glomerular capillaries is determined by the pressure difference between the fluid entering immediately from the afferent arteriole and leaving through the efferent arteriole. The pressure difference is approximated by the product of the total resistance of the respective arteriole and the flux of blood through it:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The pressure in the Bowman's capsule and proximal tubule can be determined by the difference between the pressure in the Bowman's capsule and the descending tubule:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Blood plasma has a good many proteins in it and they exert an inward directed force called the osmotic pressure on the water in hypotonic solutions across a membrane, i.e., in the Bowman's capsule. Because plasma proteins are virtually incapable of escaping the glomerular capillaries, this oncotic pressure is defined, simply, by the ideal gas law:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: This value is almost always taken to be equal to zero because in a healthy nephron, there should be no proteins in the Bowman's Capsule.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The filtration fraction is the amount of plasma that is actually filtered through the kidney. This can be defined using the equation:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: A common mistake made when just looking at serum creatinine is the failure to account for muscle mass. Hence, an older woman with a serum creatinine of 1.4 mg/dL may actually have a moderately severe chronic kidney disease, whereas a young muscular male can have a normal level of renal function at this serum creatinine level. Creatinine-based equations should be used with caution in cachectic patients and patients with cirrhosis. They often have very low muscle mass and a much lower creatinine excretion rate than predicted by the equations below, such that a cirrhotic patient with a serum creatinine of 0.9 mg/dL may have a moderately severe degree of chronic kidney disease.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Estimated GFR (eGFR) is now recommended by clinical practice guidelines and regulatory agencies for routine evaluation of GFR whereas measured GFR (mGFR) is recommended as a confirmatory test when more accurate assessment is required.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: One method of determining GFR from creatinine is to collect urine (usually for 24 h) to determine the amount of creatinine that was removed from the blood over a given time interval. If one removes 1440 mg in 24 h, this is equivalent to removing 1 mg/min. If the blood concentration is 0.01 mg/mL (1 mg/dL), then one can say that 100 mL/min of blood is being "cleared" of creatinine, since, to get 1 mg of creatinine, 100 mL of blood containing 0.01 mg/mL would need to have been cleared.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Creatinine clearance (C) is calculated from the creatinine concentration in the collected urine sample (U), urine flow rate (V"dt"), and the plasma concentration (P). Since the product of urine concentration and urine flow rate yields creatinine excretion rate, which is the rate of removal from the blood, creatinine clearance is calculated as removal rate per min (U×V"dt") divided by the plasma creatinine concentration. This is commonly represented mathematically as


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Example: A person has a plasma creatinine concentration of 0.01 mg/mL and in 1 hour produces 60 mL of urine with a creatinine concentration of 1.25 mg/mL.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The common procedure involves undertaking a 24-hour urine collection, from empty-bladder one morning to the contents of the bladder the following morning, with a comparative blood test then taken. The urinary flow rate is still calculated per minute, hence:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: To allow comparison of results between people of different sizes, the C is often corrected for the body surface area (BSA) and expressed compared to the average sized man as mL/min/1.73 m. While most adults have a BSA that approaches 1.7 m (1.6 m to 1.9 m), extremely obese or slim patients should have their C corrected for their "actual" BSA.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Twenty-four-hour urine collection to assess creatinine clearance is no longer widely performed, due to difficulty in assuring complete specimen collection. To assess the adequacy of a complete collection, one always calculates the amount of creatinine excreted over a 24-hour period. This amount varies with muscle mass and is higher in young people/old, and in men/women. An unexpectedly low or high 24-hour creatinine excretion rate voids the test. Nevertheless, in cases where estimates of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine are unreliable, creatinine clearance remains a useful test. These cases include "estimation of GFR in individuals with variation in dietary intake (vegetarian diet, creatine supplements) or muscle mass (amputation, malnutrition, muscle wasting), since these factors are not specifically taken into account in prediction equations."


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: A number of formulae have been devised to estimate GFR or C values on the basis of serum creatinine levels. Where not otherwise stated serum creatinine is assumed to be stated in mg/dL, not μmol/L—divide by 88.4 to convert from μmol/Lto mg/dL.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: A commonly used surrogate marker for the estimation of creatinine clearance is the Cockcroft-Gault (CG) formula, which in turn estimates GFR in ml/min: It is named after the scientists, the asthmologist (b. 1946) and the nephrologist (1925–2003), who first published the formula in 1976, and it employs serum creatinine measurements and a patient's weight to predict the creatinine clearance.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: One interesting feature of the Cockcroft and Gault equation is that it shows how dependent the estimation of CCr is based on age. The age term is (140 – age). This means that a 20-year-old person (140 – 20 = 120) will have twice the creatinine clearance as an 80-year-old (140 – 80 = 60) for the same level of serum creatinine. The C-G equation assumes that a woman will have a 15% lower creatinine clearance than a man at the same level of serum creatinine.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Another formula for calculating the GFR is the one developed by the "Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group". Most laboratories in Australia, and the United Kingdom now calculate and report the estimated GFR along with creatinine measurements and this forms the basis of diagnosis of chronic kidney disease. The adoption of the automatic reporting of MDRD-eGFR has been widely criticised.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The most commonly used formula is the "4-variable MDRD", which estimates GFR using four variables: serum creatinine, age, ethnicity, and gender. The original MDRD used six variables with the additional variables being the blood urea nitrogen and albumin levels. The equations have been validated in patients with chronic kidney disease; however, both versions underestimate the GFR in healthy patients with GFRs over 60 mL/min. The equations have not been validated in acute renal failure.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: A more elaborate version of the MDRD equation also includes serum albumin and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: These MDRD equations are to be used only if the laboratory has NOT calibrated its serum creatinine measurements to isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS). When IDMS-calibrated serum creatinine is used (which is about 6% lower), the above equations should be multiplied by 175/186 or by 0.94086.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Since these formulae do not adjust for body size, results are given in units of mL/min per 1.73 m, 1.73 m being the estimated body surface area of an adult with a mass of 63 kg and a height of 1.7m.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration) formula was published in May 2009. It was developed in an effort to create a formula more accurate than the MDRD formula, especially when actual GFR is greater than 60 mL/min per 1.73 m. This is the formula currently recommended by NICE in the UK.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Researchers pooled data from multiple studies to develop and validate this new equation. They used 10 studies that included 8254 participants, randomly using 2/3 of the data sets for development and the other 1/3 for internal validation. Sixteen additional studies, which included 3896 participants, were used for external validation.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The CKD-EPI equation performed better than the MDRD (Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study) equation, especially at higher GFR, with less bias and greater accuracy. When looking at NHANES (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) data, the median estimated GFR was 94.5 mL/min per 1.73 m vs. 85.0 mL/min per 1.73 m, and the prevalence of chronic kidney disease was 11.5% versus 13.1%. Despite its overall superiority to the MDRD equation, the CKD-EPI equations performed poorly in certain populations, including black women, the elderly and the obese, and was less popular among clinicians than the MDRD estimate.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: where SCr is serum creatinine (mg/dL), k is 0.7 for females and 0.9 for males, a is −0.329 for females and −0.411 for males, min indicates the minimum of SCr/k or 1, and max indicates the maximum of SCr/k or 1.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The formula CKD-EPI may provide improved cardiovascular risk prediction over the MDRD Study formula in a middle-age population.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Another estimation tool to calculate GFR is the Mayo Quadratic formula. This formula was developed by Rule et al., in an attempt to better estimate GFR in patients with preserved kidney function. It is well recognized that the MDRD formula tends to underestimate GFR in patients with preserved kidney function. Studies in 2008 found that the Mayo Clinic Quadratic Equation compared moderately well with radionuclide GFR, but had inferior bias and accuracy than the MDRD equation in a clinical setting.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: In children, the Schwartz formula is used. This employs the serum creatinine (mg/dL), the child's height (cm) and a constant to estimate the glomerular filtration rate:


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The method of selection of the constant "k" has been questioned as being dependent upon the gold-standard of renal function used (i.e. inulin clearance, creatinine clearance, etc.) and also may be dependent upon the urinary flow rate at the time of measurement.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: In 2009 the formula was updated to use standardized serum creatinine (recommend "k"=0.413) and additional formulas that allow improved precision were derived if serum "cystatin C" is measured in addition to serum creatinine.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: One problem with any creatinine-based equation for GFR is that the methods used to assay creatinine in the blood differ widely in their susceptibility to non-specific chromogens, which cause the creatinine value to be overestimated. In particular, the MDRD equation was derived using serum creatinine measurements that had this problem. The NKDEP program in the United States has attempted to solve this problem by trying to get all laboratories to calibrate their measures of creatinine to a "gold standard", which in this case is isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS). In late 2009 not all labs in the U.S. had changed over to the new system. There are two forms of the MDRD equation that are available, depending on whether or not creatinine was measured by an IDMS-calibrated assay. The CKD-EPI equation is designed to be used with IDMS-calibrated serum creatinine values only.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The normal range of GFR, adjusted for body surface area, is 100–130 average 125 mL/min/1.73m in men and 90–120 ml/min/1.73m in women younger than the age of 40. In children, GFR measured by inulin clearance is 110 mL/min/1.73 m until 2 years of age in both sexes, and then it progressively decreases. After age 40, GFR decreases progressively with age, by 0.4–1.2 mL/min per year.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: A decreased renal function can be caused by many types of kidney disease. Upon presentation of decreased renal function, it is recommended to perform a history and physical examination, as well as performing a renal ultrasound and a urinalysis. The most relevant items in the history are medications, edema, nocturia, gross hematuria, family history of kidney disease, diabetes and polyuria. The most important items in a physical examination are signs of vasculitis, lupus erythematosus, diabetes, endocarditis and hypertension.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: A urinalysis is helpful even when not showing any pathology, as this finding suggests an extrarenal etiology. Proteinuria and/or urinary sediment usually indicates the presence of glomerular disease. Hematuria may be caused by glomerular disease or by a disease along the urinary tract.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The most relevant assessments in a renal ultrasound are renal sizes, echogenicity and any signs of hydronephrosis. Renal enlargement usually indicates diabetic nephropathy, focal segmental glomerular sclerosis or myeloma. Renal atrophy suggests longstanding chronic renal disease.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Risk factors for kidney disease include diabetes, high blood pressure, family history, older age, ethnic group and smoking.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: For most patients, a GFR over 60 mL/min/1.73m is adequate. But significant decline of the GFR from a previous test result can be an early indicator of kidney disease requiring medical intervention. The sooner kidney dysfunction is diagnosed and treated the greater odds of preserving remaining nephrons, and preventing the need for dialysis.


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: The severity of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is described by six stages; the most severe three are defined by the MDRD-eGFR value, and first three also depend on whether there is other evidence of kidney disease (e.g., proteinuria):


title: Glomerular filtration rate

text: Not all clinicians agree with the above classification, suggesting that it may mislabel patients with mildly reduced kidney function, especially the elderly, as having a disease. A conference was held in 2009 regarding these controversies by Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) on CKD: Definition, Classification and Prognosis, gathering data on CKD prognosis to refine the definition and staging of CKD.


title: Kais Saied

text: Kais Saied (; born 22 February 1958) is a Tunisian politician, jurist, and retired law professor, and currently the 8th President of Tunisia since October 2019. He was president of the Tunisian Association of Constitutional Law from 1995 to 2019.


title: Kais Saied

text: Having worked in various legal and academic roles since the 1980s, Saied joined the 2019 presidential election as an independent social conservative supported by Ennahda and others across the political spectrum. Running on a populist platform with little campaigning, Saied sought to appeal to younger voters, pledged to combat corruption and supported improving the electoral system. He won the second round of the election with 72.71% of the vote, defeating Nabil Karoui, and was sworn in as president on 23 October 2019.


title: Kais Saied

text: In January 2021, protests began against Saied's government in response to alleged police brutality, economic hardship and the COVID-19 pandemic. On 25 July 2021, Saied suspended the parliament and dismissed Prime Minister Hichem Mechichi, which triggered an ongoing political crisis involving leading figures from Ennahda.


title: Kais Saied

text: Kais Saied is the son of Moncef Saied and Zakia Bellagha from Béni Khiar (Cap Bon). According to Saied, his late father protected the young Tunisian-born mixed Jewish-Berber Muslim Gisèle Halimi from the Nazis. His mother, although educated, is a housewife. His family is of rather modest origin but intellectual and a member of the middle class. His paternal uncle, Hicham Saïed, was the first pediatric surgeon in Tunisia, known for having separated two conjoined twins in the 1970s. Kaïs Saïed completed his secondary studies at Sadiki College.


title: Kais Saied

text: A jurist by formation, he is a specialist in constitutional law, and secretary-general of the Tunisian Association of Constitutional Law between 1990 and 1995 then vice-president of the association since 1995.


title: Kais Saied

text: Director of the public law department at the University of Sousse between 1994 and 1999, then at the Faculty of Juridical, Political and Social Sciences of Tunis of the University of Carthage from 1999 to 2018, he was a member of the group of experts of the General Secretariat of the Arab League between 1989 and 1990, expert at the Arab Institute for Human Rights from 1993 to 1995 and member of the committee of experts responsible for revising the draft Tunisian Constitution in 2014. He was also a member of the scientific council of several commissions academics.


title: Kais Saied

text: While a visiting professor at several Arab universities, in 2013 he refused to be part of the commission of experts whose mission was to find a legal solution to the problem of the Independent High Authority for Elections. He retired in 2018.


title: Kais Saied

text: From 2013 to 2014, Kais Saied participated in several political clubs and meetings, which bring together young people.